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% The Project Gutenberg EBook of Publications of the Astronomical Society of
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% This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with        %
% almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or    %
% re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included     %
% with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org                          %
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% Title: Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific          %
%        Volume 1                                                         %
%                                                                         %
% Author: Various                                                         %
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% Release Date: July 29, 2008 [EBook #26147]                              %
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% Language: English                                                       %
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% *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC ***
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\begin{verbatim}
The Project Gutenberg EBook of Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacific, by Various

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
       Volume 1

Author: Various

Release Date: July 29, 2008 [EBook #26147]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC ***
\end{verbatim}

\newpage

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%-----File: 0001.png-----

\begin{titlepage}
\begin{center}
\begin{Large}\so{PUBLICATIONS}\end{Large}\\[15mm]
\so{\textsc{of \;the}}\\[15mm]
\begin{Huge}ASTRONOMICAL \; SOCIETY\end{Huge}\\[15mm]
\begin{huge}OF \; THE \; PACIFIC.\end{huge}\\[25mm]
\begin{large}(\textsc{Founded February~7, 1889}.)\end{large}\\[25mm]
\shortrule[2ex]\\[3mm]
\begin{large} \so{VOLUME \;I}.\end{large}\\[3mm]
\begin{Large}\textbf{1889}.\end{Large}\\[3mm]
\shortrule\\[25mm]
SAN FRANCISCO:\\[3mm]
\textsc{printed \;for \;the \;society}.\\[3mm]
\begin{large}1889.\end{large}
\end{center}
\end{titlepage}

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\small
Produced by Susan Skinner, Nigel Blower, Jonathan Niehof
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net
\end{center}
\vfill
Transcriber's notes: the following corrigenda provided in the original volume have been implemented in this text. Other minor corrections are detailed in the source code.

\begin{center}
\shortrule
\nbsectionheading{CORRIGENDA.}
\shortrule
\end{center}

Page \pageref{cor1}; Insert a star (*) to signify life-membership after the following
names, viz: \textsc{Charles Goodall}, \textsc{Horace L. Hill}, \textsc{D.~O. Mills}.

Page \pageref{cor2}; \textit{for} $5×7$ \textit{read} $4×5$.

Page \pageref{cor3}; Column ``Star''; \textit{for} W.~H.~Z.\ \textit{read} W.~M.~Z.

Page \pageref{cor4}; \textit{add} to Mr.\ \textsc{Boulton's} address, (Box 2015, New York
City).

Page \pageref{cor5}; \textit{for} Centreville \textit{read} Warm Springs.

Page \pageref{cor6}; \textit{for} \textsc{Terry} \textit{read} \textsc{Torrey}.

\frontmatter

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\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}
\tableofcontents


%-----File: 0006.png-----
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\mainmatter

\nbchapterheading
\nbchapterbanner{No.\ 1.}{San Francisco, California, February~7, 1889.}
\nbchaptertoc{No.\ 1. (February~7, 1889).}

\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{List of Officers \textit{pro tem.}}

The Society was organized at a meeting held February~7, 1889, and the distribution
of the following Circular was ordered. The list of present members is
given on page 2. The following officers \textit{pro tem.}\ were chosen to serve till the
annual election on March 30th, next:

\compactlist
\item EDWARD S. HOLDEN (Lick Observatory), \dotfill\textsc{President}
\item J.~M. SCHAEBERLE (Lick Observatory), \dotfill\textsc{Secretary}
\item C. BURCKHALTER (Chabot Observatory, Oakland), \dotfill\textsc{Secretary}
\item E.~J. MOLERA (850 Van Ness Ave., San Francisco), \dotfill\textsc{Treasurer}
\end{list}

\ThoughtBreakLong*

\nbsectionheading{\textit{\textso{CIRCULAR}}.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Circular}

\begin{flushright}
\textsc{San Francisco}, February~7, 1889.
\end{flushright}

\textsc{My Dear Sir}:---The cordial co-operation of many amateur
and professional astronomers in the very successful observations of
the Solar Eclipse of January~1, 1889, has again brought forward the
desirability of organizing an \textsc{Astronomical Society of the Pacific},
in order that this pleasant and close association may not be lost,
either as a scientific or as a social force. You are respectfully invited
to become a member of this organization, and to do your part
towards making it useful in our community.

The new Society is designed to be popular in the best sense of
the word. We wish to count in our membership every person on
the Pacific Coast who takes a genuine interest in Astronomy, whether
he has made special studies in this direction or not, and we believe
that every such person will get, and feel that he gets, a full return
from the Society, either from its publications or from its meetings.

You will observe that the seat of the Society (the place of deposit
of its library, collections, etc.) is in San Francisco, where rooms
can doubtless be found. Half of the meetings of the Society are
to be held there (including the annual meeting). The other half
are proposed to be held at the Lick Observatory, on certain Saturdays
of the summer months when clear weather is to be expected.
It will be easy for the members to organize a trip (at excursion rates)
from San Francisco to the Lick Observatory, leaving San Francisco
%-----File: 002.png-----
at 8:30~\textsc{a.~m.}, and arriving at the Lick Observatory at 4~\textsc{p.~m.} A
business meeting can be held before 7~\textsc{p.~m.}

At 7~\textsc{p.~m.}\ on Saturdays the telescopes of the Observatory are put
at the disposition of all visitors, and thus actual demonstrations from
the heavens can be made of subjects of discussion.

It would seem that, in this way, a vivid interest in our science can
be created and maintained, and that a Society possessing such
exceptional advantages ought to grow and prosper, and be of real
weight in the advancement and in the diffusion of knowledge. We
should look forward to the establishment of an astronomical journal
of high class, to the formation of a special astronomical library, and
especially to the organization of such scientific work as requires
co-operation and mutual assistance.

\filbreak
Invitations to join the Society have been sent and are hereby
extended to each member of the California Academy of Sciences,
Technical Society, Microscopical Society, Pacific Coast Amateur
Photographic Association, Geographical Society of the Pacific, San
Diego Society of Natural History, California Historical Society; to
each person who is known to have made observations of the Solar
Eclipse of January~1, 1889; to the President and Faculties of the
Colleges, Normal and High Schools of California; and to the officers
of the Government Surveys in California.

\begin{center}
Very faithfully yours,
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{List of Members}\\*[2em]
\begin{tabular}{l c l c}
\textsc{E.~J. Molera}, & San Francisco.  & \textsc{Wm.~Irelan}, & San Francisco.\\
\textsc{A.~P. Redington}, & ``       & \textsc{C. Burckhalter}, & `` \\
\textsc{Geo.~W. Reed}, & ``      & \textsc{Ed.~Gray}, & `` \\
\textsc{C.~L. Goddard}, & ``      & \textsc{W.~C. Gibbs}, & `` \\
\textsc{O.~V. Lange}, &  ``      & \textsc{C.~P. Grimwood}, & Fruitvale,\\
\textsc{F.~H. McConnell}, & ``      & \textsc{E.~S. Holden}, & Lick Observatory,\\
\textsc{S.~C. Partridge}, & ``      & \textsc{S.~W. Burnham}, & `` \\
\textsc{W.~H. Lowden}, & ``      & \textsc{J.~M. Schaeberle}, & `` \\
\textsc{E.~W. Runyon}, &  ``      & \textsc{J.~E. Keeler}, & `` \\
\textsc{Wm. Boericke}, &  ``      & \textsc{E.~E. Barnard}, & `` \\
\textsc{W.~A. Dewey}, &  ``      & \textsc{C.~B. Hill}, & `` \\
\textsc{F.~R. Ziel}, &   ``      & \textsc{J.~R. Jarboe}, & San Francisco.\\
\textsc{Wm.~M. Pierson}, & ``     & \textsc{P.~R. Jarboe}, & `` \\
\textsc{Chase Gitchell}, & ``      & \textsc{John Le Conte}, & Berkeley. \\
\textsc{George Tasheira}, & ``      & \textsc{I. Stringham}, & `` \\
\textsc{V.~J.~A. Rey}, &  ``      & \textsc{F. Soulé}, & `` \\
\textsc{A.~J. Treat}, &   ``      & \textsc{T. Guy Phelps}, & Belmont.\\
\textsc{J.~H. Johnson}, &  ``      & \textsc{Arthur Rodgers}, & San Francisco.\\
\textsc{S.~C. Passavant}, &  ``      & \textsc{Wm.~Norris}, & `` \\
\textsc{W.~B. Tyler}, &  ``      & \textsc{C. Webb Howard}, & ``
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\clearpage
%-----File: 003.png-----
\nbsectionheading{\begin{huge}\so{BY-LAWS}\end{huge}\\
\begin{footnotesize}\so{OF THE}\end{footnotesize}\\[2mm]
ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC.}

\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{By-Laws}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\footnotesize
(Adopted February~7, 1889.)\\*
\shortrule}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE I.}

This Society shall be styled the \textsc{Astronomical Society of the
Pacific}. Its object shall be to advance the Science of Astronomy,
and to diffuse information concerning it.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE II.}

This Society shall consist of Active, Life, Corresponding and
Honorary members.

1. Active members shall consist of persons who shall have been
elected to membership, and shall have paid their dues as hereinafter
provided.

2. Life members shall consist of persons who shall have been
elected to life membership and shall have paid \$50 (fifty dollars) to
the Treasurer of the Society.

3. Corresponding members shall consist of persons not residing
on the Pacific Coast, who shall have been elected by the Society as
such.

4. Honorary members shall consist of persons specially distinguished
for their attainments in Astronomy, who shall have been
elected to honorary membership.

Corresponding and Honorary members shall pay no dues, shall
not be eligible to office, and shall have no votes.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE III.}

At each annual election there shall be elected a Board of eleven
Directors, and a Committee on Publication consisting of three members.
The officers of this Society shall be a President, three Vice-Presidents,
%-----File: 004.png-----
two Secretaries and a Treasurer. The Directors shall
organize immediately after their election and elect from their number
the officers of the Society. They may also appoint a Librarian, and
such other assistants as may be required.

The Library of the Society shall be kept in San Francisco, and
shall be open to the use of all the members.


\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE IV.}

The President, or, in his absence, one of the three Vice-Presidents,
or, in the absence of both the President and the Vice-Presidents,
any member whom the Society may appoint shall preside at the meetings
of the Society. It shall be the duty of the President to preserve
order, to regulate the proceedings of the meetings, and to have
a general supervision of the affairs of the Society.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE V.}

The Secretaries shall keep and have the custody of the records;
they shall have the custody of all other property of the Society, excepting
the money thereof; they shall give timely notice of the time
and place of meetings; they shall keep in books a neat and accurate
record of all orders and proceedings of the Society, and properly
index them; they shall conduct the correspondence of the Society;
they shall preserve and index the originals of all communications
addressed to the Society; and keep a copy of all their letters, properly
indexed; and they shall prepare for publication an accurate
summary of the transactions of the Society at each of its meetings.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE VI.}

The Treasurer shall receive and deposit in such bank as may be
designated by the Directors, to the credit of the Society, all donations
and bequests of money and all other sums belonging to the Society.
He shall keep an account of all money received and paid by him, and
at the annual meeting render a particular statement of the same to the
Society. Money shall be paid by him only on the written order of
the Finance Committee of the Board of Directors.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE VII.}

Candidates for membership may be proposed at any meeting, and
voted for at any subsequent meeting. The vote shall be by ballot,
%-----File: 005.png-----
and a majority of the members present shall be required for an
election.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE VIII.}

Each active member shall pay an annual subscription of five dollars,
due on the first of January of each year, in advance. Each
active member shall, on his election, pay into the Treasury of this
Society the sum of five dollars, which shall be in lieu of the annual
subscription to the first of January following his election. No one
shall be deemed an active member, or receive a diploma, until he
has signed the register of members, or accepted his election to membership
in writing, and paid his dues for the current year. Any
member may be released from annual dues by the payment of
fifty dollars at one time, and placed on the roll of life members
by the vote of the Board of Directors. Any failure on the part
of a member to pay his dues within six months after the time the
same shall have become payable, shall be considered equivalent to a
resignation.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE IX.}

The annual meeting of this Society shall be held on the last Saturday
in March at eight o'clock \textsc{p.~m.}, at the rooms of the Society in
San Francisco; and bi-monthly meetings shall be held on the last
Saturday of each alternate month, for the ordinary transactions and
purposes of the Society, as follows:

The meetings for the months of May, July and September shall
be held in the Library of the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton,
at a suitable hour; and the meetings for January, March and
November shall be held in the rooms of the Society, in San Francisco,
at eight o'clock \textsc{p.~m.}

A special meeting may be called by the President, or, in his
absence or disability, by one of the Vice-Presidents; or, in the
absence or disability of both the President and the Vice-Presidents,
by the Secretary, on the written requisition of ten active members;
and the object of such meeting shall be stated in the notice by
which it is called.

The annual election shall be held on the day of the annual
meeting, during such hours as the Directors may appoint.

Only active and life members shall be permitted to vote at any
meeting of the Society, and no one shall vote who has not paid all
his dues for past and current years.
%-----File: 006.png-----

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE X.}

Ten active or life members shall be a quorum for the transaction
of business.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE XI.}

No papers or manuscripts shall be published by the Society without
the consent of the Directors. Any motion to print an address,
or other paper read before the Society, or any other matter belonging
to the Society, shall be referred to the Committee on Publication,
who shall report to the Directors. The Committee on Publication
may make suggestions to the Directors, from time to time, with
reference to the publication of such papers as in their judgment
should be published by the Society; and this committee shall have
the care, direction and supervision of the publication of all papers
which the Directors may authorize to have published.

Members of the Society shall receive all the publications of the
Society free of charge.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE XII.}

This Society may, by a vote of the majority of all its active and
life members, become a branch of an American Astronomical
Society, should one be formed.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE XIII.}

It shall be the duty of the Directors, in case any circumstances
shall arise likely to endanger the harmony, welfare or good order of
the Society, to call a special meeting of the Society; and if, at such
meeting, after an examination of the charges, and hearing the
accused, who shall have personal notice of such proceedings, it shall
be proposed that the offending member or members shall be expelled,
a vote by ballot shall be taken, and if two-thirds of the members
present vote in favor thereof, the offending member or members
shall be expelled.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE XIV.}

The Directors shall meet one hour before the stated time of each
bi-monthly meeting, and at such other times as they may appoint.
The President, or in his absence, any one of the Vice-Presidents,
may call special meetings of the Board of Directors at any time.
Notice of the time and place of such meeting shall be given by the
%-----File: 007.png-----
Secretaries, by depositing in the postoffice at San Francisco, a notice
of the time and place, addressed to each Director personally, at his
last known place of residence, with the postage thereon prepaid, six
days before the time of meeting.


\nbsubsubsectionheading{ARTICLE XV.}

The By-Laws may be amended at any time by a consenting vote
of nine members of the Board of Directors at any regular meeting
thereof.

\vfil
\[
  \includegraphics{images/fig0.jpg}
\]

%-----File: 008.png-----
%[Blank Page]
%-----File: 009.png-----

\nbchapterheading
\nbchapterbanner{No.\ 2.}{San Francisco, California, March~30, 1889.}
\nbchaptertoc{No.\ 2. (March~30, 1889).}

\nbsectionheading{THE WORK OF AN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{The Work of an Astronomical Society. Address by \textsc{Edward S. Holden}}\\*[4ex]
\shortrule[2ex]}

\textit{Address delivered before the Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
March~30, 1889, by} \textsc{Edward S. Holden, LL.~D.}, \textit{Director of the
Lick Observatory.}

\medskip
In the year 1820 the state of Astronomy in England was
somewhat as follows: The Royal Observatory at Greenwich
was pursuing its regular routine observations of the positions
of the sun, moon and stars under the direction of the Astronomer
Royal, \textsc{Pond}, whose chief service to Astronomy
consisted in the minute accuracy of his observations and in
the faithfulness with which they were amassed and discussed.
His controversy with \textsc{Brinkley} (Astronomer of the Dublin
Observatory) on the latter's determination of stellar parallaxes,
cleared the way for the great researches of \textsc{Bessel} and
\textsc{Struve} on the same subject, which followed a dozen years
later. The Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford was in operation,
but no observations were published. The Cambridge
Observatory was just founded. The Observatory at Edinburgh
was barely built, and was not yet a public institution.
The Armagh Observatory had no instruments of importance
and was doing no work. \textsc{Groombridge's} private observatory
at Blackheath was busy with his catalogue of 4243 circumpolar
stars. Sir~\textsc{William Herschel}, the greatest of practical astronomers
and the glory of England (then 82 years old),
was resting from his labors. His son, Sir~\textsc{John Herschel},
had not yet begun that long series of observations which has
made his name illustrious.

On the Continent, the magnificent labors of \textsc{Bessel}, \textsc{Gauss},
\textsc{Olbers} and \textsc{Struve} were laying the foundations of the
science of to-day. The spirit of their methods made itself
known in England and deeply affected some of the younger
men at the universities---notably \textsc{Babbage}, \textsc{Dean Peacock},
and Sir~\textsc{John Herschel}. These three entered into a compact,
%-----File: 010.png-----
which was most fruitfully carried out, ``to leave the
world wiser than they found it.'' One of the most important
results of this resolution was the founding of the Royal Astronomical
Society of London---an institution which has done
incalculable good in fostering the science of Astronomy, not
only in England, but throughout the whole civilized world.
It is not part of my purpose to trace the influence of this
society, nor to show in detail what its work has been. I
rather wish to quote here a few paragraphs from the ``Address
of the Society, Explanatory of their Views and Objects,''
which was circulated in the year 1820, at the time of
its foundation. And I wish to do this for two reasons: because,
first, the need of such an association in our own midst
is much the same as that felt by \textsc{Herschel} and \textsc{Babbage} in
England sixty years ago; and, secondly, because the programme
of this society may point out to us along what lines
we should proceed to make our own newly formed Astronomical
Society equally useful in its own sphere.

The times have changed since then, no doubt. The immediate
problems of Astronomy are different; but the spirit
of the methods by which they are to be attacked and solved
is eternally the same; and the need for co-operation and concentration
of forces is more and more pressing as the complexity
of processes becomes greater and greater.

I ask you, then, to listen to a few brief extracts from the
first printed paper of the Royal Astronomical Society, and
to imagine to yourself the state of English Astronomy of that
day, when the elder \textsc{Herschel} had finished his work, and
when the host of English amateurs of to-day was represented
by \textsc{Groombridge}, toiling at the observations and the reductions
of his polar catalogue:

\medskip
\begin{small}
``In a country like Great Britain, in which the sciences in general
are diligently cultivated, and \textit{Astronomy} in particular has made
extensive progress and attracted a large share of attention, it must
seem strange that no society should exist peculiarly devoted to the
cultivation of this science; and that Astronomy, the sublimest branch
of human knowledge, has remained up to the present time unassisted
by that most powerful aid; and has relied for its advancement on
the labors of insulated and independent individuals.

``It may be conceived by some that Astronomy stands less in need
of assistance of this kind than any other of the sciences; and that, in
the state of perfection which its physical % Transcriber's note: original reads "physicial"
 theory has already reached,
%-----File: 011.png-----
its ulterior progress may safely be intrusted to individual zeal and
to the great national establishment exclusively appropriated to celestial
observations; or, at all events, to those public institutions and academies
in all civilized nations whose object is the general cultivation
of the mathematical and physical sciences. It may therefore be necessary
to state the useful objects which may be accomplished, and
the impediments which may be removed, by the formation of a society
devoted solely to the encouragement and promotion of Astronomy.

``Owing to the great perfection which the construction of optical
instruments has attained in England, and the taste for scientific research
universally prevalent, there have arisen in various parts of the kingdom
a number of private and public observatories, in which the celestial
phenomena are watched, and registered with assiduity and accuracy,
by men whose leisure and talents peculiarly adapt them for such
pursuits; while others, with a less splendid establishment, but by the
sacrifice of more valuable time, pursue the same end with equal zeal
and perseverance. Considerable collections of valuable observations
have thus originated; by far the greater part of which, however,
owing to the expense and difficulty of publication and various other
causes, must inevitably perish, or at least remain buried in obscurity,
and be lost to all useful purposes, unless collected and brought together
by the establishment of a common center of communication and classification,
to which they may respectively be imparted.

``This great desideratum, it is presumed, will be attained by a
society founded on the model of other scientific institutions, having
for one of its objects the formation of a collection or deposit of manuscript
observations, etc., open at all times for inspection, to which
the industrious observer may consign the results of his labors, with
the certainty of their finding a place, among the material of knowledge
so amassed, exactly proportioned to their intrinsic value. At the
same time it will thus be rendered practicable to form a connected
series from a mass of detached and incomplete fragments; and the
society will render a valuable service to science by publishing from
time to time from this collection such communications or digests as
seem calculated by their nature and accuracy either to supply deficiencies
or to afford useful materials to the theoretical astronomer.

\bigskip
\centerline{*\qquad\qquad*\qquad\qquad*\qquad\qquad*\qquad\qquad*\qquad\qquad*\qquad\qquad*}
\medskip

``It is almost unnecessary to enumerate the advantages likely to
accrue from the encouragement which an Astronomical Society may
hold out; but among others may be mentioned the perfecting of our
knowledge of the latitudes and longitudes of places in every region
of the globe; the improvement of the lunar theory, and that of the
figure of the earth, by occultations, appulses, and eclipses simultaneously
observed in different situations; the advancement of our knowledge
of the laws of atmospherical refraction in different climates,
by corresponding observations of the fixed stars; the means of determining
more correctly the orbits of comets, by observations made in
the most distant parts of the world; and, in general, the frequent
opportunities, afforded to a society holding extensive correspondence,
%-----File: 012.png-----
of amassing materials which (though, separately of small importance)
may by their union become not only interesting at the present time,
but also valuable as subjects of reference in future.

``By means of corresponding members, or associates, in distant countries,
the society may hope to unite the labors of foreign observers
with their own; and by thus establishing communication with eminent
astronomers and institutions in all parts of the world, to obtain the
earliest intelligence of new discoveries and improvements, which it
may, perhaps, be desirable to circulate among such of its members as
may profess themselves anxious to receive it, without loss of time.

``The circulation also of notices of remarkable celestial phenomena
about to happen (with a view to drawing the attention of observers
to points which may serve important purposes in the determination
of elements or coefficients) may form another, and perhaps not the
least interesting object of the society. To have the same phenomena
watched for by many observers is the only sure way of having them
observed by some; and moreover, the attention of an astronomer
may frequently be aroused by a formal notice, especially when accompanied
with directions for observing the phenomenon in the most
effective way, when probably the mere ordinary mention of it in
an ephemeris might fail to attract his observation.

``One of the collateral advantages of a society including many
practical astronomers among its members (but which will appear of
no small importance to those who possess good instruments) will be
the mutual understandings which will be propagated among amateur
astronomers, by frequent meetings and discussion, as to the relative
merits of their instruments; and as to the talents and ingenuity of
the various artists, both of our own and of foreign nations; not to
mention the emulation which this must naturally excite to possess
the best instruments; and the consequent tendency of such discussion
towards a further improvement in their construction, or to the discovery
of new ones.

``As the extent of the funds of the society must depend on the
number of its members, it is impossible to conjecture at present how
far its views respecting their application may extend. Besides the
ordinary expenses attending an institution of this nature, the annual
or occasional publication of communicated observations; the payment
of computers employed in the reduction and arrangement of observations,
or in computing the orbits of new planets, comets or other
interesting bodies; the formation of an extensive astronomical library,
not only of manuscripts, but also of printed books; and perhaps, at
some future period, the proposals of prizes for the encouragement
of particular departments of the science, either theoretical or practical,
or for the improvement of astronomical instruments or tables, may
be mentioned as worthy objects on which they may be bestowed.

``Such are the principal considerations which have actuated a number
of individuals to form themselves into a society, under the name
of the \textit{Astronomical Society of London}, and to give this publicity to
their determination, with a view of inviting others to unite in the
%-----File: 013.png-----
prosecution of their plans. They have at the very commencement met
with the most flattering success, which induces them to hope that,
in a short time, every assiduous cultivator of the science will be found
to have added his name to the list of members.

``The objects of the original members may be sufficiently gathered
from what has been already said, and may be thus summed up in a
few words, viz: to encourage and promote their peculiar science by
every means in their power, but especially, by collecting, reducing
and publishing useful observations and tables, by setting on foot a
minute and systematic observation of the heavens, by encouraging
a general spirit of inquiry in practical Astronomy, by establishing
communications with foreign observers, by circulating notices of all
remarkable phenomena about to happen and of discoveries as they
arise, by comparing the merits of different artists eminent in the
construction of astronomical instruments, by proposing prizes for the
improvement of particular departments, and bestowing medals or
rewards on successful research in all; and, finally, by acting as far
as possible in concert with every institution, both in England and
abroad, whose objects have anything in common with their own; but
avoiding all interference with the objects and interests of established
scientific bodies.''

\end{small}
\medskip

In our own case, we must remember how various are the
opportunities and attainments of our different members, and
try to lay the foundations of our efforts so broadly that
every class will find a sphere of action in our programme, a
stimulus in our proceedings, and a support in our friendly
association. The few professional astronomers in our midst
will here lose that sense of intellectual and professional isolation
which is a drawback and a danger. Nothing that is
clearly conceived is too technical to be placed before an assemblage
of intelligent men, and the very effort to explain
gives a lucidity to the original conception which it might
otherwise lack. There is a moral force, too, in knowing that
one does not need to wait for sympathetic appreciation, but
that it is to be found every day and all around one. The
opportunity to communicate the results of one's work readily
and quickly is of the highest value; and ``the end of all observation
is communication.''

By far the greater number of our members will be amateurs,
and here again we must recognize the fact that there are
many classes with many differing opportunities and means
for work and study. Some among us already possess telescopes
of no inconsiderable power. In 1820, there was no
refractor in Europe more powerful than the 5-inch telescope
%-----File: 014.png-----
with which \textsc{Herschel} and \textsc{South} observed their double stars.
It should be the aim of the society to point out the directions
in which such instruments can be used, so that either some
useful result will be attained for the science, or so that, at
least, the maximum amount of pleasure and personal profit
can be had by the owners. I presume there are few amateurs
who have not experienced a sense of disappointment in the
use of their telescopes. It is not that the heavens are less
glorious, nor that the observer is less devoted and enthusiastic,
but it is because he often comes to feel that there is an aimlessness
in his work which he finds to be disheartening. If
at this moment some word or hint can be given to him which
will show him how to employ his time and energies to some
real advantage, either to science or to himself, the old enthusiasm
will return and the labor will again become delightful.
It is precisely such words and such hints that he may expect
to find here among his colleagues.

There is an important class of our amateur members whose
photographic experience and skill can bear the most useful
fruits if they are directed toward certain astronomical ends.
We also have professional astronomers among us, whose
photographic knowledge is second to none. The association
which this society makes easy and puts into an organized
form, has already led to important results in the observations
of the Solar Eclipse of last January by photographic means,
and will, no doubt, continue to be fruitful. There are many
other fields of research open to this method of observation.
We have other members, also, who have no apparatus for
observation, but who have the ability, the leisure and the desire
to forward Astronomy by computing the observations of
others. There is a boundless field for such amateurs, and I
am not sure that their efforts, if rightly directed, might not
be of more real importance than any others. The Lick Observatory
alone could provide the observations to keep a score
of computers busy, and this work could be so selected as to
be of all grades of difficulty and to employ every variety of
talent.

Finally, we have among us those who have joined as learners;
who are here to listen, to observe, to read and to study.
They, in turn, should find in our meetings what they seek for
and require. Their reading and their study can be guided,
%-----File: 015.png-----
and it is among them that we may look for our workers after
the next few years. Every class of talent and opportunity
ought to find its profit either in our meetings or in our publications.

One word with regard to the conduct of our meetings. My
own experience in scientific societies has led me to think that
their meetings should never consist of mere lectures, no matter
how interesting. There should be discussion, questions, remarks,
interchange of ideas, contact of active minds. Let
each member feel that he has a part to bear, both in the actual
meetings and outside of them, among his associates. In one
word, let our society be a live one---active, intelligent, modest,
competent. It has a doubled interest in its two-fold place of
meeting. The astronomers of the Lick Observatory can
promise that the meetings held at Mount Hamilton shall be
interesting and fruitful. The meetings held in San Francisco
will also be full of interest.

One of the chief uses of the society will be to make an
astronomical library available to the amateur observer. We
have already made a beginning in this direction. It is not
necessary that our collection should be very extensive. A
complete astronomical library would contain, perhaps, 20,000
volumes. But it is desirable that we should own a full set
of the most important astronomical journals. The progress
of the science can be traced in their pages from day to day,
and their past volumes give its history.

I have thought it worth while to give in a list which follows
the titles of the more important astronomical periodicals, and
I have ventured to add the names of some twenty or thirty
books which our members would do well to own personally.
It is not necessary to buy all of them at once, but the possession
of one will lead to the desire for another, as the scope
of observation or of reading is enlarged. The society library
should begin by owning these volumes. It will grow subsequently
as our wants develop, both by purchase and by
exchange with other scientific institutions:
%-----File: 016.png-----

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textsc{Astronomical Journals.}}

\compactlist
\item \textit{Astronomische Nachrichten} (established 1821); 2 vols.\ a year. Kiel; price, \$8.00.
\item \textit{Astronomical Journal} (established 1851). Cambridge, Mass.; \$5.00.
\item \textit{Bulletin Astronomique} (established 1884). Paris; \$4.75.
\item \textit{L'Astronomie} (established 1882). Paris; about \$3.75.
\item \textit{The Observatory} (established 1877). London; \$3.50.
\item \textit{Ciel et Terre} (established 1880). Brussels; \$2.60.
\item \textit{Himmel und Erde} (established 1888). Berlin; \$5.00.
\item \textit{Sirius} (established 1868). Leipzig; \$2.60.
\item \textit{Wochenschrift für Astronomie} (established 1847). Halle; \$2.70.
\item \textit{The Sidereal Messenger} (established 1882). Northfield, Minn.; \$2.00.
\item \textit{Nature.} London; \$6.00.
\item \textit{La Nature.} Paris; \$6.00.
\item \textit{The Companion to the Observatory.} London; published annually; 1s.~6d.
 [This latter work will take the place to the amateur observer which the
 \textit{Nautical Almanac} holds to the professional.]
\end{list}

\medskip

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textsc{Publications of Astronomical Societies.}}

\compactlist
\item \textit{Publicationen der Astronomischen Gesellschaft.} Leipzig; 4to (at irregular intervals).
\item \textit{Vierteljahrsschrift der Ast.\ Gesell.} Leipzig; quarterly.
\item \textit{\stretchyspace Memoirs and Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.} London; yearly and monthly.
\item \textit{Journal of the Liverpool Astronomical Society.} Liverpool; monthly.
\item \textit{Bulletin de la Société Astronomique de France.} Paris; yearly (?).
\item \textit{Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.} San Francisco.
\end{list}

\medskip

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textsc{List of Some Books of Reference in Astronomy.}}

\compactlist
\item \textsc{Houzeau}: Vade Mecum de l'Astronome; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Wolf}: Geschichte der Astronomie; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Delaunay}: Cours Elémentaire de l'Astronomie; 12mo.
\item \textsc{Loomis}: Treatise on Astronomy; 8vo.
%-----File: 017.png-----
\item \textsc{Chauvenet}: Spherical and Practical Astronomy; 8vo; 2 vols.
\item \textsc{Ball}: Elements of Astronomy; 12mo.
\item \textsc{Young}: General Astronomy; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Herschel}: Outlines of Astronomy; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Arago}: Astronomie Populaire; 8vo; 4 vols.
\item \textsc{Flammarion}: Astronomie Populaire; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Newcomb}: Popular Astronomy; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Webb}: Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes; 12mo.
\item \textsc{Oliver}: Astronomy for Amateurs; 12mo.
\item \textsc{Proctor}: The Sun; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Proctor}: The Moon; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Proctor}: Saturn and His System; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Ledger}: The Sun, Its Planets and Their Satellites; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Watson}: A Popular Treatise on Comets, etc.; 12mo.
\item \textsc{Smyth}: Celestial Cycle; 2d ed.; revised by Chambers, 8vo.
\item \textsc{Klein}: Star-Atlas (translation by \textsc{McClure}.)
\item \textsc{Gledhill}: Handbook of Double Stars; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Chambers}: Descriptive Astronomy; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Grant}: History of Physical Astronomy; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Clerke}: History of Astronomy in the XIX Century; 2d ed.; 8vo.
\item \textsc{Delambre}: Histoire de l'Astronomie; 4to; 6 vols.
\end{list}

If our own publications are valuable and worthy, they will
bring to us through exchanges many works of permanent
value. This brings me naturally to the question of what and
how much we ought to publish. On this I shall give my own
opinion freely, from my personal point of view. It may
easily be that my ideas on this question, which are rather positive,
require correction. If they do, the experience of the
society will be sure to show it.

It seems to me, then, that we should be extremely careful
to make our publications fully worthy of the society. Any
observation faithfully made and properly recorded well deserves
a permanent place. Our very constitution, as a society
of amateurs, will usually prevent us from presenting these
long series of observations which can be amassed by professional
observers in fixed observatories. But we should be
careful not to make our publications a vehicle for the expression
of mere unsupported opinion. A theory should always
be accompanied by its vouchers. I would give more for one
%-----File: 018.png-----
careful measure of a double-star, for one faithful observation
of a comet, than for pages of speculation regarding the origin
of the solar system. Such speculations have their place in
science, no doubt, but to be valuable they must follow after
years of work. We should make our papers a record of actual
work accomplished. There is room, too, for \textit{résumés} of the
work of other observers and for papers relating to the
best methods of making our own observations. Important
papers in other periodicals may well be translated and printed
here. The pages of our journal should be truly representative
of the work and thought of the society in general. It would
be easy for the Lick Observatory staff to contribute enough
material to completely fill such a journal; but it appears to
me that, in general, the work of our observatory should appear
in abstract only, and that the observations and communications
from the amateur members of the society should always
constitute the greater part of the publication. At the same
time the observatory can serve a very useful end by furnishing
a series of abstracts of work done and in progress and
by printing notes on work proposed, especially if it is such
that our members can co-operate in it. It will be a source
of pride to us, if after many years we can look back over what
has been printed by the society, and see that every part of it
is the record of useful work faithfully done, and possesses a
permanent value.

It is for this reason that it seems to me we should not
attempt to print at any regular intervals, as monthly or
quarterly. Let us keep our papers until we have enough
material to form a number of 8, 16, 24 pages, and then issue
and distribute this to our members and to our correspondents.

It is tolerably certain that the time has not yet come for us
to perform another function of an astronomical society. I
refer to the foundation and to the bestowal of the medal of
the society as a reward for astronomical work of the highest
class. It is certain, however, that in the future, if such a
medal were founded, and if it were bestowed only for work
of the highest class, as I have said, and never, under any
circumstances, to one of our own members, that the responsibility
of the award would constitute an important stimulus
to the society itself, which would have to judge of the merits
of the various works proposed to be rewarded; and that such
%-----File: 019.png-----
awards, if always bestowed with judgment and discretion,
would soon make the voice of our society respected everywhere.
In fact, there is probably no way in which the society
could do more good, and in which it could be more quickly
influential, than by the bestowal of its medal upon those
astronomers whose works fully deserve it. And there is probably
no way in which a mistake of judgment would so quickly
discredit us, as in the bestowal of our highest award upon
insufficient scientific grounds, or for personal reasons.

It is probably quite time that I should leave these general
considerations and come to the more special questions of the
work which our members may reasonably expect to do. In
any particular case this depends very largely upon the time
available for such occupation, upon the instrumental equipment
at hand, and upon the individual aptitude and ability.
I have already said that for those of us who are willing to
calculate the observations made by others, there is an endless
variety of work to do, of all grades of importance and difficulty.
For those who have only the leisure to interest and
divert themselves with observing, there is a rational and
useful method to follow, instead of a random one, which
will inevitably lead to disappointment. For those who are
willing to spend a very little time and money, there are many
fields, both old and new, needing cultivation. Let me mention
a few of these fields---speaking very briefly of each one:

A very cheap telescope will serve to photograph the sun,
provided it be of tolerably long focus. It is highly desirable
to obtain enlarged pictures of the solar spots, and to repeat
in this country the solar photographs of \textsc{Janssen}, which are
taken with extremely short exposures---say, from one one-thousandth
to one two-thousandth of a second of time. A
series of careful counts of the number of new groups and new
spots can be made with a very small telescope, and will be very
useful. If any one of the society will charge himself with the
necessary measurements, we, at Mt.\ Hamilton, will undertake
to furnish daily photographs of the Sun on a scale of $4\frac{1}{2}$ inches
to the solar diameter for the purpose.

I believe that much can be done by studying the moon's
surface with comparatively small telescopes. In such studies
I think it desirable to confine the attention to very limited
areas, and to study and draw these over and over again, under
%-----File: 020.png-----
every possible variety of illumination, until the telescope and
the observer can do no more. In this way it may be that
only small areas will be covered, but it is certain that our
knowledge can be materially increased. The observation of
the occultations of stars is most useful, provided the position
of the observing station and the local time are accurately
known. The Lick Observatory time-signals can be readily
made available for this purpose. Probably little can be added
to our knowledge of the surface features of the planets by
observations with the smaller telescopes. It is, however, well
worth the labor for several of our members to maintain a
series of observations of the eclipses of the satellites of
\textit{Jupiter}. There is nowhere in America, I believe, such a series
maintained. The results of this work will be directly comparable
with the observations on which the present tables are
founded, and constants of reduction can be determined by
which these observations can be employed in conjunction with
long series already obtained elsewhere. In this case, as in
so many others, our great distance in longitude from the
centers of observation, will give to our work a peculiar value.
We are eight hours west of Greenwich and three hours west
of Washington, and there is no astronomical establishment
between us and Japan, and no active observatory between
California and Australia. There is a whole field of photometric
work (both visual and photographic) which is open
to amateurs, and which needs cultivation. I refer especially
to the photometry of different portions of the sky under
illumination by the sun or by the moon.

Photographs of the planets and neighboring stars of about
the same brilliancy on the same plate may very likely be of
use in comparing their relative brightness. Should a bright
comet appear, no chance should be lost to photograph it, to
study the changes in its head, and to map the position of its
tail among the stars.

The observations of \textsc{Gothard}, on nebulć, by means of
long-exposure photographs have proved that even comparatively
small telescopes (provided with driving clocks), properly
used, are capable of giving the most brilliant and important
results. It is at least possible that the Zodiacal Light,
the Milky Way, the Twilight Arch, the Aurora, can be photographed.
I know of no direction where the skill of amateur
%-----File: 020a.png-----
photographers could be better spent than in experiments upon
these subjects. The problem is of the same nature as the
photography of the faint outlying streamers of the Solar
Corona, in which our California amateurs have been so successful.

The field in which amateurs can render the greatest service,
however, is in the observation of the variable stars. If these
are to be observed by the eye, the use of a mere opera-glass
or of a very small telescope is usually sufficient to fix the time
of maximum or minimum light with accuracy, by comparisons
with neighboring stars which do not vary. Professor
\textsc{Pickering} has already presented to the Society a set of
printed instructions for making such observations. If the
observer has a photographic telescope or camera, the most
elegant and accurate method might be to allow the star's
image to \textit{trail} over the plate. When the trail is weakest the
Star has reached its minimum. A scale of time can be put
upon the plate by capping or uncapping the lens at known
instants. If the star is too faint to trail on the plate while
the latter remains at rest, a very simple clock-work motion
can be devised which will cause the telescope to follow the
star towards the west at a slow rate. This rate can be so
chosen by experiment as to make the \textit{trail} of suitable brightness
for measurement.

There are scores of other researches of interest and importance
which I have not time to mention and which are
well within the reach of amateurs. One competent sextant
observer, acting in concert with the Lick Observatory, could
render a real service to the geography of the State, with very
little expenditure of time and money, by determining the
latitudes and longitudes of important points. If such an observer
were to fix the positions of the eclipse stations occupied
by the various parties on the 1st of last January, he could
thus make a positive contribution to science. Mr.\ \textsc{Keeler}, of
the Lick Observatory, has just completed a determination of
the position of Norman, for this purpose, as a beginning.

I believe the radiant points of the brighter and more slowly
moving meteors can be accurately fixed by photography, and
at any rate the experiment is worth a trial. Statistics of the
number of telescopic meteors in different parts of the sky and
at different hours are very much needed and are extremely
easy to obtain.
%-----File: 020b.png-----
\filbreak % try to encourage signature to stay with this paragraph
I have thus hastily gone over the principal lines along which
we, as a society, may hope to work with success. If we
undertake all or any of the work thus indicated, and if we
carry it on with faithfulness and industry, we may be sure
that our efforts will be a veritable aid to science. Whatever
we do, let us do thoroughly. Whatever we say, let it be well
considered. Let us clearly understand the objects for which
we are organized, and let us pursue these with entire confidence.
The scope and membership of this society are such
that it can have no antagonisms and rivalries with any other.
But we may look forward to a career of real usefulness, not
only to our members, but to the science of Astronomy. In
our own time and way we may hope to make advances in this
path, and we may be sure that we can diffuse information in
its regard, and help to increase the intelligence, the activity
and the pleasure of all our members.

\begin{flushright}
\textsc{Edward S. Holden.}\qquad
\end{flushright}

\textsc{Lick Observatory}, February~15, 1889.
\clearpage
%-----File: 021.png-----
\nbsubsectionheading{Extract from the Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, held at 8~p.~m., March~30, 1889,
at 605 Merchant Street, San Francisco.}

\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the First Annual Meeting, March~30, 1889}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\footnotesize
(Prepared by the Secretaries for publication.)}

The minutes of the meeting of February~7, 1889, were read and
approved.

{\stretchyspace
The following named persons (proposed February 7th) were
elected to membership: Messrs.\ \textsc{William Alvord, J.~M. Selfridge,
A.~O. Leuschner, William F. Herrick, E.~M. Bixby, H.~T. Compton,
C.~F. Montealegre, W. Letts Oliver, E.~B. Jordan, James G. Jones,
Eugene Frost, C. Mitchell Grant, J.~T. Wallace, T.~P. Andrews},
and Miss \textsc{Rosa O'Halloran}.

}A Board of eleven Directors and a Publication Committee of
three members were elected.

An address on ``The Work of an Astronomical Society'' was read
by Mr.\ \textsc{Holden}. This is printed in the present number. A paper on
``The Solar Corona,'' by Mr.\ \textsc{Pierson}, was received and its reading
postponed to the next meeting.

After hearing the reports of the officers \textit{pro tem.}, the Society
adjourned to meet at Mount Hamilton, May 25th.

The following resolution was adopted:

\textit{Resolved}. That the Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacific be regularly sent to the following Observatories, etc., and
that the Secretaries of the Society be instructed to notify them of
this resolution, and to request that they exchange their publications
with our own; and that the list of these Corresponding Societies and
Observatories be printed in the Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific:

\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{List of Corresponding Observatories, Academies of Science, etc.}
\begin{small}
\newcounter{Lcount}
\begin{list}{\arabic{Lcount}.}{\usecounter{Lcount} \itemsep 0pt \parsep 0pt}
\item Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York.
\item Detroit Observatory, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
\item Royal Observatory, Berlin, Germany.
\item University Observatory, Bonn, Germany.
\item Royal Observatory, Brussels, Belgium.
\item University Observatory, Cambridge, England.
\item Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
\item Royal Observatory, Capetown, Africa.
\item University Observatory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
\item University Observatory, Dorpat, Russia.
\item Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England.
\item Ducal Observatory, Karlsrühe, Germany.
\item University Observatory, Kasan, Russia.
\item University Observatory, Koenigsberg, Prussia.
\item Royal Observatory, Kopenhagen, Denmark.
\item University Observatory, Leiden, Holland.
\item University Observatory, Leipzig, Germany.
\item Royal Observatory, Milan, Italy.
\item Observatory, Melbourne, Australia.
\item University Observatory, Moscow, Russia.
\item Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, California.
\item Royal Observatory, Munich, Germany.
\item Carleton College Observatory, Northfield, Minnesota.
\item Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, England.
\item Savilian Observatory, Oxford, England.
\item National Observatory, Paris, France.
\item Astrophysikalishes Institut, Potsdam, Germany.
\item Imperial Observatory, Pulkowa, Russia.
%-----File: 022.png-----
\item Observatory of the Roman College, Rome, Italy.
\item University Observatory, Stockholm, Sweden.
\item University Observatory, Strassburg, Germany.
\item McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia, Virginia.
\item Naval Observatory, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item Imperial Observatory, Vienna, Austro-Hungary.
\item Royal Astronomical Society, London, England.
\item Liverpool Astronomical Society, Liverpool, England.
\item Astronomical Society of France, Paris, France.
\item Astronomical Society, Chicago, Illinois.
\item Astronomical Society of Germany, Leipzig, Germany.
\item Gesellschaft Urania, Berlin, Germany.
\item National Academy of Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California.
\item Bureau des Longitudes, Paris, France.
\item The Nautical Almanac, London, England.
\item The American Ephemeris, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item Berliner Jahrbuch, Berlin, Germany.
\end{list}
\end{small}

At a meeting of the Board of Directors held immediately after
the meeting of the Society, the officers of the Society for the ensuing
year were elected. (For list of officers see below.) Mr.\ \textsc{William
Alvord} was elected to life membership. The Secretaries were instructed
to correspond with the members of the Society, with a view
to ascertain what instruments were in their possession, etc.

\ThoughtBreak

\nbsectionheading{OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Officers of the Society}

\noindent
\begin{tabular*}{\textwidth}{@{\extracolsep{\fill}}lcr}
EDWARD S. HOLDEN (Lick Observatory),
&& \textsc{President}\\
WM. M. PIERSON (76 Nevada Block, S.~F.),
& \multirow{3}{1em}{\Bigg\}}&\\
W. H. LOWDEN (213 Sansome Street, S.~F.)
&& \textsc{Vice-Presidents}\\
FRANK SOULÉ (Students' Observatory, Berkeley),&&\\
CHAS. BURCKHALTER (Chabot Observatory, Oakland),
&\multirow{2}{1em}{\Big\}}
&\multirow{2}*{\textsc{Secretaries}}\\
J. M. SCHAEBERLE (Lick Observatory),&&\\
E. J. MOLERA (850 Van Ness Avenue, S.~F.),
&& \textsc{Treasurer}
\end{tabular*}

\compactlisttwo
\item[] \textit{Finance Committee}---\textsc{W.\ C.\ Gibbs, Wm.\ M.\ Pierson, E.\ J.\ Molera}.
\item[] \textit{Board of Directors}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Alvord, Boericke, Burckhalter, Gibbs,
Grant, Holden, Lowden, Molera, Pierson, Schaeberle, Soulé}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on Publication}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Dewey, Treat, Ziel}.
\end{list}

\ThoughtBreak

\nbsectionheading{NOTICE.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Notice to Members}

Members are requested to preserve the copies of the \textit{Publications} of the
Society as sent to them. At certain intervals a title page and
index of the preceding numbers will also be sent to the members, who
can then bind the numbers together into a volume.

The titles of papers for reading should be communicated to either of the
Secretaries as early as possible.

Those members who propose to attend any or all of the meetings
at Mount Hamilton during the summer should communicate with Mr.\ \textsc{Burckhalter}
without delay, in order that arrangements may be made
for transportation, lodging, etc.
%-----File: 023.png-----
%[Blank Page]
%-----File: 024.png-----
\clearpage % if this was twoside we would need to clear to verso here
\nbchaptertoc{No.\ 3. (July~27, 1889).}

\begin{center}\Large Plate I\end{center}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Plate of the Helical Nebulć}

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c@{\hspace{2cm}}c}
  \includegraphics{images/fig1.jpg}&\includegraphics{images/fig2.jpg}\\
  {Fig. 1.} & {Fig. 2. The Type-Helix,}\\
            & {(a) direct; (b) reversed.}\\
            &\\
  \multicolumn{2}{c}{\includegraphics{images/fig3.jpg}}\\
  \multicolumn{2}{c}{Fig. 3.}
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

%-----File: 025.png-----

\nbchapterheading
\nbchapterbanner{No.\ 3.}{San Francisco, California, July~27, 1889.}

\nbsectionheading{ON THE HELICAL NEBULĆ.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{On the Helical Nebulć. By \textsc{Edward S. Holden}}
\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By Edward S. Holden.}\\*
\shortrule}

The discovery of the helical appearance of the planetary nebula
H.~iv.~37 (G.~C. 4373) at this Observatory in
1888\footnote{
 \textit{See Monthly Notices} R.~A.~S. vol.~48, p.~388.}
naturally led
to the search for a method which might enable
one, in some cases at least, to determine the actual situation of
the different branches of a nebula in space of three dimensions
from the data afforded by the projection of these branches upon
the background of the sky. In general, this problem is hopelessly
insoluble by our present means.

I have, however, obtained some interesting results for one class
of nebulć  at least, and perhaps the method employed is capable of
wider application.

To understand the method, let us consider how it is that
we see a nebula (Plate~I, Figure~1). The only data that we
have are the outlines $a$ of a drawing of the nebula as it is
seen projected against the sky. We must conceive the curve $a$
to be the base of a cylinder, A, whose elements are straight
lines (rays of light) extending from the projection $a$ to the eye
at A\@. If the curve $a$ is complicated and involved, so will also
be the surface of the cylinder A\@. Any curve whatever which
is drawn on the surface of the cylinder (as $\alpha'$, $\alpha''$,) will be projected
into the same curve $a$ on the sky; so that the real nebula
in space may be any one of the infinite number of curves
which can be drawn on the surface of this particular cylinder;
for any such curve will be projected into the curve $a$.
This is true for any and every nebula, as $\beta$, $b$; $\gamma$, $c$; $\delta$, $d$,
etc., etc. The only thing we really know about the form
of a nebula, in general, is that it is projected into a certain
shape, as $a$, or $b$, or $c$, or $d$. The problem is to find the true
%-----File: 026.png-----
curves, $\alpha$, $\beta$, $\gamma$, $\delta$, in space, knowing only the projected curves
$a$, $b$, $c$, $d$.

In order to fix the ideas, let us think of the elongated strings of
nebulosity which form the spiral nebulć.

Before going further, it is necessary to remark that the data
(the curves $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$) are at present to be obtained only from
drawings, and hence they are affected by various classes of errors,
due to imperfect telescopic, visual and artistic powers. Photographs
of nebulć  are subject to a different and less hurtful class
of errors, and they are free from personality. When the great
telescope is again in a position to photograph the nebulć, I shall
hope to resume this research with better data. For the present
I shall take the drawings of Lord~\textsc{Rosse}, of \textsc{Lassell}, and others,
as the best available, and shall not concern myself with any errors
remaining in them, but shall treat them as correct, since they are
the best we have.

To resume consideration of the special problem in hand, let
us again examine Figure~1. The only thing we know about the
nebula in space is that its projection on the sky is $a$. Any curve
on the cylinder A \emph{may be} the true shape of the nebula itself. It
is the same for another nebula, $b$, whose curve $b$ is usually different
from that of $a$. \emph{Any} curve on the surface of B will be projected
into $b$. In general, the shapes of the two cylinders are so utterly
different that no two identical curves, $\alpha'$, $\beta'$, can be drawn on their
surfaces.

Now, if we should find a pair of curves, $a$, $b$, whose cylinders,
A, B, are of such a shape that the same curve \emph{can} be drawn on
their surfaces, then there is a certain probability that this identical
curve is, in fact, the true shape of each nebula in space. If, again,
we can find another nebula, $c$, whose cylinder, C, is so similar to
that of $a$ that like curves can be drawn on the three surfaces,
A, B, C, then there is a still greater probability that the identical
curve on the three surfaces, A, B, C, is, in fact, the true shape
of these three nebulć, $a$, $b$, $c$, in space. If we find another nebula,
$d$, whose cylinder, D, is of such a shape that we can also draw
the same curve on \emph{its} surface, there is a much higher probability
that this one curve really represents the true shape of all four
nebulć, $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$, in space.

As we get more and more examples, all fulfilling the same
condition, the probability that we have obtained the true shape
of the nebulous form in space is very rapidly increased; and
%-----File: 027.png-----
by finding enough examples we may increase the probability
to essential certainty; and still more so, if one curve, and
only one, can be found which is common to all the projecting
cylinders.

We may attack this problem practically, by seeking through
trails for a single curve, $\Phi$, which by projection at various angles
and in various positions will give all the differing curves, $a$, $b$,
$c$, $d$, $e$, $\ldots z$. If such a curve can be found (by trial), and if
only one such curve can be found, it will become more and
more probable that $\Phi$ is, in fact, the true curve of each nebula,
$\alpha$, $\beta$, $\gamma$, $\delta$, $\ldots \omega$, in proportion as more and more curves,
$a$, $b$, $c$, $d, \ldots$ accurately correspond to the different projections
of this type curve, $\Phi$. The idea of such types has been
suggested to me by observations of nebulć  with the great telescope,
and I have partially discussed it in \textit{Himmel und Erde}, for
June, 1889, page~503 \textit{et seq.}

I proceed to give what seems to be the type curve of a certain
family of spiral nebulć. The accompanying Figure~2 shows several
representations of a helix of wire, which I have found by trial to be
capable of being projected into the shape of each one of the following
nebulć. Figure~2 also gives a scale photographed at the same time
as the wire model. The diameter of the smallest circle of the scale
is one inch, and the circles are successively $\frac{1}{10}$ of an inch greater in
diameter. One inch is also marked near each of the vertical projections.

I give in Figure~3 a selection from projections of the type-helix
of Figure~2, which were made by placing the wire model in a
beam of parallel rays and tracing its shadow on a plane. Most
of the comparisons of drawings of nebulć  with the type-helix
have been made by placing the eye vertically over the plane of
the paper and by moving the wire helix (its origin nearly always
touching the paper in the nucleus of the nebula) until the projection
of the helix accurately covered the drawing of the nebula.
Usually the model must be applied $n$ different times for a nebula
with $n$ branches. I have found no case in which this helix
will fit one branch of a nebula without fitting every other branch
also.

I give in what follows a few comparisons of this type-helix with
drawings of nebulć, and I begin with the admirable series of drawings
given by \textsc{Mr.\ Lassell} in \textit{Mem.}\ R.~A.~S., vol.~36:
%-----File: 028.png-----
\begin{tablesetup}
\renewcommand{\tabularxcolumn}[1]{>{\hangindent1em\relax}p{#1}}
\begin{tabularx}{\textwidth}{p{4.5em} | p{4.5em} | X}
\hline\hline
&  & \\
\centering\textsc{Lassell's Figure} & \multirow{2}{*}{\centering G.~C.~No.} & \multirow{2}{11.0cm}{\centering \textsc{Remarks.}}\\
&  & \\
\hline
 &  & \\
\centering 2  & \hfill 600 & The outlines of this nebula have been exactly
reproduced (in our Fig.~3, No.~1). [The axis of the type-helix is
in position angle 280°, and altitude above paper 70° to 75°.]\\

\centering 3   & \hfill 604  & Ditto (when Lassell's figure is reversed).\\

\centering 9  & \hfill 1511 & Ditto. (Compare our Fig.~3, No.~3.)\\

\centering 12 (a) & \hfill 1861 &  Ditto (in our Fig.~3, No.~6); (b) compare the
last drawing of Fig.~2. The nucleus of the nebula is probably due
to
a crossing of two loops of the helix.\\

\centering 12 (b) & \hfill 1861 & The outlines can be reproduced. (Compare our Fig.~3,
Nos.~13, 24, 25.)\\

\centering 15   & \hfill 2373  & The loop and the following edge of
\textsc{Lassell's} drawing can be
exactly reproduced. (Compare our Fig.~3, Nos.~15, 19.)\\

\centering 16 &   \hfill 2838 & The axis of the main curve of the drawing has been
exactly
reproduced. (Compare our Fig.~3, No.~20.)\\

\centering 17 &   \hfill 2890 & Both these figures have been accurately reproduced. Each
branch is a projection of the type-helix. (Compare our
Fig.~3, Nos.~11, 16, 17.) Inner spiral, position angle
120°, altitude of axis 80° to 85°; outer spiral, position
angle 120°, altitude 80°. If we match the inner spiral
and then revolve the type-helix, keeping its axis in the
same plane, about 90° in the direction S W N E the
outer spiral will be matched.\\

\centering 27 & \hfill 3572 \linebreak\phantom{1}\hfill M~15 &  All the principal branches have been accurately reproduced,
one application of the type-helix for each branch. (Compare
our Fig.~3, Nos.~1, 7, 11, 16, 17.) Inner spiral,
P = 150°, Alt.\ = 85° to 90°;
outer spiral, P = 150°,
Alt. = about 80°. Revolve type-helix
nearly 180° from
the position where it matches the outer spiral in the direction
N W S E, and it will match the inner spiral.\\

\centering 28  &  \hfill 3606 & When this drawing is reversed the three branches can be
exactly reproduced by three applications of the type-helix.
(Compare our Fig.~3, Nos.~8, 14, 15, 19, 20.)
Is the nucleus due to the crossing of two branches of
the helix?\\

\centering 29 &  \hfill 3614 & When this is reversed its two branches can be reproduced
by two applications of the type. (Compare our Fig.~3,
Nos.~5, 6, etc.)\\

\centering 33  &  \hfill 4403 & (The Omega nebula.) The axes of the loop and of the
straight following part can be exactly reproduced. (Compare
our Fig.~3, No.~31.)\\
&  & \\
\hline
\end{tabularx}

\bigskip
\parbox{\textwidth}{\indent
N.~B.---Note that the position angle of the axis of the type-helix
is the same for both spirals of G.~C.~2890; and for both spirals
of G.~C.~3572.}
\end{tablesetup}
\medskip
%-----File: 029.png-----

\noindent
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}
\textsc{Comparisons with Lord Rosse's Drawings in the Philosophical
Transactions, 1861.} \\[1em]
\begin{tabularx}{\textwidth}{ p{4.5em} | p{4em} | r@{\textit{h. }} X}
\hline\hline
&  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{}\\
\centering\textsc{Fig.} &\multicolumn{1}{c|}{G.~C.} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{\centering\textsc{Remarks.}}\\
&  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{}\\
\hline
&  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{}\\
\centering \hspace{6pt}9  & \hspace{6pt}888 & & 327.  (Compare our No.~1.\ etc.)\\

\centering 10 &  \hspace{6pt}532 & & 131.  This can be accurately reproduced when it is reversed
and its scale changed suitably.\\

\centering 13 & 2053  & & 689. Ditto.\\

\centering 15 & 2216--17 & & 765--6. (Compare our Nos.\ 2, 3, 4, 12, 13, 28, 31.)\\

\centering 16 & 2377 & & 857.  (Compare our Nos.\ 1, 7, 11, 16, 17, etc.)\\

\centering 18 &  2670--1  & & 1052--3. (Compare our Nos.\ 2, 3, 12, etc.)\\

\centering 19 &  2680 & & 1061. Can be reproduced.\\

\centering 21 &  2870 & & 1196. (Compare our Nos.\ 3, 9 (reversed), 12, 29, 30,
etc.)\\

\centering 23 & 3341--2 & & 1306--8. (Compare our Nos.\ 5, 6, 21, etc., and 11, etc.)\\

\centering 24 & 3085 & & 1337. (Compare Nos.\ 2, 14, twice applied.)\\

\centering 25  & 3151 & & 1385. (Compare our Nos.\ 23, 24; and notice the opening
on the lower side of the figure (as in Fig.~23) and the
brightening of the nebula just above this (as in Fig.~23)
where the right-hand hook bends back.)\\

\centering 26 & 3189--90 & & 1414--15. (Compare our Nos.\ 5, 6, 21, 29, 30.)\\

\centering 28 & 3511  & & 1589. (Compare our Nos.\ 5, 6, etc.)\\

\centering 29 & 3615  & & 1650.  (Compare our No.\ 11, reversed.)\\

\centering 32 &  4160 & & 1946. (Compare our No.\ 1, etc.)\\

\centering 36 &  4594 & & 2084. If this drawing be reversed, each of the four
branches can be accurately represented by projections
of the type-helix. I have made a wire model of this
nebula.\tablenoteasterisk \\

\centering 41 & 4971  & & 2245. (Compare our No.\ 1, etc., reversed.) \\
&  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{}\\
\hline
\end{tabularx}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

\bigskip\vfil

\begin{footnotesize}* Before the present investigation was begun I succeeded in making a model of this
nebula of four branches, starting on the assumption that each of the four branches was
produced by the projection (at four different angles) of one and the same curve in space.
I finally succeeded in bending a wire so that when it was held in four different positions
(the origin of the helix always touching the nucleus), the four projections accurately
covered the four branches as they are laid down in the drawing. I then laid this model to one
side and constructed a type curve from the nebulć  G.~C. 600, the great Nebula G.~C. 3572
(M.~51) and others. This second type curve was then applied (reversed) to the nebula 4594,
and it was found to accurately represent it, and to be the same curve as the one first constructed.
Probably in this case, as in others, the conviction that the real type of the nebula has been
discovered is more strongly brought home to the person who has actually constructed the
models and found them to exactly represent the pictures, than to one who merely reads an account
of how the experiment was conducted. The only ambiguity in my model of this nebula is
due to the fact that it is impossible to decide on which side of the plane of projection any or all
of the branches are situated. We know the real shape of each branch, but we do not know
whether it lies on the hither or on the farther side of the plane of projection.

\end{footnotesize}
%-----File: 030.png-----

\noindent
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}
\parbox{0.9\textwidth}{\centering
  \textsc{Comparison with Lord Rosse's Drawings in the Scientific
  Transactions Royal Dublin Society, Vol.~II.}}\\[1em]
\begin{tabularx}{\textwidth}{c r@{.}r | p{4em} | X}
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{}&  & \\
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\textsc{Plates.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{G.~C. \ } & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Remarks.}}\\
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{}&  & \\
\hline
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{}&  & \\
& I & &  1202 & (Compare our Figs.\ 24, 25)??\\

& I &  & 1267 & (Compare our Figs.\ 14, 15, 19, etc., reversed.)\\

& I &  & 1519 & This can be accurately reproduced.\\

& II &  & 1520 & Ditto.\\

& III & &  1861--3  & The principal curves in these nebulć, ditto.\\

& IV &  & 3572 & Ditto.\\

& V &  & 4561 & (Compare our Figs.\ 9, 10, the middle parts only.)\\

& VI &  & 4403 & The axes of this can be accurately reproduced. (See our
Fig.~31.)\\
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{}&  & \\
\hline
\end{tabularx}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

\medskip

It is unnecessary to give more examples. Indeed, the cases
already given include nearly all the spiral nebulć. Those just
referred to are sufficient to exhibit the whole evidence to any one
who will construct for himself a type curve from the data in Figure
2, and who will go over the comparisons with the plates as above
outlined. The spirals of \textit{Nebula Orionis} are probably of the type just
given, also. The case of the \textit{Omega} nebula (G.~C. 4403) is very
striking. I have also found remarkable analogies in various spiral
streams of stars.

It may be objected to the suggestions given above that the forms
of the nebulć  are so indefinite that a very great latitude is allowed
in matching the drawings with the projections of any particular type
curve. This is undoubtedly true. The only remedy for it is to obtain
better representations of the nebulć  themselves by photographic
means.

A second objection is that Figure 3 shows that a particular spiral,
once assumed, may be projected into many forms, and that these
might be sufficiently varied to be fitted to a comparatively small
number of objects out of the many thousands of known nebulć. To
this it may be said that it is undoubtedly true that the projection of
many different curves can be made to fit a certain number of the
drawings referred to. Still, it appears to me, after trials, that the helix
of Figure 2 comes nearer to being the type curve of the nebulć  in
question than any other that I can now construct. It certainly will
need to be corrected, but it seems to be a good first approximation.
%-----File: 031.png-----
The difficulty of improving it can be best appreciated by making
the trial.

Again, it must be remembered that while there are many thousands
of nebulć, there are only comparatively few spiral nebulć, and
that the type curve fits a very great percentage of these, while it cannot
be tortured into a resemblance to other nebulć  not spiral.

If the helix given in Figure 2 is indeed the type of a certain
class of nebulć, many interesting questions may receive a solution.
For example, what are the directions in space of the \emph{axes} of these
different nebulć? Is there anything systematic in these directions?
What is the law of the force by which particles of matter are expelled
from (or attracted to?) the central nucleus? Have we here in the
nebulć  different types of spirals somewhat analogous to the different
types of comets' tails so ably discussed by Professor \textsc{Bredichin}?

Some of the parts of these nebulć  must be approaching the
earth, some receding from it. Can we by the spectroscope discriminate
between such motions?

\filbreak
A suggestion which holds out even the hope of successfully
attacking such problems is not without its value, and I have, therefore,
no hesitation in presenting the foregoing paper in its present
incomplete form.
\begin{flushright}
\textsc{Edward S. Holden.}
\end{flushright}
\textsc{Lick Observatory}, July~12, 1889.

\ThoughtBreakLong
\bigskip

\nbsectionheading{ON THE ORBIT OF COMET BARNARD (1889, \textsc{June} 23).}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{On the Orbit of Comet Barnard (1889, June~23). By \textsc{A. O. Leuschner}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By A.~O. Leuschner.}\\*
\shortrule}

From Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard's} observations of June 23, 24, 25, I have
deduced the following elements:
\[
\begin{array}{l}
\quad T = 1889, \textrm{ June~20. 1480 G.~m.~t.}\\
\;\; \left.
\begin{array}{r@{\;}l}
  \Omega &=           271°\, \phantom{0}4'.1 \\
  \omega &= \phantom{0}59°\,           20'.7\\
  i      &= \phantom{0}31°\,           14'.6
\end{array}
\right\} 1889.0\\
  \log q = 0.04236
\end{array}
\]

Obsd.---Computed; $\Delta\lambda \cos \beta = -0'.3, \Delta\beta = 0'.0$.

\ThoughtBreakLong
\bigskip

%-----File: 032.png-----
\nbsubsubsectionheading
	{[\textsc{Abstract}.]}
\nbsectionheading{ON THE OCCULTATIONS OF JUPITER (\begin{small}VISIBLE IN\end{small} 1889);
AND ON THE ECLIPSES OF SATELLITE IV.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{On the Occultations of Jupiter (visible in 1889) and on the Eclipses of Satellite IV\@. By \textsc{Charles B. Hill}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By Charles B. Hill.}\\*
\shortrule}

Mr.\ \textsc{Hill} spoke of the various phenomena of \textit{Jupiter's} satellites,
etc., of special interest, and called the attention of members especially
to
\nbsubsubsectionheading
{\textit{The Eclipse (reappearance) of Satellite IV:}}
\noindent1889, August~18, at 8h.\ 37m., P.~s.~t.; and to
\nbsubsubsectionheading
{\textit{The Occultation of Jupiter by the Moon:}}
\noindent
\begin{tabular}{@{} l@{}l@{ }r@{ }c@{ }c@{ }c}
1889, Sept.~3---& \textit{Immersion}, &   I & contact, & 5h.\ 32.5m., & P.~s.~t.\\
                &                     &  II &  ``      & 5h.\ 34.5m., &  ``\\
                & \textit{Emersion},  & III &  ``      & 6h.\ 26.0m., &  ``\\
                &                     &  IV &  ``      & 6h.\ 28.0m., &  ``\\

&\multicolumn{5}{@{}l}{
  \begin{tabular}{@{} *{4}{c@{ }} l@{ }l}
    Angle & from & North & Point, & Imm.  & = 149°\\
     ``   &  ``  &  ``   &  ``    & Emer. & = 234°
  \end{tabular} }
\end{tabular}
\medskip

The above prediction is based on an approximate (graphical)
computation for the position of Mt.\ Hamilton. The occultation will
be visible in the United States generally. In California it will take
place shortly before sunset, the moon being one day past \textit{First
Quarter}.

\ThoughtBreakLong
\medskip

\nbsubsubsectionheading
	{[\textsc{Abstract}.]}
\nbsectionheading{ON PHOTOGRAPHING THE CORONA IN FULL SUNSHINE;
AND ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE MOON IN THE DAYTIME.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{On Photographing the Corona in full Sunshine
and on Photographs of the Moon in the Daytime. By \textsc{James E. Keeler}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By J.~E. Keeler.}\\*
\shortrule}

Mr. \textsc{Keeler} gave a brief account of the attempts that had been
made to see and to photograph the corona in full sunshine, and
spoke of the evidence of the eclipse photographs on the practicability
of the latter experiment. It had been shown by Professor \textsc{Holden}
in the Eclipse Report of 1889 that if the intrinsic brilliancy of the
daylight near the sun was 1000, the intrinsic brilliancy of the daylight
%-----File: 033.png-----
\emph{plus} corona was not above 1002. Hence, to photograph the
corona in full sunshine, we must be able to record a difference of
brilliancy, a contrast, of $\frac{1}{500}$. The eye could detect a contrast of
$\frac{1}{60}$ only, and hence the attempt seemed hopeless, as the rays and
streamers of the corona had a continuous spectrum like that of diffused
daylight. He also exhibited some photographs of the moon
taken in the daytime by Mr.\ \textsc{Burnham}, with a lens of aperture $ = {}^3\!/\!_4$
inch, focus = 9~inches, stop f$/_{\displaystyle\!44}$, time $\frac{1}{60}$ to $\frac{1}{100}$ of a second. The
moon was more than 120° from the sun at the time.

Experiments on this matter were recommended to the amateur
photographers of the Society, and it was asked that successful trials
might be communicated to the Lick Observatory. Photographs of
the dark side of the moon before first quarter might be included in
the plan. Each plate exposed should be marked with the observer's
name; the aperture, stop, and plate employed; the hour and minute
of exposure; the length of exposure.

Mr.\ \textsc{Keeler} exhibited some prints made on ordinary dry plates
and on ortho-chromatic plates, and recommended the attention of
the members of the Society to the excellent results attained by the
use of the latter plates, and suggested a trial of them for pictures of
the moon in the daytime, as the moon was relatively rich in light
of greater wave length than F.

\bigskip
\ThoughtBreakLong
\bigskip

\nbsectionheading{NOTICES FROM THE LICK OBSERVATORY.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\textit{Notices from the Lick Observatory}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
{\small \textsc{Prepared by Members of the Staff.}}\\*
\shortrule}

The desire is expressed, on many sides, that the Publications of
the Society should contain brief notices of the work current at the
Lick Observatory, because much of this work is necessarily published
in Eastern and foreign journals and therefore may escape the attention
of our members.

Such notices must evidently be of the briefest and most popular
character, and very often can be nothing more than a reference
to the title and place of publication of a paper. Even such references
as these may serve, it is said, to call the attention of our members
to the existence of a paper which may be of interest to several
of them.

It is therefore proposed, as an experiment merely, to include in
%-----File: 034.png-----
each of our Publications a few pages of items relating to the work
of the Lick Observatory. Should these meet the want which has
been expressed, it will be easy to continue them in the future. In
this way an acquaintance with the work of the Observatory can be
maintained, without taking too much space in the pages of our Publications,
which should be reserved for longer articles by the members
of the Society in general.

As the Observatory commenced active operations not long before
the foundation of the Society, the present number of the \textit{Notices} may
well be devoted to a list of the mere titles of the different papers, etc.,
which have been sent to various scientific journals and magazines
since June~1, 1888, by the members of the Observatory staff.
Articles printed in newspapers, etc., are not included, as these are
generally of transient interest only. This list, then, will bring the
history of the astronomical activity of the Observatory up to the
present time, and leave a clear field for the subsequent numbers of
these \textit{Notices}.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\ThoughtBreak*
\bigskip

\nbsubsectionheading{Photograph of the Davidson Comet.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Photographs of the Davidson Comet. By \textsc{E. S. Holden}}

The comet discovered by Mr.\ \textsc{Davidson} at Queensland, on July
21, was photographed at the Observatory by Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard}, with the
new \textsc{Willard} lens (about 5~inches aperture, 30~inches focus) on
July~30. A Seed~26 plate was used, and an exposure of ninety
minutes was given. The camera was mounted on the top of the
twelve-inch equatorial, and the camera was kept directed at the comet
by moving the slow motion screws in R.~A. and in Dec. As the
comet had a rapid motion in reference to the stars, the latter appeared
as \textit{trails} about $13'$ to $14'$ long. This was the comet's motion
in ninety minutes of time. The head of the comet shows as a neat
round mass. The tail is fan-shaped, with its borders convex to the
axis, and very narrow at the root. It can easily be traced $20'$ and it
is evident for about $53'$. Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard} could trace it no further
than $50'$ or so, with the telescope. After the picture of the comet
was taken, the negative was exposed to the light of our standard
lamp for 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 seconds, making a series of
squares of standard intensity. (See Lick Observatory Eclipse Report,
page~12.) The night-sky was less intense than the square exposed
one second. The brightest part of the tail of the comet $2'$ or so from
the head matched the standard square exposed ten seconds. Hence
the comet is about nine and one-half times as bright as its background.
%-----File: 035.png-----
Omitting any consideration of the absorption of the atmosphere,
and of the absorption of the lens (as yet undetermined), I
find that the intrinsic brilliancy of this portion of the comet was
0.000,000,15 units of the standard lamp. The full moon has an
intrinsic brilliancy of 1.66 units (\textsc{Pickering}) and the brightest parts
of the corona of January~1, 1889, had an intrinsic brilliancy of 0.08
units. Hence the comet is 10,000,000 times fainter than the full
moon, area for area; and 500,000 times fainter than the brightest
parts of the corona of last January. According to Mr.\ \textsc{Pickering's}
measures, the intrinsic brilliancy (actinic) of the sky within 5° from
the full moon is 0.000,064 units; and thus the sky near the moon is
400 times brighter than the comet, and more than 4000 times as
bright as the night-sky. These measures relate only to the photographic
brilliancy of the comet. The visual brilliancy would be
much higher relatively, as the observations of Mr.\ \textsc{Keeler} show the
most refrangible end of its spectrum to be very weak.

The results just given are interesting and important in themselves,
and they also have an historical value; since this is the first occasion
on which the light of a comet has been actually measured with accuracy.\footnote{
Since the above was written, I have seen a reference to a measure of the light of the comet
of 1881 (?) by \textsc{Janssen} (\textit{Ann.\ Bureau Long.}\ 1882, p.~781), which is stated as 300,000 times
fainter than the full moon. This book is not accessible to me, and I do not know if the brilliancy
was measured, or only inferred from the time of exposure compared with that of the moon.}

The preceding experiment also suggests various applications.
For example: we may measure the total amount of a comet's light
on various dates, and compare this measured light with the amount
of light reflected to us by the comet from the sun, which latter quantity
can be accurately calculated. Thus, we might find

\medskip

\begin{small}
\begin{tabular}{l rrr rrr rrr}
&\multicolumn{3}{r}{\textsc{Jan.~1.}}
&\multicolumn{3}{r}{\textsc{Jan.~2.}}
&\multicolumn{3}{r}{\textsc{Jan.~3, etc.}}\\
Measured light from the comet   &&=& L, &&=& M, &&=& N, etc.\\
Calculated light from the comet &&=& A, &&=& B, &&=& C, etc.\\
$\therefore$ Native light of the comet\;
&\multicolumn{3}{r}{$\mathrm{= L - A,}$}
&\multicolumn{3}{r}{$\mathrm{= M - B,}$}
&\multicolumn{3}{r}{$\mathrm{= N - C, etc.}$}
\end{tabular}
\end{small}

\medskip

It has long been known that the brilliancy of comets increases
beyond the theoretical amount as they approach the sun, owing to
native light emitted by them under the influence of the sun. It
appears that there is now some hope of tracing such changes of brilliancy
from day to day, by photographic means, and of obtaining in
this way some clue to the energy of the forces which produce these
observed changes.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}\\*[0.5ex]
{\small\indent 1889, July~31.}

%-----File: 036.png-----

\nbsubsectionheading{Spectrum of Davidson's Comet.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Spectrum of Davidson's Comet. By \textsc{James E. Keeler}}

The spectrum of Davidson's comet was observed here with the
twelve-inch equatorial, on July 31st, and with the thirty-six-inch
equatorial, on August 1st. The \textit{coma} showed a spectrum consisting
of three somewhat diffuse bright bands, which were found to be identical
in position with the carbon fluting given by the blue flame of a
spirit lamp. A faint luminosity connected the bands, so that the
spaces between them were not perfectly dark.

The nucleus gave a continuous spectrum not extending below
the D line, with slight brightenings at the positions of the carbon
flutings. Such a spectrum would probably be given by the material
of the \textit{coma} at an increased pressure. Although the comet is now
rated at about the sixth magnitude, its spectrum is much fainter than
that of a star of this brightness, on account of the diffusion of its
light over a large area.\pushright{J.~E.~K.}\\*[0.5ex]
{\small\indent Aug.~2, 1889.}

\nbsubsectionheading{New Double Stars.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad New Double Stars. By \textsc{S. W. Burnham}}

One of the more recent double-star discoveries with the thirty-six-inch
telescope is a seventh-magnitude star (D.~M. 30°, 4809) near $\eta$
Pegasi. The measures on three nights give:
\begin{small}
\[
  1889.55 \qquad 335°.3 \qquad 0''.23 \qquad 7.2 \qquad 8.2
\]
\end{small}

The 4--5~m.\ star, \textit{$\psi$ Cassiopeić}, % Transcriber's note; original reads "Cassiopeć"
 has been known since the first
\textsc{Herschel} as a triple star, from a small double companion at a distance
of $28''$ from the large star. The Lick telescope shows a small
star of about 13--15~m.\ % Transcriber's note: Original text reads 13--5 m.
% Washington Visual Double Star Catalog, 1996.0 (Worley+, 1996) gives magnitude 14,
% discoverer S.~W.\ Burnham, 1889
at a distance of $3''.2$ in the direction of 41°.2.

A careful set of measures of the close pair, \textit{$\kappa$ Pegasi} ($\beta$ 989)
has been made with the thirty-six-inch telescope. The change in
both angle and distance has been very great since its discovery with
the Chicago telescope in 1880. As the distance now is only $0''.14$,
it could hardly be seen, or measured, with any instrument much
smaller than the Lick telescope. The components differ by only
about half a magnitude, and there is a possibility of the wrong
quadrant having been given in my first measures made in 1880,
although at the time this was carefully looked after. Taking the
early measures as they stand, the motion (direct) would be 235° in
nine years. If the first angle should be reversed, the change would
be only 56°.

There is a small star $11''$ distant, which makes the double, $\Sigma 2824$.
This is fixed with reference to the bright star.
%-----File: 037.png-----

28 \textit{Andromedć} is also a new double star. The following is the
mean of three nights' measures with the thirty-six-inch refractor:
\begin{small}
\[
  1889.51 \qquad 360°.1 \qquad 2''.42 \qquad 5.5 \qquad 13.3
\]
\end{small}

\textsc{Herschel}, at the Cape of Good Hope, noted a small double star
in the fine cluster and nebula, \textsc{Messier}~8, and entered it as No.\ 5009
of the Cape Catalogue. The Lick telescope shows that the principal
star of \textsc{Herschel}'s pair is a close pair. The mean of four measures
is:---
\begin{small}
\[
  1889.40 \qquad 55°.6 \qquad 0''.63 \qquad 8.7 \qquad 9.5
\]
\end{small}

There is probably no change in \textsc{Herschel}'s more distant star.
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{*{5}{r@{.}lc}l}
\multicolumn{3}{c}{ } & \multicolumn{2}{c}{°} && \multicolumn{2}{c}{\raisebox{-0.5ex}{$''$}} \\
1837&70 &\qquad& 20&8 &\qquad& 2& &\qquad& 10& &\qquad& 12& &\qquad& 1n H \\
1880&58 && 19&9 && 3&86 && 9&0 && 9&5 && 1n Cin \\
1889&40 && 23&3 && 4&05 && 8&7 && 9&6 && 4n $\beta$
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

For many years $\Sigma~2438$ has been found to be single with all telescopes.
A recent set of measures with the large refractor of the
Lick Observatory gives for the distance $0''.24$, and the position angle
46°.2. The angle when measured by \textsc{Struve} in 1832 was 340°.6.

With powers up to 2000, the thirty-six-inch shows the large star
of $\Sigma~3130$ as single. It has not been seen double during the last
thirty years.\pushright{S.~W.~B.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Meridian Circle Observations of \textit{Victoria} and Comparison
Stars.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad \protect\stretchyspace Meridian Circle Observations of Victoria and Comparison Stars. By \textsc{J.~E. Schaeberle}}

In connection with astronomers in the northern hemisphere, the
Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope, Dr.\ \textsc{David Gill}, is
observing the planet \textit{Victoria}, for the determination of its parallax
(and hence of the Solar Parallax). He has requested various observatories
to determine, by meridian observations, the positions of the
planet and of thirty-seven comparison stars. This work has been
done at the Lick Observatory by eighteen nights of observations, between
June~8 and July~8, and the results will soon be ready for publication.
From a series of experiments, it was found that (thanks to
the designer of the large pivots, nearly four inches in diameter) much
better results could be obtained when the observations were made
without clamping the instrument. The clamp was accordingly removed
(some months ago), so that all of the observations referred to
above were made with the nearly counterpoised instrument hanging
freely in the wyes. % OED: "Wyes, the supports of the telescope in the theodolite and level"
 That this variation from the usual method is to
be approved, when the proper precautions are taken, seems to be
shown by the smallness of the probable errors of observation, which,
%-----File: 038.png-----
for a single observation in R.~A. and Dec., are about $0^\text{s}.020$ and
$0''.25$ respectively. These figures also show that the \textsc{Repsold} meridian
circle is capable of first-class work, and that the refraction as
given in Vol.~1, \textit{Publications Lick Observatory}, is not very far out of
the way.\pushright{J.~M.~S.}

\nbsubsectionheading{New Double Stars.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad New Double Stars. By \textsc{E. E. Barnard}}

I have found the stars, 2~\textit{Piscium} and W~\textsc{xxiii}.803 to be double
with the twelve-inch equatorial. Mr.\ \textsc{Burnham} has kindly measured
these stars with the thirty-six-inch and supplied me with his results
for publication. From the inequality of the components, 2~\textit{Piscium}
is a difficult object with the twelve-inch.

Following are Mr.\ \textsc{Burnham's} measures.\pushright{E.~E.~B.}\\*[.5ex]
{\small\indent 1889, August~5.}

\begin{gather*}
 \mathit{2~Piscium.}
\\
\left. \begin{gathered}
  \text{22h.~53m.~18s.}  \\  0°~19'
\end{gathered} \right\}
\\
\begin{array}{r@{} *{2}{r@{.}l@{}c@{}}
                        r@{.}l@{}     c r@{} c@{} r@{.}l@{} l}
   \multicolumn{3}{c}{ }
&& \multicolumn{2}{c}{°}
&& \multicolumn{2}{c}{ \raisebox{-0.5ex}{$''$} }
\\
& 1889&553  &\mbox{\qquad\qquad\quad}
&   96&0    &\mbox{\qquad\qquad}
&    3&87   &\mbox{\qquad\qquad\;}
&    6      &\mbox{\qquad\qquad\quad}
&   14
\\
&     &556  &&  91&8  &&  3&88  &&  6  &&  13&5  \\
&     &589  &&  93&1  &&  3&68  &&  6  &&  13&5  \\
\cline{2-3} \cline{5-6} \cline{8-9} \cline{11-11} \cline {13-14}
& 1889&57   &&  93&6  &&  3&81  &&  6  &&  13&7
\end{array}
\end{gather*}

\begin{gather*}
\text{W \textsc{xxiii}.803.}
\\
\left. \begin{gathered}
  \text{23h.~40m.~53s.}  \\  4°~35'
\end{gathered} \right\}
\\
\begin{array}{r@{} *{2}{r@{.}l@{}c@{}}
                        r@{.}l@{}     c r@{} c r@{.}l@{} l}
   \multicolumn{3}{c}{ }
&& \multicolumn{2}{c}{°}
&& \multicolumn{2}{c}{ \raisebox{-0.5ex}{$''$} }
\\
& 1889&553  &\mbox{\qquad\qquad}
&  166&2    &\mbox{\qquad\qquad}
&    0&49   &\mbox{\qquad\qquad}
&  8.7      &\mbox{\qquad\qquad}
&    8&7
\\
&     &556  &&  166&5  &&  0&59  &&  8.6  &&  8&6  \\
&     &589  &&  166&0  &&  0&53  &&  8.5  &&  8&5  \\
\cline{2-3} \cline{5-6} \cline{8-9} \cline{11-11} \cline {13-14}
& 1889&57   &&  166&2  &&  0&54  &&  8.6  &&  8&6
\end{array}
\end{gather*}

\bigskip

\nbsubsectionheading{List of the Articles, Etc., Contributed to Scientific and
other Journals by the Astronomers of the Lick Observatory since June~1, 1888.\\*[2ex]
{\footnotesize \textsc{[Compiled by Mr.\ C.~B. Hill.]}}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad List of the Articles, etc., contributed to Scientific and other Journals by the Astronomers of the Lick Observatory since June~1, 1888. Compiled by \textsc{Charles B. Hill}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of Edward S.\ Holden.}}

\compactlisttwo
\item[]
Hand-Book of the Lick Observatory. San Francisco, June, 1888.
32\textsuperscript{o}, pp.~135. % transcriber's note: original appears to read "32°"
\item[]
Stellar Photography.---\textit{Overland Monthly}, June, 1888.
\item[]
Note on Earthquake Intensity in San Francisco, 1808--1888.---\textit{American
Journal of Science}, June, 1888.
\item[]
The Total Solar Eclipse of 1889, January 1st, in California.---\textit{Monthly
Notices Royal Astronomical Society}, vol.~48.
%-----File: 039.png-----
\item[]
Occultation of 47 Librć  by Jupiter, June~9, 1888.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~64.
\item[]
The Ring Nebula in Lyra.---\textit{Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
Society}, vol.~48, p.~383.
\item[]
Regarding Sir W. Herschel's observations of Volcanoes in the Moon.
\textit{The Observatory}, 1888, p.~334.
\item[]
Earthquakes in California, Washington and Oregon, 1769--1888.
Communicated to the \textit{California Academy of Sciences} in July, 1888.
\item[]
Sidereal Astronomy, Old and New. 2~papers.---\textit{The Century} for
August and September, 1888.
\item[]
Occultation of a Star (11th magnitude) by Mars.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~102.
\item[]
Observations of the Lunar Eclipse of July~22, 1888, at the Lick Observatory
of the University of California. Communicated to the
\textit{National Academy of Sciences}. [By all the astronomers].
\item[]
Suggestions for Observing the Total Eclipse of the Sun on January~1,
1889. (Printed by Authority of the Regents of the University of
California). State Printing Office, Sacramento, 1888. 8vo, pamphlet.
\item[]
Hypothetical Parallax of Binary Pairs.---\textit{Sidereal Messenger}, October,
1888, p.~356.
\item[]
Physical Observations of Mars during the Opposition of 1888, at the
Lick Observatory. (With a plate).---\textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~8,
p.~97.
\item[]
The Same.---\textit{Journal of Liverpool Astronomical Society}, vol.~7,
November, 1888, p.~7, with plates.
\item[]
Saturn and his Satellites.---\textit{Sidereal Messenger}, January, 1889.
\item[]
Observations of Nebulć  at the Lick Observatory (by E.~S. Holden
and J.~M. Schaeberle).---\textit{Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
Society}, vol.~48 (1888) p.~388.
\item[]
The Lick Observatory.---\textit{The Universal Review} (London), February
15, 1889, (illustrated).
\item[]
Earthquakes in California (1888).---\textit{American Journal of Science},
May, 1889, p.~392.
\item[]
On the Solar Eclipse of January~1, 1889.---\textit{Observatory}, March,
1889, page~130; May, p.~221.
\item[]
The Lick Observatory.---\textit{Himmel und Erde} (Berlin; illustrated),
May and June, 1889.
\item[]
On the Photographs of the Corona at the Solar Eclipse of January,~1,
1889.---\textit{Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical Society}, vol.~49,
p.~343.
\item[]
Reported Changes in the Rings of Saturn. (Observations by E.~S.
Holden, J.~M. Schaeberle, J.~E. Keeler, E.~E. Barnard.)---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~180.
%-----File: 040.png-----
\item[]
Occultation of the Planet Jupiter, as observed at the Lick Observatory,
March~23, 1889. (Observations by J.~E. Keeler, E.~E. Barnard,
C.~B. Hill, A.~O. Leuschner.)---\textit{Sidereal Messenger}, May, 1889,
p.~221.
\item[]
Address before the Astronomical Society of the Pacific ``On the Work
of an Astronomical Society.''---\textit{Publications Astronomical Society
of the Pacific}, No.~2, March~30, 1889.
\item[]
Reports on the Observations of the Total Solar Eclipse of January~1,
1889. Published by the Lick Observatory, 8vo.
\item[]
Great Telescopes and their Work.---\textit{Observatory}, March, 1889, p.~138.
\item[]
Recent Discoveries in the Nebulć  by means of Photography.---\textit{Scientific
American}, July~27, 1889.
\item[]
On the Helical Nebulć.---\textit{Publications Astronomical Society of the
Pacific}, No.~3, July~27, 1889. Die Helikalischen Nebel.---\textit{Himmel
und Erde}.
\item[]
Astronomical Photography.---\textit{The Pacific Review}, September, 1889.
\end{list}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of S.~W. Burnham.}}
\compactlisttwo
\item[]
Double Star Observations made at the Lick Observatory.---\textit{Astronomische
Nachrichten}, No.\ 2875.
\item[]
New Double Stars Discovered at the Lick Observatory.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~141.
\item[]
Companion to Sirius.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.~2884.
\item[]
The Trapezium of Orion.---\textit{Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
Society}, 1889, vol.~49, p.~352.
\item[]
The Double Star, $\epsilon$~Hydrć.---\textit{Sidereal Messenger}, May, 1889.
\item[]
New Double Star, $\alpha$~Ursć  Majoris.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten},
No.~2891.
\item[]
Seventeen Comć  Berenices.---\textit{Observatory}, May, 1889, p.~227.
\item[]
Double Star Observations made with the 36-inch refractor of the Lick
Observatory.---\textit{Astro\-nomische Nachrichten}, No.~---.
\item[]
$\eta$~Ophiuchi, $\theta$~Cygni.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.~2912.
\end{list}

\smallskip

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of J.~M. Schaeberle.}}
\compactlisttwo
\item[]
Elements and Ephemeris of Barnard's Comet (e), 1888.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~102; \textit{Sidereal Messenger}, October, 1888,
p.~357. Communicated to the \textit{California Academy of Sciences}.
\item[]
Orbit and Proper Motion of 85 Pegasi ($\beta$~733).---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~129. Communicated to the \textit{California Academy
of Sciences}.
\item[]
Elements and Ephemeris of Barnard's Comet (f), 1888.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~144; \textit{Sidereal Messenger}, December, 1888.
Communicated to the \textit{California Academy of Sciences}.
%-----File: 041.png-----
\item[]
Observations of Nebulć  at the Lick Observatory (by E.~S. Holden
and J.~M. Schaeberle).---\textit{Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
Society}, vol.~48 (1888), p.~388.
\item[]
Meridian Observations of Polyhymnia and Harmonia.---\textit{Astronomische
Nachrichten}, No.~2877.
\item[]
Corrections to the Lick Observatory Time Signals for December~30.0,
December~31.0, January~1.0, and January~2.0.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~168.
\item[]
Elements and Ephemeris of Barnard's Comet (March~31). Communicated
to the \textit{California Academy of Sciences}; telegraphed to
\textit{Astronomical Journal}, and printed in vol.~8, pp.~183 and 191;
\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.~2839. See also \textit{Astronomische
Nachrichten}, No.~2903.
\item[]
Reports on the Solar Eclipse of January~1, 1889.---In \textit{Lick Observatory
Reports}, p.~23.
\end{list}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of J.~E. Keeler.}}

\compactlisttwo
\item[]
The 36-inch Equatorial of the Lick Observatory.---\textit{Scientific American},
June~16, 1888.
\item[]
Recent Astronomical Work at the Lick Observatory.---\textit{Scientific
American}, November~10, 1888.
\item[]
Observations of the Satellites of Mars.---\textit{Astronomical Journal}, No.~178,
pp.~73--78.
\item[]
The Appearance of Saturn in the 36-inch Equatorial of the Lick
Observatory.---\textit{Ciel et Terre}, No.~21, January, 1889, p.~514.
\item[]
The Outer Ring of Saturn.---\textit{Ciel et Terre}, No.~3, April, 1889.
\textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~8, p.~175.
\item[]
Report on the Total Solar Eclipse of January~1, 1889.---In the \textit{Lick
Observatory Report}, p.~31.
\item[]
On the Spectra of Saturn and Uranus.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten},
No.~---.
\end{list}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of E.~E. Barnard.}}
\compactlisttwo
\item[]
Discovery and Observations of a Comet (e~1888).---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~102; \textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.~2862.
\item[]
Drawings of Comet, 1888, I.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.~2859.
(With a plate.)
\item[]
Discovery of a Comet (f, 1888).---\textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~8, p.~128. Communicated to \textit{California Academy of Sciences}.
\item[]
Observations of Olbers' Comet (1887, V).---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten},
No.~2861.
\item[]
Discovery and Observations of a Comet (f, 1888).---\textit{Astronomische
Nachrichten}, No.~2871, p.~237; \textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~8,
p.~134.
\item[]
Note on the Orbit of Comet (e), 1888.---\textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~8, p.~120.
%-----File: 042.png-----
\item[]
On a Search for the Comet reported January~15, 1889, by
\textsc{Mr.\ Brooks}.---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~168.
\item[]
Partial Eclipse of the Moon, January~16, 1889.---\textit{Sidereal Messenger},
March 1889, p.~137.
\item[]
Discovery and Observations of Comet Barnard (March~31).---\textit{Astronomical
Journal}, vol.~8, p.~183; \textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.\
2894; \textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~9, p.~5; \textit{Astronomische Nachrichten},
No.\ 2899; \textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.\ 2901.
\item[]
Report on the Total Eclipse of January~1, 1889.---In the \textit{Lick Observatory
Report}, p.~56.
\item[]
Observations of Faye's Comet.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.\ ---;
\textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~9, p.~29.
\item[]
Anomalous Tail of Comet I, 1889.---\textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~9,
p.~32; \textit{Astronomische Nachrichten}, No.\ 2906.
\item[]
The Nebula G.~C. 2091.---\textit{Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical
Society}, vol.~49, p.~418.
\item[]
The Cluster G.~C. 1420, and the Nebula N.~G.~C. 2237. \textit{Astronomische
Nachrichten}, No.\ ---.
\item[]
Discovery and Observations of a Comet (June~23).---\textit{Astronomische
Nachrichten}, No.\ 2906; \textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~9, p.~47.
\end{list}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of C.~B. Hill.}}

\compactlisttwo
\item[]
Observations of Comet, 1888, I.---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten},
No.\ 2877.
\item[]
Report on the Total Solar Eclipse of January~1, 1889.---In \textit{Lick
Observatory Report}, p.~74.
\end{list}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Writings of A.~O. Leuschner.}}

\compactlisttwo
\item[]
Bahn des Cometen Barnard (Marz 31) aus Beobachtungen mit eintaegigen
Zwischenzeiten nach v.\ Oppolzer's Methode.---\textit{Astro\-nom\-ische
Nachrichten}, No.\ 2907.
\item[]
Reports on the Total Eclipse of January~1, 1889---In the \textit{Lick Observatory
Report}, p.~81.
\item[]
Orbit of Comet Barnard (1889, June~23).---\textit{Astronomische Nachrichten},
No.\ 2909; \textit{Astronomical Journal}, vol.~9, p.~40; \textit{Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific}, No.~3.
\end{list}
\clearpage
%-----File: 043.png-----

\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, held
July~27, 1889, at the Lick Observatory.}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, held July~27, 1889}

\begin{small}
A quorum was present.

The Committee on the Diploma was authorized to expend not to exceed \$50.

It was \textit{Resolved}, That the \textsc{Publications of the Astronomical Society
of the Pacific} be regularly sent to the following Observatories, etc., and that
the Secretaries of the Society be instructed to notify them of this resolution, and to
request that they exchange their publications with our own; and that the list of
these Corresponding Societies and Observatories be printed in the \textsc{Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific}:

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad List of Corresponding Observatories, Academies of Science, etc.}
\compactlist
\item[]  Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York.
\item[]  Detroit Observatory, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Berlin, Germany.
\item[]  University Observatory, Bonn, Germany.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Brussels, Belgium.
\item[]  University Observatory, Cambridge, England.
\item[]  Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Capetown, Africa.
\item[]  University Observatory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
\item[]  University Observatory, Dorpat, Russia.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England.
\item[]  Ducal Observatory, Karlsrühe, Germany.
\item[]  University Observatory, Kasan, Russia.
\item[]  University Observatory, Koenigsberg, Prussia.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Kopenhagen, Denmark.
\item[]  University Observatory, Leiden, Holland.
\item[]  University Observatory, Leipzig, Germany.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Milan, Italy.
\item[]  Observatory, Melbourne, Australia.
\item[]  University Observatory, Moscow, Russia.
\item[]  Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, California.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Munich, Germany.
\item[]  Carleton College Observatory, Northfield, Minnesota.
\item[]  Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, England.
\item[]  Savilian Observatory, Oxford, England.
\item[]  National Observatory, Paris, France.
\item[]  Astrophysikalishes Institut, Potsdam, Germany.
\item[]  Imperial Observatory, Pulkowa, Russia.
\item[]  Observatory of the Roman College, Rome, Italy.
\item[]  University Observatory, Stockholm, Sweden.
\item[]  University Observatory, Strassburg, Germany.
\item[]  McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia, Virginia.
\item[]  Naval Observatory, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item[]  Imperial Observatory, Vienna, Austro-Hungary.
\item[]  Royal Astronomical Society, London, England.
\item[]  Liverpool Astronomical Society, Liverpool, England.
\item[]  Astronomical Society of France, Paris, France.
\item[]  Astronomical Society, Chicago, Illinois.
\item[]  Astronomical Society of Germany, Leipzig, Germany.
\item[]  Gesellschaft Urania, Berlin, Germany.
\item[]  National Academy of Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item[]  Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item[]  California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California.
\item[]  Bureau des Longitudes, Paris, France.
\item[]  The Nautical Almanac, London, England.
\item[]  The American Ephemeris, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item[]  Berliner Jahrbuch, Berlin, Germany.
\item[]  Library of the Mechanics Institute, San Francisco, California.
\item[]  Library of Congress, Washington, District of Columbia.
\item[]  Mercantile Library, San Francisco, California.
%-----File: 044.png-----
\item[]  Library of the University of California, Berkeley, California.
\item[]  Chabot Observatory, Oakland, California.
\item[]  Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Scotland.
\item[]  University Observatory, Cambridge, England.
\item[]  Observatory, Nice, France.
\item[]  Observatory, Marseilles, France.
\item[]  Observatory, Bordeaux, France.
\item[]  Observatory, Lyons, France.
\item[]  Observatory, Toulouse, France.
\item[]  Observatory, Kiel, Germany.
\item[]  Observatory, Gotha, Germany.
\item[]  Observatory, Hamburg, Germany.
\item[]  Observatory of Geneva, Switzerland.
\item[]  Observatory of Zurich, Switzerland.
\item[]  Observatory of Berne, Switzerland.
\item[]  Observatory of Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
\item[]  Observatory of Madrid, Spain.
\item[]  Observatory of Lisbon, Portugal.
\item[]  Observatory of Naples, Italy.
\item[]  Observatory of Palermo, Italy.
\item[]  Observatory of Upsala, Sweden.
\item[]  Observatory of Lund, Sweden.
\item[]  Observatory of Christiania, Sweden.
\item[]  Observatory of Helsingfors, Russia.
\item[]  Observatory of Tacubaya, Mexico.
\item[]  Observatory of Cordoba, Argentine Republic.
\item[]  Observatory of Rio Janeiro, Brazil.
\item[]  Observatory of Santiago, Chile.
\item[]  Observatory of Madras, India.
\item[]  Observatory of Sydney, New South Wales.
\item[]  Observatory of Amherst College, Massachusetts.
\item[]  Observatory of Clinton, New York.
\item[]  Observatory of Georgetown, District of Columbia.
\item[]  Observatory of Glasgow, Missouri.
\item[]  Observatory of Hanover, New Hampshire.
\item[]  Washburn Observatory, Madison, Wisconsin.
\item[]  Winchester Observatory, New Haven, Connecticut.
\item[]  Halstead Observatory, Princeton, New Jersey.
\item[]  La Plata Observatory, La Plata, Argentine Republic.
\item[]  Williams College Observatory, Williamstown, Massachusetts.
\item[]  University Observatory, Tokio, Japan.
\end{list}

\bigskip

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Action regarding the Comet Medal}

{\stretchyspace Mr.\ \textsc{Holden} presented to the Board of Directors a communication from
Hon.\ \textsc{Joseph A. Donohoe}, of Menlo Park, relating to the establishment of a
comet medal, and it was

\textit{Resolved}, That the Board of Directors recommends to the Society the acceptance
of Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe's} generous gift.

}\textit{Resolved}, That on the acceptance of the gift by the Society, Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe's}
name be placed on the roll of Life-Members; that the \textit{Donohoe Fund for the
maintenance of the Comet Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific} be
placed under the immediate charge of the Finance Committee; and that the
Committee on the Comet Medal shall, until the next annual meeting, or until
their successors are appointed, be composed as follows:

The Director of the Lick Observatory, \textit{ex officio}, and of Messrs.\ \textsc{Schaeberle}
and \textsc{Burckhalter} on the part of the Society.
\smallskip

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Amendment to Article VII of the By-Laws}
It was \textit{Resolved}, That Article VII of the By-Laws of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific be amended so as to read as follows:

\nbsubsubsectionheading{``\textsc{Article VII.}}

``Candidates for membership may be proposed at any meeting of the Society
and may be elected at the same meeting by unanimous consent of those present.
In case of dissent of any one member, candidates so proposed shall be voted for
at the next succeeding meeting. The vote shall be by ballot, and a majority of
the members present shall be required for an election.''
\smallskip
%-----File: 045.png-----

{\stretchyspace
This was adopted by the consenting votes of nine members of the Board of
Directors, namely: Messrs.\ \textsc{Alvord}, \textsc{Burckhalter}, \textsc{Gibbs}, \textsc{Grant}, \textsc{Holden},
\textsc{Lowden}, \textsc{Molera}, \textsc{Pierson}, \textsc{Schaeberle}, and therefore takes the place of
Article VII in the By-Laws as printed in Publications No.~1.

}The printing of Publications No.~3 and the preparation of photo-lithographic
plates to illustrate it and Publications No.~4, was ordered.

The life-members whose names are marked with a star (*) in the list of members
given in full in the minutes of the meeting of the Society July~27, were duly
elected by the Board of Directors. Adjourned.

\end{small}
\bigskip
\ThoughtBreakLong
\bigskip

\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Minutes of the Meeting of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, held July~27, 1889, at the Lick Observatory}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the Meeting of the Society, July~27, 1889}

\nbsubsubsectionheading
{\footnotesize \textsc{[Prepared by the Secretaries for Publication.]}}

\begin{small}
The minutes of the meeting of May~25, 1889, were read and approved.

Sixty-five persons were elected to membership under the provisions of the
newly adopted Article VII of the By-Laws. For the convenience of the Society
a full list of its present members is given below. This list includes the members
elected at the present meeting. All are active members, except those whose
names are marked with a star (*), to signify that they have been elected to life-membership.

\medskip

\nbsubsectionheading{LIST OF MEMBERS, JULY 27, 1889.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad List of Members}

\begin{longtable}{@{}p{0.37\linewidth}@{} p{0.63\linewidth}@{}}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{\tiny NAME.} & {\qquad\qquad\qquad \tiny ADDRESS.}\\
T.~P. \textsc{Andrews},\dotfill & 529 Commercial Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Henry B. Alvord},*\dotfill & San Jose, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Wm.\ Alvord},*\dotfill & Bank of California, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Mrs.\ \textsc{Wm.\ Alvord},*\dotfill & Palace Hotel, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Director \textsc{Angel Anguiano},\dotfill & National Observatory, Tacubaya, Mexico.\\
Dr.\ \textsc{Wm.\ Boericke},\dotfill & 834 Sutter Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
S.~W. \textsc{Burnham},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
E.~E. \textsc{Barnard},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
\textsc{Chas.\ Burckhalter},\dotfill & Chabot Observatory, Oakland, Cal.\\
E.~M. \textsc{Bixley},\dotfill & 317 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{John C. Bullock},\dotfill & 1626 Twelfth Street, Oakland, Cal.\\
D.~P. \textsc{Belknap},\dotfill & 604 Merchant Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{John H. Boalt},\dotfill & 332 Haight Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
H.~F. \textsc{Compton},\dotfill & 966 Chester Street, Oakland, Cal.\\
Col.\ C.~F. \textsc{Crocker},\dotfill & 4th \& Townsend Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J.~C. \textsc{Cebrian},\dotfill & Pine \& Octavia Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J. \textsc{Costa},\dotfill & 406 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
E. \textsc{Bentley Church},\dotfill & 1036 Valencia Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Chas.\ S. Cushing},\dotfill & 1669 Thirteenth Street, Oakland, Cal.\\
Dr.\ J. \textsc{Callandreau},\dotfill & 1307 Stockton Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
C.~H. \textsc{Clement},\dotfill & Livermore, Cal.\\
Dr.\ W.~A. \textsc{Dewey},\dotfill & 834 Sutter Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
L.~L. \textsc{Dunbar, D.~D.~S.},\dotfill & 500 Sutter Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Joseph A. Donohoe},*\dotfill & Menlo Park, Cal.\\
\textsc{Eugene Frost},\dotfill & Alameda, Cal.\\
\textsc{Arthur W. Foster},*\dotfill & 322 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{James G. Fair},*\dotfill & 230 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
T.~W. \textsc{Fenn},\dotfill & 319 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Andrew B. Forbes},*\dotfill & 401 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Robert D. Fry},*\dotfill & 1812 Jackson Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Chas.\ W. Friend},\dotfill & Carson City, Nevada.\\
\textsc{Edmund Gray},\dotfill & 2925 Jackson Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Dr.\ C.~L. \textsc{Goddard},\dotfill & 131 Post Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Chase Gitchell},\dotfill & 609 Sacramento Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
C.~P. \textsc{Grimwood},\dotfill & Fruitvale, Cal.\\
%-----File: 046.png-----
W.~C. \textsc{Gibbs},\dotfill & 303 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
C. \textsc{Mitchell Grant},\dotfill & 331 Kearny Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Adam Grant},*\dotfill & Bush \& Sansome Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Joseph D. Grant},*\dotfill & Bush \& Sansome Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Capt.\ \textsc{Charles Goodall},*\dotfill & McAllister \& Pierce Sts., San Francisco, Cal.\label{cor1}\\ % corrected per corrigenda
\textsc{Camilo Gonzalez},\dotfill & National Observatory, Tacubaya, Mexico.\\
Hon.\ J.~M. \textsc{Gitchell},\dotfill & 609 Sacramento Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
C. \textsc{Webb Howard},*\dotfill & Pacific Union Club, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Prof.\ E.~S. \textsc{Holden},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
C.~B. \textsc{Hill},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
\textsc{Wm.\ F. Herrick},\dotfill & 439 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Dr.\ H.~W. \textsc{Harkness},\dotfill & California Academy of Sciences, \\
 & cor.\ California \& Dupont Sts., San Francisco, Cal.\\
F.~H. \textsc{Hausman},\dotfill & 328 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Judge S.~G. \textsc{Hillborn},\dotfill & 401 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Horace L. Hill},*\dotfill & 314 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\ % corrected per corrigenda
\textsc{Wm.\ Ireland},\dotfill & 301 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J.~R. \textsc{Jarboe},\dotfill & 917 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
P.~R. \textsc{Jarboe},\dotfill & 917 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
E.~B. \textsc{Jordan},\dotfill & 581 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J.~H. \textsc{Johnson},\dotfill & 414 Buchanan Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{James G. Jones},*\dotfill & Room 61, Flood Building, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{John P. Jones},*\dotfill & Gold Hill, Nevada.\\
Miss \textsc{Fidelia Jewett},\dotfill & San Francisco High School, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J.~E. \textsc{Keeler},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
\textsc{Henry Kahn},\dotfill & 212 Kearny Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
O.~V. \textsc{Lange},\dotfill & 1025 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
W.~H. \textsc{Lowden},\dotfill & 213 Sansome Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Prof.\ \textsc{John Le Conte},\dotfill & Berkeley, Cal.\\
A.~O. \textsc{Leuschner},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
W.~B. \textsc{Lewitt, M. D.},\dotfill & Cor.\ Hayes \& Laguna Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Joseph G. Lavery},\dotfill & 410 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Miss L.~J. \textsc{Martin},\dotfill & San Francisco High School, San Francisco, Cal.\\
F.~H. \textsc{McConnell},\dotfill & 618 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
E.~J. \textsc{Molera},\dotfill & 850 Van Ness Avenue, San Francisco, Cal.\\
C.~F. \textsc{Montealegre},\dotfill & 230 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Alexander Montgomery},*\dotfill & N. W. cor.\ Leavenworth \& Vallejo Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Mrs.\ \textsc{Alexander Montgomery},*\dotfill & N. W. cor.\ Leavenworth \& Vallejo Streets, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ J.~W. \textsc{McClymonds},\dotfill & City Hall, Oakland, Cal.\\
Hon.\ D.~O. \textsc{Mills},*\dotfill & 224 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\ % corrected per corrigenda
Rev.\ \textsc{Robert Mackenzie},\dotfill & First Presbyterian Church, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Wm.\ Norris},\dotfill & 927 Bush Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Miss \textsc{Rosa O'Halloran},\dotfill & 1511 Clay Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
W. \textsc{Letts Oliver},\dotfill & 1110 Twelfth Street, Oakland, Cal.\\
\textsc{Sam.\ C. Partridge},\dotfill & 529 Commercial Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Wm.\ M. Pierson},\dotfill & 76 Nevada Block, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ T. \textsc{Guy Phelps},\dotfill & Belmont, Cal.\\
Dr.\ S.~C. \textsc{Passavant},\dotfill & 306 Guerrero Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Geo.\ C. Perkins},*\dotfill & Oakland, Cal.\\
\textsc{John Perry, Jr.}\dotfill & Occidental Hotel, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{John Partridge},\dotfill & 214 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Dr.\ \textsc{Geo.\ C. Pardee},\dotfill & 526 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Seńor \textsc{Manuel G. Prieto},\dotfill & Tacubaya, Mexico.\\
\textsc{Lawrence H. Pierson},\dotfill & Pacific Pine Lumber Co., San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Feodoro Quintano},\dotfill & National Observatory, Tacubaya, Mexico.\\
\textsc{Alfred P. Redington},\dotfill & 53 Stevenson Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
%-----File: 047.png-----
\textsc{Geo.\ W. Reed},\dotfill & 506 Battery Street, care W.~B. Tyler, San Francisco, Cal.\\
E.~W. \textsc{Runyon},\dotfill & 53 Stevenson Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
V.~J.~A. \textsc{Rey},\dotfill & 829 Union Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
A.~W. \textsc{Ross, Jr.},\dotfill & 224 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Arthur Rodgers},\dotfill & Nevada Block, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Rev.\ J.~L. \textsc{Ricard},\dotfill & Santa Clara, Cal.\\
\textsc{Lester L. Robinson},*\dotfill & 320 Sansome Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Francisco Rodriguez Rey},\dotfill & National Observatory, Tacubaya, Mexico.\\
\textsc{Albert Raymond},\dotfill & 76 Nevada Block, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J.~M. \textsc{Schaeberle},\dotfill & Lick Observatory, Mt.\ Hamilton, Cal.\\
Prof.\ I. \textsc{Stringham},\dotfill & Berkeley, Cal.\\
Prof.\ F. \textsc{Soulé},\dotfill & Berkeley, Cal.\\
J.~M. \textsc{Selfridge},\dotfill & Oakland (Box 37), Cal.\\
\textsc{John R. Spring},*\dotfill & 328 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{George H. Strong},\dotfill & 220 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
M.~J. \textsc{Sullivan, D.~D.~S.},\dotfill & 30 Post Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
A.~J. \textsc{Treat},\dotfill & 224 McAllister Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
W.~B. \textsc{Tyler},\dotfill & 506 Battery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Edward G. Thomas},\dotfill & 234 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
C.~W. \textsc{Tiedeman},\dotfill & 312 Sixth Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon.\ \textsc{Alfred L. Tubbs},*\dotfill & 611 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Charles R. Tisdale},\dotfill & Alameda, Cal.\\
\textsc{Jacob Voorsanger},\dotfill & 2316 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Rudolph E. Voight},\dotfill & 207 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Seńor \textsc{Felipe Valle},\dotfill & National Observatory, Tacubaya, Mexico.\\
Prof.\ J.~T. \textsc{Wallace},\dotfill & Highland Park, Oakland, Cal.\\
R.~H. \textsc{White},\dotfill & 1216 Haight Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
J.~C.~L. \textsc{Wadsworth},\dotfill & Pacific-Union Club, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Charles G. Yale},\dotfill & 220 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
F.~R. \textsc{Ziel},\dotfill & 410 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\end{longtable}

The list of presents received was read by the Secretary, and the thanks of
the Society were voted to the donors. It was reported from the Committee on
the Diploma that a design was now preparing and would soon be ready for
examination. Also that designs for the comet medal had been sought for.

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Note regarding Professor \textsc{Tacchini's} Work on the Solar Eclipses of 1870, 1882, 1883, 1886 and 1887}
The attention of the members of the Society was called to the volume
recently published by Professor \textsc{Tacchini}, in which he gives an account of his
expeditions to observe the total solar eclipses of 1870, 1882, 1883, 1886 and 1887,
together with many plates and illustrations. This volume has been prepared by
Professor \textsc{Tacchini}, in order that the proceeds of its sale might be devoted to
the erection of a suitable monument to the noted Italian astronomer, Padre
\textsc{Secchi}. The work can be had through B.~\textsc{Westermann} \& Co. (Box 2306,
New York City), at a cost of about \$2.

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Telegram of Congratulation to Director \textsc{Otto v. Struve}}
It was also \textit{Resolved}, That the Astronomical Society of the Pacific will join
with the Astronomers of the Lick Observatory in sending a telegram of greeting
and congratulation to Director \textsc{Otto v.\ Struve}, on August~19, 1889, the fiftieth
anniversary of the founding of the Pulkowa Observatory and of Director
\textsc{Struve's} official connection with it.

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad The Comet Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific founded by Hon.\  \textsc{Joseph A. Donohoe}}
A communication from the Hon.\ \textsc{Joseph A. Donohoe}, of Menlo Park, was
presented to the Society by Mr.\ \textsc{Holden}. In this communication Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe}
offers to establish a perpetual fund to provide for the bestowal of a medal of
bronze upon the actual discoverer of each new comet according to the provisions
hereafter given.

Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe} will provide the necessary dies for the medal, and will present
to the Society ten finished medals, and also an invested fund of \$500 to be known
as the \textit{Donohoe Fund for the Maintenance of the Comet Medal of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific}. The conditions of the gift follow:

\end{small}
%-----File: 048.png-----

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{\qquad \qquad Rules governing its bestowal}
\begin{center}
\textsc{Comet Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.}
\end{center}

I\@. A medal of bronze is established as a perpetual foundation to
be given for the discovery of comets as follows:

The medal is to bear on the obverse the effigy of a bright comet
among stars, with the legend ``\textit{Astronomical Society of the Pacific}''
around the border; and on the reverse the inscription ``\textit{This medal,
founded in 1890 by Joseph A. Donohoe, is presented to} \rule[0.5ex]{1cm}{0.5pt} [the
name of the discoverer] \textit{to commemorate the discovery of a comet}
\rule[0.5ex]{1cm}{0.5pt} [the date].''

It is to be understood that this medal is intended solely as a
recognition of merit, and not as a reward.

II\@. The medal will be given to the actual discoverer of any unexpected
comet, when the discovery is made in the course of regular
astronomical occupations; and to that observer of any telescopic
periodic comet who obtains and promptly publishes the first precise
determination of its position at any one of its expected returns.

III\@. The discoverer is to make his discovery known in the usual
way; and he must also address a letter, giving his first observation,
to the Director of the Lick Observatory, by the first mail after the
discovery. This letter must state the exact time of the discovery, the
position of the comet, the direction of its motion (when this can be
determined), and the physical appearance of the object.

If the observations of one night are not sufficient to settle all
these points, the discovery must nevertheless be communicated as
prescribed, and a second letter can be sent, giving the missing items
of information, when they are obtained. The expectation of obtaining
a second observation will never be received as a reason for
postponing the communication of the first one. No application for
the bestowal of the medal is required. The letters received from
discoverers of comets will be preserved in the records of the Lick
Observatory. Cable telegrams to the Lick Observatory are to be
addressed to ``Astronomer, San Francisco.''

IV\@. All such communications will be referred to a committee
consisting of the Director of the Lick Observatory, \textit{ex officio}, and of
two other persons, members of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, who are to be annually appointed by the Board of Directors.
The decisions of this committee are to be final upon all points
relating to the award of the medal. The committee will print an
annual statement of its operations in the Publications of the Society.

Under ordinary circumstances the medal for the discovery of a
%-----File: 049.png-----
comet will be awarded within two months after the receipt of the
letter of the discoverer which contains the record of his first observation.
In cases of doubt a longer period may elapse. The medal
will not be awarded (unless under the most exceptional circumstances)
for the discovery of a comet until enough observations are
secured (by the discoverer or by others) to permit the calculation
and the verification of its orbit.

V\@. This medal is to be a perpetual foundation from and after
January~1, 1890.

\medskip

\begin{small}
It was, on the recommendation of Board of Directors,

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{\qquad \qquad Formal Acceptance of the gift of Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe}}
\textit{Resolved}, That the Astronomical Society of the Pacific accepts the generous
gift of Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe} under the conditions named by him, and

\textit{Resolved}, That the Secretaries of the Society be instructed to notify Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe}
of the acceptance of the Society, and to assure him that his gift is certain
to promote and encourage the discovery and observation of comets, not only
now, but always.

By a vote of the Directors Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe's} name has been placed on the roll
of life-members.

\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad The Lick Observatory Eclipse Expedition (December~21, 1889), sent at the cost of Hon. C.~F. \textsc{Crocker}}
It was also announced to the Society that Hon.\ C.~F. \textsc{Crocker}, a member
of the Society, had generously offered to bear the expense of sending an expedition
from the Lick Observatory to Cayenne, South America, to observe the total
solar eclipse of December~21, 1889. The Regents of the University have authorized
Messrs.\ \textsc{Burnham} and \textsc{Schaeberle} to take part in this work, and to use
such instruments of the Lick Observatory as may be useful. Mr.\ F.~G. \textsc{Blinn},
of Oakland, and Captain R.~L. \textsc{Phythian}, U.~S. Navy, Superintendent of the
U.~S. Naval Observatory at Washington, have also materially aided the expedition
by the loan of instruments and apparatus. Messrs.\ \textsc{Burnham} and
\textsc{Schaeberle} will probably leave California about November 1st, and arrive
at Cayenne about December~1st, 1889. The eclipse will be observed at Cayenne
by an English party under Rev.\ S.~J. \textsc{Perry}, F.~R.~S., Director of the Stonyhurst
College Observatory, and in Africa by two parties, one under Professor
D.~P. \textsc{Todd}, of Amherst College, the other under Mr.\ \textsc{Taylor}, F.~R.~A.~S.,
Assistant in the Private Observatory of Mr.\ A.~A. \textsc{Common}, F.~R.~S., of London.

Papers were then read to the Society by Mr.\ \textsc{Keeler}, on the photography
of the Corona in full sunshine, etc.; by Mr.\ \textsc{Leuschner}, on the orbit of comet
Barnard (June~23); by Mr.\ \textsc{Hill}, on occultations of \textit{Jupiter} during 1889; by Mr.\ \textsc{Holden},
on the Helical Nebulć. These papers are printed in full or in abstract
in the preceding pages.

Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard} exhibited a beautiful negative of a portion of the Milky Way
(R.~A. 18h.\ 11m., Dec., 20° S.) near \textit{Jupiter}, which he took on July~24, with
the Willard photographic lens of the Lick Observatory,\footnote{Bought by Hon.\ C.~F. \textsc{Crocker} for the expedition to observe the eclipse of December
21, 1889.}
giving an exposure
of 1h.\ 48m.

The Society then adjourned to meet at the Lick Observatory September~28, 1889.
%-----File: 050.png-----

\nbsectionheading{OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{List of Officers, etc.}
\noindent
\begin{tabular*}{\textwidth}{@{\extracolsep{\fill}}lcr}
\textsc{Edward S. Holden} (Lick Observatory),
&& \textit{President}\\
\textsc{Wm.~M. Pierson} (76 Nevada Block, S.~F.),
&\multirow{3}{1em}{\Bigg\}}&\\
\textsc{W.~H. Lowden} (213 Sansome Street, S.~F.)
&& \textit{Vice-Presidents}\\
\textsc{Frank Soulé} (Students' Observatory, Berkeley),&&\\
\textsc{Chas. Burckhalter} (Chabot Observatory, Oakland),
&\multirow{2}{1em}{\Big\}}
&\multirow{2}{5em}{\textit{Secretaries}}\\
\textsc{J.~M. Schaeberle} (Lick Observatory),&&\\
\textsc{E.~J. Molera} (850 Van Ness Avenue, S.~F.),
&& \textit{Treasurer}
\end{tabular*}

\compactlisttwo\stretchyspace
\item[] \textit{Board of Directors}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Alvord}, \textsc{Boericke}, \textsc{Burckhalter}, \textsc{Gibbs},
\textsc{Grant}, \textsc{Holden}, \textsc{Lowden}, \textsc{Molera}, \textsc{Pierson}, \textsc{Schaeberle}, \textsc{Soulé}.
\item[] \textit{Finance Committee}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Gibbs}, \textsc{Pierson}, \textsc{Molera}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on Publication}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Dewey}, \textsc{Treat}, \textsc{Ziel}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on the Comet Medal}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Holden} (\textit{ex officio}), \textsc{Schaeberle},
\textsc{Burckhalter}.
\end{list}

\ThoughtBreak

\nbsectionheading{NOTICE.}

Members are requested to preserve the copies of the Publications of the
Society as sent to them. At certain intervals a title page and index of the preceding
numbers will also be sent to the members, who can then bind the numbers
together into a volume.

The titles of papers for reading should be communicated to either of the
Secretaries as early as possible.

Those members who propose to attend any or all of the meetings at Mount
Hamilton during the summer should communicate with Mr.\ \textsc{Burckhalter}, at
the rooms of the Society, 408 California Street, San Francisco, in order that
arrangements may be made for transportation, lodging, etc.
\vfil
\[
  \includegraphics{images/fig4.jpg}
\]

\end{small}

%-----File: 051.png-----

\nbchapterheading
\nbchapterbanner{No.\ 4.}{San Francisco, California, September~28, 1889.}
\nbchaptertoc{No.\ 4. (September~28, 1889).}

\nbsectionheading{ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC BRIGHTNESS OF THE FIXED STARS.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{On the Photographic Brightness of the Fixed Stars. By \textsc{J.~M. Schaeberle}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By J.~M. Schaeberle, Astronomer of the Lick Observatory.}\\*
\shortrule}

The investigations relating to the photographic brightness of the
fixed stars contained in this paper were made with the aid of an
equatorially mounted \textsc{Dallmeyer} portrait-lens of 6\textsuperscript{in}.05 aperture,
loaned to this Observatory by the U.~S.~N. Observatory for the purpose
of photographing the next total solar eclipse at Cayenne, South
America.

Professor \textsc{Holden} placed this instrument in my charge, and
requested me to make a series of experiments on atmospheric absorption
of the light, and on the photographic brightness, of the fixed
stars, so that the extended work of the same character which it is
intended to execute in South America could be more intelligently
and profitably performed.

The photographic focus was carefully determined by making
several series of short exposures, and trails, of bright stars both inside
and outside of the adopted position of the plate. The position of
the plate for each setting was read off on a scale which I cut on the
tube. All the exposures were made on $4×5$ Seed~26 plates.\label{cor2} % corrected per corrigenda

Leaving the work relating to atmospheric absorption to a future
paper, let us consider the subject of the photographic brightness of
stars as determined by the dimensions of their circular images on the
sensitive plate. (As the dimensions---widths---of the trails could only
be accurately determined for the brighter stars, I finally avoided
examining trails for this special investigation.)

As the whole subject was comparatively new to me, several weeks
were spent in work of an experimental character. A careful study
of the data given on the exposed plate was made with the aid of our
excellent measuring engine. I finally came to the conclusion that
the diameter of the image of an ``over-exposed'' star could be used
%-----File: 052.png-----
to determine the star's brightness with accuracy. To find the law
of variation of the diameter of the photographic image for a variation
of both the aperture of the objective and the time of exposure, seven
different stops, varying in diameter from 5.41 inches to 1.91 inches,
were used, and exposures of 1\textsuperscript{s}, 2\textsuperscript{s},
 4\textsuperscript{s}, 8\textsuperscript{s}, 16\textsuperscript{s},
 32\textsuperscript{s}, 64\textsuperscript{s}, and 128\textsuperscript{s} duration
made for each stop. In order to be sure of the effective
aperture of the stops, they were placed centrally in front of the
objective, and not in the usual place between the lenses. The
diameters of these stops, which we will number 1, 2, 3, etc., are as
follows:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c | c | c | c | c | c | c | c}
\hline \hline
  No. &\footnotesize 1 &\footnotesize 2 &\footnotesize 3 &\footnotesize 4
      &\footnotesize 5 &\footnotesize 6 &\footnotesize 7 \\
  \hline
  &\footnotesize in. &\footnotesize in. &\footnotesize in. &\footnotesize in.
  &\footnotesize in. &\footnotesize in. &\footnotesize in. \\
Diameter \ldots & 5.41 & 4.59 & 3.81 & 3.31 & 2.72 & 2.31 & 1.91 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

The figures in the following table give the diameters of the
images of \textit{Polaris}, in inches, as measured on one of the plates:

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{cr@{}l | r | r | r | r | r | r | r}
\multicolumn{10}{c}{\textit{\textsc{Polaris}}}
\\ \hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize \textsc{Exposure}}
& \multicolumn{7}{c}{\footnotesize \textsc{Diameters of Image for different Stops and Times.}}
\\ \cline{4-10}
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize \textsc{Times.} }
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 1}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 2}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 3}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 4}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 5}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 6}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c }{\footnotesize 7}
\\ \hline
&&& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
  & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize in.}
\\
&   1&\textsuperscript{s}
  & 0.0048 & 0.0049 & 0.0049 & 0.0048 & 0.0045 & 0.0041 & 0.0036\\
&   2&
  &  58 &  57 &  59 &  52 &  47 &  45 & 37 \\
&   4&
  &  68 &  66 &  58 &  59 &  57 &  55 & 40 \\
&   8&
  &  78 &  74 &  70 &  72 &  40 & --- & 48 \\
&  16&
  &  81 & --- &  72 &  64 &  56 &  52 & 50 \\
&  32&
  &  92 &  72 &  74 &  76 &  65 &  61 & 53 \\
&  64&
  & 116 &  90 &  91 &  86 &  78 &  68 & 59 \\
& 128&
  & 139 & 117 & 102 &  96 &  84 &  78 & 67 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

I tried to represent these numbers by various equations of the
second and third degrees as functions of the aperture and time, but
finally concluded that they could only be represented by an equation
of the $n^\text{th}$ degree, or, in other words, that the logarithms of the variables
enter into the equation. I then made a similar set of exposures,
using $\alpha$~\textit{Lyrć} (discussed further on), and found that the function
which represented the diameters was of precisely the same form. I
%-----File: 053.png-----
have deduced the following general expression for the diameter of
the photographic image of a star:
\[
d = \alpha + \beta\centerdot\log{D} + \gamma\centerdot D\centerdot\log{t}     \tag{1}
\]
In which, for a given star,
\medskip

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{ r@{\ } *{10}{c@{\ }} }
$d =$ &\multicolumn{10}{l}{\hspace{-5pt}\footnotesize
the measured diameter of the photographic image;}
\\
$\alpha =$ &\footnotesize  a &\footnotesize  constant
&\footnotesize  depending &\footnotesize  only on
&\footnotesize  the &\footnotesize  sensitive
&\footnotesize  plate &\footnotesize  and the
&\footnotesize  atmospheric &\footnotesize  state;
\\
$\beta = $ && `` & `` & `` && `` & `` & `` & `` & ``  \\
$\gamma =$ && `` & `` & `` && `` & `` & `` & `` & ``
\\
$D =$ &\multicolumn{10}{l}{\hspace{-5pt}\footnotesize
the effective diameter of the objective (stop);}
\\
$t =$ &\multicolumn{10}{l}{\hspace{-5pt}\footnotesize
the time of exposure expressed in seconds.}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
\medskip

\noindent In order to determine the most probable values of $\alpha$, $\beta$, and $\gamma$ for a
particular case it will be more convenient to place
\begin{align*}
\alpha + \beta\log{D} &= a   \tag{2}\\
\gamma D &= b    \tag{3}
\end{align*}
Equation (1) then becomes
\[
d = a + b\log{t}     \tag{4}
\]

In selecting the unit for $D$ it must be remembered that with a
small stop the images, for comparatively short exposures, are small
and faint. Greater accuracy may therefore be expected from large
apertures. I have accordingly chosen six inches (6\textsuperscript{in}) as the unit of
$D$. The diameters of the stops in terms of this unit are therefore
as given below:

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{l*{7}{|r@{.}l}}
\hline \hline
  \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{Stop.}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 2}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 3}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 4}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 5}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 6}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\footnotesize 7}
\\ \hline
Diameter \ldots & 0&902 & 0&765 & 0&635 & 0&552 & 0&453 & 0&385 & 0&318 \\ \hline
Log.\ of Diam. & -0&045 & -0&116 & -0&197 & -0&258 & -0&344 & -0&415 & -0&498 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

Equation (1) shows that when $t = 1^\text{s}$ and $D = 6^\text{in}$, we have
$d = \alpha$; in other words, $\alpha$ is the diameter of the photographic image
of the star for an aperture of six inches and an exposure time of one
second.

Taking \textit{Polaris} for the standard star, the above-measured diameters
give the following values for $a$ and $b$ as found by the method
of least squares; each equation of condition being of the form:
\[
d = a + b\log{t}
\]
%-----File: 054.png-----

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c | r | r}
\hline \hline
\footnotesize\textsc{Stop.} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{$a$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$b$} \\ \hline
 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize in.} \\
1 & 0.0051 & 0.0032 \\
2 & 53 & 22 \\
3 & 51 & 19 \\
4 & 46 & 22 \\
5 & 43 & 15 \\
6 & 43 & 13 \\
7 & 36 & 12 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

To find the value of $\alpha$ and $\beta$ we have the following equations of
condition
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{l@{ $-$ }r@{.}l@{ = }r@{.}l}
$\alpha$ & $0^\text{in}$&$045\, \beta$& $0^\text{in}$&0051\\
$\alpha$ & &$116\, \beta$& &0053\\
$\alpha$ & &$197\, \beta$& &0051\\
$\alpha$ & &$258\, \beta$& &0046\\
$\alpha$ & &$344\, \beta$& &0043\\
$\alpha$ & &$415\, \beta$& &0043\\
$\alpha$ & &$498\, \beta$& &0036
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
The solution of which by the method of least squares gives for
values of $\alpha$ and $\beta$
\[
\alpha = 0^\text{in}.0055 \qquad\qquad \beta = 0^\text{in}.0033
\]
The diameter of the photographic image of \textit{Polaris} for six inches
aperture and one second exposure is therefore, for this particular
case, $0^\text{in}.0055$.

The independent values of $\gamma$ given by the expression $\gamma = \dfrac{b}{D}$ are

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{r | r | r@{ }c@{ }l@{ }l}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{1}{c|}{$b$} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{$D$} & \multicolumn{4}{c}{$\gamma$} \\ \hline
\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize in.} & & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize in.} & & & \\
0.0032 & 0.902 & 0.0035 & from & 8 different exposures with Stop &1\\
22 & .765 & 0029 & `` & 7 ditto &2\\
19 & .635 & 0030 & `` & 8 ditto &3\\
22 & .552 & 0040 & `` & 8 ditto &4\\
15 & .453 & 0033 & `` & 8 ditto &5\\
13 & .385 & 0034 & `` & 7 ditto &6\\
12 & .318 & 0038 & `` & 8 ditto &7\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
%-----File: 055.png-----
Taking the mean of the values of $\gamma$, we have for the images of \textit{Polaris}
the equation
\[
d = 0^\text{in}.0055 + 0.0033\log{D} + 0.0034 D \log{t}    \tag{5}
\]
The residuals obtained by subtracting the diameters computed by
the above formula from the measured diameters are as follows:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{cr@{}l *{7}{|c@{\,}r@{.}l}}
\multicolumn{24}{c}{\large\textit{\textsc{Polaris.}}} \\ \hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{Exposure}} & \multicolumn{21}{c}{\footnotesize\textsc{Observation---Computation.}} \\ \cline{4-24}
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{Time.}}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize 1}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize 2}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize 3}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize 4}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize 5}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize 6}
& \multicolumn{3}{c}{\footnotesize 7}
\\ \hline
&& & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{3}{c}{\footnotesize in.}
\\
& $1$&\textsuperscript{s} &$-$&0&0005 &$-$&0&0002 & &0&0000 &+&0&0001 &+&0&0001 & &0&0000 &$-$&0&0003 \\
&   2& &$-$& &0005 &$-$& &0002 &+& &0004 & & &0000 &$-$& &0001 & & &0000 &$-$& &0004 \\
&   4& &$-$& &0004 &$-$& &0001 &$-$& &0004 &$+$& &0001 &$+$& &0004 &$+$& &0006 &$-$& &0005 \\
&   8& &$-$& &0003 &$-$& &0001 &$+$& &0002 &$+$& &0008 & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} & & &0000 \\
&  16& &$-$& &0009 & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0003 &$-$& &0005 &$-$& &0004 &$-$& &0005 &$-$& &0002 \\
&  32& &$-$& &0008 & \multicolumn{3}{r|}{(0018)} &$-$& &0007 &$+$& &0001 & & &0000 & & &0000 &$-$& &0001 \\
&  64&  &$-$& &0007 &$-$& &0008 &$+$& &0003 &$+$& &0006 &$+$& &0008 &$+$& &0003 &$+$& &0001 \\
& 128&  &$-$& &0020 &$-$& &0011 &$+$& &0008 &$+$& &0010 &$+$& &0010 &$+$& &0009 &$+$& &0006 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
\medskip
The diameters of the images of $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć} on a plate exposed Sept.\ 2,
are as follows:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{cr@{}l *{7}{|r}}
\multicolumn{10}{c}{\large$\alpha$ \textit{\textsc{Lyrć.}}} \\ \hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{Exposure}}
& \multicolumn{7}{c}{\footnotesize \textsc{Diameters of Images for different Stops and Times.}}
\\ \cline{4-10}
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{\footnotesize Time.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 1}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 2}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 3}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 4}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 5}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize 6}
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize 7}
\\ \hline
& $1$&\textsuperscript{s} &0.0093 &0.0088 &0.0073 &0.0061 &0.0055 &0.0046 &0.0045 \\
&  2 & &114 &91 &--- &70 &63 &55 &48 \\
&  4 & &123 &96 &--- &80 &70 &--- &57 \\
&  8 & &148 &107 &102 &109 &80 &71 &66 \\
& 16 & &\tablenoteasterisk \quad --- &125 &114 &114 &88 &--- &72 \\
& 32 & &\tablenoteasterisk \quad --- &146 &133 &122 &104 &--- &83 \\
& 64 & &\tablenoteasterisk \quad --- &169 &151 &145 &119 &--- &--- \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

\begin{footnotesize}* In this table, as in the one for \textit{Polaris}, the missing figures belong to cases in which the
images, on account of imperfect pointing, are not circular but elongated; while for stop 1 the
images are so close together that the larger ones overlap, and, consequently, were not used.

\end{footnotesize}

\medskip
%-----File: 056.png-----

The equation which fairly represents these diameters is:
\[
d = 0^\text{in}.0070 + 0^\text{in}.0050\log D + 0.0074 D\log{t}   \tag{6}
\]
the individual values of $\gamma$, found by dividing each $b$ by
the corresponding $D$, are:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{r@{ }c@{ }l@{ }c@{ }r}
  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize $b$} & {\footnotesize $\div$}
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize $D$} & {\footnotesize $=$}
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize $\gamma$}\\
0.0067 & $\div$ & .902 & = & 0.0074 \\
46 & &.765 & &.0060 \\
42 & &.635 & &.0066 \\
46 & &.552 & &.0083 \\
34 & &.453 & &.0075 \\
30 & &.385 & &.0078 \\
27 & &.318 & &.0085
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
The observed values of $d$, minus the values computed by equation
(6), are as given below:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c r@{}l *{7}{|r@{\,}r@{.}l}}
\multicolumn{24}{c}{\large$\alpha$ \textit{\textsc{Lyrć .}}} \\
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{c|}{
  \multirow{2}{5em}[-1ex]{\centering\textsc{Exposure Time.}}}
& \multicolumn{21}{|c}{\textsc{\rule{0pt}{3ex} Observation---Computation.}}
\\[1ex]
\cline{4-24}
&&& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{1\rule{0pt}{3ex}}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{2} & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{3}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{4} & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{5}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{6} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{7}
\\[1ex] \hline
&  1&\textsuperscript{s} &$+$&0&0005
&\multicolumn{1}{@{}r@{}}{$(+$}&0&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{}|}{0024)}
&$+$&0&0013 &$+$&0&0004 &$+$&0&0002 &$-$&0&0002 & &0&0000
\\
&  2& &$+$& &0006 & & &0010 &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$+$& &0001 & & &0000 &$-$& &0001 &$-$& &0004 \\
&  4& &$-$& &0005 &$-$& &0002 &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0001 &$-$& &0003 &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0002 \\
&  8& &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0008 & & &0000 &$+$& &0015 &$-$& &0003 &$-$& &0002 & & &0000 \\
& 16& &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0007 &$-$& &0002 &$+$& &0008 &$-$& &0005 &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0001 \\
& 32& &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$-$& &0003 &$-$& &0001 &$-$& &0004 &$+$& &0001 &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$+$& &0003 \\
\mbox\quad
& 64& &\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &$+$& &0003 &$+$& &0006 &$-$& &0009
&$+$& &0006
&\multicolumn{3}{c|}{------} &\multicolumn{3}{c}{------} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

From equation (6) we infer that, for six inches aperture and one
second exposure time, the diameter of $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć's} image on this particular
plate is $0^\text{in}.0070$. Comparing equation (6) with equation (5)
we learn that the increase in the diameter of the image of $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć} on
this plate for any $t$ is 2.2 times as rapid as it is in the case of \textit{Polaris}
for the same $t$ on the plate first described; so that, if other things
were equal, the difference between the photographic energy of two
stars could be more accurately determined from comparatively long exposures than from short ones. (The \emph{rate} of increase, of course,
varies inversely as $t$.)

Now, let
\[
d = \alpha_0 + \beta_0\log{D} + \gamma_0 D\log{t} \tag{7}
\]
%-----File: 057.png-----
be the equation giving the diameters for a particular star taken as a
standard, and let
\[
d' = \alpha + \beta\log{D_0} + \gamma D_0 \log{t}   \tag{8}
\]
be the equation which gives the diameter of the image of \emph{any} star
for the \emph{constant aperture} $D_0$ (unity $= 6^\text{in}$); then if $Q$ represents the
particular aperture in equation~(7)
which, for the same value of $t$
makes $d = d'$, the reciprocal of this quantity, or \begin{large}$\frac{1}{Q}$\end{large}, substituted in
place of $D_0$ must, for all values of $t$, satisfy equation~(8)
for $d' = d$
if the assumed law\footnote{The law expressed in equations (1) and (7).}
is theoretically exact. $Q$, then, becomes a measure
of the square root of the relative brightness of the two stars, since,
if we assume that the amount of energy required to produce a given
impression on a given plate is always the same, whatever the unit of
energy (intensity) may be, the total amount of energy for the same
telescope can be considered as varying directly with the area of the
aperture, or with $D^2$. Hence, if $B_0$ and $B$ denote respectively the
brightness of the standard and comparison stars, we can at once
write:
\[
\left(\frac{Q}{D_0}\right)^2 = \frac{B}{B_0} \tag{10}
\]
$Q$ being that value of $D$ which when substituted in the equation for
the standard star (equation~7) will make $d = d'$. In other words,
\textit{$Q$ is the diameter of the aperture which the standard star would
require to produce, in the time $t$, an image having the same diameter
as that of any other star photographed with an aperture $D_0$} (= six
inches) \emph{in the same time $t$}. Equation~(7) can therefore be written:
\[
d' = \alpha_0 + \beta_0\log{Q} + \gamma_0 Q\log{t} \tag{11}
\]

Let us now take the equations deduced from the measured diameters
of the images of \textit{Polaris} and $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć}, and see to what degree
of accuracy the necessary theoretical relations between $Q$ and $D_0$ will
represent the observed data. For $d = d'$ we have the equation:
\[
0.0055 + 0.0033\log{Q} + 0.0034 Q \log{t} = 0.0070 + 0.0050\log{D_0} + 0.0074 D_0\log{t}
\]

After a few trials, for different values of $t$, we obtain the approximate
value $D_0 = 0.48$ when $Q = 1$, and, according to the above
considerations, we should also have $Q = 2.10$ when $D_0 = 1$. Both
of these conditions should be fulfilled for all values of $t$.

As the images of the two stars are on different plates I have not
thought it worth while to derive a more accurate relation between $Q$
and $D_0$ for this particular case.
%-----File: 058.png-----

The approximate relation will, however, serve to show the agreement
between our theory and the data derived from actual observations.

The accompanying table contains the computed values of $d$ and
$d'$ for each $t$, for reciprocal values of $Q$ and $D_0$:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c r@{}l | r@{.}l | r@{.}l || r@{.}l | r@{.}l }
\hline\hline
 \multicolumn{3}{c|}{
\multirow{2}{5em}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Exposure Time.}} }
& \multicolumn{4}{m{8em}@{ }||}{\centering\footnotesize $
    \begin{array}{l@{ }l}
      D_0 &= 1.00  \\  Q &= 2.10
    \end{array}$}
& \multicolumn{4}{@{ }m{8em}}{\centering\footnotesize $
    \begin{array}{r@{ }l}
      D &= 0.48  \\  Q &= 1.00
    \end{array}$}
\\  \cline{4-11}
&&&\multicolumn{2}{m{4em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textit{
    Polaris \\ d}}
& \multicolumn{2}{m{4em}||}{\centering\footnotesize\textit{
    $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć} \\ $d'$}}
& \multicolumn{2}{m{4em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textit{
    Polaris \\ d}}
& \multicolumn{2}{m{4em}}{\centering\footnotesize\textit{
    $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć} \\ $d'$}}
\\  \hline
\mbox\quad&  1&\textsuperscript{s}
         &\ 0&0070 &\ 0&0066 &\ 0&0055 &\ 0&0054 \\
&  2&    &   &0087 &   &0092 &   &0065 &   &0065 \\
&  4&    &   &0109 &   &0114 &   &0075 &   &0075 \\
&  8&    &   &0130 &   &0140 &   &0086 &   &0086 \\
& 16&    &   &0151 &   &0159 &   &0096 &   &0097 \\
& 32&    &   &0173 &   &0181 &   &0106 &   &0107 \\
& 64&    &   &0195 &   &0204 &   &0117 &   &0118 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

If the two sets of star images had been impressed upon the same
plate, we would have inferred the photographic brightness of $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć}
to be about 4.4 times that of \textit{Polaris}.\footnote{
  Neglecting atmospheric absorption.}
As, however, the diameters
of the star images on different plates taken from the same box are
not always the same for equal exposures, it became necessary to make
a separate investigation covering this particular phenomenon.

I found that if we express the diameters of the image of \textit{Polaris}
on any plate in terms of the diameters given on the plate for which
equation~(5) holds good (which we will call the standard plate), we
have only to multiply the second member of equation~(5) by such a
number $x$ that for a given $t$ the measured $d$ will be satisfied. From
a series of comparisons I find that $x$ is practically constant for the
different values of $t$. The general equation for any No.~26 Seed
plate exposed in the stellar focus of the particular telescope used in
these investigations I therefore assume to be
\[
\frac{d}{x}=0^{\text{in}}.0055 + 0^{\text{in}}.0033 (\log{Q}+Q\log{t})   \tag{12}
\]
since, for all practical purposes, $\beta_{0}$ and $\gamma_{0}$ in equation~(5) are the same.
%-----File: 059.png-----

To find the value of $Q$ from this equation we can write:
\begin{equation}
\log{Q} + Q\log{t} = \log{(Qt^Q)} = \frac{d}{0.0033 \centerdot x} - 1.67 \quad.    \tag{13}
\end{equation}

In order, however, to facilitate the determination of $Q$ for certain
observed values of $d$ and $t$, I have computed the following table, by
means of which $Q$ can be obtained by simple interpolation.

The horizontal argument is $Q$, the vertical argument is $t$, and the
tabular function corresponding to these arguments is the measured $d$
of equation (13) for $x = 1.00$.

\begin{tablesetup}
\renewcommand{\tabcolsep}{4pt}
\begin{tabular}{c *{10}{|r@{.}l}}
\hline \hline
\footnotesize \textsc{Exposure} & \multicolumn{20}{c}{\textsc{Q.}}
\\ \cline{2-21}
\footnotesize \textsc{Time.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 0.40}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 0.80}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1.20}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1.60}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 2.00}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 2.40}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 2.80}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 3.20}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 3.60}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\footnotesize 4.00}
\\ \hline
$2^\text{s}$             &0&0046 &0&0060 &0&0070 &0&0078 &0&0085 &0&0091 &0&0098 &0&0103 &0&0109 &0&0114 \\
$4^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$ & &0050 & &0068 & &0081 & &0093 & &0105 & &0115 & &0125 & &0135 & &0145 & &0154 \\
$8^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$ & &0054 & &0078 & &0093 & &0109 & &0125 & &0139 & &0153 & &0167 & &0181 & &0194 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

If for a particular plate any measured diameter is $d$, the argument
for entering the above table is $x\centerdot d$, and $x$ is to be taken as a
constant for the same plate.

We will now give a few examples illustrating the application of
the formulas for determining the brightness of the fixed stars:

\textsc{Example I.\@} On September 5th, 1889, \textit{Polaris}, $\alpha$ \textit{Aurigć},
$\gamma$ \textit{Cephei} and $\alpha$ \textit{Tauri} were photographed on the same plate with
exposures of $2^\text{s}$, $4^\text{s}$ and $8^\text{s}$. The measured diameters are:

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c *{4}{|r@{.}l}}
\hline \hline
\footnotesize \textsc{Exposure}
& \multicolumn{8}{c}{\footnotesize \textsc{Measured Diameters} ($= d$).}
\\ \cline{2-9}
\footnotesize \textsc{Time.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize \textit{Polaris.}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize $\alpha$ \textit{Aurigć.}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize $\gamma$ \textit{Cephei.}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\footnotesize $\alpha$ \textit{Tauri.}}
\\ \hline
$2^\text{s}$             &0&0064 &0&0081 &0&0042 &0&0060 \\
$4^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$ & &0074 & &0090 & &0052 & &0061 \\
$8^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$ & &0080 & &0109 & &0056 & &0072 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

The aperture being six inches for all the exposures, we first
assume the plate to be a standard one, and find $d$ with the argument
$Q = 1$, either by means of equation (5) or, by interpolation, from
the table:
%-----File: 060.png-----

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}
\multicolumn{3}{c}{\large\textit{\textsc{Polaris.}}}
\\ \hline \hline
\footnotesize \textsc{Exposure Time.}
& \footnotesize \textsc{Computed} $d$. & \footnotesize O $-$ C.
\\ \hline
$2^\text{s} $&$ 0.0065 $&$ -0.0001 $\\
$4^\text{s} $&$ \phantom{0}.0074 $&$ \phantom{-}0.0000 $\\
$8^\text{s} $&$ \phantom{0}.0085 $&$ -0.0005 $\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

As the measured values are slightly smaller than those given by
our assumed standard plate, we give $x$ such a value that the (O~$-$~C)
quantities will nearly balance each other. Placing $x = 1.03$ and
multiplying the observed values of $d$ by 1.03, the residuals (O~$-$~C)
become respectively $+0.0001$, $+0.0001$, and $-0.0003$.

To obtain the value of $Q$ by direct computation, for any star whose
image is on this particular plate, we would therefore use the equation
\begin{equation}
\log{Q} + Q\log{t} = \frac{d}{0.0034} - 1.67      \tag{15}
\end{equation}
in which $d$ is the measured diameter corresponding to the time $t$.

The tabular values at once give the desired quantities by interpolation,
first multiplying each measured $d$ by 1.03 for the argument:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{p{6em}|c|c|c|c}
\hline \hline
\centering \footnotesize \textsc{Exposure}
& \multicolumn{4}{|c}{\footnotesize \textsc{Values of} $Q - \sqrt{B}$}
\\ \cline{2-5}
\centering \footnotesize \textsc{Time.}
& \footnotesize \textit{Polaris.}
& \footnotesize $\alpha$ \textit{Aurigć.}
& \footnotesize $\gamma$ \textit{Cephei.}
& \footnotesize $\alpha$ \textit{Tauri.}
\\ \hline
\centering $2^\text{s}$\phantom{\tablenotedagger} & 1.04 & 1.89 & 0.32 & 0.84 \\
\centering $4^\text{s}$\phantom{\tablenotedagger} & 1.05 & 1.60 & 0.32 & 0.69 \\
\centering $8^\text{s}$\tablenotedagger & 0.90 & 1.68 & 0.47 & 0.73 \\ \hline
\centering \footnotesize Mean & 1.00 & 1.72 & 0.42 & 0.75 \\ \hline
\multicolumn{5}{l}{\footnotesize$\dagger$ Transcriber's note: Original text reads $5^\text{s}$}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
Using the mean values of $Q$, we obtain the following residuals:

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{p{6em} *{4}{|c@{\,}r@{.}l}}
\hline \hline
%\centering \footnotesize \textsc{Exposure Time.}
\centering \footnotesize \textsc{Exposure} &
\multicolumn{12}{|c}{\multirow{2}{*}{\footnotesize \textsc{Observation $-$ Computation}}} \\
\centering \footnotesize \textsc{Time.} & \multicolumn{12}{c}{}\\ \hline
\centering $2^\text{s}$ &   &0&0000 &$+$&0&0003 &$-$&0&0003 &$+$&0&0003 \\
\centering $4^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$ &$+$& &0002 &$-$& &0004 &$+$& &0002 &$-$& &0003 \\
\centering $8^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$ &$-$& &0003 &$-$& &0002 &$+$& &0003 &$-$& &0001 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

If we use the familiar expression for the light-ratio of visual magnitudes,
\begin{equation*}
B = (0.4)^{m - 1}
\end{equation*}
%-----File: 061.png-----
(in which $B$ and $m$ are respectively the visual brightness and visual
magnitude of any star) for expressing also the light-ratio for the photographic
magnitudes $m'$, we can write
\[
    m' = 1 - \frac{\operatorname{log.}(\kappa \cdot Q^2)}
                  {\operatorname{log.} 0.4}    \tag{17}
\]
in which $\kappa$ is a constant depending upon the photographic magnitude
of the standard star. For the purpose of comparing the photographic
with the visual magnitudes, let us take \textit{Polaris} as the standard star,
and assume its photographic magnitude to be 2.00; equation~(17)
becomes
\[
 m' = 2 - \frac{\log Q^2}{0.4}
\]

The values of $m'$, for certain values of $Q$, can be taken from the
accompanying table, which I have computed for illustration:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{r@{.}l||*{4}{r@{.}l|} r@{.}l}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{c||}{\footnotesize $Q$\rule{0pt}{4ex}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 0.00}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 0.20}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 0.40}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 0.60}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\footnotesize 0.80} \\[1ex]
\hline
  0&00   & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{} & 5&49    & 3&99   & 3&11
& 2&48\rule{0pt}{3ex}
\\[1ex]
  1&00   & 2&00  & 1&60    & 1&27   & 0&98  & 0&72 \\[1ex]
  2&00   & 0&50  & 0&29    & 0&10   & $-0$&07 & $-0$&24 \\[1ex]
 \mbox\quad 3&00\mbox\quad &\mbox\ $-0$&39\mbox\quad
&\mbox\  $-0$&53\mbox\quad &\mbox\ $-0$&66\mbox\quad
&\mbox\  $-0$&78\mbox\quad &\mbox\ $-0$&90\mbox\quad \\[1ex]
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

From an inspection of the table and the values of $Q$ given in the
next example, we see at once that if we wish to avoid negative numbers
for expressing some observed magnitudes we must either represent
the magnitude of \textit{Polaris} by a greater number or change the
light-ratio.

I have tabulated the photographic magnitudes of the four stars,
together with the probable errors. The visual magnitudes as given
in Volume~XIV, \textit{Harvard College Observatory Annals}, and the
differences between the photographic and visual magnitudes, are also
added:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{r@{ }l|c|c|c|c}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{Star.}}
& {\footnotesize \textsc{Photog.~Mag.}}
& {\footnotesize \textsc{Probable Error.}}
& {\footnotesize \textsc{Visual Mag.}}
& {\footnotesize \textsc{Vis.~$-$ Photog.}}\\
\hline
         & \textit{Polaris}  &$ 2.02 $&$ \pm 0.11\phantom{\pm} $&$ 2.2 $&$ +0.2 $\\
$\alpha$ & \textit{Aurigć} &$ 0.82 $&$ 0.11 $&$ 0.2 $&$ -0.6 $\\
$\gamma$ & \textit{Cephei}   &$ 4.20 $&$ 0.28 $&$ 3.4 $&$ -0.8 $\\
$\alpha$ & \textit{Tauri}    &$ 2.62 $&$ 0.13 $&$ 1.0 $&$ -1.6 $\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
%-----File: 062.png-----

\textsc{Example II\@.} During the night of September~6, in bright moonlight,
I made exposures of 2\textsuperscript{s}, 4\textsuperscript{s} and 8\textsuperscript{s} on \textit{Polaris}, $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć}, $\alpha$ \textit{Cygni},
$\alpha$ \textit{Aquilć}, and four hours later the same plate was exposed on
$\alpha$ \textit{Pisces Australis}, $\beta$ \textit{Ceti}, $\alpha$ \textit{Aurigć}, $\alpha$ \textit{Arietis} and $\alpha$ \textit{Andromedć}.
The measured diameters are tabulated below. For this plate we see
at once that the differences between the observed and computed values
of $d$ are such that the $(C - O)$ values (+0.0001, -0.0003 and
+0.0003) practically balance each other; hence we place $x = 1.00$
and use equation (13) (or the table) to obtain the values of $Q$ given
below. For the $(O - C)$ values the computed quantities are obtained
by substituting the mean values of $Q$ in equation (12):

\begin{tablesetup}
\renewcommand{\tabcolsep}{3pt}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}
\hline \hline
 &\multicolumn{9}{c}{\footnotesize}\\
 &\multicolumn{9}{c}{\footnotesize\textsc{Measured Values of} \textit{d}}\\
\footnotesize\textsc{Exposure} &\multicolumn{9}{c}{\footnotesize}\\
\cline{2-10}
\footnotesize\textsc{Time.}& \multirow{2}{*}{\footnotesize\textit{Polaris.}}& \footnotesize$\alpha$ & \footnotesize$\alpha$ & \footnotesize$\alpha$ & \footnotesize$\alpha$ \textit{Pis.}& \footnotesize$\beta$ & \footnotesize$\alpha$ & \footnotesize$\alpha$ & \footnotesize$\alpha$ \\
& & \footnotesize\textit{Lyrć.}& \footnotesize\textit{Cygni.}& \footnotesize\textit{Aquilć.}& \footnotesize\textit{Aust.}& \footnotesize\textit{Ceti.}& \footnotesize\textit{Aurigć.}& \footnotesize\textit{Arietis.}& \footnotesize\textit{Androm.}\\
\hline
$2^\text{s}$            & 0.0066& 0.0103& 0.0092& 0.0090& 0.0077& 0.0049& 0.0075& 0.0053& 0.0079\\
$4^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$& \phantom{0}.0072& \phantom{0}.0134& \phantom{0}.0116& \phantom{0}.0106& \phantom{0}.0087& \phantom{0}.0054& \phantom{0}.0094& \phantom{0}.0063& \phantom{0}.0090\\
$8^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$& \phantom{0}.0088& \phantom{0}.0169& \phantom{0}.0136& \phantom{0}.0129& \phantom{0}.0099& \phantom{0}.0060& \phantom{0}.0106& \phantom{0}.0066& \phantom{0}.0116\\
\hline\hline
\multirow{3}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c}\footnotesize\textsc{Exposure}\\\footnotesize\textsc{Time.}\end{tabular}}\\
 &\multicolumn{9}{c}{\footnotesize\textsc{Resulting Values of} $Q=\sqrt{B}$.}\\
 &\multicolumn{9}{c}{}\\
\hline
$2^\text{s}$&          1.04&  3.20&  2.46&  2.33&  1.55&  0.49&  1.45&  0.60&  1.66\\
$4^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$& 0.92&  3.16&  2.44&  2.04&  1.40&  0.49&  1.63&  0.69&  1.50\\
$8^{\phantom{\text{s}}}$& 1.07&  3.26&  2.31&  2.11&  1.35&  0.50&  1.52&  0.60&  1.77\\
\hline
                & 1.01&  3.21&  2.30&  2.15&  1.43&  0.49&  1.53&  0.63&  1.64\\
\hline\hline
\multirow{3}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c}\footnotesize\textsc{Exposure}\\\footnotesize\textsc{Time.}\end{tabular}}\\
 &\multicolumn{9}{c}{\footnotesize\textsc{The Mean Values of $Q$, give the Residuals.}}\\
 &\multicolumn{9}{c}{\footnotesize}\\
\hline
$2^\text{s} $&$  +0.0000 $&$ \phantom{+}0.0000 $&$ +0.0002 $&$ +0.0003 $&$ +0.0002 $&$ \phantom{+}0.0000 $&
  $ -0.0002 $&$  -0.0001 $&$ \phantom{+}0.0000 $\\
$4^{\phantom{\text{s}}} $&$ +\phantom{0}.0001 $&$ -\phantom{0}.0001 $&$ \phantom{0}+.0003 $&$ -\phantom{0}.0002 $&
  $ \phantom{+0}.0000 $&$ \phantom{+0}.0000 $&$ +\phantom{0}.0003 $&$ +\phantom{0}.0003 $&$ -\phantom{0}.0004 $\\
$8^{\phantom{\text{s}}} $&$ -\phantom{0}.0003 $&$ +\phantom{0}.0002 $&$ \phantom{+0}.0000 $&$ -\phantom{0}.0001 $&
  $ -\phantom{0}.0003 $&$ +\phantom{0}.0001 $&$ +\phantom{0}.0001 $&$ -\phantom{0}.0001 $&$ +\phantom{0}.0005 $\\
\hline\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}


The numbers expressing the photographic brightness of each star
in terms of that of \textit{Polaris} are therefore, in the above order, 10.3,
5.3, 4.6, 2.0, 0.2, 2.3, 0.4 and 2.7. The only star of the list which
was near to the zenith at the time its image was formed on the photographic
plate is $\alpha$ \textit{Lyrć}; the effect of moonlight, atmospheric
%-----File: 063.png-----
absorption and haze would therefore be at a minimum for this star,
and its relative brightness would apparently be near a maximum.
The same remarks apply to the results given in the next table as in
the last example:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{r@{ }l|c|c|c|c}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{m{5em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Star.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{m{5em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Photog.\ Mag.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{m{5em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Probable Error.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{m{5em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Visual Mag.}}
 & \multicolumn{1}{m{5em}}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Vis.~$-$ Photog.}} \\[2ex]
\hline
\mbox\quad &\textit{Polaris}\rule{0pt}{3ex} & +1.95 & $\pm$0.05 & +2.2 & +0.2 \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Lyrć}     & $-0.53$ & $\pm$0.02 & +0.2 & +0.7 \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Cygni}      & +0.10 & $\pm$0.03 & +1.5 & +1.4 \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Aquilć}   & +0.34 & $\pm$0.06 & +1.0 & +0.7 \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Pis.~Aust.}\mbox\ & +1.22 & $\pm$0.05 & +1.3 & +0.1 \\
$\beta$ & \textit{Ceti}       & +3.53 & $\pm$0.01 & +2.1 & $-1.4$ \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Aurigć}   & +1.08 & $\pm$0.05 & +0.2 & $-0.9$ \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Arietis}    & +3.01 & $\pm$0.07 & +2.0 & $-1.0$ \\
$\alpha$& \textit{Androm.}    & +0.93 & $\pm$0.07 & +2.1 & +1.2 \\[1ex]
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

No corrections for absorption, etc., have as yet been applied to
the above results, which consequently refer to the apparent magnitude
at the instant of exposure. The last column of the above table
plainly shows that we can make no definite \textit{a priori} estimate as to
what the photographic magnitude of a star is if we simply know its
visual magnitude. There is therefore no advantage (as Professor
Holden has pointed out in his ``Memorandum'' to the Paris Photographic
Conference) in following the methods used for visual magnitudes.

It is evident that we must first know the law of atmospheric
absorption of the photographic rays before we can determine the true
relative brightness of the stars; since each observed brightness
requires a certain plus correction, depending directly upon the zenith
distance, to reduce it to the brightness which would have been
obtained at the zenith. Or each observed brightness could be
reduced to what it would be at a certain zenith distance, as, for
instance, that of the celestial pole at a given place. The photographs
already taken show that this correction is quite sensible, even
at small zenith distances. From some preliminary reductions I find
that for this Observatory (altitude 4209 feet) the absorption of stellar
%-----File: 064.png-----
photographic brightness at 80° zenith distance is considerably more
than fifty per cent.\ of the brightness reduced to 0° zenith distance.
After a complete series of observations bearing upon this subject has
been obtained at sea-level near the earth's equator, I hope to give,
in a more or less complete state, the photographic magnitudes of a
large number of the brighter stars in both hemispheres. Just how
far down the scale of magnitudes the formulć  will hold good I am,
as yet, unable to say.

In photographing faint stars the exposure time should evidently
be so long as to make the diameters of the disks as great or greater
than the faint penumbral image which, in the telescope used, surrounds
the primitive umbral image in short exposures on faint stars;
when this precaution is taken, it seems that the formulć give consistent
results, judging from a few experimental exposures. This form
of image for short exposures on faint stars may, of course, be peculiar
to this particular telescope. Too much stress cannot be laid upon
the statement, \emph{that if reliable results are to be obtained}, the objective
must be of the first order of excellence and \emph{the plate must be kept
exactly in the stellar focus}.

Throughout this whole discussion I have purposely avoided bringing
in any relation between aperture and focal length, as it seems
probable that different telescopes must be compared before any definite
conclusions can be drawn.

The results contained in the present paper are only to be considered
as preliminary to a much more extended investigation to be
undertaken in South America under the auspices of this Observatory,
made possible through the generosity of Col.\ \textsc{Crocker}.

In conclusion, I wish to express my obligations to Professor
\textsc{Holden}, Director of this Observatory, for his readiness in placing
at my disposal everything which could in any way aid me in past and
future investigations; for his practical help and advice relating to a
subject which has claimed his attention for some time past, and
which is destined to become the most important method of investigation
in our science, viz: \textit{Astronomical Photography}.

\filbreak
I also wish to thank Mr.\ \textsc{Burnham} for his kind and willing
assistance in the photographic work.\\*
\rightline{\textsc{J.~M. Schaeberle}.\quad}\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent \textsc{Lick Observatory}, September~21, 1889.}

\ThoughtBreakLong
%-----File: 065.png-----

\nbsectionheading{ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A STANDARD MERIDIAN
LINE FOR SANTA CLARA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{On the Establishment of a Standard Meridian Line for Santa Clara County, California. By \textsc{J.~E. Keeler}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By \textsc{James E. Keeler.}}\\*
\shortrule}

A few months ago, at the suggestion of Professor \textsc{Holden}, Mr.\ \textsc{Chas.\ Herrmann},
County Surveyor of Santa Clara county, and Mr.\ \textsc{A.~T. Herrmann},
Surveyor and Civil Engineer, obtained the permission
of the County Supervisors to establish a standard meridian
line in San José, for the benefit of surveyors, with a sufficient sum of
money to provide suitable monuments.

It was agreed that the astronomical staff of the Observatory
should make the necessary observations without expense to the
county, and I was appointed to carry out the work.

Absolute directions on the earth can only be determined by reference
to the heavenly bodies. The magnetic needle has been and
still is extensively used as a secondary means of determining directions,
but the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the true
meridian is constantly changing, and is, moreover, subject to sudden
and irregular variations, so that, even with the greatest precautions, the
compass is an unsafe guide. Ignorance of these facts, or of the
amount of necessary allowance from lack of a suitable standard of
reference, has given rise to an endless amount of litigation in this
country. It is safe to say, that if each county in the Union had
legally established a standard meridian in the early days of its settlement,
the gain to the country would have to be estimated by hundreds
of thousands of dollars.

The remedy for the evils resulting from the secular change of
the magnetic declination has been repeatedly pointed out, ever since
the days of \textsc{Rittenhouse}. Prof.\ \textsc{Gillespie}, in his well-known work
on Land Surveying, says (p.~210): ``The only complete remedy for
the disputes, and the uncertainty of bounds, resulting from the continued
change in the variation, is this: Let a meridian, \textit{i.~e.}, a true
north and south line, be established in every town or county, by the
authority of the State; monuments, such as stones set deep in the
ground, being placed at each end of it. Let every surveyor be
obliged by law to test his compass by this line, at least once in each
year. .~~.~~.~~. Let the variation thus ascertained be inserted in the
notes of the survey and recorded in the deed. Another surveyor,
years or centuries afterward, could test his compass by taking the
%-----File: 066.png-----
bearing of the same monuments, and the difference between this and
the former bearing would be the change of variation. He could thus
determine, with entire certainty, the proper allowance to be made in
order to retrace the original line, no matter how much, or how irregularly,
the variation may have changed, or how badly adjusted was the
compass of the original survey.''

But although these evils have been thus forcibly stated, even in
the text-books of every school, and the remedy so clearly pointed out,
very little interest has been taken in the matter by State authorities.
Professor \textsc{Holden}, while Director of the Washburn Observatory,
once proposed to establish a standard meridian in every county-seat
in the State of Wisconsin, for the bare personal and traveling expenses
of an observer, an offer which was declined without thanks.

There is no doubt that the Lick Observatory would assist in such
a plan for California, by every means in its power, should the proper
authorities be willing to pay the bare expense of the undertaking.

It may be noted that the value of a standard line of reference is
particularly great in a newly settled country, where the compass is
more relied upon than it is in older communities with well-established
boundaries and landmarks.

The scene of our operations in San José was what is known as
the ``Meridian Road,'' because it is supposed to be in the line of the
Mt.\ Diablo meridian. It has been the practice of surveyors to test
their instruments by sighting up and down this road, which, however,
contains no marks sufficiently definite to admit of a precise determination
by this method. The north end of the road terminates at a
high board fence which forms the southern boundary of the Fair
Ground, and on a shelf secured to this fence a mark was put up,
consisting of a hole one-half inch in diameter in a thin plate, illuminated
from behind by a bull's-eye lantern. Two thousand feet south
of the mark a substantial pier of brick and cement was built for the
support of the instrument. The mark was as nearly in the meridian
of the pier as could be determined with the aid of a compass. At
the pier it subtended an angle of $4''$, and to the naked eye appeared
as a star of about the first magnitude.

The instrument employed was the \textsc{Repsold} altazimuth briefly
described in Vol.~I, Publications of the Lick Observatory, and more
completely in my report on the geographical position of Norman,
California, in the Reports on Observations of the Total Eclipse of
January~1, 1889, published by the Lick Observatory. It has vertical
and horizontal circles ten inches in diameter, read to $2''$ by micrometer
%-----File: 067.png-----
microscopes, or by estimation to $0''.2$. All necessary attachments
are provided for exact astronomical work. The time-piece used was
a sidereal chronometer, Negus 1720.

Preliminary observations were made on the night of August 5th,
and more accurate ones on August 6th and 7th. The azimuth of the
mark was determined by alternate readings on the mark and on
\textit{Polaris} near eastern elongation, the instrument being reversed during
the measurements to eliminate the error of collimation. The latitude
of the pier was determined, with sufficient accuracy, by measuring
the zenith distances of four stars with the vertical circle, and the local
sidereal time by using the altazimuth as a transit instrument. No elaborate
time observations were made, as a knowledge of the time to
within one second is amply sufficient for computing the small reductions
to elongation. The horizontal circle was turned one-third round on August
7th, in order to bring different divisions under the microscopes.

Ten observations of the mark and ten of \textit{Polaris}, on August 6th,
made the mark $1°~22'~48''.0$ west of the vertical circle passing through
the point of elongation. The computed azimuth of the star corrected
for diurnal aberration, was $1°~37'~7''.2$, hence the azimuth of
the mark was $+0°~14'~19''.2$.

From six observations of the star and six of the mark, on August
7th the mark was west of the star $1°~22'~50''.6$. The computed
azimuth of the star was $1°~37'~6''.8$, and hence the azimuth of the
mark was $+ 0°~14'~16''.2$. The adopted azimuth of the mark was
$14'~17''.7$ east, which, at a distance of 2000 feet, corresponds to 8
feet 3.8 inches, and the mark was moved this distance to the west
to bring it into the meridian of the centre mark on the pier. The
estimated probable error of the meridian is $2''$ or about one-quarter
of an inch at a distance of 2000 feet, a quantity thirty times smaller
than the smallest angle which is measured with ordinary surveying
instruments. From the above data permanent monuments will be
established by the Messrs.\ \textsc{Herrmann}.

For the convenience of those who cannot avail themselves of this
meridian line, I have computed the following table of azimuths and
times of elongation of \textit{Polaris} for the latitude and longitude of San
José. The azimuths are given to the nearest $10''$; the times of
elongation in \textit{Standard Pacific Time} to the nearest minute. For
San Francisco the azimuths must be increased by $40''$, and the times
of elongation will be about two minutes later. An error of thirteen
minutes in the time of elongation will produce an error of only
$10''$ in the azimuth. The formulć  from which this table was computed
%-----File: 068.png-----
may be found in \textsc{Doolittle's} Practical Astronomy (p.~527).

If the meridian is determined from observations of \textit{Polaris} near
elongation by a surveyor's transit, the line of collimation must be
adjusted with especial care, so as to travel on a truly vertical line. As
there are several minutes near elongation during which the azimuth
of the star does not differ appreciably from the tabulated value, it is
better to make two observations of the star, one with reversed position
of the telescope, and take the mean of the readings of the horizontal
circle. It must be remembered that the reading of the compass
needle, when the sight line of the instrument is in the meridian, is
not necessarily the magnetic declination, since the line of zeros of
the compass circle may not be in the same plane with the line of collimation
(as, of course, it should be). The reading of the needle will,
however, be the declination \emph{for that particular instrument}, and true
bearings can be taken just as well as if the adjustment were perfect.
\bigskip

\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Table of Azimuths and Elongations of \textit{Polaris} for 1889 and 1890}

\begin{small}
\begin{longtable}{c@{ }c@{ }r@{}|rr@{ }c@{ }|rr@{ }c@{ }|crrcc}
\multicolumn{14}{c}{\textsc{Table of Azimuths and Times of Elongation of \textit{Polaris}.}}
\\
\multicolumn{14}{c}{\footnotesize (Computed for the latitude and longitude of San José, Cal., by \textsc{J. E. Keeler}.)}
\\
\hline \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{ Date. }}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{ W. Elongation. }}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{ E. Elongation. }}
& \multicolumn{5}{c}{ \footnotesize\textsc{ Azimuth.\rule{0pt}{3ex} }}\\[1ex]
\hline
&&& {\footnotesize\textit{h.}} & {\footnotesize\textit{m.}}
&&  {\footnotesize\textit{h.}} & {\footnotesize\textit{m.}}
&&&{\footnotesize°}
&  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize$'$}
&  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize$''$}
\endfirsthead
\hline \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{ Date. }}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{ W. Elongation. }}
& \multicolumn{3}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{ E. Elongation. }}
& \multicolumn{5}{c}{ \footnotesize\textsc{ Azimuth.\rule{0pt}{3ex} }}\\[1ex]
\hline
&&& {\footnotesize\textit{h.}} & {\footnotesize\textit{m.}}
&&  {\footnotesize\textit{h.}} & {\footnotesize\textit{m.}}
&&&{\footnotesize°}
&  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize$'$}
&  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\footnotesize$''$}
\endhead
1889. & Sept. &  6\ldots &  8 & 19 & \textsc{a.m.} &  8 & 25 & \textsc{p.m.}  &&  1 & 37 & 00  \\
& ``   & 16\ldots &  7 & 39 & `` &  7 & 46 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& ``   & 26\ldots &  7 & 00 & `` &  7 & 06 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& Oct. &  6\ldots &  6 & 21 & `` &  6 & 27 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& ``   & 16\ldots &  5 & 42 & `` &  5 & 48 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& ``   & 26\ldots &  5 & 03 & `` &  5 & 08 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& Nov. &  5\ldots &  4 & 23 & `` &  4 & 29 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& ``   & 15\ldots &  3 & 44 & `` &  3 & 50 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& ``   & 25\ldots &  3 & 05 & `` &  3 & 11 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& Dec. &  5\ldots &  2 & 25 & `` &  2 & 31 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& ``   & 15\ldots &  1 & 46 & `` &  1 & 52 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& ``   & 25\ldots &  1 & 06 & `` &  1 & 12 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
1890 & Jan. &  4\ldots & \ 12 & 27 & `` & \ 12 & 33 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& ``   & 14\ldots & 11 & 43 & \textsc{p.m.} & 11 & 53 & \textsc{a.m.}  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& ``   & 24\ldots & 11 & 04 & `` & 11 & 14 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& Feb. &  3\ldots & 10 & 24 & `` & 10 & 34 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& ``   & 13\ldots &  9 & 45 & `` &  9 & 55 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& ``   & 23\ldots &  9 & 06 & `` &  9 & 16 & ``  && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
%-----File: 069.png-----
& Mar. & 5\ldots & 8 & 26 & \textsc{p.m.} & 8 & 36 & \textsc{a.m.} && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& ``     & 15\ldots &  7 & 47 & `` &  7 & 57 & `` && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& ``     & 25\ldots &  7 & 07 & `` &  7 & 17 & `` && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& April  &  4\ldots &  6 & 28 & `` &  6 & 38 & `` && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& ``     & 14\ldots &  5 & 48 & `` &  5 & 58 & `` && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& ``     & 24\ldots &  5 & 09 & `` &  5 & 19 & `` && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& May    &  4\ldots &  4 & 30 & `` &  4 & 40 & `` && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& ``     & 14\ldots &  3 & 50 & `` &  4 & 00 & `` && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& ``     & 24\ldots &  3 & 11 & `` &  3 & 21 & `` && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& June   &  3\ldots &  2 & 32 & `` &  2 & 42 & `` && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& ``     & 13\ldots &  1 & 53 & `` &  2 & 03 & `` && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& ``     & 23\ldots &  1 & 14 & `` &  1 & 23 & `` && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& July   &  3\ldots &\ 12 & 35 & `` &\ 12 & 44 & `` && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& `` & 13\ldots & 11 & 55 & \textsc{a.m.} & 12 & 04 & `` && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& `` & 23\ldots & 11 & 16 & `` & 11 & 22 & \textsc{p.m.} && 1 & 36 & 50  \\
& Aug.   &  2\ldots & 10 & 37 & `` & 10 & 43 & `` && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& ``     & 12\ldots &  9 & 58 & `` & 10 & 04 & `` && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& ``     & 22\ldots &  9 & 19 & `` &  9 & 25 & `` && 1 & 36 & 40  \\
& Sept.  &  1\ldots &  8 & 40 & `` &  8 & 46 & `` && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& ``     & 11\ldots &  8 & 00 & `` &  8 & 06 & `` && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& ``     & 21\ldots &  7 & 21 & `` &  7 & 27 & `` && 1 & 36 & 30  \\
& Oct.   &  1\ldots &  6 & 42 & `` &  6 & 48 & `` && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& ``     & 11\ldots &  6 & 02 & `` &  6 & 08 & `` && 1 & 36 & 20  \\
& ``     & 21\ldots &  5 & 23 & `` &  5 & 29 & `` && 1 & 36 & 10  \\
& ``     & 31\ldots &  4 & 44 & `` &  4 & 50 & `` && 1 & 36 & 00  \\
& Nov.   & 10\ldots &  4 & 05 & `` &  4 & 10 & `` && 1 & 36 & 00  \\
& ``     & 20\ldots &  3 & 25 & `` &  3 & 31 & `` && 1 & 36 & 00  \\
& ``     & 30\ldots &  2 & 46 & `` &  2 & 52 & `` && 1 & 35 & 50  \\
& Dec.   & 10\ldots &  2 & 07 & `` &  2 & 12 & `` && 1 & 35 & 50  \\
& ``     & 20\ldots &  1 & 27 & `` &  1 & 33 & `` && 1 & 35 & 50  \\
& ``     & 30\ldots & 12 & 48 & `` & 12 & 54 & `` && 1 & 35 & 50  \\
1891 & Jan. &  9\ldots & 12 & 09 & `` & 12 & 14 & `` && 1 & 35 & 40 \\
\hline
\end{longtable}
\end{small}

\clearpage
%-----File: 070.png-----

\nbsectionheading{OCCULTATIONS OF STARS BY THE MOON.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Occultations of Stars by the Moon. Observed by \textsc{A.~O. Leuschner}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule[6ex]\\*
\textsc{Observed by A.~O. Leuschner.}}

\bigskip
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c@{\ }r| l@{\ }r@{\ }r@{}| rrr@{\ }| c|c|lll}
\hline\hline
  \multicolumn{2}{m{3em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Date.}}
& \multicolumn{3}{m{10em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Star.}}
& \multicolumn{3}{m{6em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Mt.\ H. M.~T. of Disappearance.}\rule{0pt}{3ex}}
& \multicolumn{1}{m{4em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Telescope.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{m{4em}|}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Power.}}
& \multicolumn{3}{m{5em}}{\centering\footnotesize\textsc{
    Remarks.}}
\\[1ex]  \hline
  \multicolumn{2}{c|}{1889.}
&&&& {\footnotesize h.} & {\footnotesize m.}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize s.} &&&&&
\\
  Aug. & 29 & S D. ( $-$ & 3°) & 3459\dotfill &  7 & 26 & 31.9
& 12-in. & 80 & \multicolumn{3}{l}{ Good. }
\\
  `` & 29 & S D. ( $-$ &  3°) & 3468\dotfill & 8 &  5 & 26.6
& `` & ``  \\
  `` & 29 & S D. ( $-$ &  3°) & 3469\dotfill & 8
& \multicolumn{1}{@{}c@{}}{[10]} &  2.3
& `` & `` & \multicolumn{3}{m{5em}}{\raggedright Minute probably 10.}
\\
  `` & 29 & S D. ( $-$ &  3°) & 3470\dotfill & 8 & 13 & 40.1
& `` & `` & \multicolumn{3}{l}{ Good.}
\\
  `` & 30 & S D. ( $-$ &  8°) & 3733\dotfill & 7 & 27 & 22.5
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` & 30 & S D. ( $-$ &  8°) & 3736\dotfill & 7 & 39 & 51.1
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` & 30 & S D. ( $-$ &  9°) & 3896\dotfill & 7 & 58 & 51.5
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` & 30 & S D. ( $-$ &  8°) & 3739\dotfill & 8 & 17 & 24.7
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` & 30 & S D. ( $-$ &  9°) & 3898\dotfill & 8 & 19 & 24.0
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  Sept. &  2 & S D. ( $-$ & 21°) & 4494\dotfill & 7 & 48 & 45.1
& 6-in. & 75 && ``
\\
  `` &  2 & S D. ( $-$ & 21°) & 4496\dotfill & 7 & 50 & 32.9
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  2 & S D. ( $-$ & 21°) & 4512\dotfill & 9 & 10 & 59.9
& 12-in. & 80 && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{2}{l}{ C Z. \textsc{xvii} h. } & 3871\dotfill
&  7 & 54 & 10.9 & `` & ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{2}{l}{ C Z. \textsc{xvii} h. } & 3960\dotfill
&  8 & 13 & 50.7 & `` & ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{2}{l}{ C Z. \textsc{xvii} h. } & 3978\dotfill
&  8 & 22 & 40.4 & `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ Anonymous 9.0 } &&&&&&&&  \\
&& \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ \tablenoteasterisk17h.\ 58m.\ 26s.; $-23°\, 16'.0$ }
&  9 & 12 & 46.4 & `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ Anonymous 9.0 } &&&&&&&&  \\
&& \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ \tablenoteasterisk17h.\ 58m.\ 37s.; $-23°\, 18'.7$ }
&  9 & 15 & 28.9 & `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ Anonymous 9.0 } &&&&&&&&  \\
&& \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ \tablenoteasterisk17h.\ 58m.\ 12s.; $-23°\, 27'.3$ }
&  9 & 34 & 24.5 & `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ \label{cor3}W M Z\@. 175\dotfill} &  9 & 50 & 8.6 % corrected per corrigenda
& `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ Anonymous 8.0 } &&&&&&&&  \\
&& \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ \tablenoteasterisk18h.\ 0m.\ 1s.; $-23°\, 27'.0$ }
& 10 &  0 &  0.2 & `` & `` && ``
\\
  `` &  3 & \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ Anonymous 8.5 } &&&&&&&&  \\
&& \multicolumn{3}{l|}{ \tablenoteasterisk18h.\ 0m.\ 41s.; $-23°\, 26'.4$ }
& 10 & 21 &  8.4 & ``  & ``  && ``
\\
`` &  3 & \multicolumn{2}{l}{ C Z. \textsc{xvii} h. } & 133\dotfill
& \ 10 & 23 & 24.4 & ``  & ``  && ``
\\  \hline
& \multicolumn{10}{l}{\footnotesize * These positions are for 1850.0.}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
%-----File: 071.png-----

\nbsectionheading{CONJUNCTION OF MARS AND SATURN (\textsc{Sept.~20, 1889}).}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Conjunction of Mars and Saturn (September~20, 1889). By \textsc{W.~E. Downs.}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By W.~E. Downs.}\\*
\shortrule}

The observations were made with the four-inch broken-tube
comet-seeker. The times were noted on a watch running on P.S.T.
A magnifying power of about thirty diameters was used.

\begin{description}
\item[$4^\text{h}$ $00^\text{m}$.] First sight of \textit{Saturn} and \textit{Mars} in the telescope, through
a very dense haze. \textit{Mars} appeared as a very red, ill-defined spot of
light. \textit{Saturn} was very red, but less so than \textit{Mars. Regulus} was
also visible in the same field, to the south, and eight or ten times
more distant from the planets than the space between them, and
was of a lighter red color and fainter than either planet.

\item[$4^\text{h}$ $15^\text{m}$.] Both planets were visible to the naked eye, and easily
separated as soon as seen.

\item[$4^\text{h}$ $25^\text{m}$.] \textit{Saturn}, in the telescope, was of an orange color, and
\textit{Mars} of a light red.

\item[$4^\text{h}$ $45^\text{m}$.] To the eye \textit{Saturn} was about as bright as \textit{Polaris}, and
\textit{Mars} a little fainter.

\item[$5^\text{h}$ $15^\text{m}$.] Broad daylight approached fast. $\theta$ \textit{Tauri} was still
easily visible to the naked eye, and \textit{c Orionis}, fifth magnitude, was
barely visible and disappeared at $5^\text{h}$ $20^\text{m}$. $\theta$ \textit{Orionis} disappeared at
$5^\text{h}$ $23^\text{m}$, and \textit{Saturn} and \textit{Mars} at $5^\text{h}$ $30^\text{m}$.

\item[$5^\text{h}$ $40^\text{m}$.] \textit{Saturn} and \textit{Mars} were of a very light yellow color in
the telescope; \textit{Mars} being very slightly tinged with red. \textit{Regulus}
was white.

\item[$5^\text{h}$ $50^\text{m}$.] \textit{Venus} was still easily visible to the eye. The clouds
were getting ruddy in the east. \textit{Saturn} and \textit{Mars} were growing
very rapidly fainter. After this \textit{Regulus} was not kept in the field of
the telescope.

\item[$5^\text{h}$ $55^\text{m}$.] \textit{Mars} was easier to see than \textit{Saturn}, the light from it
being more vivid.

\item[$6^\text{h}$ $00^\text{m}$.] \textit{Saturn} and \textit{Mars} last seen in the telescope, and the
sun's disc about two-thirds up. As the sun rose, its disc was round
and red, and was crossed by horizontal cloud-belts.

\item[$6^\text{h}$ $05^\text{m}$.] \textit{Venus} was still visible to the eye.

\item[$6^\text{h}$ $10^\text{m}$.] Lost sight of \textit{Venus}, and did not again recover it. The
sun was too far up to look at comfortably.
\end{description}
%-----File: 072.png-----

\textit{Regulus, Saturn} and \textit{Mars} formed an interesting triangular
group, the angle at \textit{Saturn} being slightly obtuse. This angle remained
sensibly the same throughout the observations, although the
planets were separating.\\*
\rightline{\textsc{W.~E. Downs}.\quad}\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent \textsc{Mt.~Hamilton}, 1889, Sept.~22.}


\nbsectionheading{A VERY REMARKABLE COMET.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{A very remarkable Comet (\textsc{Brooks}, July~7, 1889). By \textsc{E.~E. Barnard}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By Edward E. Barnard.}\\*
\shortrule}

On the morning of July 7th, a small comet was discovered by
Mr.\ \textsc{Brooks} in the constellation Cetus. The moon coming into the
morning sky blotted the comet out before any observations (except
three at the Lick Observatory) could be made of it. When a sufficiently
long interval was obtained the orbit was computed, and from
the small inclination of its path to that of the earth it was at once
suspected to be periodic; the suspicion has since been verified, the
comet having a period of about seven or eight years. This was sufficient
of itself to make it of more than ordinary interest. While
observing this object in the first part of August I discovered that it
was attended by at least four companions, which were moving through
space in advance of the main comet. Two of these companions
were discovered with the twelve-inch on August 1st, and the other
two on August 4th with the great telescope. These last two were
seen several times, but always remained too faint to be measured,
and finally disappeared.

The two brighter companions were perfect miniatures of the
larger comet, each having a small, fairly well-defined head and
nucleus, with a faint, hazy tail, the more distant one being the larger
and less-developed. The three comets were in a straight line, nearly
east and west, their tails lying along this line. There was no connecting
nebulosity between these objects, the tails of the two smaller
not reaching each other or the large comet. To all appearance they
were absolutely independent comets. The four which were discovered
here I have named B, C, D, E, in the order of increasing right
ascension, A being the original comet discovered by Mr.\ \textsc{Brooks}. As
D and E disappeared after a few observations, they will not be again
referred to; they were both north following C and in a line with it.

Since discovery I have measured these objects on every available
%-----File: 073.png-----
occasion, using the micrometer of the thirty-six-inch equatorial. It
was found that these two were separating from the main comet quite
rapidly; the more distant one moving the fastest. Towards the latter
half of August the nearer companion B ceased to recede, and
then underwent a remarkable change. It enlarged rapidly, becoming
extremely diffused, and losing all appearance of central condensation.
It could be measured only with the utmost difficulty.
Throughout its visibility its position angle remained almost constant;
towards the last, however, this angle began slowly but sensibly to
increase as if the companion were in orbital motion. Unfortunately,
at this most important point in the observations, the companion
faded rapidly and totally from view, being last seen on the 5th of
September. It disappeared as absolutely from the face of the
heavens as did Biela's comet, which doubtless underwent a similar
dissolution.

In the meantime the more distant companion continued to recede,
and increased very much in brightness and size, until on August 31st
it was perceptibly brighter than the larger comet! In the latter half
of September it, too, became stationary with reference to the principal
comet; remaining thus for some days, it began slowly to lessen its
distance, having attained a maximum distance of $356''$. This object
has also undergone a change in appearance similar to that in the
lost companion. Its tail has disappeared, and the head has become
large and much diffused, its brightness in the meantime having
diminished very greatly. The position angle of this object has
remained remarkably constant for the past two months; it attained
a maximum of about 62° in the middle of September; since then it
has been slowly decreasing, until it is now the same as when first
observed.

Measures of the companion B on twenty-two nights were obtained,
and up to the present date measures of C have been made
on forty nights.

The following, selected from the observations, will give an idea
of the relative positions of this group:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{l@{ }r *{5}{c@{ }} l@{ } *{4}{c@{ }} r}
&&&&&&&\multicolumn{1}{c}{°\mbox\;}
&&&&&  \multicolumn{1}{c}{$''$}  \\
  Aug. &  1. & Position & angle & A & and & B, & 59.4;
& distance & A & and & B, & 64.1.\\
  Sept.&  4. & ``        & ``     & `` &  ``  & ``\;  & 65.0
&    ``     & `` &  ``  & ``\;  & 71.5.\\
  Aug. &  4. & ``        & ``     & A & and & C, & 61.5
&    ``     & A & and & C, &267.6.\\
  Sept.& 15. & ``        & ``     & `` &  ``  & ``\;  & 62.1
&    ``     & `` &  ``  & ``\;  &356.4.\\
  Sept.& 30. & ``        & ``     & `` &  ``  & ``\;  & 61.4
&    ``     & `` &  ``  & ``\;  &352.1.
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

It is hoped that through measures of the relative positions of
%-----File: 074.png-----
these bodies we shall be enabled to detect orbital motion of the
smaller ones about the larger. If this were shown to exist, we
should at once have the means of determining the mass of this
cometary system. These changes may, however, be due to perspective.

So far as we know, the phenomenon presented by this comet is
extremely rare. It is needless to repeat the story of Biela's comet.
In 1845 it separated into two distinct comets, which traveled side by
side, and returning at the appointed time, they were seen to be
widely separated---indeed, moving in distinctly separate paths; they
then disappeared, to be seen no more in the heavens. One of the
comets of 1861 was seen double for a few days. Some companions
were seen moving with the Great Comet of 1882, but no measurements
were made. This covers our knowledge of multiple comets,
or comets with companions, unless, indeed, we accept the evidence
of the Chinese records, which possibly describe comets that consisted
of two or more parts.\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent\textsc{Mt.~Hamilton,} September~30, 1889.}

\medskip
\begin{small}
\textsc{Note.}---In order not to delay the publication of the present number, the
printing of two papers on Drawings of \textit{Jupiter} in the years 1875--1883, by Messrs.\ \textsc{Holden}
and \textsc{Barnard}, is postponed to the next number.

\end{small}

\ThoughtBreakLong


\nbsectionheading{NOTICES FROM THE LICK OBSERVATORY.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\textit{Notices from the Lick Observatory}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
{\small \textsc{Prepared by Members of the Staff.}}\\*
\shortrule}

\nbsubsectionheading{Photographing the Milky Way.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Photographing the Milky Way. By \textsc{E.~S. Holden}}

The great success obtained by Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard} in his preliminary
experiments with the \textsc{Willard} portrait lens ($a=5.9$, $f=30.7$) has
led to the determination to employ it in making a systematic study
of the Milky Way by photography. For this purpose it has been
mounted at the object-glass end of the tube of the great telescope,
and arrangements made by which the lens can be capped and uncapped
from the eye end. The driving clock of the great telescope
(with a control) will keep the camera directed at the star-group
chosen during an exposure of two hours. An independent equatorial
stand for this instrument is very desirable, but cannot be had
%-----File: 075.png-----
at present. Plates $8×10$ are used, which correspond to about 16
by 20 degrees. The definition is good over the central 10 or 11
degrees.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\bigskip


\nbsubsectionheading{Occultation of \textit{Jupiter}, 1889, September~3.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Occultation of Jupiter, 1889, September~3}

\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l|l}
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c|}{
\multirow{6}{*}{\footnotesize\textsc{Phenomenon Observed.}}}
&\multicolumn{4}{c}{}\\
&\multicolumn{4}{c}{\footnotesize\textsc{
    Initials of the Observer.}}\\
&\multicolumn{4}{c}{}\\
\cline{2-5}
&\multicolumn{4}{c}{}\\
&\multicolumn{4}{c}{\footnotesize\textsc{
    Lick Observatory Mean Time.}}\\
&\multicolumn{4}{c}{}\\
\hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{J.~E.~K.}& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{E.~E.~B.}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{C.~B.~H.}
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{A.~O.~L.\rule{0pt}{3ex}}\\
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
\\
& \textit{\footnotesize h.\ m.\quad s.}
& \textit{\footnotesize\,m.\quad s.}
& \textit{\footnotesize\,m.\quad s.}
& \textit{\footnotesize\,m.\quad s.}\\

First Contact of \textit{Jupiter}\dotfill
& 5 25 39.1&  25 41.3&  25 43.5\tablenoteasterisk&  25 41.6\\[1ex]
Second Contact of \textit{Jupiter}\dotfill
& 5 27 50.7&  27 47.3&   27 47.8&   27 43.9\\[1ex]
Reappearance of Satellite II\dotfill
&  6 11 33$\pm$
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\ldots\ldots}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\ldots\ldots}
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{\ldots\ldots}
\\[1ex]
Reappearance of Satellite IV.
&  6 16 46.2
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\ldots\ldots}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\ldots\ldots}
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{\ldots\ldots}
\\[1ex]
Third Contact of \textit{Jupiter}\dotfill
& 6 19 17.2
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\ldots\ldots}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\ldots\ldots}
&  19 26.2\\[1ex]
Fourth Contact of \textit{Jupiter}\dotfill
& 6 21 39$\pm$&  21 38.3::&  21 39.5::&  21 32.2\\[1ex]
Reappearance of Satellite I\dotfill
&  6 23 12.8&  23 15.7::&  23 16.0\tablenotedagger
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{\ldots\ldots}
\\
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{\rule[0.5ex]{2em}{.2pt}}
\\
(Instrument employed)\dotfill
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textit{36-inch Tel.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textit{\ 12-inch Tel.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textit{6\,\raisebox{.2ex}{\tiny$^{1}\!/\!_{2}$}-in. Tel.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c }{\textit{Comet seeker.}}\\[1ex]
\hline
\multicolumn{5}{l}{\begin{footnotesize}
\textsc{Observers' Notes}.---* 3--5 secs.\ late; \quad$\dagger$ 2--3 secs.\ late.
\end{footnotesize}}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

\begin{small}
\medskip
Mr.\ \textsc{Schaeberle} obtained several photographs of the Moon and \textit{Jupiter}
after IVth Contact.

\medskip
\textit{Observers}: \;Mr.\ \textsc{Keeler}\,=\,J.~E.~K.; \;Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard}\,=\,E.~E.~B.;
\;Mr.\ \textsc{Hill}\,=\,C.~B.~H.; \;Mr.\ \textsc{Leuschner}\,=\,A.~O.~L.

These observations have been printed \textit{in extenso} in the \textit{Astronomical Journal},
Vol.~9, page~84 \textit{et seq.}

\end{small}


\nbsubsectionheading{Examination of Stellar Photographs.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Examination of Stellar Photographs. By \textsc{E.~S. Holden}}

If it is desired to obtain \emph{all} the information which can be had
from a given negative, it is necessary to make a positive copy of it on
glass, and to examine both negative and positive independently.
Each presents a different set of contrasts. The negative will show
the empty spaces and lanes between stars; the positive will show the
arrangement of the stars themselves. It is only by examining both
that \emph{all} the information can be had from a given exposure. This is
certainly true for stellar photographs, and it is even more important
in regard to photographs of surfaces,---as nebulć, the corona, etc.
It should also be remembered that no single negative can establish
the existence of a new nebula. At least two are required.
%-----File: 076.png-----

Experiments by Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard} have shown that many features
may be brought out by the simple device of copying the whole of an
$8×10$ plate on a plate of $3\frac{1}{4} × 4\frac{1}{4}$ inches. This process is analogous
to the automatic one by which a person places a picture to be
viewed at an appropriate distance for seeing the particular details he
wishes to examine. Enlargements of negatives are sometimes serviceable,
also. These simple precautions are worth mentioning, as
they help to emphasize a fundamental point, namely,---that it is far
more important to extract all possible information from a few photographs,
than to make large collections of negatives without sufficiently
examining each of them.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Review of the Early Numbers of the \textit{Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific}.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Review of the early numbers of the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific [by Professor \textsc{E.~Schoenfeld}]}

The \textit{Vierteljahrsschrift} of the German Astronomical Society
(Vol.~24, 1889, p.~210) has a very friendly review of the Nos.~1
and 2 of our own \textit{Publications}, written by Professor E. \textsc{Schoenfeld},
Director of the Observatory of Bonn. The last paragraph is:
``The Reviewer has no right to speak in this place in the name of
the \textit{Astronomische Gesellschaft}; but, in his own name and in that
of other members, he expresses a hearty greeting to the new Society
which has been founded on the Coast of the Pacific Ocean and
wishes for it all success and prosperity.''

It will be gratifying to our members to know of this early and
courteous recognition of our modest beginnings.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Note on the Corona of January~1, 1889.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Note on the Corona of January~1, 1889 [by Professor \textsc{P. Tacchini}]}

Professor \textsc{Tacchini} has a note in the \textit{Atti della R. Accademia
dei Lincei} 1889, page 472, on the corona as shown in a positive-copy
on glass of one of Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard's} negatives. The corona extends,
he says, from $+64°$ to $-68°$ on the west limb of the Sun, and
from $+53°$ to $-68°$ on the east limb. These are about the limits
of the zone of the maximum frequency of protuberances defined by
Professor \textsc{Tacchini's} own observations. Two of the protuberances
of the photograph were observed at Rome and at Palermo. The
other protuberances shown on the photograph were not seen by the
spectroscope, and Professor \textsc{Tacchini} surmises that they belong to
the class of \emph{white} protuberances discovered by him at the eclipses
of 1883 and 1886. This surmise is completely corroborated by
%-----File: 077.png-----
the observations of Professor \textsc{Swift} (L.~O. Eclipse Report, 1889,
Page~203).\pushright{E.~S.~H.}
\medskip

\nbsubsectionheading{Zenographical Fragments.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Zenographical Fragments [by \textsc{A. Stanley Williams, F.~R.~A.~S.}]. Notice by \textsc{E.~S. Holden}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading
{\textit{The Motions and Changes of the Markings on Jupiter, during 1886--7.}}

Under this title Mr.\ A.~\textsc{Stanley Williams}, F.R.A.S., has
printed a handsome octavo volume, of 118 pages and nine carefully
executed plates, which gives the results of his own observations during
1886--7 with a $6\frac{1}{2}$ inch reflecting telescope (power 170). The
work consists of seven sections, as follows: Section I treats of the
instrument and the methods of observation (usually transits over
the central meridian, 312 of which were observed); II treats of the
construction of the chart of the markings on \textit{Jupiter} (which gives
the relative positions of all the spots from all the observations, reduced
to the positions which they would have occupied had every
observation been made April~21, 1887, the date of opposition);
III speaks of the general arrangement of the belts, and gives an excellent
system of nomenclature for the various separate features;
IV, by far the longest section, presents the observations of the different
spots in a most convenient form; V gives a summary of rotation
periods in different Jovian latitudes; VI relates to the different
altitudes (in \textit{Jupiter's} atmosphere) of the different features; while
VII treats of the repellant influence apparently exercised by the
Red Spot on markings in its neighborhood.

This work deserves an extended notice, which cannot be given
here; but it should not be allowed to pass without remark, since it
affords an admirable example of just the kind of work which amateur
observers can prosecute with great success. Its author (a professional
man, constantly occupied) has chosen a definite problem, suitable
to his instrumental equipment, and by dint of clear conceptions
of the nature of the problem to be solved and of persevering observations
in his leisure moments, has produced a work of lasting value.
It appears that this volume is to be followed by others on the same
subject from the same hand. It can be obtained from \textsc{Mitchell \&
Hughes}, publishers, 140 Wardour street, London. The price is
not stated.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Accommodation for Visitors to the Observatory.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Accommodation for Visitors to the Observatory}

In order to accommodate visitors to the Observatory on the public
evenings, a continuous bench, long enough to seat one hundred
%-----File: 078.png-----
persons, has been built on the east, south and west sides of the upper
gallery of the large dome. As we sometimes have as many as
two hundred and fifty visitors to the Observatory during one of our
public nights, this addition has become necessary.

The Gundlach Optical Co., of Rochester, N.~Y., is making a
low-power eye-piece with a large field---something like half a degree---for
the use of visitors who come to see the Moon. Such an eye-piece
will show enough of the lunar surface to make a \emph{picture} with a
background of sky, which is what is really needed to convey the
effect. The eye-pieces used in the regular astronomical observations
have fields of view of hardly more than $10'$ of arc, and, hence, only
serve to show a limited portion of the Moon's surface---less than
one-tenth, usually. As the image of the Moon in the large telescope
is 6.51 inches in diameter, it follows that the field lens of the new
eye-piece must be of about the same dimensions. It will be useful
in real work also, for objects like nebulć  and comets, where a large
field and full contrast are required.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\nbsubsectionheading{American Equatorial Mountings on Sale in Berlin.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad American Equatorial Mountings in Berlin}

The Observatory has lately received the price-list of \textsc{Th. Wegener}
of Berlin. So far as I have examined it, the instruments appear to be
well-designed. It is not for this reason that it is mentioned, but
because, on page 6, there is given a full-page wood-cut of the equatorial
telescope and mounting of the Observatory of Beloit College,
Wisconsin. This admirable mounting was made by \textsc{Warner \&
Swasey}, of Cleveland, from their own designs, and it is an excellent
model to follow. It would have been more straightforward for Herr
\textsc{Wegener} to have made some acknowledgment of the source from
which he derived his model. His wood-cut has no title, and conveys
the impression that the design was made by him. Messrs.\ \textsc{Warner
\& Swasey} have, however, no cause to complain. Imitation is the
sincerest flattery. I can heartily recommend the design of the mounting
which Herr \textsc{Wegener} proposes to make.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Notes on Double Stars.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Notes on Double Stars. By \textsc{S.~W. Burnham}}

The \textsc{Herschel} companion to $\phi^{1}$ \textit{Aquarii} is shown in the 36-inch
telescope to be a very close double star. From a single measure
the distance appears to be less than $0''.15$, and, of course, it is a different
object, even in a large refractor. This companion has the
same proper motion as the large star, and the relative change is
%-----File: 079.png-----
practically nothing since the measures of \textsc{Struve}, in 1836, when
the distance was $49''.63$ in the position-angle of 312°.2.

Prof. \textsc{Hough} found the neighboring star $\phi^{3}$(95) \textit{Aquarii} double,
with the Chicago $18\frac{1}{2}$-inch refractor, in 1884, the companion being
eleventh magnitude, at a distance of a little more than $1''$. Last year
this was noted independently here with the 12-inch, and measured
on three nights, the result being substantially the same as the
single measure by \textsc{Hough} in 1884. In the course of the observations
given above, this star was looked at with the 36-inch on two or
three nights, but there was not the faintest trace of the companion.
I am wholly unable to account for this failure, as there was apparently
no change in the preceding four years. It should be carefully
watched hereafter.

The sixth magnitude star, 44 \textit{Cassiopeić}, has a minute attendant,
hitherto unseen, at a distance of $1''.7$ from the principal star.

Several new pairs have been found in the \textit{Pleiades}, one of them
following \textit{Alcyone} $64^{\text{s}}$ and about $4'$ north. This is a difficult pair, as
the distance is only $0''.3$, and the components below the ninth magnitude.
Another new pair, still more difficult, is $55^{\text{s}}$ following \textit{Pleione}
(28 \textit{Tauri}). The distance of this pair is about $0''.4$, but the components
are only $11\frac{1}{2}$ magnitude.

Since the time of \textsc{Herschel}, 67 \textit{Ophiuchi} has been known as a
wide double star ($54''$). The large telescope shows a very faint star
at a distance of $6''.8$.

The star D.~M. 63°, 1618, has a very small companion at a distance
of $4''.3$. The principal star is brighter than sixth magnitude,
but is strangely wanting in nearly all of the star catalogues covering
this part of the heavens. It is not in the B.~A.~C., Radcliffe (1 and 2),
Lalande, Argelander U.~N., Heis, Piazzi, Bradley, Romberg, AOe,
Grant, D'Agelet, Armagh, Yarnall, Bonn observations. In fact, it is
found only in the D.~M. and Rumker (No. 8289), the magnitudes
being 5.9 and 5.6, respectively. In the Harvard Photometry the
magnitude is 5.82. In observing it here as a double star the magnitude
was estimated 5.8. It does not appear to be variable, and is
probably a rare example of star catalogue omissions. The attention
of meridian observers is called to this object.\footnote{This star will be observed by Professor \textsc{Schaeberle} with the L.~O. meridian circle.---E.~S.~H.}

The double star, $\Sigma 2816$, consists of a sixth magnitude primary,
and two $7\frac{1}{2}$ m.\ companions with distances from the larger star of
about $12''$ and $20''$, respectively. These stars have remained relatively
%-----File: 080.png-----
fixed since 1832. The large telescope shows a minute companion
within $1''.5$ of the large star.

The fifth magnitude star, 2 \textit{Andromedć}, is a very close and difficult
pair, the distance being only $0''.8$, and the components quite
unequal. This was suspected with the 12-inch, and verified and
measured with the 36-inch.

\textsc{Herschel} noted a ninth magnitude companion to $\alpha$ \textit{Cassiopeić} at
a distance of $63''$. The large telescope shows a very faint star at a
distance of $17''.5$.

The distance of the close pair in $\gamma$ \textit{Andromedć} (0$\Sigma$38) is now
less than $0''.1$. It is very difficult, and the best conditions are
necessary to see the elongation at all with the large telescope.

The binary star, 7 \textit{Tauri}, has been rapidly changing. The distance
now is $0''.30$.

The large refractor fails to show any third star in the system of
70 \textit{Ophiuchi}, and both components are single with all powers. At
one time 72 \textit{Ophiuchi} was thought to be double (0$\Sigma$342), but no
companion can be seen here.\pushright{S.~W.~B.}

\medskip
\nbsubsectionheading{Notes on Stellar Spectra.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Notes on Stellar Spectra. By \textsc{J.~E. Keeler}}

The spectra of the following stars (among many others) have been
examined here during the past summer with a small spectroscope
attached to the 36-inch equatorial, and in response to inquiries which
have been made, I give below a preliminary statement of the results.
The spectroscope which was used has no measuring apparatus, and
the positions of lines are merely eye estimates.

$\gamma$ \textit{Cassiopeić}. This star is the most conspicuous example of
\textsc{Vogel's} class I\textit{c}, and remarkable changes in the bright lines in its
spectrum have been observed by \textsc{von Konkoly}, \textsc{von Gothard} and
others. I have therefore examined it frequently, but, so far, no
changes have been seen. The C and F lines are brilliant, narrow
and sharp; H$\gamma$, in the violet, is seen with some difficulty. The
green is full of very fine, delicate dark lines, seen only under good
atmospheric conditions, the \textit{b} group being somewhat more prominent
than the others. There is also an appearance of faint bright lines in
the green, which may be due to the actual existence of bright lines,
or, perhaps, to spaces between the fine dark lines just mentioned,
seeming bright by contrast. It is difficult to decide on this point.
There are in all eight or ten such places. Somewhat nearer to C
than to the estimated position of D is a fairly prominent dark band,
%-----File: 081.png-----
or, more probably, group of fine lines. Not the slightest trace of
either dark or bright lines can be seen in the vicinity of D. The
continuous spectrum close to the bright hydrogen lines appears
somewhat darker than it does elsewhere, but this I have considered
to be the effect of contrast.

\textit{U Cygni}. This is a very red star, with a spectrum described by
\textsc{Dunér} as III\textit{b}. When examined with the 36-inch refractor it was
of about the tenth magnitude, and the spectrum was dim, but the
zones in the lower part could be distinguished. The blue was
excessively faint. There was no appearance of bright lines.

\textit{V Cygni} is also a very red star, and when examined with the
spectroscope was of about the same brightness as \textit{U Cygni}. Its
spectrum is described by \textsc{Dunér} as III\textit{b}! The sky was remarkably
smoky when observations were made here, and the spectrum was
dim, but at three places in the yellow and green shone with such
comparative brightness that these places appeared like bright lines.
The brightest was the more refrangible yellow line. It is possible
that these lines may be the edges of the usual zones of class III\textit{b},
as \textsc{Dunér} says the yellow and green zones are very bright, but the
appearance was more like that of bright lines.

\textit{D.~M. 43°, No}.~3571. This is a star recently found by Prof.\ \textsc{Pickering},
by the aid of photography (A.~N. 2912), to belong to
class II\textit{b}. It is much like the other stars of this class found by
Prof.\ \textsc{Pickering} and by \textsc{Wolf} and \textsc{Rayet}. The faint spectrum
connecting the principal bright lines in the spectra of these stars
appears to be continuous with a small instrument, but with the
36-inch refractor is seen to be an extremely complicated range of
absorption bands and faint bright lines. The above star differs
from others that I have examined in the unusual broadness and
diffuseness of these faint bands.\pushright{J.~E.~K.}

\nbsubsectionheading{``An Improved Astronomical Mirror.''}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad ``An Improved Astronomical Mirror''}

A device for constructing large telescope mirrors, which has recently
been patented (at an expense of \$60), is described under the
above title in the \textit{Scientific American} for September~7, 1889. The
mirror is a flat, circular disc of metal, supported around its circumference
by a flange or shoulder on the cell. Through a hole in its centre
passes a bolt, and by turning a nut on the outside of the cell, the
mirror is ``buckled'' into shape. The inventor has omitted to mention
that by carrying the motion of the nut to a convenient position
%-----File: 082.png-----
near the eye-piece a ready adjustment of the focus will be obtained.
This method has the great advantages of simplicity and cheapness;
its defects will be ascertained by the inventor when he comes to
try it.\pushright{J.~E.~K.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Observations on the near approach of Mars and Saturn on
September~19, 1889.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Observations of the near approach of Mars and Saturn, September~19 1889. By \textsc{E.~E. Barnard}}
% Transcriber's note: Original text reads "September 29" in the table of contents
% In the Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System is a document (Bibliographic code: 1889QB384.M37......),
% entitled "On the close conjunction of Mars and Saturn near Ragulus on Sept. 19, 1889", author Albert Marth.

The eastern sky was thick with haze when the two planets rose,
and they were not visible until a considerable altitude was attained.
At about 4~\textsc{a.~m.}\ they could be seen dimly with the naked eye;
\textit{Mars}, small and insignificant, slightly east of \textit{Saturn}. As soon as
the images were at all measurable, I made a series of micrometrical
observations of the two for position angle and distance, and for
differences of right ascension and declination, using the 12-inch
equatorial.

Following are the measures which are corrected for refraction in
distance and in the $\Delta \delta$ and $\Delta \alpha$; the times being Mt.\ Hamilton
mean time:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{*{5}{c@{ }}c c@{ }c@{ }l@{ }c c@{ }l@{ } c@{ }c@{ }l}
&&\multicolumn{1}{r@{ }}{\footnotesize\textit{d.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{r@{ }}{\footnotesize\textit{h.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c@{ }}{\footnotesize\textit{m.}}
& \multicolumn{1}{c@{ }}{\footnotesize\textit{s.\;}}
\\
1889.& Sept.& 19 & 16 & 16 & 39.
& \multicolumn{9}{l}{Position angle of \textit{Mars}, $101°.0$ (3).}
\\
``& ``&  19 & 16 & 24 & 24.
& Dist. & betw'n & outer & \multicolumn{2}{@{}l}{limbs of}
& \textit{Mars} & and & \textit{Saturn},
& $356''.1$ (3).
\\
``& ``&  19 & 16 & 29 & 14.
& ``& ``& \multicolumn{2}{@{}l}{nearer} & ``\mbox\quad & ``& ``& ``
& $342''.3$ (3).
\\
``& ``&  19 & 16 & 34 & 19.
& ``& ``& \multicolumn{7}{@{}l}{center and center, $358''.8$ (3).}
\\
``& ``&  19  & 16 & 39 & 49.
& \multicolumn{9}{l}{Position angle of \textit{Mars}, $101°.8$ (4).}
\\
``& ``&  19 & 17 & 36 & \multicolumn{1}{@{}c@{}}{29.\footnotemark[7]}
& \multicolumn{9}{l}{
    $\Delta~\delta$ \hspace{2.5mm}\mars\ $-$ \saturn \hspace{2mm}
    $-1'\;\,39''.2$ (5) apparent.}
\\
``& ``&  19 & 17 & 45 & \multicolumn{1}{@{}c@{}}{49.\footnotemark[7]}
& \multicolumn{9}{l}{
    $\Delta~\alpha$ \hspace{2mm}\mars\ $-$ \saturn \hspace{2mm}
    $-0^\text{m} 29^\text{s}.91$ (11) apparent.}
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}
\footnotetext[7]{These times are for the bisection of \textit{Mars}.}

The most striking feature was when the two planets were fading
from the advent of daylight. At the approach of day \textit{Saturn} assumed
a pale, ashy hue, with a slight tinge of yellow, while \textit{Mars}
retained its lustre in a surprising manner, being of a strong orange
yellow in color; its north polar cap stood out strikingly towards the
close of the observations, a dark marking being also visible near the
middle of the disc. \textit{Saturn} ceased to be visible in the telescope at
18h.\ 6m., the last glimpse being had a few seconds earlier. At this
time \textit{Mars} was easily conspicuous, the sun being 5° or 6° high and the
sky pretty thick. At 18h.\ 10m.\ \textit{Mars} began to grow pale. At 18h.\ 25m.\ it
was still visible but very pale and easily lost in the field, though
it could have been followed for some time longer. By the time the
%-----File: 083.png-----
planets were high enough to observe with the large telescope they
had separated too far to be brought into the field of view of the
largest eye-piece.\pushright{E.~E.~B.}\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent\textsc{Mt. Hamilton}, Sept. 20th, 1889.}

\nbsubsectionheading{The Uses of Trails of Stars in Measurements of Position
or of Brightness.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad The Uses of Trails of Stars in Measurements of Position or of Brightness. By \textsc{E.~S. Holden}}

Photographs of star groups may be made for either one of three
important objects. They may serve---(\textit{a}) to give a picture merely;
(\textit{b}) for measurement of the relative positions of the stars of the group;
or, (\textit{c}) for measurement of the photographic magnitudes of the stars
of the group. For the first purpose the stars must be photographed
as points or \emph{dots}. Such dots may also be used for the purposes \textit{b}
and \textit{c}. For the purposes \textit{b} and \textit{c} it will often be very advantageous
to employ \emph{trails} instead of \emph{dots}. The difference of declination of
two stars, A and B, can be more accurately determined from measures
made of the distance apart of their \emph{trails} than from measures of the
distance of the corresponding \emph{dots}; just as a star can be more accurately
bisected in declination by a Z.~D. micrometer than in R.~A.\ by
a fixed thread. Hence the use of trails in R.~A. If now we can
produce trails in declination, a corresponding advantage can be had
for measures of differences of R.~A. The negative plate of the
great equatorial is to be mounted on a compound slide-rest. The
upper slide-rest which carries the plate has a motion in any desired
direction (usually in R.~A.), and the lower slide-rest, which carries
both plate and upper rest, has a motion at right angles to the direction
for the upper slide.

If a clock-work motion is attached to the lower slide, this slide
can be moved in declination (say) for a certain distance (only).
It will finally come to the end of its run. Suppose the telescope at
rest, the objective covered and the lower slide-rest moving in declination.
If an exposure is now made, we shall have trails suitable
for measuring differences of R.~A. After a few minutes, the lower
slide comes to the end of its run. Trails in R.~A. are now produced,
which are suitable for measures of differences of declination.

The direction of motion of the lower slide may be ordered in
\emph{any} desired position angle. Thus we may choose the direction of
the first set of trails so as to be most advantageous for the subsequent
measures. The second set of trails will always be in R.~A.
The angle between the first and second directions will define the
%-----File: 084.png-----
position angle of the first trails. It is believed that this simple
method will have important bearings on the determination of stellar
parallax by photography, a research for which the great equatorial
is especially fitted.

Trails may also be used to determine the magnitudes of the stars.
The blackening of the plate is proportional to the photographic magnitude
of the star and to the star's rate of motion on the plate (and
to other things, also).

Two stars at different declinations will move at different rates on
the plate and hence will produce trails of different intensity. A
(theoretical) correction for the different rates of motion can be made
and the measures of the relative intensities of the trails can be taken
as measures of the relative magnitudes of the stars. This method
has been extensively used by the Harvard College Observatory.

I will not here discuss the objections to the method, but will
simply show how all objections can be overcome by adopting an ingenious
proposal made by Professor \textsc{Schaeberle}. His suggestion is
to photograph the trails of all stars on a plate moving in declination
at the same rate that an equatorial star moves in R.~A. All trails
will then have the same exposure. The rate of the clock which
drives the plate in declination can be tested at any time by photographing
\emph{both} trails (R.~A. and Dec.) of the same equatorial star.

It appears to me that a photometry of all stars sufficiently bright
to give such trails should be made by this method. For fainter stars
the method described by Professor \textsc{Schaeberle} \textit{(Publ.\ Ast.\ Soc.\ Pacific},
No.~4) should be employed.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent\textsc{Lick Observatory}, July~15, 1889.}

\clearpage
%-----File: 085.png-----

\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, held
September~28, 1889, at the Lick Observatory.}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, September~28, 1889}

A quorum was present.

The report of the Treasurer was received and ordered on file.

The printing of a circular of information was authorized.

Hon. R.~W. \textsc{Waterman}, Governor of California; \textsc{Henry Lord Boulton},
Esq., Caracas, Venezuela; Mrs. \textsc{Anna Palmer Draper}, New York City, were
duly elected as life members of the Society.

It was \textit{Resolved}, That the design for the Society's diploma recommended by
the Committee be adopted, and that 500 copies of it be printed by Messrs.\ \textsc{Button}
\& \textsc{Rey}.

Mr.\ \textsc{Pierson} reported that the Society had been incorporated on August
28, 1889.

The thanks of the Board of Directors were offered to Mr.\ \textsc{Pierson} for his
kind services in the matter of incorporating the Society, and also to Mr.\ \textsc{Knox},
notary. The fees to State officers were ordered paid.

It was ordered that the Secretary in San Francisco be furnished with a revolving
fund of \$10 for the payment of petty bills. Adjourned.

\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Minutes of the Meeting of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, held September~28, 1889, at the
Lick Observatory.}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the Meeting of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, September~28, 1889}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\small
\textsc{[Prepared by the Secretaries for Publication.]}}

The minutes of the meeting of July~27 were read and approved.

A list of presents to the Society was read, and thanks were returned to the
donors.

The following persons were elected to membership (the names of life-members,
duly elected by the Board of Directors, are marked with a star (*):
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad List of Members elected}

\begin{longtable}[l]{@{}ll}
\textsc{Henry Lord Boulton}, F.R.A.S.,*& Caracas, Venezuela.\label{cor4} \rlap{(Box 2015, New York
City)}\\ % corrected per corrigenda
Rev. \textsc{A.~L. Brewer},& San Mateo, Cal.\\
\textsc{George W. Beaver},& 418 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Hon. \textsc{John L. Beard},& Warm Springs, Alameda Co., Cal.\label{cor5}\\ % corrected per corrigenda
\textsc{A.~J. Burnham},& Lick Observatory, Cal.\\
Mrs. \textsc{Anna Palmer Draper},*& 271 Madison Avenue, New York City.\\
\textsc{W.~E. Downs},& Berkeley, Cal.\\
\textsc{S.~J. Cunningham},& Swarthmore College, Delaware Co., Penn.\\
Prof. \textsc{Geo. C. Edwards},& Berkeley, Cal.\\
Prof. \textsc{T.~C. George},& University of the Pacific, San José, Cal.\\
Prof. \textsc{Alfred Higbie},& University of the Pacific, San José, Cal.\\
Dr. \textsc{J.~C. Hawyer},& Auburn, Cal.\\
Hon. \textsc{W.~H. Jordan},& 328 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Prof. \textsc{Josiah Keep},& Mills College, Alameda Co., Cal.\\
Miss \textsc{Laura Kimber},& Occidental Hotel, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Dr. \textsc{A. Liliencrantz},& 1459 Telegraph Avenue, Oakland, Cal.\\
\textsc{F.~G. Montealegre},& 230 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
President \textsc{C.~C. Stratton},& Mills College, Alameda Co., Cal.\\
\textsc{Frederick C. Torrey},& 529 Commercial Street, San Francisco, Cal.\label{cor6}\\ % corrected per corrigenda
\textsc{Otto Von Geldern},& 1905 Polk Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Rev. \textsc{J.~H. Wyeth},& Oakland, Cal.\\
Hon. \textsc{R.~W. Waterman},*& Sacramento, Cal.\\
\textsc{E.~C. Winchell},& 1214 Grove Street, Oakland, Cal.\\
\textsc{Edward B. Young},& 430 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\end{longtable}

\medskip
The design for the Society's diploma, which was recommended by the Committee
and has been adopted by the Board of Directors, was exhibited to the
meeting.
%-----File: 086.png-----

\nbsubsubsectionheading{(Extract from the Report of the Committee on the Diploma.)}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Report of the Committee on the Diploma}

``A design for this diploma was prepared by the Committee and sent to Mr.\ \textsc{P.~R. Calvert}
of Nashville, who has made the finished drawing.

``As the Astronomical Society of the Pacific owes its origin to the association
of amateur and professional astronomers in the observation of the Total Solar
Eclipse of January~1, 1889, it was thought appropriate to give a chief position in
the diploma of the Society to the Sun's Corona as then displayed. Accordingly,
the centre of the upper panel contains the Sun, the Moon and the Corona of
January, 1889. To the left and right of this are the symbols of the eight major
planets. The twelve medallions of the lower panel include the twelve Zodiacal
signs, copied from the beautiful designs of Mr.\ \textsc{Vedder}. The right hand panels
represent first, the great comet of 1858, and second, the configuration of the
Constellation of Orion. The stars of this constellation may stand for the stellar
universe; while they also remind us that the central star of the sword-handle
is the nucleus of the grandest of all the nebulć. The drawing of the Muse of
Astronomy---\textit{Urania}---in the left-hand panel is copied from the antique statue of
the Vatican. The national coat of arms in the upper left-hand panel designates
the country in which the Society has its seat, and to which the work of our members
should bring increasing honor as time goes on.''
\pushright{\hbox{\textsc{E.~S. Holden, E.~E. Barnard, W.~B. Tyler}, \textit{Committee}.}\quad}

\medskip
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Designs for the Comet Medal by \textsc{M.~Alphée Dubois}}
It was announced that Mr.\ \textsc{Donohoe} had secured very satisfactory designs for
the Comet Medal from M. \textsc{Dubois} in Paris, and that the dies were now making.

\medskip
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Expeditions to Observe the Eclipse of December~21, 1889}
The Society was also notified that Messrs.\ \textsc{Burnham} and \textsc{Schaeberle} were
to leave California September 29th or 30th for South America, on the expedition
to observe the Total Eclipse of December 21st. Thanks to the generosity of Mr.\ \textsc{Crocker},
the expedition is completely equipped, and, barring bad weather, is
sure of success.

The U.~S. Government will send an expedition in the U.~S.~S. \textit{Pensacola}.
Five thousand dollars has been appropriated to cover the expenses. The expedition
is under Professor \textsc{Todd}. The vessel will touch at St. Paul de Loanda
and from thence two parties will, it is said, separate and go to points on the
Coanza River.

The English expedition to South America under Rev. Father S.~J. \textsc{Perry},
F.~R.~S., will take station at Salute I., near Cayenne. Mr.\ \textsc{Taylor}, F.~R.~A.~S.,
goes to St. Paul de Loanda. Each of these expeditions has the same programme
and twin instruments, viz: an \textsc{Abney} 4-inch photographic lens and a 20-inch
reflector of 45 inches focus. It is hoped to get sixteen pictures at each station.
No spectroscopic work is to be attempted. Miss \textsc{Brown} and Miss \textsc{Jefferys},
who observed the eclipse of 1887 in Russia, expect to observe that of next December
in Trinidad. H.~M.~S. \textit{Comus} is placed at the disposal of the English
expeditions by the British Admiralty.

It is to be regretted that the Lick Observatory Expedition is (apparently) the
only one provided with a lens of more than 45-inch focus. The experience of
last January seems to have shown that the solar images from lenses of less than
60 or 70 inches focus are too small to show much detail in the \emph{inner} corona.

\medskip
The papers presented were:
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Papers presented}

On the Companions to \textsc{Brooks}' Comet (July~23, 1889) discovered at the Lick
Observatory, by E.~E. \textsc{Barnard}.

Drawings of \textit{Jupiter} made with the 26-inch Equatorial at Washington during
1875, by E.~S. \textsc{Holden}.

Drawings of \textit{Jupiter} made with a 5-inch Equatorial at Nashville during the
years 1879--1883, by E.~E. \textsc{Barnard}.

(The drawings of \textit{Jupiter} made by Mr.\ \textsc{Keeler} with the 36-inch Equatorial
during the present opposition were not exhibited for lack of time.)

On the Establishment of a Standard Meridian Line for Santa Clara County,
California, by \textsc{James E. Keeler}.

Occultations of Stars by the Moon, by A.~O. \textsc{Leuschner}.

Conjunction of \textit{Mars} and \textit{Saturn}, September~20, 1889, by W.~E. \textsc{Downs}.

On the Photographic Brightness of the Fixed Stars, by J.~M. \textsc{Schaeberle}.
%-----File: 087.png-----

These papers will be printed in full or in abstract in numbers 4 and 5 of the
Publications.

\medskip
The Society then adjourned to meet at its rooms, 408 California Street, San
Francisco, on November~30, 1889.

\ThoughtBreakLong


\nbsectionheading{OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{List of Officers}

\begin{tabular*}{0.95\textwidth}{@{\extracolsep{\fill}}lcr}
\textsc{Edward S. Holden} (Lick Observatory),
&& \textit{President}\\
\textsc{Wm.~M. Pierson} (76 Nevada Block, S.~F.),
& \multirow{3}{1em}{\Bigg\}}&\\
\textsc{W.~H. Lowden} (213 Sansome Street, S.~F.)
&& \textit{Vice-Presidents}\\
\textsc{Frank Soulé} (Students' Observatory, Berkeley),&&\\
\textsc{Chas. Burckhalter} (Chabot Observatory, Oakland),
&\multirow{2}{1em}{\Big\}}
&\multirow{2}{5em}{\textit{Secretaries}}\\
\textsc{J.~M. Schaeberle} (Lick Observatory),&&\\
\textsc{E.~J. Molera} (850 Van Ness Avenue, S.~F.),
&& \textit{Treasurer}
\end{tabular*}

\compactlisttwo\stretchyspace
\item[] \textit{Board of Directors}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Alvord, Boericke, Burckhalter, Gibbs,
Grant, Holden, Lowden, Molera, Pierson, Schaeberle, Soulé}.
\item[] \textit{Finance Committee}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Gibbs, Pierson, Molera}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on Publication}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Dewey, Treat, Ziel}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on the Comet Medal}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Holden} (\textit{ex officio}), % original has ex-officio
\textsc{Schaeberle}, \textsc{Burckhalter}.
\end{list}

\ThoughtBreak

\nbsectionheading{NOTICE}

Members are requested to preserve the copies of the Publications of the
Society as sent to them. At certain intervals a title page and index of the preceding
numbers will also be sent to the members, who can then bind the numbers
together into a volume.

The titles of papers for reading should be communicated to either of the
Secretaries as early as possible.

Those members who propose to attend any or all of the meetings at Mount
Hamilton during the summer should communicate with Mr.\ \textsc{Burckhalter}, at
the rooms of the Society, 408 California Street, San Francisco, in order that
arrangements may be made for transportation, lodging, etc.
\vfil
\[
  \includegraphics{images/fig4.jpg}
\]
%-----File: 088.png-----
%-----File: 089.png-----

\nbchapterheading
\nbchapterbanner{No.\ 5.}{San Francisco, California, November~30, 1889.}
\nbchaptertoc{No.\ 5. (November~30, 1889).}

\nbsectionheading{OBSERVATIONS OF \textit{JUPITER} WITH A FIVE-INCH
REFRACTOR, DURING THE YEARS 1879--1886.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Observations of Jupiter with a 5-inch Refractor during the years 1879 to 1886.
By \textsc{E.~E. Barnard}. (Plates I, II, III, IV accompany)}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By \textsc{E.~E. Barnard}.}\\*
\shortrule}

During the years 1879 and 1880 I was constantly employed in
the daytime with my business duties; but every possible opportunity
was used in astronomical observations at night. The latter part
of 1879 and the major part of 1880 were devoted to an extended
series of observations and drawings of \textit{Jupiter.}

These observations were made at Nashville, Tennessee, ($\lambda =
+0^{\text{h}}39^{\text{m}}.0; \phi = +36°10'$), and before I was connected with the
Vanderbilt University Observatory.

The telescope was a five-inch refractor, mounted on a portable
tripod, without a driving clock. A magnifying power of 173 diameters
was nearly always employed---the instability of the mounting
preventing the use of a much higher power. A right-angled prism
was used with the eye-piece. This shows the planet reversed, but not
inverted. In sketching, a small wooden box or desk was used, with
a glass in the top, on which the paper was laid. A faint illumination
from below, through the sketching paper, was obtained from the
reflected light of a candle. By this means I could sit with the desk
on my knees and compare the telescopic image directly with the
drawing.

The drawings were very carefully made, and faithfully show the
markings as they appeared upon the planet at the time of observation.
Professor \textsc{Holden} has lately seen these drawings, and suggested
that I collect them together and prepare them for reproduction
by photo-lithography. I have, therefore, selected forty-five of them
as fairly representing the phenomena of \textit{Jupiter} during the period of
observation, and they are reproduced in Plates I, II, III, IV, following.
Constant reference should be made to the plates by the reader.
In these plates the top of each drawing is north; the bottom is south;
%-----File: 090.png-----
the right-hand side is east, or following; the left-hand side is west,
or preceding.

During the observations the usual appearance of the planet was
about as follows: Around the equatorial regions was a broad band
or belt, which could really be said to be two belts; for it was always
divided longitudinally by a sinuous, lighter portion, which was sometimes
much broken by diffusions from the belts and by cloud-like
forms. In the observations, I have considered this great belt as two,
and have called the parts, respectively, the north and the south equatorial
belts, or, collectively, the equatorial belt. Considered as one,
the belt was about one-fifth the polar diameter of the planet in width.

Just south of the equatorial belt was situated the Great Red Spot,
covering an area of over two hundred million square miles---greater
than the entire surface of our earth.

On the inner part of the south equatorial belt was frequently seen
a brilliant white spot, which had a very strong proper motion with
reference to the Red Spot.

To the north of the equator were situated three narrow lines or
belts. I have designated these as the first, second and third linear
belts. The third was usually the border of the north polar cap, while
the first became the scene of remarkable changes about the 1st of
November, 1880.

What principally attracted my attention to the planet was the
appearance of the Great Red Spot. The early history of this object
seems to be rather obscure, but it was certainly seen as early as July,
1878, by Professor \textsc{Pritchett}, at Glasgow, Missouri, and was probably
seen at intervals as early as 1870.

It was first seen by me in the early morning of August~3, 1879.
I had heard nothing of it; and while observing and sketching \textit{Jupiter}
it came into view around the following limb, and was so remarkable
in form and color that I was at once struck with its appearance. On
this date the form of the spot was different from what it was at any
of my subsequent observations. While the south edge of the spot
was nearly straight and the following end blunt, the north edge
tapered towards the preceding end, strikingly like the drawing by
\textsc{Trouvelot} in the \textit{Observatory} for April, 1879 (p.~411).

It will be seen that my drawings nearly all show some phase of
the Red Spot. I have so selected them because it was the principal
object of interest with a small telescope, and therefore received the
most attention. Though the Red Spot was watched carefully, I
never saw any details on its surface until the latter part of the observations,
%-----File: 091.png-----
when a whitish cloud formed upon it. Changes were sometimes
seen, however, in the form of the spot. These were confined
to the ends, which occasionally appeared rounded, and, again, were
very much pointed, or cigar-shaped. Faint trails were frequently
seen running from one end or the other of the spot, and sometimes
from both ends at the same time; the most persistent of these was
the trail from the preceding end.

One of the most interesting features of the Great Spot was the
repulsion it seemed to exert upon adjacent markings on the planet.
For a time it was surrounded by a sea of light that completely encircled
it for a distance of three or four thousand miles (see drawing of
October~3, 1879), and which appeared as a visible barrier against
the approach of any spot or marking. So manifest was this repellant
force that, as early in the observations as 1879, I called attention to
it in the \textit{English Mechanic} (Vol.~30, p.~166).

There was, however, one striking exception to this general rule:
In July, 1880, a dense, smoky shading was seen apparently attached
to the south side of the Red Spot, extending to the south preceding,
and covering an area but little less than the Great Spot itself. This
eventually passed the Red Spot, and, having a shorter period, soon
left it far behind, and finally became squeezed out into a short longitudinal
belt or spot, some twenty-five or thirty thousand miles long.
Two white belts, one on each side, seemed to compress it into a definite
form, that now extended east and west, instead of southwest and
northeast, its primitive direction.

During the observations, a great number of estimates were made of
the instant that the Great Spot was in transit across the central meridian
of the disc of \textit{Jupiter}. In discussing his micrometer measures
of such transits from June to December, 1880, on thirty-one days,
Prof. \textsc{Hough} says that his observations ``gave for the mean error of
a single pair of measures $\pm 0^{\text{m}}.9$, and for the average mean probable
error for any day, $\pm 0^{\text{m}}.4$, on the observed transit of the Red Spot
over the central meridian,'' and further remarks: ``It may be inferred
from these results that the use of a micrometer is infinitely preferable
to any method of estimation.'' Among the observations of
the Red Spot I have forty-four complete and carefully estimated
transits---that is, observations of the preceding end, middle, and
following end of the spot. Twenty-one of these are from a single
but careful estimate of each phase. These give the probable error
of a transit of the center from the mean of the three observations =
$\pm 1^{\text{m}}.0$. In twenty-three of these transits three estimations were
%-----File: 092.png-----
made of each phase; from these I get for the transit of the middle
from the mean of the nine observations the error of the transit, $=
\pm 0^{\text{m}}.7$. These values are comparable with the best micrometer measures.
It is evident that they should be so. The Red Spot moves
through an angle of about 0°.6 in $1^{\text{m}}$. At transit this amounts to a
change of distance from the limb of about $0''.2$. It is clear, that with
a five-inch telescope the position of the spot could not have been
fixed more closely with a micrometer (even if I had been provided
with one, which was not the case) than it was by the method of transits.
I think the sole advantage of micrometer measures in a case of this
kind is that they can be made \emph{near} the transit, thus saving time
by not having to wait for special phases, and that they can be
repeated until the accidental error of the result is reduced to a small
quantity.

I have inserted the above comparisons to show what accuracy
may be obtained by carefully made estimates, and as an encouragement
to those who have not all the accurate appliances of an observatory
to work with.

During the observations, which frequently extended over an
interval before the appearance of the Red Spot at the following
limb and until after it had disappeared at the preceding limb, I
several times noted the moment when the first trace of the Red Spot
could be seen at the \textit{f.}\ limb. The mean of seven such observations,
compared with the observed transit of the center of the spot, gave the
interval $2^{\text{h}}1^{\text{m}}$ from the first trace of the \textit{p.}\ end of the Red Spot at the
\textit{f.}\ limb, until the center of the spot was in transit. This gives $1^{\text{h}}36^{\text{m}}$
as the time that a mark of the same distinctness as the Red Spot,
and at the same distance from the equator, could be seen before its
transit; $3^{\text{h}}12^{\text{m}}$ is, therefore, the total duration of visibility of \emph{any}
point of the Red Spot during a rotation. Thus the spot could never
be altogether invisible through rotation for a greater interval than
$5^{\text{h}}53^{\text{m}}$ from the time the \textit{f.}\ end disappeared at the \textit{p.}\ limb until the \textit{p.}\ end
reappeared at the \textit{f.}\ limb. The mean of two estimates gave $1^{\text{h}}9^{\text{m}}$ as
the interval between the time when the spot was clearly seen free
within the \textit{f.}\ limb and the time of transit of its center. Slight variations
in the tint and depth of color of the spot were noticed, and it
was frequently contrasted with some portion of the equatorial belt;
but as the belt itself was probably subject to a far greater change in
depth and color than the Red Spot, such a comparison would not be
very conclusive proof of change.

It would take up too much space to give the observations, even in
%-----File: 093.png-----
an abbreviated form, so I shall briefly summarize the most important
points:

\nbsubsectionheading{The Color of the Red Spot.}

\begin{description}
\item[1879.] Aug.~2, it is described as of the color of red-hot iron.

\item[1880.] July~11, a clear, darkish Indian red, brighter in color than
equatorial belt; July~24, a clearer red than equatorial belt; July~29,
a light Indian red, the belts a duller red; Aug.~16, a brick-dust
color---same tint as north equatorial belt; Sept.~14, a lighter red,
very much lighter than north belt; Sept. 16, a brick red, more
strongly marked than the north band; Sept. 25, a deep brick-dust
color; Sept. 30, a distinct red, the equatorial bands a heavier red;
Oct.~7, a redder color than the belts; Oct.~13, a heavy red, clear
and sharp; Oct.~20, a light, clear red; Nov.~1, a pale red; Nov.~3,
a deep brick-dust color; Nov.~11, a solid red, well outlined; Nov.~20,
a little less deep in color, but very much redder than the belts.

\item[1881.] Jan.~7, not so well defined at edges, but a deeper tint at
the middle; July~2, a pale light red; July~9, the spot is even of a
deeper tint than last year; Oct.~31, lightish red.

\item[1882.] Jan.~23, faintish red, very pale.

\item[1885.] April~25, it is very faint---quite difficult to observe---a
very pale red; April~28, it is very well seen, and is clearly outlined
all round; May~12, very faint; May~15, fairly distinct, probably a
white mass superposed on it.

\item[1886.] April~8, a long white cloud clearly seen on the Red Spot;
April~22, very faint, a whitish strip of cloud on it, north of middle.
\end{description}

\nbsubsectionheading{Trails from the Ends of the Red Spot.}

Faint reddish trails were recorded on the following dates:

\begin{description}
\item[1879.] Oct.~3, faint trail from following end.

\item[1880.] July~11, faint trail from preceding end; July~18, faint
trail from each end; Aug.~16, faint trail from each end; Aug.~30,
faint trail from each end; Sept. 16, faint trail from each end; Nov.
18, faint trail from preceding end; Nov.~20, faint trail from preceding
end.

\item[1886.] Nov.~5, faint trail from preceding end.
\end{description}

These usually were about 2$''$ or 3$''$ long.


\nbsubsectionheading{Size of the Red Spot.}

Frequent estimations were made, at the telescope, of the relative
size of the Red Spot, on dates extending from July, 1880, to December
14, 1880. Following are the estimations:
%-----File: 094.png-----

\begin{description}
\item[\textit{Breadth}:] From twelve estimates of its breadth north and south,
it was just perceptibly less than one-half the breadth of the equatorial
band = estimate I; while eight estimates made it exactly one-half
= estimate II\@. One estimate placed it perceptibly greater than one-half
= estimate III.

\item[\textit{Length}:] Sixteen estimates made the length very slightly less than
one-third the length of the same parallel of the disc of \textit{Jupiter}
= estimate I; while the mean of six other estimates made it 0.32
that distance in length = estimate II.

\item[\textit{Distance of North Edge of Spot from South Edge of Belt}:]
Twenty-four estimates of the distance between the north edge of the
spot and the south edge of the equatorial belt gave it 0.40 of the
width of the spot, with decided and considerable variability (which
never, however, exceeded one-half).
\end{description}

Adopting from the \textit{Report} of the Dearborn Observatory for 1882
Professor \textsc{Hough}'s micrometer measures of the breadth of the equatorial
bands (for a period exactly covering my estimation) as $= 7''.04$,
and his value for the radius of the parallel of the center of the Red
Spot $= 17''.94$, we have the above estimations expressed in seconds
of arc at the distance unity.
\medskip

\begin{small}
\noindent\begin{tabular}{@{}llrl}
\textsc{Breadth of Spot}:& Estimate & I &= very slightly less than $3''.5$.\\
&Estimate & II &= $3''.5$.\\
&Estimate & III &greater than $3''.5$.\\
\textsc{Length of Spot}:&  Estimate & I &= very slightly less than $12''.0$.\\
&Estimate & II &$= 11''.5$.\\
\end{tabular}

\smallskip
\noindent\textsc{Distance North Edge of Spot From South Edge of Belt}: Assuming,
with the above estimates, the breadth of spot to equal $3''.5$, the estimates give
the distance above as $1''.4$.

\end{small}

\nbsubsectionheading{The Bay at the Red Spot Formed by the South Equatorial
Belt.}

This singular recurring feature of the south equatorial belt is
worthy of particular attention. As it seems intimately connected
with the Red Spot, it had best be mentioned here. In a drawing
published in the \textit{Observatory} for April, 1879 (p.~411), \textsc{Trouvelot}
shows a sharp curvature of the south side of the equatorial belt
around the preceding end of the Great Spot, forming, as it were, a
bay. He says it had disappeared and reappeared no less than three
times in a little over a year, always reappearing at the same place
with reference to the Red Spot. This bay, or a similar one, is shown
in my drawing of October~3, 1879. It then curved south, following
%-----File: 095.png-----
the Red Spot, the southern limit diffusing very greatly, but sharply
terminated where it curved down following the spot. It is shown
thus also in a drawing of September~14, 1879. It was wholly absent
throughout 1880, the south edge of the equatorial band being perfectly
straight all around the planet. The first indication I have of
its return is February 4, 1882, (the observations had, however, ceased to
be continuous after 1880), when I recorded that the south equatorial
band ``appeared to blend southwards, following the Red Spot.'' In
1885, this feature was distinctly marked---the appearance being the
same as in 1879, except that its extreme south edge did not blend so
much as in that year. Its presence was marked on April~25, May~12,
May~15, and, 1866, April~22, when the planet was examined. The
absence of other dates indicates only that the region of the Red Spot
was not examined, and not that the bay existed only on these dates.
At the Lick Observatory I have seen it frequently at the present
opposition just as it was in 1879. That this is intimately connected
with the forces that produce the Red Spot there is no doubt. In connection
with this feature and the Red Spot, I would mention a singular
thin red line that sprung out from the south edge of the equatorial band
like a spur, and, curving backwards, ran along parallel to the south
edge of the equatorial belt for some distance. This is shown in
the drawings of 1880, September~18, 28, 30, and October~10. Prof.
\textsc{Hough} has figured this singular object in a drawing made September
9, 1880, with the 18$\frac{1}{2}$-inch refractor, just as I have seen it,
except that he does not show it of a red color. (See \textit{Report Dearborn
Observatory}, 1882.) It occupied a place near the preceding
curve of the bay. Though this spur-line joined the south edge of the
equatorial belt, to which it seemed attached, it did not partake of its
motion; for throughout its visibility it retained the same position with
reference to the Red Spot, showing that its period was the same
as that of the spot, while the period of the belt is about $5\frac{1}{2}^{\text{m}}$
shorter.

I have already mentioned the smoky shading which, in July,
1880, seemed to be attached to the Red Spot, and which finally
passed by it through a more rapid rotation. It is shown on a great
many of the drawings. I would specially call attention to those of
Pl. I (July 24, 29, August, 16, 17, September~9, 11); Pl. II (September
30, October~7, 10, November~1). The drawing of July~24,
1880, shows a very small spot near transit in the southern hemisphere.
This small spot was usually quite hard to see, but was
clearly defined and dusky when best seen; it was probably about 4000
%-----File: 096.png-----
miles long and some 2000 miles wide. The remarkable features were
its permanency and its slow rotation period. Its period being somewhat
less than the Red Spot, it slowly drifted westward from that
object, and probably, in course of time, completed a circuit of the
planet, which it would do in a little over two years, when it would
again be in the region of the Red Spot. It is shown in several of
the drawings.

\nbsubsectionheading{The Equatorial White Spot.}

Throughout the entire period of my observations, there was
present on the planet a very remarkable White Spot, situated on, or
generally imbedded in, the north edge of the south equatorial band.
This object was subject to remarkable changes of form and brightness.
It required but a few observations to show that it was in
rapid motion with reference to the Red Spot. Its period was nearly
five and a-half minutes shorter than that of the Great Spot. Its westward
drift with reference to that object was about 8° of longitude
per day, or about 2430 miles, at every rotation of the planet. This
rapid relative motion with reference to the Red Spot would therefore
carry it completely around the planet in forty-five days, and a number
of such revolutions were actually observed. It required but four
days for this swiftly moving body to completely pass the Red Spot,
which it soon left far behind, and in twenty-two and one-half days it
would be on the opposite side of the planet. I would refer to the
drawings of Plate~III (November~18, 20, 22 and 23), where one of
these passages of the Red Spot is shown. The motion of this object
was not perfectly uniform. At times it seemed to slacken its speed,
and then to spurt forward again. Among the surprising things about
this spot were its great changes, both of form and brightness. At
times it became so bright as to glisten like a star. When in this
condition it was by far the brightest object on the planet. For a
while it would appear as a rather small, inconspicuous, light, oval
spot, imbedded in the dark matter of the north edge of the south
equatorial band. In this state it would scarcely attract attention.
It would next be seen brilliantly white, burying its head in the dusky
matter of the belt, with a vast, luminous train streaming backwards
along the equatorial regions, like the tail of a comet. Sometimes
this train was composed of white, cloud-like balls, that streamed eastward
on the planet. After continuing thus for some time, it would
seem to have wasted its energies, and would then assume the quiescent
state. I have tried to connect these changes of brightness with
the changes of motion, but have not been able to do so, though there
%-----File: 097.png-----
is doubtless a relation between them. When at its brightest it seemed
to burrow in the south band and plow the matter before it. A long,
sinuous rift in the northern part of the north equatorial band had
constantly the same relative position to the White Spot, and was
perhaps in the same layer of the planet's atmosphere. Probably all
the objects in the equatorial regions had the same motion as the
White Spot, or were stationary, relative to it. Indeed, the entire
belt is revolving around the planet once in forty-five days, relatively
to the Red Spot.

I will select a few of the many notes I have on this object and
those connected with it:

\begin{description}
\item[1880.] Aug.~13 ($13^\text{h}~33^\text{m}$), a brilliant white spot appearing at the
\textit{f.}\ limb; Aug.\ 16 ($11^\text{h}$), very white; Aug.\ 18, bright spot n.~f.\ Red
Spot, followed by light, cloudy masses; Aug.\ 23, the bright spot of
the 18th has toned down; Aug.\ 30, bright; Sept.\ 10 ($10^\text{h}\ 30^\text{m}$),
brilliant, with train; Sept.\ 15 ($9^\text{h}\ 30^\text{m}$), very bright, with train of
white, cloudy masses; Sept.\ 24 (about $9^\text{h}$), a bright head, with long,
curved stream of white matter following; Sept.\ 28 ($11^\text{h}\ 30^\text{m}$), bright;
Sept.\ 31 ($7^\text{h}\ 33^\text{m}$), two large white spots about midway the disc, a
smaller one between them---they all shine with a very white luster;
Nov.\ 11, a great number of white balls seen near $10^\text{h}$; Nov.\ 18,
white; Nov.\ 20, it is more isolated from the other matter---pale
white, diffused at edges; Nov.\ 22, smaller and pale, about the size
of Satellite I, but much paler; Nov.\ 23, it is smaller and paler;
Nov.\ 24 ($9^\text{h}\ 20^\text{m}$), light; Nov.\ 29, white. When best seen, it is
roundish. It seems to push a dark mass in front of it; it is as large
as a satellite.

\item[1881.] Jan.\ 7, very bright and well-defined---it keeps the mass
of matter pushed up in front of it as before; Aug.\ 3, a small white
spot; Oct.\ 29, a very bright spot, with luminous and clouded train;
Nov.\ 1, bright, and plowing its way along the equatorial regions;
Nov.\ 12, white and distinct, about the size of a satellite, a clouded
train following.

\item[1882.] Feb.\ 4, white---fainter, luminous train.

\item[1886.] May~13, white, luminous train.
\end{description}

The above times do not necessarily refer to its transit. These
apparitions were doubtless the same object, as they refer to a bright
body imbedded in the inner edge of the south band, and just south
of the equator. From the comparisons of its size to the satellites, it
was probably about two or three thousand miles in diameter. It is
shown on the drawings for (Pl.~I) Aug.\ 13, 16, Sept.\ 10; (Pl.~II)
%-----File: 098.png-----
Sept.~24, 28, 30, Nov.~7; (Pl.~III) Nov.~18, 22, 23, and (Pl.~IV)
Nov.~5, 1881.

\nbsubsectionheading{The Equatorial Belts.}

The equatorial belts were subject to many internal changes.
These changes, though frequent, are not so great as one would be
led to think from examining, say, that region just north of the Great
Spot. Part of the changes are due to the continual drift of the belt
past the Red Spot; thus every few days presenting an entirely different
part of the belt to view from any one standpoint. As an illustration
of this, we have only to follow the White Spot in its journey
around the planet. I would also refer to (Pl.~II) the drawings of
September~30 and October~7, where a decided drift of the dusky
masses is shown. These belts changed in strength and depth of
color. When I first examined the belts, in 1879, the northern one
was reddish, while the southern was bluish; the two being separated
by a whitish, serpentine division. Though my notes contain
frequent reference to the colors of these belts, it will probably be
best, considering the limited space, to very briefly state a few of the
observations in a general form.

\nbsubsectionheading{Colors of the Equatorial Belts.}

North of the narrow, light rift in the northern part of the north
belt, the color was frequently of a deep, rich vermilion, while the rest
of the belt towards the equator was of a much lighter red, though
at times it became a very deep, darkish red. The south belt remained
bluish for a long time, and I first began to call it reddish about the
middle of August, 1880. Even in September I have called it a drab
color. On September~9, 1880, when the Red Spot was in transit,
the north band was a warm purple, while the south one was a cold
purple. On October~10, 1880, at $10^\text{h}$, part of the north band, north
of rift, was a dark, heavy red, while the south band was a bluish-gray,
mixed with red; while on October~13, at $8^\text{h}$--$9^\text{h}$, they were both
a deep red. On October~10, 1881, both sides of the belt were reddish,
while the inside was bluish.

\nbsubsectionheading{Forms in the Equatorial Bands, etc.}

The belts were usually clearly and sharply defined at their polar
edges and perfectly straight. The peculiar disturbances to which they
were subject were confined to their inner edges or to parts near the
equator. Besides the famous White Spot that has been mentioned,
there were sometimes the most exquisitely beautiful forms at the equator.
%-----File: 099.png-----
These came and went---at times filling the interior of the great
belt with dusky, cloud-like forms and softly delicate plumes that
were very transitory. At times the belts appeared as one, being
completely filled in with one solid tint. Such was the case, 1880,
September 25, when the part visible (with the Great Spot central)
was dusky and evenly filled in, and the belt in every respect was one
solid, unbroken shade. I have never seen it, before or since, so
absolutely uniform in tint. A few days after this (September~28)
faint forms began to appear in the equatorial regions near the Red
Spot. The south band was usually well-defined at both edges, and
rather narrow, the inner edge being more or less undulating. At
other times, there were large, soft, dusky, feathery projections from
it, spreading out to the equator; in almost every case, these streamed
backward, towards the east limb, as if the south belt were moving
faster than the equatorial region. The north band was markedly
different from this. It was always much diffused towards the equator.
The edges were sometimes festooned with dusky, cloud-like forms. I
would refer to the drawings of Pl.~III (November~10, 22); Pl.~II
(October~7, 10, etc.), as showing the differences in the two belts. A
long light rift was frequently visible near the extreme north edge of
the north band. From the fact that this always bore the same relative
position to the bright spot in the south band, I infer that the north
component of the equatorial band rotated in the same time as the
south component; but from the retarded appearance of the dusky
masses projected from the inner edge of the south band, and frequently
from the north band, one might also infer a somewhat slower
rotation at the equator. This, however, is a mere conjecture, with no
other warrant than appearances.

In reference to this retardation of the masses projected from the
south band toward the equator, I quote an observation of mine on
April~1, 1886, respecting one of the most remarkable appearances
that I have seen on \textit{Jupiter}: ``At $12^\text{h}\,45^\text{m}$, three of the dark projections
ranged along the inner edge of the belt and just south of the
equator. I noticed that from the summit of each there extended for
a short distance in a following direction, a dusky streak, looking like
smoke. I was strongly impressed with the resemblance to what might
be called a silhouette view of three volcanic peaks, ranged in a line
and vomiting smoke, which a strong wind was carrying eastward!''
(\textit{Sid.~Mess.}, May, 1886, p.~156.)
%-----File: 100.png-----

\nbsubsectionheading{The History of the Formation of a New Belt.}

In all the drawings previous to the 1st of November, 1880, a
very thin line or belt is shown, just north of the north equatorial belt.
In the first observation, in 1879, this narrow line was reddish, and
formed a neat border to the north side of a delicate band or space
that lay between it and the equatorial band. It was also the south
edge or border to a delicate broad white band that encircled the
northern hemisphere. Finally, the delicate band south of it faded,
and became of the same tint as the light band to the north, thus leaving
the border occupying the position of a distinct linear belt around the
planet. This is what I have called the first north linear belt, or, simply,
the first linear belt. It continued thus perfectly linear, without a mark
on it, until the latter part of October, when it rapidly underwent a
change so remarkable that I have thought it worth describing in detail.
On the night of October~21, 1880, at $9^\text{h}\,30^\text{m}$, this belt appeared a little
swollen, or thicker than usual. On the 23d, the entire planet seemed to
be undergoing a great change, so much so that I wrote in my note book:
``\textit{Jupiter} is undergoing some remarkable changes now; there are a
great many degrees of shade, somewhat like ill-defined spots and
light spaces, appearing in the southern hemisphere near the Great
Spot. The space between the north edge of the north equatorial
band and the first linear belt is deepening in tint, as it was last year---a
grayish green. At $8^\text{h}$ the first linear belt near the following limb is
knobbed in appearance, as if several little dark beads were strung on
it, and at $9^\text{h}$ it was seen to have two pretty distinct, dusky spots on it,
close to each other.''

On account of the remarkable character of these changes I feel
that it is proper, strictly as a matter of record, to give my notes
in full:

\begin{description}
\item[1880.\; Nov.~1.] \textit{Jupiter} has been undergoing some remarkable
changes. From the time the Red Spot began to appear until after
its transit, the first linear belt was composed of a string of large dusky
spots. I counted five, each as large as the shadow of a satellite.
Under the best definition, they appeared as black as the shadows of
the two satellites (I and II, shown in the drawing), and the belt elsewhere
appeared thicker than usual.

\item[Nov.~2.] At $6^\text{h}\,30^\text{m}$ the affected belt observed last night appeared
very heavily marked.

\item[Nov.~3.] $7^\text{h}\,45^\text{m}$. The disturbed portion of the belt just appearing.
At $8^\text{h}\,25^\text{m}$, the affected part reaches from the following limb to near
%-----File: 101.png-----
midway the disc. It is heavy, broad and uneven. $8^{\text{h}}40^{\text{m}}$. The first
portion of this is in transit; a number of roundish, cloudy masses
on it clear to the following limb.

\item[Nov.~4.] It is heavily marked, and its following portion transited
at $6^{\text{h}}9^{\text{m}}$.

\item[Nov.~7.] $8^{\text{h}}$. The belt faint and undecided; no trace of the
affected part.

\item[Nov.~8.] Near $7^{\text{h}}$. The belt now is heavily marked all the way
across the disc, and dark, with remarkably large, distinct, knotty
lumps, in places quite broad with them. The disturbed region
plainly visible; almost the most conspicuous part of the planet.
Near $9^{\text{h}}$, that portion of the belt visible is not affected at all, but was
faint and ill-defined.

\item[Nov.~10.] From $7^{\text{h}}30^{\text{m}}$ until $11^{\text{h}}$, the belt was very heavy and dark.
It consisted of a strip of ``veiling,'' pretty even at its northern edge,
but undulating southwards; it was heavily nucleated at several points
by heavy, blackish spots, and at these points the ``veiling'' was
pressed outwards towards the equator. Later, that portion opposite
the Red Spot, which was so heavily affected on November~1, was
seen to be slightly wavy, but faint and ill-defined.

\item[Nov.~11.] Before the Red Spot had appeared the belt was affected
as before. That portion opposite the Red Spot at transit was diffused
and slightly wavy. Near $10^{\text{h}}$, after the spot had disappeared, the belt
was a pale blue, broader than usual.

\item[Nov.~18.] $7^{\text{h}}$ to $8^{\text{h}}$. Opposite the Red Spot, the belt was very
diffused and broad, and appeared slightly wavy where the spots of
November~1 appeared.

\item[Nov.~20.] $9^{\text{h}}49^{\text{m}}$. The belt is very diffused and faint, with no
spots on it.

\item[Nov.~23.] $8^{\text{h}} 35^{\text{m}}$. Three large and intensely \emph{black spots} nearing
transit. The spots are as black as the shadows of the satellites.

\item[Dec.~1.] $7^{\text{h}}$. The belt is broad, heavy and distinct across the
entire disc. It is dotted with black spots. $7^{\text{h}}20^{\text{m}}$. It is now
heavier to the preceding side of the disc, and is faded and diffused
following. $8^{\text{h}}45^{\text{m}}$. The belt is now faint and diffused across the
entire disc.

\item[Dec.~2.] $6^{\text{h}}51^{\text{m}}$. It is faint and diffused, and no dark spots on
it. At $7^{\text{h}}37^{\text{m}}$, it is heavy with separate ``blocks'' or oblong spots.
These are probably the ones seen on November~1, which have gone
completely around the planet, and have now arrived at the point
where they where first seen. They are about as conspicuous as
%-----File: 102.png-----
the equatorial belts, and are moving around the planet with great
velocity.

\item[Dec.~5.] The large spots have drifted past the Red Spot, and
appear as at last observation---broken---forming a disjointed belt.
At $8^{\text{h}}$, the belt is composed of a number of dusky spots that stretch
from limb to limb.

\item[Dec.~7.] $7^{\text{h}}19^{\text{m}}$. The belt is heavy and broken.

\item[Dec.~9.] $8^{\text{h}}$ to $10^{\text{h}}$. The belt is heavy and uneven. The south
edge has a light rim or border.

\item[Dec.~10.] The northern hemisphere is delicately beautiful. The
south side of the new belt consists of beautiful curves, their inner
(south) edge bordered with a light line. I notice that the equatorial
edge of the north equatorial band has the same or corresponding
curves to those in the new belt.

\item[Dec.~14.] $6^{\text{h}}35^{\text{m}}$. The new belt consists of several large dusky
spots.

\item[Dec.~29.] $7^{\text{h}}40^{\text{m}}$. The new belt faint, the scolloped % OED: legit variant spelling
 edge seen with difficulty.

\item[Dec.~30.] About $9^{\text{h}}$, it is heavy and undulating.

\item[Dec.~31.] $8^{\text{h}}$. The new belt is faint.

\item[1881. \; Jan.~7.] $8^{\text{h}}$ to $9^{\text{h}}$. The new belt is deeply scolloped---long
and regular sweeps; it fades northwards. There is no white rim to
the scollops. The belt diffuses north as a grayish shade all over the
northern hemisphere. The second and third linear belts that crossed
the northern hemisphere in 1880 cannot be seen.

\item[March~6.] $7^{\text{h}} 30^{\text{m}}$. The new belt is much scolloped.

\item[July~2.] $15^{\text{h}}$. There is a heavy diffused belt north of the equatorial
belts, where, in 1880, existed the first linear belt. This is the
final result of the spots that broke out on it November~1, 1880.

\item[July~9.] $14^{\text{h}}30^{\text{m}}$. The new belt is broad and diffused, and of a
brick-dust red.

\item[Oct.~3.] The new belt is very diffused. There is a dark line
running through it a little north of the middle of the belt. [Is this
the first linear belt?] A small, white spot, like a satellite, on its
south edge, transited at $10^{\text{h}} 15^{\text{m}}$.

\item[Oct.~14.] $10^{\text{h}}$. The new, diffused, reddish belt is double.
\end{description}

This is the complete history of the formation of at least \emph{one} of
the belts of \textit{Jupiter}; and probably no more remarkable outburst has
been witnessed.

During the time these striking changes were taking place the
%-----File: 103.png-----
weather was very bad, and only occasional glimpses of the planet
could be had. These glimpses, though, gave sufficient evidence of
the rapid changes that were taking place. These changes were so
rapid and peculiar, and the weather so unpropitious, that no transits
that could be positively identified as belonging to the same portion
of the affected belt could be obtained, and therefore the motions of
these spots could only be estimated. But it was clearly evident that
they were extremely rapid. If the sketches refer to identical objects,
the period, with reference to the Red Spot, would not be far from
thirty days, or two-thirds of the period of the White Spot, with reference
to the Great Spot.

Let us briefly review what the notes tell us about this disturbance.
For, at least, over one year, a thin, uniformly even stripe
around \textit{Jupiter} existed north of his equatorial belt. About the last
of October, 1880, both hemispheres of the planet were greatly
affected by a disturbance that finally culminated in a great outbreak
on this thin stripe, just mentioned. First, it became swollen in
places; then, lumpy spaces appeared on it; next, small black spots
were formed, each with a penumbra---not unlike a sun-spot; these
had a very rapid motion westward on the planet, and enlarged and
increased in longitudinal extent, becoming large, oblong, dusky
spots, without a black nucleus. They then diffused into a ``veiling,''
with condensations in it. This ``veiling'' became beautifully scolloped,
its southern side consisting of graceful, light-rimmed curves,
which decreased in sweep as they extended eastwards. Finally, these
encircled the planet completely, diffusing northwards quite to the
pole. The energies that produced the disturbance finally died out,
and the beautiful curve-bordered belt lost its characteristic features
and toned down to a broad, diffused, red belt, surrounding the
planet; and this finally became double, and was apparently a fixed
feature of the surface when I ceased to observe it.


\nbsubsectionheading{The Polar Caps.}

The north polar cap was variable in its color and in the distance
to which it extended. It was frequently noted to be of a delicate
wine tint; at other times it was pale gray. Its usual limit was the
third linear belt, though on several occasions it extended nearer the
equator. At these times the third belt was seen crossing it.

The edges of the south cap were seldom well-defined. I have
never seen it of a warm tint. These caps have never been very
deeply marked. One striking fact was noted on several occasions.
%-----File: 104.png-----
When dawn had whitened the sky the poles appeared to grow darker
and more dusky in color. There was usually a marked difference
in the appearance of the northern and southern hemispheres of the
planet. The northern was free of spots, except several tiny \emph{black}
ones, which were visible for a long time on the third linear belt,
and which did not have a greatly different period from that of the
Red Spot. Graceful, narrow linear belts crossed this hemisphere,
and light bands were often seen. In the southern hemisphere there
was no such symmetry. The Great Red Spot, dusky shadings, strips
or fragments of belts, were the characteristic features of the southern
hemisphere.

It is a very difficult question as to which portion of the surface
of the planet is the highest---whether the belts are at a lower depth
than the whiter surface or otherwise. During these observations I
was frequently impressed with the idea that the general matter of the
equatorial belts was at a lower altitude. I was particularly struck
with this on several occasions. A peculiar brushing-out or smearing
of the bright surface adjacent to the south band, which was recorded
on several dates, had every appearance of a blending of the light
surface over and above the belt. Several times in 1886 a luminous
spot was seen close to the northern edge of the north equatorial
band that seemed to push the white surface over and above the belt
The more rapid rotation of the belt is also consistent with its being
at a lower altitude.

At a number of occultations of the satellites I watched carefully
for any evidences of their being seen through the edges of the
planet, but saw nothing of the kind. Professor \textsc{Holden} informs
me, however, that, with the thirty-six-inch equatorial, the whole disc
of a satellite has been visible within the planet's atmosphere, at
every occultation he has observed. (See, also, the observations of
47~\textit{Librć} by \textit{Jupiter}, as observed by Professor \textsc{Holden} and myself,
June~9, 1888. \textit{A.~J.}, vol.~8, p.~64.)

I would call special attention to the second drawing of 1880, November~1
(Plate~II). There is a large lithograph of \textit{Jupiter} published
by the \textsc{Scribners}, from a drawing by \textsc{Trouvelot}. This was made
in Cambridge, Mass., November~1, 1880, ($9^\text{h}\,30^\text{m}$, Cambridge mean
time). The difference of longitude between Nashville and Cambridge
is $1^\text{h}\,3^\text{m}$. My drawing was made at $8^\text{h}\,30^\text{m}$, Nashville mean
time, adding the difference of longitude, and we have $9^\text{h}\,33^\text{m}$, Cambridge
mean time, for my drawing, or within three minutes of the
time of the drawing by \textsc{Trouvelot}. That is to say, that while my
%-----File: 105.png-----
pencil, in Nashville, was marking on the paper, \textsc{Trouvelot}, at
Cambridge, Mass., was, at that identical instant, drawing the same
thing. The two drawings are exactly similar in the main features.
His telescope was larger than mine, and he, therefore, saw more
details. To the left below the belt, on this drawing, are the first
and second satellites; the first nearer the belt. On the Red Spot
is the shadow of the second satellite, while near the equatorial belt is
the shadow of the first moon.

I have collected nearly all the observations of transits of spots
over the central meridian of \textit{Jupiter's} disc, and present them in the
following table. I would state, in reference to these observations,
that the first ones to the latter part of September may be affected by
an error in the times of as much as two or three minutes outside of
the error of observation. I had no means of determining my time,
and depended upon the tower clock of the University, which, I
afterwards found, had not been carefully looked after during the
vacation season. I therefore give them with the above caution. I
regret this; for I believe the observations themselves were made
with much accuracy for simple eye-estimates. Some that were
obviously far out, from the above cause, I have rejected altogether.

In conclusion, I would express my indebtedness to Professor
\textsc{Holden}, without whose interest and encouragement these observations
and drawings would never have been published.


\nbsubsectionheading{Descriptions of the Drawings.}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Plate I.}}

\begin{description}
\item[1879. \; Oct.~3.] Shows the Red Spot and the area of light surrounding
it, and the peculiar diffusion of the south band towards the
south, which forms a bay around the following end of the spot.
North of the equatorial bands is shown the narrow linear belt, which
later on plays an important part in the drawings. This we have
designated the first linear belt north.

\item[1880. \; July~24.] A very small dusky spot is seen between the
equatorial belts and the south pole. The Red Spot is appearing at
the following limb.

\item[July~30.] The peculiar mass of shading, referred to in the notes,
is seen attached to the south preceding portion of the Red Spot.

\item[Aug.~13.] This shows the famous White Spot in the south part
of the equatorial bands, near the following limb.

\item[Aug.~16.] The White Spot is nearer the Red Spot.

\item[Aug.~17.] Shows a group of small spots, and the mass of shading
%-----File: 106.png-----
and the Red Spot just coming into view around the following
limb. The left-hand one of the three small spots is the same as
that shown in the drawings of July~24 and August~1.

\item[Sept.~10.] The White Spot is shown in one of its brightest
phases, with a luminous train following it near the equator. It has
passed the Red Spot and left it far behind.

\item[Sept.~16.] Shows the shading now separated from the Red Spot,
which it is leaving slowly behind.
\end{description}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Plate II.}}

\begin{description}
\item[1880. \; Sept.~18.] This shows the thin red line springing from the
south side of the equatorial belt and streaming backwards parallel to the
equator, near the following end of the Red Spot. Two very small,
very black spots are seen. One of these was visible for a great
length of time on the second linear belt north. Though the Red
Spot is shown in this drawing, the white one is invisible, being indeed
on the other side of the planet at this time.

\item[Sept.~24.] The Red Spot is disappearing at the preceding limb,
while the White Spot, with its train of light, is near the middle of the
disc.

\item[Sept.~28.] The Red Spot is just past the middle of the disc, and
the White Spot is fully within the following limb.

\item[Sept.~30.] (I) Satellite I is seen on the Red Spot, while its
shadow is on the edge of the spot. The shading and two of the
small spots in the southern hemisphere are also seen. (II) Satellite
I and its shadow have now left the Red Spot. On this occasion I
transited most of the disc as a dusky brown spot, south following its
shadow. The White Spot is appearing at the following limb.

\item[Oct.~7.] Satellites I and II are in transit, partially hiding their
shadows, which are close north following them.

\item[Oct.~23.] (I) The Red Spot is disappearing, and some dusky
lumps are coming into view on the first linear belt north. These are
the first indication of the great outbreak on that belt. (II) These
swollen places in the belt are shown in transit.

\item[Nov.~1.] (I) The Red Spot is appearing, while the shadow of I
is just skirting its north preceding end, and the shadow of II is on
the spot. Near the middle of the disc, south of the equator, satellite
I itself is shown as a dusky spot near transit, while satellite II is lost in
the brightness of the disc. Near the north following limb a string of
dark spots is coming into view on the first linear belt. (II) Both
satellites now appear as small pale discs, relieved by the slight
%-----File: 107.png-----
duskiness of the planet near the preceding limb. The shadows
have changed their places with respect to the Red Spot. The row
of dark spots on the first linear belt is now in transit. These look
like sun-spots---a black umbra surrounded by a penumbra. These are,
doubtless, the same spots that are shown in an incipient stage of
development in the sketches of October~23. They are, therefore, in
rapid motion around the planet. (Compare their relative position to
the Red Spot in the first drawing of October~23 with that of the
second drawing of November~1.)

\item[Nov.~7.] We have the White Spot in this drawing on the opposite
side of the planet to the Red Spot. Two other bright spots are just
ahead of it.
\end{description}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Plate III.}}

\begin{description}
\item[1880. \; Nov.~8.] The second satellite is seen as a white spot on
the south following end of the Red Spot, while I is partially on the
north preceding end as a dusky spot, and its shadow is shown to the
right of the center below the equatorial belt. That portion of the first
linear belt north now visible with the Red Spot has not as yet been
affected by the eruptive spots.

\item[Nov.~10.] (I) The shadow of III is seen at a high southern latitude,
and a mass of dusky shading is north following it. Another
phase of the new spots on the first linear belt is shown. (II) The
Red Spot is now visible, and the affected part of the belt has been
carried off the disc by rotation. That portion now seen is faint and
wavy.

\item[Nov.~18.] The White Spot is in one of its brilliant phases, just
above the following end of the Red Spot.

\item[Nov.~20.] The White Spot has now moved to a point near the
preceding end of the Red Spot, and is in one of its quieter phases.

\item[Nov.~22.] (I) Another phase of the northern spots is shown.
The two small spots in the southern hemisphere have been shown in
previous sketches. The Red Spot is not in sight. (II) The Red
Spot and the White Spot are both visible---the White Spot having left
the Red Spot far behind.

\item[Nov.~23.] (I) The distance between the White and Red Spots
has sensibly increased since the drawing of last night. (II) The Red
Spot is disappearing, and the first portion of the affected belt is coming
into view at the north following limb.

\item[Dec.~2.] (I), (II), (III) show further phases of the disturbance.
\end{description}
%-----File: 108.png-----

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Plate IV.}}

\begin{description}
\item[1880. \; Dec.~9.] Shows the spots becoming connected by long
loops bordered with a brilliant line on the equatorial side.

\item[Dec.~10.] (I) Another portion of the new belt visible when the
Great Spot is leaving the disc---the shadow of a satellite on it. (II)
This drawing was made after the Red Spot had disappeared.

\item[1881. \; Aug.~29.] In the place of the first linear belt north there is
now a broad diffused reddish belt that completely encircles the planet.
The remarkable spots and the beautiful light-rimmed curves have disappeared,
and all the other singular transformations that the first
linear belt north underwent have finally ended in the formation of this
now persistent diffused red belt.

\item[Nov.~5.] The Red and the White Spots are again near each
other. The diffused red belt, the scene of the great disturbance
of 1880, remains unchanged. Two of the small black spots previously
seen are shown on the second linear belt north---which, suffering
almost total obliteration during the changes of 1880, is now as
marked as ever.

\item[1885. May~12.] The Great Spot is now very faint. The south
equatorial band diffuses southwards around the following end of the
Red Spot, as in 1879.

\item[1886. April~22.] A white cloud has formed over the middle of
the great Red Spot, almost obliterating it. The peculiar bay formed
around the following end of the spot by the south band is now very
persistent.
\end{description}

I have observed a few abnormal transits of Satellites I, III and
IV, which are given here, so that they may be available for a study
of the causes of these dark and black transits.

\nbsubsectionheading{Satellite I.}

\begin{description}
\item[1880.] Sept.~30, occasionally seen during transit as a brownish
spot; Nov.~1, seen in mid-transit as a dusky spot; Nov.~8, seen in
mid-transit as a dusky, brownish spot; Dec.~1, seen in mid-transit
quite plainly as a dark spot---quite dark.
\end{description}

\nbsubsectionheading{Satellite III.}

\begin{description}
\item[1879.] Aug.~2, very black nearly all the way across---mistaken
for shadow; Sept.~14, black during transit.

\item[1880.] Sept.~28, carefully watched throughout transit, not visible
except near limbs---not a black transit; Dec.~30, at $8^\text{h}\,30^\text{m}$, seen
in a high south latitude as a small, black spot; continued visible as
%-----File: 109.png-----
black spot until near \textit{p}.\ limb, and only lost its blackness at $9^\text{h}\, 4^\text{m}$.
Ten minutes after emergence it was certainly as bright as that part
of disc on which it appeared as black as a shadow.

\item[1880.] Nov.~10, the shadow of III appeared fuzzy and not
black. It seemed to be affected by penumbra.

\item[1881.] Oct.~13, at inferior conjunction it passed the south pole
with only three-quarters of its disc on the planet---carefully estimated.

\item[1883.] Feb.~12 ($9^\text{h}\, 40^\text{m}$), small, black.

\item[1885.] May~9 ($7^\text{h}\, 15^\text{m}$), on north edge of belt very black, and
remained dark until close to limb.
\end{description}

\nbsubsectionheading{Satellite IV.}

\begin{description}
\item[1885.] Feb.~27, at $6^\text{h}\, 15^\text{m}$, it is as black as its shadow, and about
half as large---it remained dark up to nearly the moment of emergence.

\item[1886.] May~8 ($9^\text{h}\, 20^\text{m}$), IV near north pole, very black.
\end{description}

\begin{small}
\begin{center}
\begin{longtable}{c@{ }r@{\,}| *{7}{r@{ }l|} r@{ }l}
\multicolumn{18}{c}{\textsc{
    Observed Transits of Spots on \textit{Jupiter}.}}
\\[1ex]
\multicolumn{18}{c}{\textsc{\footnotesize
    (nashville mean time.)}}
\\[1ex]
\hline\hline
  \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textsc{
    Date.}}}
& \multicolumn{6}{c|}{\textsc{
    red spot.}\rule{0pt}{3ex}}
& \multicolumn{2}{m{3em}|}{\multirow{2}{3em}{\centering\textsc{%
\rule{0pt}{2ex}white spot.}}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ a }}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ b }}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ c }}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ d }}}
\\[1ex]
\cline{3-8}
&&\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textit{ P.~End.\rule{0pt}{3.5ex}}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textit{ Middle. }}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textit{ F.~End. }}
&&&&&&&&&&\\[1ex]
\hline
  \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1880.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
\endfirsthead
\hline\hline
  \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textsc{
    Date.}}}
& \multicolumn{6}{c|}{\textsc{
    red spot.}\rule{0pt}{3ex}}
& \multicolumn{2}{m{3em}|}{\multirow{2}{3em}{\centering\textsc{%
\rule{0pt}{2ex}white spot.}}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ a }}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ b }}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ c }}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\multirow{2}{*}{\centering\textit{ d }}}
\\[1ex]
\cline{3-8}
&&\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textit{ P.~End.\rule{0pt}{3.5ex}}}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textit{ Middle. }}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize\textit{ F.~End. }}
&&&&&&&&&&\\[1ex]
\hline
  \multicolumn{2}{c|}{}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
& \footnotesize\textit{h.} & \footnotesize\textit{m.}
\endhead
\multicolumn{1}{r@{ }}{July} &10.
&\ 14&40  &\ 15&22  &\ 15&47
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &17. &  15&20  &  15&44  &  16&04
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &24. &  16&12  &  16&40  &  16&57
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &29. &  15&17  &  15&43  &  16&11
&\Skipped
&\ 14&00
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{r@{ }}{Aug.} & 1.
&  16&52  &  17&18   & 17&42  & &&\ 15&18
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 7.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  16&09
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &11.
&\Skipped
&  11&32 & 12&01
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &13. &  12&36  &  13&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{04.5} & 13&32
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &16. &  10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{16.5}&  10&35   & 10&56
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\ 10&36
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &17. &  15&55  &  16&19   & 16&41
&\Skipped
&\ 14&14
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &23. &  10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{54.5}&  11&19
& 11&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{40.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &28.
&\Skipped
& 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{24.5}
& 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{48.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &30. &  11&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{34.7}
&  11&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{58.2}
&  12&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{24.2}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{r@{ }}{Sept.} & 9.
&   9&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{51.7}
&  10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{15.2}
&  10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{39.2}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &14.
&\Skipped
&   9&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{27$\pm$}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&\ 10&21
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &15.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&   9&47
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &16. &  10&32  &  11&02     &  11&24
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &18. &  12&14  &  12&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{37.7}
&  13&03
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  12&22
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &25. &  12&58  &  13&24     &  13&45
&\Skipped
&\ 10&46
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &28. &  10&28  &  10&53     &  11&17
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  10&38 &11&40
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &30. &  12&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{01.5}
&  12&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{29.5}
&  12&54
&\Skipped
&   9&48  &  12&11
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{r@{ }}{Oct.} & 1.
&  7&57  &  8&25  &  8&52
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\ \ 7&28
\\
 `` & 6. &  7&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{01.5}
&  7&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{29.5}
&  7&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{57.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&  8&18
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 7. & 12&45  & 13&13  & 13&40
&\Skipped
&\ 10&24
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &10. & 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{13.5}
& 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{39.5}
& 11&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{08.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\ 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{26.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &13. &  7&44  &  8&10  &  8&36
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &20. &  8&29  &  8&53  &  9&17
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &22.
&\Skipped
& 10&30
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
%-----File: 110.png-----
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Nov.} & 1.
        &   8&19 &  8&48
&   9&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{10.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 4.&\Skipped      &  6&15 &  6&39
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 7.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&  7&59
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` & 8.&   9&06 &   9&31 &   9&57
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &10.&\ 10&44 &\ 11&09 &\ 11&33
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &11.&   6&34 &  6&57 &   7&25
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &18.&   7&17 &  7&42 &   8&09
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &20.&   8&58 &  9&22 &   9&48
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &22.&  10&40 & 11&01 &  11&29  &\ 10&18 & 7&46
&\Skipped &\Skipped
& 9&07
\\
 `` &23.&   6&32 &  6&53 &   7&20
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Dec.} & 2.
        &   8&56 &  9&15 &  9&41  &  6&27
&\Skipped &\Skipped
& 7&33 & 7&23
\\
 `` & 5.&   6&28 &  6&46 &   7&11
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 6.
&\Skipped  &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&  8&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{53$\pm$}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` & 7.&   7&59 &  8&23
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` & 9.&   9&37 & 10&01 &\ 10&24
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &14.&   8&46 &  9&09 &   9&34  &  9&20
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &  7&05
\\
 `` &29.&\Skipped
&\Skipped  &\Skipped
&  7&41
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &31.&   7&45 &  8&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{08.5}&  8&33
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1881.} &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Jan.} & 7.
         &  8&39 &  9&01 &  9&24 &  8&02.5
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Mar.} & 6.
         &  6&52 &  7&14 &  7&36
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{July} & 2.
&\Skipped   &\Skipped
& 15&21
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &  9.& 15&12  & 15&34  & 15&57
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 11.& 16&47
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 21.& 15&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{04.5}&  15&27 & 15&50
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` & 28.& 15&53  &  16&12 & 16&36
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Aug.} & 3.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&  14&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{42.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` & 5.&\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  15&46   &  16&06
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &29.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  15&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{39.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Oct.} & 10.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  17&32
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &29.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&  10&25
&\Skipped
& 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{15$\pm$}
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\

\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Nov.} & 3.
&\Skipped &   6&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{50$\pm$}
&\Skipped
&  8&24
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` & 5.&    8&09     &   8&30  &  8&54 &  9&34
&\Skipped
&  9&20
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &12.&    9&52     &   9&14  &  9&42 &  8&44
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
 `` &15.&     &       &   6&45  &  7&08
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &26.&\Skipped
&\Skipped
&   7&27
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 `` &29.&    8&54     &   8&15  &  8&37
&\Skipped
&  8&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{30$\pm$}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\[1ex]

\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1882.} &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Jan.} &23.
&    8&19     &   8&40  &  9&03
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{Feb.} & 4.
        &    8&08     &   8&28  &  8&49 &   9&07
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{April} &27.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  6&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{50$\pm$}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\[1ex]

\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1885.} &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{April} &25.
&\Skipped
& 10&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{41.5}
&\Skipped
&  7&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{56.5}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{May} &12.
&\Skipped
&  9&43
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{May} &13.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped
&   8&48
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\[1ex]

\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1886.} &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{April} &22.
&\Skipped
&   10&18.6
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\[1ex]

\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1888.} &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{\tablenoteasterisk July} &24.
&  11&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{51.9}
&  12&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{08.4}
&  12&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{29.8}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\[1ex]

\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1889.} &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{\tablenoteasterisk May} &31.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  15&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{09.3}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{\tablenoteasterisk June} & 9.
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&  17&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{48.4}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipend
\\
 ``  &17.&\Skipped
&  13&\multicolumn{1}{@{}l@{\,}|}{53.0}
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\
\multicolumn{1}{l@{ }}{\tablenoteasterisk July} & 2.
&\Skipped
&  11&19.1
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipped
&\Skipped &\Skipend
\\[1ex]
\hline
\multicolumn{18}{l}{\footnotesize* With twelve inch at Lick Observatory. Like the others, in Nashville mean time.}
\end{longtable}
\end{center}
\end{small}

%-----File: 111.png-----
The transits of a few objects were observed with the six-inch, at
the Vanderbilt University Observatory, as follows:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{c@{~}c@{~}r@{}c|cccc|cccc|cccc}
\hline\hline
\strut&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\textsc{date.}}&\phantom{1885.}&\multicolumn{4}{c|}{$e$}&\multicolumn{4}{c|}{$f$}&\multicolumn{4}{c}{$g$}\\
\strut&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\\
\hline
&&&&&\footnotesize\textit{h}.&\footnotesize\textit{m}.
&&&\footnotesize\textit{h}.&\footnotesize\textit{m}.
&&&\footnotesize\textit{h}.&\footnotesize\textit{m}.\\
1885.& April& 21&\dotfill&&8&02.5&&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}&&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}\\
  `` & ``  &  22&\dotfill&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}&&&7 &05.5&&&   6& 55.7\\
  `` & ``  &  25&\dotfill&& 7 & 08.2&&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}&&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}\\
  `` & ``  &  29&\dotfill&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}&&& 7 &54.5 &&&  7 &46.5\\
  `` & May &   9&\dotfill&& 8& 42.5 &&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}&&&\multicolumn{2}{@{}c}{\dotfill}\\[1ex]
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

{\footnotesize
\textsc{Note} (explanatory of the table of transits).---$a$ is the small spot mentioned
as having been seen 1880, July~24, and subsequently; $b$ is a small black spot, the
\textit{p}.\ of two shown on the second linear belt north in the drawing of 1880, September
28, and subsequently; $c$ is the second of these two black spots; $d$ is the shading
spoken of in connection with the Red Spot; $e$ is a luminous spot, sometimes
recorded as a notch in the north edge of the north equatorial band, probably not
all the same object; $f$ is a very small, intensely black spot \emph{on} the south part of
the equatorial belt---round, and like a satellite's shadow, but smaller; $g$ is a luminous
spot or notch in the north edge of north equatorial band.

}\ThoughtBreakLong

\nbsectionheading{DRAWINGS OF \textit{JUPITER} MADE WITH THE 26-INCH
EQUATORIAL, AT WASHINGTON, DURING 1875.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Drawings of Jupiter made with the 26-inch Equatorial at Washington during 1875. By \textsc{E.~S. Holden}. (Plate V accompanies)}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
\textsc{By Edward S. Holden.}\\*
\shortrule}

During June and July, 1875, I made drawings of \textit{Mars} and
\textit{Jupiter}, in colored crayons, for the purpose of comparing the
tints on those two planets. The drawings were all made with
the twenty-six-inch equatorial of the United States Naval Observatory,
usually with a magnifying power of 400, and no pains were
spared to make correct delineations, both as to forms and colors.
From one cause and another, these drawings have not been published.

I beg to present a photograph of the sketches of \textit{Jupiter} to the
Society.

The original colored drawings [exhibited to the meeting] will be
deposited in the library of the Lick Observatory, where they will
always be available for comparison with more recent work. Below,
I give the few notes which should accompany the drawings, which
are reproduced in Plate~V. It will be interesting to compare these
%-----File: 112.png-----
drawings with the admirable series by Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard}, which are given
in Plates~I to IV.

There are three general remarks to be made on these drawings.
In the first place, while the general features of the planet's surface
have remained about the same from 1875 to 1889, there has been an
entire change as to the form and disposition of the details. In the
second place, the disposition of color on the surface of the planet
has entirely changed, also. In 1889 there is very little of the red
color to be seen, except in the great central belt, while in 1875 red
belts were seen almost to the poles. Thirdly, the characteristic red
color itself has changed in a surprising manner since 1875.

The color of the red markings in 1875 was most carefully
matched in crayons, and I was finally satisfied with the tint of the
drawings. In 1881 I found that the same crayons (pieces of which
I had preserved) would no longer match the red belts. In 1889
the color of the red belts is entirely different from that previously
drawn. All the observations were made with \textsc{Clark} objectives (of
26, $15\frac{1}{2}$ and 36 inches aperture), which had their color-corrections
very much alike. Unfortunately, it is not practicable to reproduce
these colors in Plate~V. The notes follow:

The top of the drawing is south; the right-hand side is east, or
following.

1875. June~16, seeing not good; June~18, hazy; June~24,
the columnar structure in the southernmost belt is somewhat too
coarse; July~13, the position of the shadow of the satellite is for
$8^\text{h}~40^\text{m}$; July~16, planet unsteady.

\ThoughtBreakLong

\nbsectionheading{NOTICES FROM THE LICK OBSERVATORY.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\textit{Notices from the Lick Observatory}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
{\small \textsc{Prepared by Members of the Staff.}}\\*
\shortrule}

\nbsubsectionheading{On the Determination of the Brightness of Stars by Means
 of Photography.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad On the Determination of the Brightness of Stars by means of Photography. [Containing a Review of \textsc{Charlier}; \textit{Publ. Astr. Gesell}., No. XIX, 1889.] By \textsc{Edward S. Holden}}


Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier}, assistant in the Observatory at Stockholm, has
prepared a memoir\footnote
{\textit{Ueber die Anwendung der Sternphotographie zu Helligkeitsmessungen der Sterne}, von
\textsc{C.V.L.~Charlier}. \textit{Publication der Astronomischen Gesellschaft}, XIX. Leipzig 1889. 4to.
(pp.~viii, 31).}
on the use of photography in determinations of
the brightness of stars, which has been published by the Astronomical
%-----File: 113.png-----
Society of Germany, and dedicated to the Pulkowa Observatory,
on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of its foundation, August
19, 1889.

The subject treated is so new and so important that it will not be
out of place to give a brief review of Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier's} excellent treatise
here, and to add some general considerations on the same question.
The importance of this subject will be obvious, when we consider that
within the next decade we may expect to have at least two sets of
photographic maps, covering the whole sky from pole to pole, and
including millions of stars down to the fourteenth magnitude.

Besides these systematic maps, hundreds of charts of special
regions will be made. Each star on each of these maps will have
impressed its image on a negative plate as a disc of measurable size.
Hence the magnitude of each and every star \emph{can} be determined if
necessary, and when the catalogue of the stars to the eleventh magnitude,
also proposed by the Congress, is constructed, the magnitude
of each one of these two million stars \emph{must} be given.

There are two imperative questions to be settled before the principles
on which this great work is to be done can be considered to
be established. The first and more special question is, What is the
relation between the diameter of the photographic image of a star ($d$)
the aperture and focus of the telescope employed ($a$, $f$) and the exposure
time ($t$), and what is the relation between the (photographic)
brightness of a star and the diameter of its image? Having satisfactorily
determined the relations just named, the second and more
general question presents itself, namely: On what fundamental principles
ought the photographic magnitudes of the stars to be assigned?

\smallskip
These two questions are not treated separately in the work before
us. Its second paragraph states the problem of the photographic
photometry of stars as follows: It is ``to determine the function
which gives the relation between the size of the photographic image
and the photographic brightness of the star, and to determine the
constant quantities in this function \emph{in such a manner that the resulting
photographic brilliancies shall correspond accurately throughout
with the brilliancies determined visually}.''

\smallskip
In my judgment, this is by no means the problem of stellar photographic
photometry. It is impossible, in general, to fulfill that portion
of the above statement which I have printed in italics. The
difference between the photographic and the photometric magnitudes
of \textit{Aldebaran}, for example, is more than one and one-half
%-----File: 114.png-----
magnitudes, and so with other stars. We may leave this part of the
question for the moment, and proceed to give a brief analysis of Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier's}
memoir, laying stress principally on the novel portions
of his work.

The observations which he discusses were made with a photographic
lens by \textsc{Steinheil} of 3.19 inches aperture and 39.37 inches
focus ($\frac{f}{a} = 13$). The plates took in an area of twenty square
degrees. The images were satisfactory over a field of about three
degrees in diameter. Stars to eighth magnitude, inclusive, left trails.
The plates employed were made in Lyons, by \textsc{Lumičre}. Four
plates are discussed. All were exposed on the \textit{Pleiades}, as follows:
No.~2, $t = 13^\text{m}$; No.~4, $t= 2^\text{h}$; No.~24, $t= 1^\text{h}30^\text{m}$; No.~26, $t = 3^\text{h}$.
The plates were exposed at very different altitudes, and no account
is taken of absorption of light by the atmosphere.

Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} finds two defects in the plates: first, bright rings
round the larger stars, which he proves to be due to reflections
from the back of the plate (the well-known halation images); and,
again, false stars. He finds no less than fifty-six such false stars on
his plate No.~26. They were probably due to defects in the manufacture
of the plate itself.

As subjects for experiments he chose the \textit{Pleiades}, because their
photometric magnitudes are accurately determined, and also because
they afford a variety of magnitudes within a comparatively small area.

Although he does not expressly mention the fact, the \textit{Pleiades}
have the special advantage for his purpose of being all of the same
spectral type. A region containing many very red or many very
blue stars would have given a corresponding number of anomalous
results, which are avoided by choosing a group of stars of one type.
The diameter of each star on each of the four plates was measured.
Calling $H$ the brightness of a star, and $m$ its magnitude, and
0.4 the light ratio, Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} starts with the formula
\[
\tag{1}  H =(0.4)^m
\]
That is, he assumes that the brightness of a first magnitude star
($m= 1$) is 0.4. It is better to write this formula, I think,
\[
\tag{2}  H_m = (0.4)^{m-1}
\]
which for $m= 1$ gives $H_1= 1$. Assuming the equation (1), however,
and further assuming that when $d$ is zero, $H$ must be zero, he
finds
\[
\tag{3}  m = a - b \log d
\]
%-----File: 115.png-----
Here it may be remarked that, in fact, $H$ is not necessarily zero
for $d=0$, because all stars below a certain brightness will fail to
produce an image on the plate, no matter how long the exposure may
be---for any practical exposure-time. The brightness of a star must
be above a certain finite limit in order to produce any impression at
all. The assumption is sufficiently accurate, however, for the purpose
in hand. The relation between exposure-time and diameter of
star image is next determined from a series of exposures on \textit{Polaris},
assuming the form
\[
\tag{4}  d = d_0\centerdot t^k
\]
That is, that the diameter of the star-image varies as the $k^\text{th}$ power
of the time. From \textit{Polaris} (two plates) the values of $k$ are 0.243
and 0.249; from a star 5th mag.\ $k$ results 0.243,---hence, the numerical
value of the diameter of the star-image varies as the fourth
root of the time or
\[
\tag{5} d=d_0\centerdot\sqrt[4]{t}
\]
This formula shows that the diameter $d$ will be doubled when the
exposure $t$ is increased sixteen-fold.

If there are no limits to the formula it also shows that, for the
telescope and plates employed, an exposure of $\frac{1}{16}$ second would give
a perceptible image. Without considering the question of the \emph{range
of sensitiveness} of plates I may state it as my opinion that the formulć of
Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} and those of Professor \textsc{Schaeberle} (\textit{Publ. Ast.
Soc. Pacific}, No.~4) can (at present) be applied safely only to \emph{over-exposed}
stars, and that there is a superior limit also beyond which
they are no longer applicable. Both Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} and Professor
\textsc{Schaeberle} have found that the stars with the longest exposure are
best fitted for the determination of magnitude.

We may now quote, without further remark, the final formula to
which Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} is led, which gives the relation between $m$
(star's magnitude), $d$ (diameter of star-image on plate), and $t$ (exposure
time). It is
\[
\tag{6} m = A + B \log d + C \log t
\]
In the particular plates in question the constants $A$, $B$ and $C$ are
\[
A=+17.2\quad B=-6.75\quad C=+1.69
\]
$A$, $B$ and $C$ are proved to be constant on the four plates in question;
$t$ is expressed in minutes.

From the formula (6) the photographic magnitudes of fifty-two of
%-----File: 116.png-----
the brighter stars in the \textit{Pleiades} were computed, and compared
with the photometric magnitudes of the same stars as determined
by Dr.\ \textsc{Lindemann}, at Pulkowa. (Table III.)

The mean difference between the photographic and photometric
magnitudes is $\pm 0.22$ mag. The differences occur $0.6$ mag.\ (twice),
$0.5$ (twice), $0.4$ (4 times), $0.3$ (12 times), $0.2$ (12 times), $0.1$ (10
times), $0.0$ (7 times). Two stars are either variable or red. The
individual results for the photographic magnitudes from the four
plates agree well. The mean difference is $0.10$ mag. The largest
difference is $0.4$ (occurring twice). % Transcriber's note: original reads "occuring"

Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} makes the important remark that the red stars,
etc., which are thus discovered in the group of the \textit{Pleiades}, are very
suitable for a determination of its parallax, since they differ in spectral
type, and are therefore \emph{presumably} not members of the group.
A few moments' examination with a small spectroscope will, however,
be a surer indication in similar cases.

\smallskip
Section III of the memoir is devoted to a comparison of the
results of the Stockholm photographs with those obtained by Professor
\textsc{Pickering}, at Harvard College, and by Dr.\ \textsc{Scheiner}, at
Potsdam. The linear formula deduced by the latter is shown to be
inferior to the logarithmic form adopted by Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier}; and
in Table IX it is shown that the systematic differences between the
results at Harvard College and at Stockholm are likely to be due to
constant errors in the H.~C.~O. results. In all this discussion, as has
been said, the effect of atmospheric absorption is omitted, as it has
been in all previous publications of the kind. It is of considerable
amount, however.

\smallskip
Section IV of the memoir is chiefly concerned with a comparison
between the photometric magnitudes given by \textsc{Wolf}, of Paris, for
571 of the \textit{Pleiades} stars and the photographic magnitudes of the
same stars derived from one plate (only) taken at Stockholm.
Twenty-eight of \textsc{Wolf's} stars do not appear on this plate; \textit{en
revanche}, it contains more than 100 stars not in \textsc{Wolf's} catalogue.
In passing, we may remark that the single Stockholm plate made
in three hours has a value at least comparable with the chart of
M.\ \textsc{Wolf}, which was the result of many months of labor. It is
worth while to remark here that it is highly desirable for the present
to make every result derived by photography depend on two negatives
at the very least. A comparison of the scales of \textsc{Wolf} and
\textsc{Charlier} closes this section and concludes the important work.
%-----File: 117.png-----

\smallskip
We may now say that the present memoir and that of Professor
\textsc{Schaeberle}, previously cited, have fixed the form under which
discussions of this character must be made in future. For every
telescope a relation between the diameter of a star image and the
corresponding exposure must be deduced in the form $d = \varPhi (\log t)$.

The constants of this formula will vary with the aperture, focus,
plate, site, and with the spectral type of the star, and will probably
be applicable only within certain limits of absolute brightness and
within certain limits of exposure time.

The memoir of M. \textsc{Charlier} is an excellent example of the
method of discussion which must be adopted to determine this
function for all cases where the prime object is to make the photographic
magnitudes harmonize as nearly as possible with the photometric.
The real fundamental question is, however, Should any
endeavor be made to harmonize them? I proceed to discuss this
point as briefly as possible, in the light of our present knowledge,
since it is the most important question remaining open for settlement.

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Establishment of the Present System of Visual Magnitudes.}}

Let us consider, very briefly, the history of the introduction of the
present system of visual magnitudes. The main epochs in this history
are very few. The first is that of \textsc{Ptolemy} (\textsc{a.~d.}\ 150,) who arbitrarily
assumed the brightest stars to be of the \textit{first}, the faintest which he
could see, to be of the \textit{sixth} magnitude. The other stars were divided
into classes of 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, etc., magnitudes. The second great
event in this history is the publication of the \textit{Uranometria Nova} by
\textsc{Argelander}, in 1843. He adopted the general rules laid down by
\textsc{Ptolemy}, and followed by \textsc{Sufi}, \textsc{Tycho} and \textsc{Bayer}. The brightest
stars were called first magnitude, the faintest visible to the naked eye
were called sixth magnitude. Stars of the classes 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., were
intermediate. By \textsc{Fechner's} law, it necessarily followed that equal
differences of sensation corresponded to equal \emph{ratios} of light; or that
the light of a star of $m^\text{th}$ magnitude must be $\dfrac{1}{\delta}$th part of the light
of a star one magnitude brighter ($m-1$). Measures of this \emph{light-ratio}
$\delta$ show its numerical value to be 0.4 very nearly, omitting all
questions of small variations, etc.

The \textit{Durchmusterungen} of \textsc{Argelander}, \textsc{Krueger}, \textsc{Schoenfeld}
and \textsc{Thome} will determine the visual magnitude of every star in both
hemispheres as bright as the tenth magnitude by this same scale.
That is, if the brightness of a star of the first magnitude is unity, the
brightness of a star of the $m^\text{th}$ magnitude is
%-----File: 118.png-----
\[
H_{m} = (\delta)^{m-1} \quad \text{where } \delta = 0.4 \tag{7}
\]
The universal practice of modern observers has extended this scale
from the tenth down to the sixteenth or seventeenth magnitude (the
faintest stars now visible in the largest telescopes). Thus the \emph{accidental}
choice of the sixth magnitude as the limit of the naked-eye
stars by \textsc{Ptolemy} has fixed the light-ratio and the practice of all
astronomers with regard to visual magnitudes for all time to come.
It is to be noted that if \textsc{Ptolemy's} work on visual magnitudes were
to be done again \textit{de novo}, and absolutely independently, the method
chosen would be essentially the following: \emph{One} standard star would
be chosen (\textit{Polaris}, in our hemisphere). This star would be compared
with a selected group of stars, and the fact of the constancy (or
the law of the variation) of its light during the course of the observations
would be established. Every other star would be compared
with \textit{Polaris}, either directly or indirectly, and its relative light determined.
Some convenient magnitude would be \emph{arbitrarily} assigned
to \textit{Polaris}, and some convenient light-ratio would be \emph{arbitrarily}
assumed. The magnitude of any and every star would then be
deduced from the measured ratio of its brightness to that of \textit{Polaris}
by a formula like our (7) in which the numerical value of $\delta$ would be
assigned on grounds of convenience alone. It is very likely that the
value $\delta=0.4$ would be again chosen, because the tenth part of
a magnitude (easily written with one place of decimals), thus defined,
is about the limit of perception of the most highly trained
human eye.

\smallskip
Such, I conceive, would be the process adopted if the whole
question of visual magnitudes was entirely open, and if a Congress of
Astronomers were called in 1890 to decide on the proper methods to
be followed in fixing the visual magnitudes of the stars anew, or for
the first time. The process is simple, it is complete, it is logical, it
is sufficiently accurate for all conceivable uses to which visual magnitudes
are to be put. The use of a visual magnitude assigned to a star
is chiefly to determine its brightness at one epoch, so that observations
at other epochs will determine whether there have or have not
been changes in its light. It is from celestial bodies which are subject
to change, and chiefly from these, that we can hope to learn anything
of the nature of celestial bodies in general. A secondary convenience
in having a magnitude assigned to a star is to aid in
identifying, classifying and describing it.
%-----File: 119.png-----

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\textit{Establishment of a System for Determining Photographic Magnitudes.}}

The International Congress of Astronomers will have to decide
the question as to how to define the photographic magnitude of a
star. They will soon be in possession of plates on which millions and
millions of stars have impressed themselves. The diameter of each
one of these stars can be measured. The photographic brightness
of each one of these stars relative to the photographic brightness of
\textit{Polaris} (for example) can be readily determined. What \emph{magnitude}
shall be assigned to each one of these stars? Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier's}
answer to this question has already been given. He would assign to
each one of a group of stars a photographic magnitude, deduced on
the principle that the mean deviation of their photographic magnitudes
from their visual magnitudes should be as small as possible.
If the same star occurs in two or more different groups, it will
certainly have different magnitudes assigned to it, according as one or
the other set of standards is employed. The same method has been
followed by Mr.\ \textsc{Espin} and by the Harvard College Observatory in
all of its many important publications on this question, notwithstanding
the fact that (owing to the color of a star) the photographic and
visual magnitudes not infrequently differ by at least \emph{two whole magnitudes.}
That is, if the visual brightness be expressed by 1.00, the
photographic brightness of the same star may be no more than 0.16,
or only one-sixth part. Such anomalies must in the nature of things
constantly appear for a considerable percentage of the stars. A
tolerable agreement is possible for perhaps eighty per cent.\ of the
larger stars, and even here there will be small persistent differences.
For those remaining, the disagreement will be more or less marked,
according as the spectral type of the star in question varies more or
less from the average type. The reason of this is well known. The
eye is sensitive to rays which fall between the \textsc{Fraunhofer} lines B
and G (approximately) of the solar spectrum. The maximum brilliancy
to the eye is somewhere near the line $b$. The photographic
plate is sensitive to rays falling between F and N of the solar spectrum
(approximately). The plates now in use are sensitive in the highest
degree to rays of about the wave length of the line G.

Whenever we have a group of say five hundred stars, whose spectra
are nearly all of the same type (as the \textit{Pleiades}, for example,) we can
measure for each star the relative energy of the light in the portion of
its spectrum between B and G (by the eye), in that between F and
N (by the photographic plate), and, \emph{as the energy is distributed according
%-----File: 120.png-----
to the same law in the spectrum of each star of the group}, we can
determine constants of reduction which \emph{will} make the photographic
magnitudes of the various stars agree well with their visual magnitudes.
If, however, two hundred of the stars are very red, one hundred very
blue and two hundred of the ordinary type, it is, in the nature of
things, impossible to bring the photographic and the visual magnitudes
to a good agreement. The very red stars will always appear brighter
to the eye than they do on the plate, and the very blue stars will
always appear fainter to the eye than on the plate, and there is no
process of reduction which will smooth away a difference in their
magnitudes which is inherent in their nature. If there were such a
process, it would be most unwise to employ it. When I see that a
star is of the visual magnitude 1 and the photographic magnitude 2.5,
I at once learn something of the nature of this star's spectrum, and
so in like cases.

\medskip
It therefore seems to be a rational and a useful plan to leave out all
consideration of the visual magnitudes of stars in determining their
photographic magnitudes. A simple and most satisfactory method of
procedure would be to assume \textit{Polaris} as the standard star of the
whole sky, and to fix its magnitude (when in the zenith of a station at
sea level) at 2.00, once for all; to select a set of secondary standards,
distributed round the equator, and to determine the brightness of each
one of these stars in terms of that of \textit{Polaris} (a proof of the constancy
of the light of \textit{Polaris} being thus attained). Important groups like
the \textit{Pleiades}, etc., would also have their brightness determined in
terms of that of the standard. The brightness of the principal Southern
stars should also be fixed in terms of \textit{Polaris} indirectly through
the \textit{Pleiades}, etc. A light-ratio should be selected on grounds of convenience
alone and the photographic magnitude of every star should
be determined by an equation like our equation (7) in terms of a
single standard star with a definite light ratio.

If this programme were to be followed, we should simply have to
add to our star-catalogues another column headed ``Photographic
Magnitude,'' which would immediately follow the column ``Visual
Magnitude.'' The agreement or disagreement of the two numbers
would tell us something of the nature of the spectrum of each star.
In order to have the work exact, it would be necessary that all the
stars should be photographed on one kind of plates, as is now done by
the Harvard College Observatory, and as will be done by the
International Photographic Congress. The photographic Southern
%-----File: 121.png-----
\textit{Durchmusterung} might for convenience have its magnitudes expressed
in visual units, though the DM of the Cordoba Observatory will make
this unnecessary, and will, in fact, make it distinctly to the advantage
of science if the photographic DM is made \emph{entirely} photographic.
The International map of two million stars to the eleventh magnitude
should, in my judgment, give photographic magnitudes \emph{alone}. I can
conceive of no advantage to be gained by determining the approximate
visual magnitude of these millions of stars at all comparable
with the labor involved. In any event, it would seem that the
photographic magnitudes should be given whether the visual magnitudes
are or are not.

\medskip
Such, it appears to me, are the general principles which should
govern in the determination of star magnitudes by photography.
I have set them forth because no amount of discussion at this stage
can be called superfluous. After the International Congress has
once settled its methods of procedure, it will be the duty of all
co-operating observatories to conform to the spirit and to the letter of
the methods finally adopted. As long as they are not yet adopted
any suggestions, however simple, cannot fail to be of use.

\medskip
The Lick Observatory is endeavoring to make a modest contribution
to the general subject of which we have spoken. Professor
\textsc{Schaeberle} has made observations at Mount Hamilton (4209 feet
above sea), and will make observations at Cayenne, South America,
(nearly at sea-level), to determine the photographic atmospheric
absorption at zenith distances between 0° and 70° or 75°. He has
already compared the \textit{Pleiades} and other stars with \textit{Polaris}, and will
compare the principal Southern stars with the \textit{Pleiades}, etc. In this
way, his observations, if successful, will enable us to transfer the
standards of the Northern Hemisphere into the Southern.

The immense work now in progress in both hemispheres under
the auspices of the Harvard College Observatory will afford material
for a thorough discussion of the whole subject. The contributions
of Dr.\ \textsc{Charlier} and Professor \textsc{Schaeberle} have established the
final form under which special discussions of this kind must be made.
The only part of the subject remaining for settlement is that which
relates to the establishment of the fundamental principles on which the
final methods of reductions are to be based. I have endeavored, in
what precedes, to set forth what seems to me to be a satisfactory
system, at once simple and comprehensive.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}
%-----File: 122.png-----

\nbsubsectionheading{Variations of the Surface of Mars.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Variations of the Surface of Mars [from a note by \textsc{M.~C. Flammarion}]}

In the second volume (1888) of the \textit{Bulletin de la Société Astronomique
de France}, M. \textsc{Flammarion} has two long and studied articles
on the \emph{markings} of the planet \textit{Mars}. He is careful to present a great
number of \textit{fac-simile} drawings of the planet, which date from 1659 to
1888, so that the evidence which he has used is before the eyes of
the reader. After showing that drawings of \textit{Mars} may differ greatly
from each other on account of differences of eyes, methods, interpretation,
instruments, atmospheric influences both on \textit{Mars} and the
earth, and on variations of the inclination of the planet's axis, he goes
on to show that there still remain variations which are (probably) not
due to any of these causes, and which therefore are to be attributed
to real variations in the surface of the planet itself.

Most of the paper is devoted to an examination of the evidence
of the drawings. (In this connection it is well to refer to a set of
articles by Professor \textsc{Schiaparelli}, in \textit{Himmel und Erde} for October,
November and December, 1888, where the same questions are treated
also in a masterly manner.) At the close of this examination
M. \textsc{Flammarion} feels authorized to draw the following conclusions
as established facts---leaving all speculation to one side:

\begin{description}
\item[I.] ``There are permanent markings on the surface of \textit{Mars,}
which in all probability represent \textit{(`doivent représenter'}) seas, lakes,
regions of water of various kinds, etc. (It has long been known that
on this planet there are polar snows which melt in summer, clouds,
and the vapor of water shown by spectroscopic observations.)

\item[II.] ``These markings are permanent; they are seen to-day in the
same regions where they were observed in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. They are not atmospheric products, then, such
as are shown, for example, on \textit{Jupiter}.

\item[III.] ``However, while they are permanent they are not invariable.
They change both in extent and in depth of tone, in different years
and without doubt during different seasons [seasons of \textit{Mars}].

\item[IV.] ``There are some regions which are specially variable.
These appear to hold a middle place between continents and seas,
and to be marshy lands, which are in turn elevated above and submerged
below a thin layer of water.

\item[V.] ``The continents of \textit{Mars} appear to be flat; and subject to
inundations in nearly all their extent.

\item[VI.] ``The northern hemisphere is more elevated than the
southern; the seas are chiefly in the southern hemisphere, and
they do not appear to be deep.
%-----File: 123.png-----

\item[VII.] ``The evaporation on \textit{Mars} is, without doubt, rapid and
considerable. Millions of cubic yards of water pass readily from the
state of vapor to the state of liquid, and millions of acres pass from
the continental to the maritime aspect.

\item[VIII.] ``Water is perhaps not the only agent concerned in these
changes. The general order of things is very different on \textit{Mars} and
on the earth.''
\end{description}

This is not the place to examine the conclusions critically. In a
general way, they all depend upon the assumption that the darker
markings on \textit{Mars} represent bodies of water. As this is quite
probable (though by no means proved as yet) the eight theorems
given above may serve as points of departure in the further working
out of this plausible hypothesis.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}


\nbsubsectionheading{Stability of the Great Equatorial.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Stability of the Great Equatorial}

{\stretchyspace
Observations for the position of the great telescope have been
made by Messrs.\ \textsc{Schaeberle} and \textsc{Keeler}, as below:
\begin{tablesetup}
\begin{tabular}{l@{~}l@{~}l@{~}c@{~}l@{~}c@{~}l@{~}r@{~}c@{~}c}
1888,& July &27,  & azimuth &= $+36''$; & level &=&$ 8''$&too & low.\\
1889,& May  &18,  &   ``    &= ------   &  ``   &=&$36''$& `` & ``\\
     & Sept.&16,  &   ``    &= $+83''$  &  ``   &=&$58''$& `` & ``
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

}There appears to be a slight progressive change in level and
probably in azimuth.


\nbsubsectionheading{Mountain Observatories.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Mountain Observatories [from the \textit{Opticks} of Sir \textsc{Isaac Newton}]}

Telescopes \ldots ``cannot be formed so as to take away
that confusion of rays which arises from the tremors of the atmosphere.
The only remedy is a most serene and quiet air, such as may perhaps
be found on the tops of the highest mountains above the grosser
clouds.''---Sir \textsc{Isaac Newton}, in his \textit{Opticks}, \textsc{a.~d.}\ 1730. % original has A.D. here; regularised to match usage on 117.png

\nbsubsectionheading{Rainfall on Mount Hamilton.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Rainfall at Mount Hamilton}

Meteorological observations have been kept at Mount Hamilton
since 1880. The following table of rainfall on the summit is the best
available summary. This rainfall is considerably more than that in
the Santa Clara Valley near San José (about 13.4 inches) and it is
probably considerably less than the fall in some of the cańons and
valleys immediately surrounding the mountain. The great variations
in the annual amount of rainfall are interesting from a meteorological
%-----File: 124.png-----
point of view, and decidedly inconvenient from a practical one,
especially as our reservoir capacity is not quite adequate.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}

\begin{tablesetup}
\renewcommand{\tabcolsep}{4pt}
\begin{tabular}{l@{\,} *{9}{|r@{.}l} }
\multicolumn{19}{c}{\textit{
    Rainfall at Mount Hamilton in the Years 1880--89. }}\\[1ex]
\hline\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\footnotesize\textsc{Month.}\rule{0pt}{3ex}}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1880--81}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1881--82}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1882--83}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1883--84}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1884--85}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1885--86}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1886--87}&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize 1887--88}&
\multicolumn{2}{c}{\footnotesize 1888--89}\\[1ex]
\hline

& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\footnotesize in.}
& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\footnotesize in.}\\

July    & 0&00& 0&00& 0&00& 0&00& 0&00&\ 0&00& 0&00& 0&04& 0&00\\[1ex]
August   & 0&00& 0&00& 0&00& 0&00& 0&15& 0&00& 0&00& 0&00& 0&02\\[1ex]
September& 0&00& 0&10& 0&00& 0&65& 0&65& 0&15& 0&00& 0&33& 0&49\\[1ex]
October  & 0&00& 0&33& 6&16& 2&15& 3&71& 0&05& 0&60& 0&09& 0&03\\[1ex]
November\tablenoteasterisk & 0&50& 0&91& 3&45& 1&48& 0&01&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{------\ \ }& 2&82& 0&90& 3&27\\[1ex]
December & 9&68& 9&72& 1&93& 2&05&33&84&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{------\ \ }& 2&34&11&25& 4&23\\[1ex]
January  & 3&51& 3&55& 3&10& 5&60& 1&99&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{------\ \ }& 2&83&10&04& 1&04\\[1ex]
February & 5&99& 2&90& 3&75&12&76& 0&57& 1&80& 7&80& 1&38& 1&42\\[1ex]
March    & 1&13& 5&40& 8&66&16&35& 1&15& 5&77& 1&39& 3&40& 6&17\\[1ex]
April    & 0&98& 4&70& 2&66&11&96& 2&08& 6&79& 5&75& 0&68& 1&92\\[1ex]
May      & 0&09& 0&48& 7&55& 1&24& 0&16& 0&70& 0&25& 1&25& 3&21\\[1ex]
June     & 0&33& 1&06& 0&00& 3&85& 0&36& 0&00& 0&30& 0&67& 0&00\\[1ex]
\hline
Sums\rule{0pt}{3ex}      &22&21&29&15&37&26&58&09&44&67&
\multicolumn{2}{c|}{------\ \ }&24&08&30&03&21&80\\[1ex]
\hline
\multicolumn{19}{c}{\footnotesize
* November, 1880---One shower, amount assumed to be $0^\text{in}.50$. N.~B. December, 1884. }
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

Mean annual rainfall (8 years), \textit{July to July}~=~33.41~in.

\nbsubsectionheading{Great Telescope for Los Angeles.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Great Telescope for Los Angeles}

Authentic information regarding the proposed forty-inch refractor
for Wilson's Peak is difficult to obtain. A newspaper report of an
interview with Mr.\ A.~G. \textsc{Clark} on September~28, recites that one of
the discs (now on exhibition at Paris) will probably arrive in Boston
in October. The other disc is not yet cast, and M. \textsc{Mantois} is,
apparently, not willing to undertake the work without a contract,
which is not yet executed. The Trustees of the Fund have, so it is
said, authorized Mr.\ \textsc{Clark} to pay \$10,000 for two satisfactory forty-inch
discs, which is not an unreasonable price by any means.
Mr.\ \textsc{Clark} offered to make the objective and the mounting for
\$100,000, during his visit to California in the winter of 1888--9. So
far as is now known, the fund available for the telescope does not yet
exceed \$150,000. Probably \$300,000 to \$400,000 would build and
equip the observatory.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}
%-----File: 125.png-----

\nbsubsectionheading{Force of Gravity at Mt. Hamilton and San Francisco.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Force of Gravity at Mount Hamilton and San Francisco, as determined by \textsc{E.~D. Preston} of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey}

Mr.\ E.~D. \textsc{Preston} of the U.~S. Coast and Geodetic Survey has
published his report on gravity determinations in the Pacific Ocean
(\textit{Bulletin} No.~11, U.~S.~C. and G.~S., 1889). The force of gravity
at Washington being 1.000000, that at San Francisco (Professor
\textsc{Davidson's} Observatory) is 0.999854 and at the Lick Observatory
it is 0.999544. Determinations of \textit{g} at four stations in the Hawaiian
Islands and for a station at Caroline Island are also given.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}


\nbsubsectionheading{Lick Observatory Photographs of the Moon.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Lick Observatory Photographs of the Moon}

\textit{Knowledge} for October~1, 1889, contains an article by the editor
(Mr.\ \textsc{Ranyard}), on the Moon as seen in the Lick Telescope.
Excellent reproductions of five silver prints made by the Direct
Photo-Engraving Company of London, accompany the article.
Mr.\ \textsc{Ranyard's} remarks upon the temperature of the moon and upon
the possibility of the existence of snow-fields on its surface, are well
worth close attention.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}


\nbsubsectionheading{American Eclipse Expedition to Africa (December~21, 1889).}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad American Eclipse Expedition to Africa (December~21, 1889)}

The New York \textit{Sun}, for October~17, has an account of the sailing
of the U.\,S.\,S.\ \textit{Pensacola} with the American Eclipse Expedition
to Africa. The expedition is under Professor D.~P. \textsc{Todd}, of Amherst
College, as chief astronomer. His astronomical assistants are
Messrs.\ \textsc{Bigelow}, \textsc{Davis} and \textsc{Jacobi}. Mr.\ \textsc{Carbutt} goes as photographer,
with Mr.\ \textsc{Wright} as his assistant; Mr.\ E.~J. \textsc{Loomis} as
naturalist; Professor \textsc{Abbe} as meteorologist, with G.~E. \textsc{Van
Guysling} as assistant; Mr.\ \textsc{Preston} as the observer of magnetics
and for determinations of gravity; Mr.\ W.~H. \textsc{Brown} as osteologist
and naturalist, with his brother as assistant; Mr.\ \textsc{Orr} as ethnologist
and ornithologist; H. \textsc{Chatelaine} as interpreter; G.~T. \textsc{Flint} as
stenographer, and Dr.\ \textsc{Bartlett} as apothecary! Add to these
names that of Professor \textsc{Alex.\ Agassiz}, who may join the vessel at
Cape Town to engage in deep-sea dredging. This is carrying the
war into Africa, indeed. The newspaper account of the astronomical
outfit is somewhat meagre. It appears that the expedition is provided
with a photoheliograph, giving an image of the sun four inches
in diameter. With this the partial phases will be photographed on
\emph{ortho-chromatic} plates (No.\ 16) and the total phase on \emph{ortho-chromatic}
plates (No.\ 27). A large mirror, belonging to Professor \textsc{Langley},
%-----File: 126.png-----
an equatorial belonging to the Harvard College Observatory, and
\emph{twenty} cameras are also provided for photography.

It is to be hoped that the expedition will meet with fine weather,
in order to utilize its unusually large force of observers and instruments.
Sir \textsc{Isaac Newton} said at the death of his pupil \textsc{Cotes},
``If \textsc{Cotes} had lived, we should have known something.'' If the
four minutes of totality are clear at St. Paul de Loanda % TN: original reads "Loando"; modified on frequency grounds
 we shall certainly
learn something from these many skilled observers with their
large equipment.

It now appears that with two expeditions in Africa, and with two
at least, in America, the observation of this eclipse is thoroughly well
provided for. It should be a source of gratification to Californians,
and especially to this Society, that the generosity of one of our members
has allowed the Lick Observatory to put a strong expedition in
the field.\pushright{E.~S.~H.}\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent October~26, 1889.}

\nbsubsectionheading{Eclipse of \textit{Japetus}, the VIII Satellite of \textit{Saturn}, on
November~1, 1889.}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Eclipse of \textit{Japetus}, the VIII satellite of \textit{Saturn}. By \textsc{E.~E. Barnard}}

The eclipse of \textit{Japetus} was observed here on November~1 with
the twelve-inch equatorial. Only a part of this very rare phenomenon
was visible at this point, the interval between the rising of \textit{Saturn}
and daylight covering only a small portion of the time occupied by
the eclipse, or, rather, series of eclipses; for the satellite passed
through the shadow of the entire ring system as well as that of the
globe of \textit{Saturn}. The satellite would first pass into the outer edge
of the shadow of the ring, and would next appear in the sunlight,
shining through the \textsc{Cassini} division, being visible for probably
eighteen minutes. It would then pass into the shadow of the inner
bright ring; from this it would emerge in the semi-shadow of the
Crape Ring, from which it would pass into the sunlight again between
the shadow of the Crape Ring and that of the ball. It would next
enter the shadow of the ball, and, from this point on, a reversal of
all the first phenomena would happen. The entire series of eclipses
covered a period of approximately nineteen hours. That portion of
the eclipse which could be seen from the Lick Observatory was the
reappearance from the shadow of the globe and passage through the
semi-shadow of the Crape Ring into the shadow of the inner bright
ring.

The important questions in connection with this phenomenon
%-----File: 127.png-----
were: Would the satellite become visible when it came to the projection
of the \textsc{Cassini} division? What would be the effect of the Crape
Ring upon the appearance of the satellite?

The last question only could be answered from this point, as the
satellite would rise eclipsed in the shadow of the ball, and not reach
the second part of the \textsc{Cassini} division until long after sun-up.

Carefully watching the point of reappearance of the satellite, it
was faintly caught at $14^\text{h}\ 38^\text{m}$ Mt.~H. m.~t. It reappeared quite close
to the satellites \textit{Tethys} and \textit{Enceladus}. It grew pretty rapidly brighter,
and attained its full brightness at about $14^\text{h}\ 50^\text{m}$. It was then about
0.1 magnitude less than \textit{Tethys}. The proximity to these two satellites
gave an excellent means of detecting changes in its brightness
by comparison with their light. Eighty such comparisons were made,
and from these I have constructed a curve, which very clearly shows
what effect the Crape Ring had upon the appearance of the satellite.
\textit{Japetus} required a little over ten minutes to become wholly free
from the shadow of the ball. After remaining at its full brightness
for fifteen minutes, it began very slowly to decrease in light; however,
changing less than 0.1 magnitude in forty minutes' time. At
$15^\text{h}\ 54^\text{m}$ the light began to decrease more rapidly, and in sixty-five
minutes it passed through 0.7 of a magnitude. It then approached
the shadow of the inner bright ring, and in fifteen minutes its light
diminished 0.66 of a magnitude, when it totally disappeared, at
$17^\text{h}\ 11^\text{m}\,{}^1\!/\!_2$.

These observations show us that, after striking the sunlight shining
through between the ball and the rings, the satellite then passed into
the shadow of the Crape Ring, which sensibly affected its brightness.
Passing deeper into this \emph{shade}, the absorption of the sunlight became
more and more pronounced, until finally the satellite struck the
shadow of the inner bright ring, which it rapidly entered and within
which it disappeared.

These observations, therefore, tell us that the Crape Ring is truly
transparent---the sunlight sifting through it; that the particles composing
the Crape Ring cut off an appreciable quantity of sunlight;
that these particles cluster more and more thickly---or, in other
words, the Crape Ring is denser as it approaches the bright rings.

Observations made elsewhere will tell us whether the satellite was
seen when it entered the projection of the \textsc{Cassini} division. The
observations will be published in full in the \textit{Monthly Notices} of the
Royal Astronomical Society.\pushright{E.~E.~B.}\\*[1ex]
{\small\indent\textsc{Mt.~Hamilton}, Nov. 6th, 1889.}

%-----File: 128.png-----
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{\qquad Five full-page plates of drawings of \textit{Jupiter} to follow}
\begin{figure}[p]
	\centering
  \LARGE\textit{Plate I}\\[5mm]
	\includegraphics{images/fig6.jpg}\\
  \raggedright \qquad \footnotesize E.E.B. Del\textsuperscript{\underline{t}}\\
  \centering\LARGE\textit{Jupiter.}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
	\centering
  \LARGE\textit{Plate II}\\[5mm]
	\includegraphics{images/fig7.jpg}\\
  \raggedright \qquad \footnotesize E.E.B. Del\textsuperscript{\underline{t}}\\
  \centering\LARGE\textit{Jupiter.}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
	\centering
  \LARGE\textit{Plate III}\\[5mm]
	\includegraphics{images/fig8.jpg}\\
  \raggedright \qquad \footnotesize E.E.B. Del\textsuperscript{\underline{t}}\\
  \centering\LARGE\textit{Jupiter.}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
	\centering
  \LARGE\textit{Plate IV}\\[5mm]
	\includegraphics{images/fig9.jpg}\\
  \raggedright \qquad \footnotesize E.E.B. Del\textsuperscript{\underline{t}}\\
  \centering\LARGE\textit{Jupiter.}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
	\centering
  \LARGE\textit{Plate V}\\[5mm]
  \includegraphics{images/fig10.jpg}
\end{figure}

\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Parabolic Elements of Comet Swift (Nov.~16).}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Parabolic Elements of Comet Swift (Nov.~16). By \textsc{A.~O. Leuschner}}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{\shortrule\\*
By \textsc{A.~O. Leuschner.}\\*
\shortrule}

From the three successive observations at Lick Observatory,
November~20, 21, 22, which were kindly communicated to me by
Professor E.~E. \textsc{Barnard}, I have deduced the following parabolic
elements by \textsc{Oppolzer's} method:
\begin{tablesetup}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
\begin{tabular}{r@{ }c@{ }lc}
T &$=$&\multicolumn{2}{@{}l}{1889, Dec.~11, 8493 G.~M.~T.}\\
$\ascnode$ &$=$&$ 306°\ 25'$
& \multirow{3}{*}{\centering \qquad O $-$ C
  $\left\{ \begin{array}{l@{\ }c@{\ }l}
     \text{d } \lambda, & \cos\beta & = +1'.2  \\
     \text{d }\beta     &           &= \pm 0.\,0
           \end{array} \right.$}
\\
$\omega$  &$=$&$ 116°\ 24'$\\
$i$       &$=$&$ 6°\ 47'$\\
$\log q$  &$=$&$ 0.0633$\\
\end{tabular}
\end{tablesetup}

\filbreak
The small geocentric arc and the error of $1'.2$ remaining in $\lambda$
render these elements extremely uncertain. The comet is very likely
periodic.

\textsc{Berkeley, Cal}., November~27, 1889.

\ThoughtBreakLong

\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, Held
November~30, 1889, at 408 California Street,
San Francisco.}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, November~30, 1889}

A quorum was present.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Bills presented by the Secretary and Treasurer were approved.

Miss C.~W. \textsc{Bruce}, of New York City, was duly elected a life member,
subject to the action of the Society.

Adjourned.

\bigskip
\nbsectionheading{\textsc{Minutes of the Meeting of the Astronomical Society Of
the Pacific, Held November~30, 1889 (by Invitation),
in the Rooms of the California Academy
of Sciences, San Francisco.}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Minutes of the Meeting of the Society held in San Francisco, November~30, 1889}

\nbsubsubsectionheading{[\small \textsc{Prepared by the Secretaries for Publication}.]}

Owing to the absence of the President, Vice-President \textsc{Pierson} took the
chair.

The thanks of the Society were tendered to the California Academy of Sciences
for the use of their rooms.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

A list of gifts to the Society was read, and thanks were returned to the
donors.
%-----File: 129.png-----

The following members were then elected; the names of
life-members, duly elected by the Board of Directors, being marked
with a star ($^*$):

\begin{small}
\begin{longtable}[l]{@{}ll}
\textsc{Charles S. Aiken,} & Berkeley, Cal.\\
\textsc{J.~H.~C. Bonté, D.~D.} & Berkeley, Cal.\\
\textsc{Miss C.~W. Bruce,$^*$} & 39 East Twenty-third Street, N.~Y. City.\\
\textsc{N.~E. Beckwith,} & Los Gatos, Cal.\\
\textsc{J.~A. Brashear,} &  Allegheny City, Penn.\\
\textsc{Charles M. Bakewell,} & Berkeley, Cal.\\
Miss \textsc{Agnes M. Clerke,} & 68 Redcliffe Square, London, England.\\
Hon.~\textsc{Horace Davis,} & 1011 Bush Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{A.~B. Depuy,} & 216 North Sixth Street, Camden, N.~J.\\
\textsc{Warren B. Ewer,} & 220 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
Mrs.~\textsc{Martha McC. Ewer,} & 220 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{John Gamble,} & Laurel Hall, San Mateo, Cal.\\
\textsc{Henry Harrison,} & South Bergen, N.~J.\\
\textsc{Charles F. Hart,} &  N. Temescal, Alameda County, Cal.\\
\textsc{O.~C. Hastings,} &  Box 166, Victoria, B.~C.\\
\textsc{John J. Herr,} & 438 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Whitney Herr,} & 438 California Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Frank Jaynes,} &  W.~U. Telegraph Co., San Francisco, Cal.\\
Rev.~\textsc{George W. James, F.~R.~A.~S.}, & Oleander, Fresno County, Cal.\\
\textsc{Augustus F. Knudsen,} & Box 2139, Boston, Mass.\\
Professor \textsc{Joseph Le Conte,} & Berkeley, Cal.\\
Miss \textsc{Margaret Lepper,} & Box 490, Benecia, Cal.\\
\textsc{Warren Olney,} & 481 Prospect Avenue, Oakland, Cal.\\
\textsc{James N. Pemberton,} & Downey, Cal.\\
\textsc{C.~D. Perrine,} & 211 Clay Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{J.~E. Richards,} & Los Gatos, Cal.\\
\textsc{F.~B. Rodolph,} & 969 Washington Street, Oakland, Cal.\\
\textsc{Wm.~G. Raymond,} & Berkeley, Cal.\\
Professor \textsc{J.~K. Rees,} & Observatory of Columbia College, New York City.\\
\textsc{Wm.~F. Smith,} & 2515 Broadway Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{Garrett P. Serviss} & 8 Middagh Street, Brooklyn, N.~Y.\\
\textsc{J.~A. Sladky,} & Berkeley, Cal.\\
\textsc{Irving M. Scott,} & 507 Harrison Street, San Francisco, Cal.\\
\textsc{John H. Yoell,} &  San José, Cal.
\end{longtable}
\end{small}

\medskip
The Secretary's books show that the Society now consists of 156 active and
22 life members, or 178 in all. Mr.\ \textsc{Pierson} announced to the Society that
Hon.\ \textsc{Alexander Montgomery}, a member of the Society, offers the sum of
\$2500 to the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, for the purpose of establishing
a gold medal to be awarded annually to the writer of the best paper on the
subject of Astronomy presented to the Society during the year; the gift to be
without conditions, and the Society to have the privilege of using this gift for
other purposes. The Society accepted this generous gift by a rising vote.

A paper ``On the Determination of the Relation between the Exposure Time
and the consequent Blackening of a Photographic Film'' was then read by Mr.\ \textsc{Leuschner}.
This was followed by a paper ``On Photographs of the Milky Way,''
by Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard}. The latter paper was illustrated by lantern slides prepared by
Mr.\ \textsc{Barnard} from some of his own negatives. The other papers announced for
the evening were not read.

The Society then adjourned to meet at its rooms, 408 California Street, on
January~25, 1890.
%-----File: 130.png-----

\nbsectionheading{OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.}
\noindent
\begin{tabular*}{\textwidth}{@{\extracolsep{\fill}}lcr}
\textsc{Edward S. Holden} (Lick Observatory),
&& \textit{President}\\
\textsc{Wm.~M. Pierson} (76 Nevada Block, S.~F.),
& \multirow{3}{1em}{\Bigg\}}&\\
\textsc{W.~H. Lowden} (213 Sansome Street, S.~F.)
&& \textit{Vice-Presidents}\\
\textsc{Frank Soulé} (Students' Observatory, Berkeley),&&\\
\textsc{Chas. Burckhalter} (Chabot Observatory, Oakland),
&\multirow{2}{1em}{\Big\}}
&\multirow{2}{5em}{\textit{Secretaries}}\\
\textsc{J.~M. Schaeberle} (Lick Observatory),&&\\
\textsc{E.~J. Molera} (850 Van Ness Avenue, S.~F.),
&& \textit{Treasurer}
\end{tabular*}

\compactlisttwo\stretchyspace
\item[] \textit{Board of Directors}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Alvord, Boericke, Burckhalter, Gibbs,
Grant, Holden, Lowden, Molera, Pierson, Schaeberle, Soulé}.
\item[] \textit{Finance Committee}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Gibbs, Pierson, Molera}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on Publication}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Dewey, Treat, Ziel}.
\item[] \textit{Committee on the Comet Medal}---Messrs.\ \textsc{Holden} (\textit{ex officio}), % original has ex-officio
\textsc{Schaeberle}, \textsc{Burckhalter}.
\end{list}

\ThoughtBreak

\nbsectionheading{NOTICE.}

Members are requested to preserve the copies of the Publications of the
Society as sent to them. Once each year a title page and index of the preceding
numbers will also be sent to the members, who can then bind the numbers
together into a volume.

It is intended that each member of the Society shall receive a copy of each
one of the Publications for the year in which he was elected to membership and
for all subsequent years. If there have been (unfortunately) any omissions in this
matter, it is requested that the Secretaries be at once notified, in order that the
missing numbers may be supplied.

Complete volumes for past years (preceding the calendar year in which any
member was elected) will also be supplied to members, so far as the stock in hand
is sufficient, on the payment of one dollar to either of the Secretaries.

The titles of papers for reading should be communicated to either of the
Secretaries as early as possible.

Those members who propose to attend any or all of the meetings at Mount
Hamilton during the summer should communicate with ``The Secretary Astronomical
Society of the Pacific,'' at the rooms of the Society, 408 California Street,
San Francisco, in order that arrangements may be made for transportation,
lodging, etc.
\vfil
\[
 \includegraphics{images/fig4.jpg}
\]

\backmatter
\pagestyle{licensing}

\begin{verbatim}
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\end{verbatim}


% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %
%                                                                         %
% End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Publications of the Astronomical  %
% Society of the Pacific, by Various                                      %
%                                                                         %
% *** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC ***
%                                                                         %
% ***** This file should be named 26147-t.tex or 26147-t.zip *****        %
% This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:      %
%         http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/4/26147/                         %
%                                                                         %
% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %

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