[Transcriber's Notes: These modifications are intended to provide
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2. If a paragraph is exceptionally long, the page number is
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3. Blocks of unrelated text are moved to a nearby break
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5. Use of em dashes and other means of space saving are replaced
   with spaces and newlines.

6. Subjects are arranged thusly:
   Main titles are at the left margin, in all upper case
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   Subtitles (if any) are indented three spaces and
   immediately follow the main title.

   Text of the article (if any) follows the list of subtitles (if
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   References to other articles in this work are in all upper
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   usually begin with "See", "Also" or "Also in".

   Citations of works outside this book are indented six spaces
   and in italics (as in the original). The bibliography in
   Volume 1, APPENDIX F on page xxi provides additional details,
   including URLs of available internet versions.

   ----------Subject: Start--------
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   indicates the start/end of a group of subheadings or other
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   To search for words separated by an unknown number of other
   characters, use this Regular Expression to find the words
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End Transcriber's Notes.]

----------------------------------

History For Ready Reference, Volume 4 of 6

From The Best
Historians, Biographers, And Specialists

Their Own Words In A Complete
System Of History

For All Uses, Extending To All Countries And Subjects,
And Representing For Both Readers And Students The Better
And Newer Literature Of History In The English Language.

BY J. N. LARNED

With Numerous Historical Maps From Original Studies
And Drawings By Alan C. Reiley

In Five Volumes

VOLUME IV—NICÆA TO TUNIS

SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS.
THE C. A. NICHOLS COMPANY, PUBLISHERS
MDCCCXCV

COPYRIGHT, 1894.
BY J. N. LARNED.

The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts., U. S. A.
Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.

LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS.

Two maps of Central Europe, at the abdication of Charles V.
(1556), and showing the distribution of Religions about 1618,
   To follow page 2458

Map of Eastern Europe in 1768, and of Central Europe at
the Peace of Campo Formio (1797),
   To follow page 2554

Map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent,
under Trajan (A. D. 116),
   To follow page 2712

Map of Europe at the death of Justinian (A. D. 565),
   To follow page 2742

Two maps, of Eastern Europe and Central Europe, in 1715,
   To follow page 2762

Four development maps of Spain,
9th, 11th, 12th and 13th centuries,
   To follow page 2976


LOGICAL OUTLINE, IN COLORS.
Roman history,
   To follow page 2656

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
Ninth and Tenth Centuries,
   To follow page 2746

{2359}

NICÆA OR NICE:
   The founding of the city.

   Nicæa, or Nice, in Bithynia, was founded by Antigonus, one of
   the successors of Alexander the Great, and received originally
   the name Antigonea. Lysimachus changed the name to Nicæa, in
   honor of his wife.

NICÆA OR NICE:
   Capture by the Goths.

      See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 325.
   The First Council.

   "Constantine … determined to lay the question of Arianism [see
   ARIANISM] before an Œcumenical council. … The council met [A.
   D. 325] at Nicæa—the 'City of Victory'—in Bithynia, close to
   the Ascanian Lake, and about twenty miles from Nicomedia. … It
   was an Eastern council, and, like the Eastern councils, was
   held within a measurable distance from the seat of government.
   … Of the 318 bishops … who subscribed its decrees, only eight
   came from the West, and the language in which the Creed was
   composed was Greek, which scarcely admitted of a Latin
   rendering. The words of the Creed are even now recited by the
   Russian Emperor at his coronation. Its character, then, is
   strictly Oriental. … Of the 318 members of the Council, we are
   told by Philostorgius, the Arian historian, that 22 espoused
   the cause of Arius, though other writers regard the minority
   as still less, some fixing it at 17, others at 15, others as
   low as 13. But of those 318 the first place in rank, though
   not the first in mental power and energy of character, was
   accorded to the aged bishop of Alexandria. He was the
   representative of the most intellectual diocese in the Eastern
   Church. He alone, of all the bishops, was named 'Papa,' or
   'Pope.' The 'Pope of Rome' was a phrase which had not yet
   emerged in history; but 'Pope of Alexandria' was a well-known
   title of dignity."

      R. W. Bush,
      St. Athanasius,
      chapter 6.

      ALSO IN:
      A. P. Stanley,
      Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church,
      lectures 3-5.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1080.
   Acquired by the Turks.
   The capital of the Sultan of Roum.

      See TURKS (THE SELJUK): A. D. 1073-1092.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1096-1097.
   Defeat and slaughter of the First Crusaders.
   Recovery from the Turks.

      See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1204-1261.
   Capital of the Greek Empire.

      See GREEK EMPIRE OF NICÆA.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1330.
   Capture by the Ottoman Turks.

      See TURKS (OTTOMAN): A. D. 1326-1359.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1402.
   Sacked by Timour.

      See TIMOUR.

   ----------NICARAGUA: Start--------


NICARAGUA:
   The Name.

   Nicaragua was originally the name of a native chief who ruled
   in the region on the Lake when it was first penetrated by the
   Spaniards, under Gil Gonzalez, in 1522. "Upon the return of
   Gil Gonzalez, the name Nicaragua became famous, and besides
   being applied to the cacique and his town, was gradually given
   to the surrounding country, and to the lake."

      H. H. Bancroft,
      History of the Pacific States,
      volume 1, page. 489, foot-note.

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1502.
   Coasted by Columbus.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1821-1871.
   Independence of Spain.
   Brief annexation to Mexico.
   Attempted federations and their failure.

      See CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.
   The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.
   Joint protectorate of the United States and
   Great Britain over the proposed inter-oceanic canal.

   "The acquisition of California in May, 1848, by the treaty of
   Guadalupe-Hidalgo, and the vast rush of population, which
   followed almost immediately on the development of the gold
   mines, to that portion of the Pacific coast, made the opening
   of interoceanic communication a matter of paramount importance
   to the United States. In December, 1846, had been ratified a
   treaty with New Granada (which in 1862 assumed the name of
   Colombia) by which a right of transit over the isthmus of
   Panama was given to the United States, and the free transit
   over the isthmus 'from the one to the other sea' guaranteed by
   both of the contracting powers. Under the shelter of this
   treaty the Panama Railroad Company, composed of citizens of
   the United States, and supplied by capital from the United
   States, was organized in 1850 and put in operation in 1855. In
   1849, before, therefore, this company had taken shape, the
   United States entered into a treaty with Nicaragua for the
   opening of a ship-canal from Greytown (San Juan), on the
   Atlantic coast, to the Pacific coast, by way of the Lake of
   Nicaragua. Greytown, however, was then virtually occupied by
   British settlers, mostly from Jamaica, and the whole eastern
   coast of Nicaragua, so far at least as the eastern terminus of
   such a canal was concerned, was held, so it was maintained by
   Great Britain, by the Mosquito Indians, over whom Great
   Britain claimed to exercise a protectorate. That the Mosquito
   Indians had no such settled territorial site; that, if they
   had, Great Britain had no such protectorate or sovereignty
   over them as authorized her to exercise dominion over their
   soil, even if they had any, are positions which … the United
   States has repeatedly affirmed. But the fact that the
   pretension was set up by Great Britain, and that, though it
   were baseless, any attempt to force a canal through the
   Mosquito country, might precipitate a war, induced Mr.
   Clayton, Secretary of State in the administration of General
   Taylor, to ask through Sir H. L. Bulwer, British minister at
   Washington, the administration of Lord John Russell (Lord
   Palmerston being then foreign secretary) to withdraw the
   British pretensions to the coast so as to permit the
   construction of the canal under the joint auspices of the
   United States and of Nicaragua. This the British Government
   declined to do, but agreed to enter into a treaty for a joint
   protectorate over the proposed canal." This treaty, which was
   signed at Washington April 19, 1850, and of which the
   ratifications were exchanged on the 4th of July following, is
   commonly referred to as the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Its
   language in the first article is that "the Governments of the
   United States and of Great Britain hereby declare that neither
   the one nor the other will ever obtain or maintain for itself
   any exclusive control over the said ship-canal; agreeing that
   neither will ever erect or maintain any fortifications
   commanding the same, or in the vicinity thereof, or occupy, or
   fortify, or colonize, or assume or exercise any dominion over
   Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito coast, or any part of
   Central America; nor will either make use of any protection
   which either affords, or may afford, or any alliance which
   either has or may have to or with any state or people, for the
   purpose of erecting or maintaining any such fortifications, or
   of occupying, fortifying, or colonizing Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
   the Mosquito coast, or any part of Central America, or of
   assuming or exercising dominion over the same;
{2360}
   nor will the United States or Great Britain take advantage of
   any intimacy, or use any alliance, connection, or influence
   that either may possess, with any State or Government through
   whose territory the said canal may pass, for the purpose of
   acquiring or holding, directly or indirectly, for the citizens
   or subjects of the one, any rights or advantages in regard to
   commerce or navigation through the said canal which shall not
   be offered on the same terms to the citizens or subjects of
   the other." Since the execution of this treaty there have been
   repeated controversies between the two governments respecting
   the interpretation of its principal clauses. Great Britain
   having maintained her dominion over the Belize, or British
   Honduras, it has been claimed by the United States that the
   treaty is void, or, has become voidable at the option of the
   United States, on the grounds (in the language of a dispatch
   from Mr. Frelinghuysen, Secretary of State, dated July 19,
   1884) "first, that the consideration of the treaty having
   failed, its object never having been accomplished, the United
   States did not receive that for which they covenanted; and,
   second, that Great Britain has persistently violated her
   agreement not to colonize the Central American coast."

      F. Wharton,
      Digest of the International Law of the United States,
      chapter 6, section 150 f. (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      Treaties and Conventions between the United States
      and other Powers (edition of 1889),
      page 440.

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1855-1860.
   The invasion of Walker and his Filibusters.

   "Its geographical situation gave … importance to Nicaragua. It
   contains a great lake, which is approached from the Atlantic
   by the river San Juan; and from the west end of the lake there
   are only 20 miles to the coast of the Pacific. Ever since the
   time of Cortes there have been projects for connecting the two
   oceans through the lake of Nicaragua. … Hence Nicaragua has
   always been thought of great importance to the United States.
   The political struggles of the state, ever since the failure
   of the confederation, had sunk into a petty rivalry between
   the two towns of Leon and Granada. Leon enjoys the distinction
   of being the first important town in Central America to raise
   the cry of independence in 1815, and it had always maintained
   the liberal character which this disclosed. Castellon, the
   leader of the Radical party, of which Leon was the seat,
   called in to help him an American named William Walker.
   Walker, who was born in 1824, was a young roving American who
   had gone during the gold rush of 1850 to California, and
   become editor of a newspaper in San Francisco. In those days
   it was supposed in the United States that the time for
   engulfing the whole of Spanish America had come. Lopez had
   already made his descent on Cuba; and Walker, in July, 1853,
   had organized a band of filibusters for the conquest of
   Sonora, and the peninsula of California, which had been left
   to Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This wild
   expedition … was a total failure; but when Walker came back to
   his newspapers after an absence of seven months, he found
   himself a hero. His fame, as we see, had reached Central
   America; and he at once accepted Castellon's offer. In 1855,
   having collected a band of 70 adventurers in California, he
   landed in the country, captured the town of Granada, and,
   aided by the intrigues of the American consul, procured his
   own appointment as General-in-Chief of the Nicaraguan army.
   Walker was now master of the place: and his own provisional
   President, Rivas, having turned against him, he displaced him,
   and in 1856 became President himself. He remained master of
   Nicaragua for nearly two years, levying arbitrary customs on
   the traffic of the lake, and forming plans for a great
   military state to be erected on the ruins of Spanish America.
   One of Walker's first objects was to seize the famous
   gold-mines of Chontales, and the sudden discovery that the
   entire sierra of America is a gold-bearing region had a good
   deal to do with his extraordinary enterprise. Having assured
   himself of the wealth of the country, he now resolved to keep
   it for himself, and this proved in the end to be his ruin. The
   statesmen of the United States, who had at first supposed that
   he would cede them the territory, now withdrew their support
   from him: the people of the neighbouring states rose in arms
   against him, and Walker was obliged to capitulate, with the
   remains of his filibustering party, at Rivas in 1857. Walker,
   still claiming to be President of Nicaragua, went to New
   Orleans, where he collected a second band of filibusters, at
   the head of whom he again landed near the San Juan river
   towards the end of the year: this time he was arrested and
   sent back home by the American commodore. His third and last
   expedition, in 1860, was directed against Honduras, where he
   hoped to meet with a good reception at the hands of the
   Liberal party. Instead of this he fell into the hands of the
   soldiers of Guardiola, by whom he was tried as a pirate and
   shot, September 12, 1860."

      E. J. Payne,
      History of European Colonies,
      chapter 21, section 8.

   "Though he never evinced much military or other capacity,
   Walker, so long as he acted under color of authority from the
   chiefs of the faction he patronized, was generally successful
   against the pitiful rabble styled soldiers by whom his
   progress was resisted. … But his very successes proved the
   ruin of the faction to which he had attached himself, by
   exciting the natural jealousy and alarm of the natives who
   mainly composed it; and his assumption … of the title of
   President of Nicaragua, speedily followed by a decree
   reestablishing Slavery in that country, exposed his purpose
   and insured his downfall. As if madly bent on ruin, he
   proceeded to confiscate the steamboats and other property of
   the Nicaragua Transit Company, thereby arresting all American
   travel to and from California through that country, and
   cutting himself off from all hope of further recruiting his
   forces from the throngs of sanguine or of baffled
   gold-seekers, who might otherwise have been attracted to his
   standard. Yet he maintained the unequal contest for about two
   years."

      H. Greeley,
      The American Conflict,
      volume 1, chapter 19.

      ALSO IN:
      H. H. Bancroft,
      History of the Pacific States,
      volume 3, chapters 16-17.

      J. J. Roche,
      The Story of the Filibusters,
      chapters 5-18.

   ----------NICARAGUA: End--------

NICE (NIZZA), Asia Minor.

      See NICÆA.

   ----------NICE, France: Start--------

NICE (NIZZA), France: A. D. 1388.
   Acquisition by the House of Savoy.

      See SAVOY: 11-15TH CENTURIES.

{2361}

NICE: A. D. 1542.
   Siege by French and Turks.
   Capture of the town.
   Successful resistance of the citadel.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

NICE: A. D. 1792.
   Annexation to the French Republic.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

NICE: A. D. 1860.
   Cession to France.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

   ----------NICE, France: End--------

NICEPHORUS I.,
   Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), A. D. 802-811.

   Nicephorus II.,
   Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), 963-969.

   Nicephorus III.,
   Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), 1078-1081.

NICHOLAS, Czar of Russia, A. D. 1825-1855.

   Nicholas I., Pope, 858-867.

   Nicholas II., Pope, 1058-1061.

   Nicholas III., Pope, 1277-1280.

   Nicholas IV., Pope, 1288-1292.

   Nicholas V., Pope, 1447-1455.

   Nicholas Swendson, King of Denmark, 1103-1134.

NICIAS (NIKIAS), and the Siege of Syracuse.

      See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.

NICIAS (NIKIAS), The Peace of.

      See GREECE: B. C. 424-421.

NICOLET, Jean, Explorations of.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

   ----------NICOMEDIA: Start--------

NICOMEDIA: A. D. 258.
   Capture by the Goths.

      See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

NICOMEDIA: A. D. 292-305.
   The court of Diocletian.

   "To rival the majesty of Rome was the ambition … of
   Diocletian, who employed his leisure, and the wealth of the
   east, in the embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the
   verge of Europe and Asia, almost at an equal distance between
   the Danube and the Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and
   at the expense of the people, Nicomedia acquired, in the space
   of a few years, a degree of magnificence which might appear to
   have required the labour of ages, and became inferior only to
   Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, in extent or populousness. …
   Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign,
   celebrated his Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether
   he ever visited the ancient capital of the empire."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 13.

      See ROME: A. D. 284-305.

NICOMEDIA: A. D. 1326.
   Capture by the Turks.

      See TURKS (OTTOMAN): A. D. 1326-1359.

   ----------NICOMEDIA: End--------

NICOPOLIS.

   Augustus gave this name to a city which he founded, B. C. 31,
   in commemoration of the victory at Actium, on the site of the
   camp which his army occupied.

      C. Merivale,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 28.

   ----------NICOPOLIS: Start--------

NICOPOLIS, Armenia, Battle of (B. C. 66).

   The decisive battle in which Pompeius defeated Mithridates and
   ended the long Mithridatic wars was fought, B. C. 66, in
   Lesser Armenia, at a place near which Pompeius founded a city
   called Nicopolis, the site of which is uncertain.

      G. Long,
      Decline of the Roman Republic,
      volume 3, chapter 8.

NICOPOLIS: Battle of (B. C. 48).

      See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

   ----------NICOPOLIS, Armenia: End--------

NICOPOLIS, Bulgaria, Battle of (A. D. 1396).

      See TURKS (THE OTTOMAN): A. D. 1389-1403.

NICOSIA:
   Taken and sacked by the Turks (1570).

      See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

NIEUPORT, Battle of (1600).

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1594-1609.

NIGER COMPANY, The Royal.

      See AFRICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

NIHILISM.
NIHILISTS.

   "In Tikomirov's work on Russia seven or eight pages are
   devoted to the severe condemnation of the use of the
   expressions 'nihilism' and 'nihilist.' Nevertheless … they are
   employed universally, and all the world understands what is
   meant by them in an approximate and relative way. … It was a
   novelist who first baptized the party who called themselves at
   that time, 'new men.' It was Ivan Turguenief, who by the mouth
   of one of the characters in his celebrated novel, 'Fathers and
   Sons,' gave the young generation the name of nihilists. But it
   was not of his coinage; Royer-Collard first stamped it; Victor
   Hugo had already said that the negation of the infinite led
   directly to nihilism, and Joseph Lemaistre had spoken of the
   nihilism, more or less sincere, of the contemporary
   generations; but it was reserved for the author of 'Virgin
   Soil' to bring to light and make famous this word; which after
   making a great stir in his own country attracted the attention
   of the whole world. The reign of Nicholas I. was an epoch of
   hard oppression. When he ascended the throne, the conspiracy
   of the Decembrists broke out, and this sudden revelation of
   the revolutionary spirit steeled the already inflexible soul
   of the Czar. Nicholas, although fond of letters and an
   assiduous reader of Homer, was disposed to throttle his
   enemies, and would not have hesitated to pluck out the brains
   of Russia; he was very near suppressing all the universities
   and schools, and inaugurating a voluntary retrocession to
   Asiatic barbarism. He did mutilate and reduce the instruction,
   he suppressed the chair of European political laws, and after
   the events of 1848 in France he seriously considered the idea
   of closing his frontiers with a cordon of troops to beat back
   foreign liberalism like the cholera or the plague. … However,
   it was under his sceptre, under his systematic oppression,
   that, by confession of the great revolutionary statesman
   Herzen, Russian thought developed as never before; that the
   emancipation of the intelligence, which this very statesman
   calls a tragic event, was accomplished, and a national
   literature was brought to light and began to flourish. When
   Alexander II. succeeded to the throne, when the bonds of
   despotism were loosened and the blockade with which Nicholas
   vainly tried to isolate his empire was raised, the field was
   ready for the intellectual and political strife. … Before
   explaining how nihilism is the outcome of intelligence, we
   must understand what is meant by intelligence in Russia. It
   means a class composed of all those, of whatever profession or
   estate, who have at heart the advancement of intellectual
   life, and contribute in every way toward it. It may be said,
   indeed, that such a class is to be found in every country; but
   there is this difference,—in other countries the class is not
   a unit; there are factions, or a large number of its members
   shun political and social discussion in order to enjoy the
   serene atmosphere of the world of art, while in Russia the
   intelligence means a common cause, a homogeneous spirit,
   subversive and revolutionary withal. … Whence came the
   revolutionary element in Russia?
{2362}
   From the Occident, from France, from the negative,
   materialist, sensualist philosophy of the Encyclopædia,
   imported into Russia by Catherine II.; and later from Germany,
   from Kantism and Hegelianism, imbibed by Russian youth at the
   German universities, and which they diffused throughout their
   own country with characteristic Sclav impetuosity. By 'Pure
   Reason' and transcendental idealism, Herzen and Bakunine, the
   first apostles of nihilism, were inspired. But the ideas
   brought from Europe to Russia soon allied themselves with an
   indigenous or possibly an Oriental element; namely, a sort of
   quietist fatalism, which leads to the darkest and most
   despairing pessimism. On the whole, nihilism is rather a
   philosophical conception of the sum of life than a purely
   democratic and revolutionary movement. … Nihilism had no
   political color about it at the beginning. During the decade
   between 1860 and 1870 the youth of Russia was seized with a
   sort of fever for negation, a fierce antipathy toward
   everything that was,—authorities, institutions, customary
   ideas, and old-fashioned dogmas. In Turguenief's novel,
   'Fathers and Sons,' we meet with Bazarof, a froward,
   ill-mannered, intolerable fellow, who represents this type.
   After 1871 the echo of the Paris Commune and emissaries of the
   Internationals crossed the frontier, and the nihilists began
   to bestir themselves, to meet together clandestinely, and to
   send out propaganda. Seven years later they organized an era
   of terror, assassination, and explosions. Thus three phases
   have followed upon one another,—thought, word, and deed,—along
   that road which is never so long as it looks, the road that
   leads from the word to the act, from Utopia to crime. And yet
   nihilism never became a political party as we understand the
   term. It has no defined creed or official programme. The
   fulness of its despair embraces all negatives and all acute
   revolutionary forms. Anarchists, federalists, cantonalists,
   covenanters, terrorists, all who are unanimous in a desire to
   sweep away the present order, are grouped under the ensign of
   nihil."

      E. P. Bazan,
      Russia, its People and its Literature,
      book 2, chapters 1-2.

   "Out of Russia, an already extended list of revolutionary
   spirits in this land has attracted the attention and kept
   curiosity on the alert. We call them Nihilists,—of which the
   Russian pronunciation is neegilist, which, however, is now
   obsolete. Confined to the terrorist group in Europe, the
   number of these persons is certainly very small. Perhaps, as
   is thought in Russia, there are 500 in all, who busy
   themselves, even if reluctantly, with thoughts of resorting to
   bombs and murderous weapons to inspire terror. But it is not
   exactly this group that is meant when we speak of that
   nihilistic force in society which extends everywhere, into all
   circles, and finds support and strongholds at widely spread
   points. It is indeed not very different from what elsewhere in
   Europe is regarded as culture, advanced culture: the profound
   scepticism in regard to our existing institutions in their
   present form, what we call royal prerogative, church,
   marriage, property."

      Georg Brandes,
      Impressions of Russia,
      chapter 4.

   "The genuine Nihilism was a philosophical and literary
   movement, which flourished in the first decade after the
   Emancipation of the Serfs, that is to say, between 1860 and
   1870. It is now (1883] absolutely extinct, and only a few
   traces are left of it, which are rapidly disappearing. …
   Nihilism was a struggle for the emancipation of intelligence
   from every kind of dependence, and it advanced side by side
   with that for the emancipation of the labouring classes from
   serfdom. The fundamental principle of Nihilism, properly
   so-called, was absolute individualism. It was the negation, in
   the name of individual liberty of all the obligations imposed
   upon the individual by society, by family life, and by
   religion. Nihilism was a passionate and powerful reaction, not
   against political despotism, but against the moral despotism
   that weighs upon the private and inner life of the individual.
   But it must be confessed that our predecessors, at least in
   the earlier days, introduced into this highly pacific struggle
   the same spirit of rebellion and almost the same fanaticism
   that characterises the present movement."

      Stepniak,
      Underground Russia,
      introduction.

      ALSO IN:
      Stepniak,
      The Russian Storm-Cloud.

      L. Tikhomirov,
      Russia, Political and Social,
      books 6-7 (volume 2).

      E. Noble,
      The Russian Revolt.

      A. Leroy-Beaulieu,
      The Empire of the Tsars,
      part 1, book 3, chapter 4.

      See, also, RUSSIA: A. D. 1879-1881;
      and ANARCHISTS.

NIKA SEDITION, The.

      See CIRCUS, FACTIONS OF THE ROMAN.

NIKIAS.

      See NICIAS.

NILE, Naval Battle of the.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST).

NIMEGUEN:
   Origin.

      See BATAVIANS.

NIMEGUEN: A. D. 1591.
   Siege and capture by Prince Maurice.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1588-1593.

NIMEGUEN, The Peace of (1678-1679).

   The war which Louis XIV. began in 1672 by attacking Holland,
   with the co-operation of his English pensioner, Charles II.,
   and which roused against him a defensive coalition of Spain,
   Germany and Denmark with the Dutch (see NETHERLANDS: A. D.
   1672-1674, and 1674-1678), was ended by a series of treaties
   negotiated at Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679. The first of these
   treaties, signed August 10, 1678, was between France and
   Holland. "France and Holland kept what was in their
   possession, except Maestricht and its dependencies which were
   restored to Holland. France therefore kept her conquests in
   Senegal and Guiana. This was all the territory lost by Holland
   in the terrible war which had almost annihilated her. The
   United Provinces pledged themselves to neutrality in the war
   which might continue between France and the other powers, and
   guaranteed the neutrality of Spain, after the latter should
   have signed the peace. France included Sweden in the treaty;
   Holland included in it Spain and the other allies who should
   make peace within six weeks after the exchange of
   ratifications. To the treaty of peace was annexed a treaty of
   commerce, concluded for twenty-five years."

      H. Martin,
      History of France: Age of Louis XIV.,
      (translated by M. L. Booth),
      volume 1, chapter 6.

   The peace between France and Spain was signed September 17.
   France gave back, in the Spanish Netherlands and elsewhere,
   "Charleroi, Binch, Ath, Oudenarde, and Courtrai, which she had
   gained by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the town and duchy of
   Limburg, all the country beyond the Meuse, Ghent, Rodenhus,
   and the district of the Waes, Leuze, and St. Ghislain, with
   Puycerda in Catalonia, these having been taken since that
   peace.
{2363}
   But she retained Franche Comté, with the towns of
   Valenciènnes, Bouchain, Condé, Cambrai and the Cambresis,
   Aire, St. Omer, Ypres, Werwick, Warneton, Poperinge, Bailleul,
   Cassel, Bavai, and Maubeuge. … On February 2, 1679, peace was
   declared between Louis, the Emperor, and the Empire. Louis
   gave back Philippsburg, retaining Freiburg with the desired
   liberty of passage across the Rhine to Breisach; in all other
   respects the Treaty of Munster, of October 24, 1648, was
   reestablished. … The treaty then dealt with the Duke of
   Lorraine. To his restitution Louis annexed conditions which
   rendered Lorraine little more than a French province. Not only
   was Nancy to become French, but, in conformity with the treaty
   of 1661, Louis was to have possession of four large roads
   traversing the country, with half a league's breadth of
   territory throughout their length, and the places contained
   therein. … To these conditions the Duke refused to subscribe,
   preferring continual exile until the Peace of Ryswick in 1697,
   when at length his son regained the ancestral estates."
   Treaties between the Emperor and Sweden, between Brandenburg
   and France and Sweden, between Denmark and the same, and
   between Sweden, Spain and Holland, were successively concluded
   during the year 1679. "The effect of the Peace of Nimwegen
   was, … speaking generally, to reaffirm the Peace of
   Westphalia. But … it did not, like the Peace of Westphalia,
   close for any length of time the sources of strife."

      O. Airy,
      The English Restoration and Louis XIV.,
      chapter 22.

      ALSO IN:
      Sir W. Temple,
      Memoirs,
      part 2 (Works, volume 2).

NINE WAYS, The.

      See AMPHIPOLIS;
      also, ATHENS: B. C. 466-454.

NINETY-FIVE THESES OF LUTHER, The.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1517.

NINETY-TWO, The.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1767-1768.

NINEVEH.

   "In or about the year before Christ 606, Nineveh, the great
   city, was destroyed. For many hundred years had she stood in
   arrogant splendor, her palaces towering above the Tigris and
   mirrored in its swift waters; army after army had gone forth
   from her gates and returned laden with the spoils of conquered
   countries; her monarchs had ridden to the high place of
   sacrifice in chariots drawn by captive kings. But her time
   came at last. The nations assembled and encompassed her around
   [the Medes and the Babylonians, with their lesser allies].
   Popular tradition tells how over two years lasted the siege;
   how the very river rose and battered her walls; till one day a
   vast flame rose up to heaven; how the last of a mighty line of
   kings, too proud to surrender, thus saved himself, his
   treasures and his, capital from the shame of bondage. Never
   was city to rise again where Nineveh had been." The very
   knowledge of the existence of Nineveh was lost so soon that,
   two centuries later, when Xenophon passed the ruins, with his
   Ten Thousand retreating Greeks, he reported them to be the
   ruins of a deserted city of the Medes and called it Larissa.
   Twenty-four centuries went by, and the winds and the rains, in
   their slow fashion, covered the bricks and stones of the
   desolated Assyrian capital with a shapeless mound of earth.
   Then came the searching modern scholar and explorer, and began
   to excavate the mound, to see what lay beneath it. First the
   French Consul, Botta, in 1842; then the Englishman Layard, in
   1845; then the later English scholar, George Smith, and
   others; until buried Nineveh has been in great part brought to
   light. Not only the imperishable monuments of its splendid art
   have been exposed, but a veritable library of its literature,
   written on tablets and cylinders of clay, has been found and
   read. The discoveries of the past half-century, on the site of
   Nineveh, under the mound called Koyunjik, and elsewhere in
   other similarly-buried cities of ancient Babylonia and
   Assyria, may reasonably be called the most extraordinary
   additions to human knowledge which our age has acquired.

      Z. A. Ragozin,
      Story of Chaldea,
      introduction, chapters 1-4.

      ALSO IN:
      A. H. Layard,
      Nineveh and its Remains;
      and Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon.

      G. Smith,
      Assyrian Discoveries

      See, also, ASSYRIA;
      and LIBRARIES, ANCIENT.

NINEVEH, Battle of (A.D. 627).

      See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

NINFEO, Treaty of.

      See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.

NINIQUIQUILAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

NIPAL
NEPAUL:
   English war with the Ghorkas.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1805-1816.

NIPMUCKS,
NIPNETS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
      also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675, 1675,
      and 1676-1678 KING PHILIP'S WAR.

NISÆAN PLAINS, The.

   The famous horse-pastures of the ancient Medes. "Most probably
   they are to be identified with the modern plains of Khawah and
   Alishtar, between Behistun and Khorramabad, which are even now
   considered to afford the best summer pasturage in Persia. …
   The proper Nisæa is the district of Nishapur in Khorasan,
   whence it is probable that the famous breed of horses was
   originally brought."

      G. Rawlinson,
      Five Great Monarchies: Media,
      chapter 1, with foot-note.

NISCHANDYIS.

      See SUBLIME PORTE.

NISHAPOOR:
   Destruction by the Mongols (1221).

      See KHORASSAN: A. D. 1220-1221.

NISIB, Battle of (1839).

      See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.

NISIBIS, Sieges of (A. D. 338-350).

      See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

NISIBIS, Theological School of.

      See NESTORIANS.

   ----------NISMES: Start--------

NISMES:
   Origin.

      See VOLCÆ.

NISMES: A. D. 752-759.
   Recovery from the Moslems.

      See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 752-759.

   ----------NISMES: End--------

NISSA, Siege and battle (1689-1690).

      See HUNGARY; A. D. 1683-1699.

NITIOBRIGES, The.

   These were a tribe in ancient Gaul whose capital city was
   Aginnum, the modern town of Agen on the Garonne.

      G. Long,
      Decline of the Roman Republic,
      volume 4, chapter 17.

NIVELLE, Battle of the (1813).

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

NIVÔSE, The month.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER)
      THE NEW REPUBLICAN CALENDAR.

NIZAM.
   Nizam's dominions.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748.

NIZZA.

      See NICE.

NO.
NO AMON.

      See THEBES, EGYPT.

NO MAN'S LAND, Africa.

      See GRIQUAS.

{2364}

NO MAN'S LAND, England.

   In the open or common field system which prevailed in early
   England, the fields were divided into long, narrow strips,
   wherever practicable. In some cases, "little odds and ends of
   unused land remained, which from time immemorial were called
   'no man's land,' or 'anyone's land,' or 'Jack's land,' as the
   case might be."

      F. Seebohm,
      English Village Community,
      chapter 1.

NO POPERY RIOTS, The.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780.

NOBLES, Roman:
   Origin of the term.

   "When Livy in his first six books writes of the disputes
   between the Patres or Patricians and the Plebs about the
   Public Land, he sometimes designates the Patricians by the
   name Nobiles, which we have in the form Nobles. A Nobilis is a
   man who is known. A man who is not known is Ignobilis, a
   nobody. In the later Republic a Plebeian who attained to a
   curule office elevated his family to a rank of honour, to a
   nobility, not acknowledged by any law, but by usage. … The
   Patricians were a nobility of ancient date. … The Patrician
   nobility was therefore independent of all office, but the new
   Nobility and their Jus Imaginum originated in some Plebeian
   who first of his family attained a curule office. … The true
   conclusion is that Livy in his first six books uses the word
   Nobiles improperly, for there is no evidence that this name
   was given to the Patres before the consulship of L. Sextius."

      G. Long,
      Decline of the Roman Republic,
      volume 1, chapter 11.

         See, also, ROME: B. C. 146.

NOËTIANS AND SABELLIANS.

   "At the head of those in this century [the 3d] who explained
   the scriptural doctrine of the Father, Son, and holy Spirit,
   by the precepts of reason, stands Noëtus of Smyrna; a man
   little known, but who is reported by the ancients to have been
   cast out of the church by presbyters (of whom no account is
   given), to have opened a school, and to have formed a sect. It
   is stated that, being wholly unable to comprehend how that
   God, who is so often in Scripture declared to be one and
   undivided, can, at the same time, be manifold, Noëtus
   concluded that the undivided Father of all things united
   himself, with the man Christ, was born in him, and in him
   suffered and died. On account of this doctrine his followers
   were called Patripassians. … After the middle of this century,
   Sabellius, an African bishop, or presbyter, of Ptolemais, the
   capital of the Pentapolitan province of Libya Cyrenaica,
   attempted to reconcile, in a manner somewhat different from
   that of Noëtus, the scriptural doctrine of Father, Son, and
   holy Spirit, with the doctrine of the unity of the divine
   nature." Sabellius assumed "that only an energy or virtue,
   emitted from the Father of all, or, if you choose, a particle
   of the person or nature of the Father, became united with the
   man Christ. And such a virtue or particle of the Father, he
   also supposed, constituted the holy Spirit."

      J. L. von Mosheim,
      Historical Commentaries, 3d Century,
      sections 32-33.

NÖFELS,
NAEFELS, Battle of (1388).

      See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1386-1388.

   Battle of (1799).

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

NOLA, Battle of (B. C. 88).

      See ROME: B. C. 90-88.

NOMBRE DE DIOS:
   Surprised and plundered by Drake (1572).

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.

NOMEN,
COGNOMEN,
PRÆNOMEN.

      See GENS.

NOMES.

   A name given by the Greeks to the districts into which Egypt
   was divided from very ancient times.

NOMOPHYLAKES.

   In ancient Athens, under the constitution introduced by
   Pericles, seven magistrates called Nomophylakes, or
   "Law-Guardians," "sat alongside of the Proedri, or presidents,
   both in the senate and in the public assembly, and were
   charged with the duty of interposing whenever any step was
   taken or any proposition made contrary to the existing laws.
   They were also empowered to constrain the magistrates to act
   according to law."

      G. Grote,
      History of Greece,
      part 2, chapter 46.

NOMOTHETÆ, The.

   A legislative commission, elected and deputed by the general
   assembly of the people, in ancient Athens, to amend existing
   laws or enact new ones.

      G. F. Schömann,
      Antiquity of Greece: The State,
      part 3, chapter 3.

NONCONFORMISTS,
DISSENTERS, English:
   First bodies organized.
   Persecutions under Charles II. and Anne.-
   Removal of Disabilities.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559-1566; 1662-1665; 1672-1673;
      1711-1714; 1827-1828.

NONES.

      See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

NONINTERCOURSE LAW OF 1809, The American.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809.

NONJURORS, The.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

NOOTKAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: WAKASHAN FAMILY.

NOPH.

      See MEMPHIS.

NÖRDLINGEN,
   Siege and Battle (1634).

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

   Second Battle, or Battle of Allerheim (1645).

         See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

NORE, Mutiny at the.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1797.

NOREMBEGA.

      See NORUMBEGA.

   ----------NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: Start--------

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1776.
   Bombardment and destruction.

      See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1775-1776.

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1779.
   Pillaged by British marauders.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1778-1779 WASHINGTON GUARDING THE HUDSON.

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (April).
   Abandoned by the United States commandant.
   Destruction of ships and property.
   Possession taken by the Rebels.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL).

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (February).
   Threatened by the Federal capture of Roanoke Island.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-APRIL: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (May).
   Evacuated by the Confederates.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (MAY: VIRGINIA) EVACUATION OF NORFOLK.

   ----------NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: End--------

NORFOLK ISLAND PENAL COLONY.

      See AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1601-1800.

NORICUM.

      See PANNONIA;
      also, RHÆTIANS.

   ----------NORMANDY: Start--------

NORMANDY: A. D. 876-911.
   Rollo's conquest and occupation.

      See NORMANS.
      NORTHMEN: A. D. 876-911.

{2365}

NORMANDY: A. D. 911-1000.
   The solidifying of Rollo's duchy.
   The Normans become French.

   The first century which passed after the settlement of the
   Northmen along the Seine saw "the steady growth of the duchy
   in extent and power. Much of this was due to the ability of
   its rulers, to the vigour and wisdom with which Hrolf forced
   order and justice on the new community, as well as to the
   political tact with which both Hrolf and William Longsword
   [son and successor of Duke Rollo or Hrolf, A. D. 927-943]
   clung to the Karolings in their strife with the dukes of
   Paris. But still more was owing to the steadiness with which
   both these rulers remained faithful to the Christianity which
   had been imposed on the northmen as a condition of their
   settlement, and to the firm resolve with which they trampled
   down the temper and traditions which their people had brought
   from their Scandinavian homeland, and welcomed the language
   and civilization which came in the wake of their neighbours'
   religion. The difficulties that met the dukes were indeed
   enormous. … They were girt in by hostile states, they were
   threatened at sea by England, under Æthelstan a network of
   alliances menaced them with ruin. Once a French army occupied
   Rouen, and a French king held the pirates' land at his will;
   once the German lances were seen from the walls of their
   capital. Nor were their difficulties within less than those
   without. The subject population which had been trodden under
   foot by the northern settlers were seething with discontent.
   The policy of Christianization and civilization broke the
   Normans themselves into two parties. … The very conquests of
   Hrolf and his successor, the Bessin, the Cotentin, had to be
   settled and held by the new comers, who made them strongholds
   of heathendom. … But amidst difficulties from within and from
   without the dukes held firm to their course, and their
   stubborn will had its reward. … By the end of William
   Longsword's days all Normandy, save the newly settled
   districts of the west, was Christian, and spoke French. … The
   work of the statesman at last completed the work of the sword.
   As the connexion of the dukes with the Karoling kings had
   given them the land, and helped them for fifty years to hold
   it against the House of Paris, so in the downfall of the
   Karolings the sudden and adroit change of front which bound
   the Norman rulers to the House of Paris in its successful
   struggle for the Crown secured the land for ever to the
   northmen. The close connexion which France was forced to
   maintain with the state whose support held the new royal line
   on its throne told both on kingdom and duchy. The French dread
   of the 'pirates' died gradually away, while French influence
   spread yet more rapidly over a people which clung so closely
   to the French crown."

      J. R. Green,
      The Conquest of England,
      chapter 8.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1035-1063.
   Duke William establishes his authority.

   Duke Robert, of Normandy, who died in 1035, was succeeded by
   his young son William, who bore in youth the opprobrious name
   of "the Bastard," but who extinguished it in later life under
   the proud appellation of "the Conqueror." By reason of his
   bastardy he was not an acceptable successor, and, being yet a
   boy, it seemed little likely that he would maintain himself on
   the ducal throne. Normandy, for a dozen years, was given up to
   lawless strife among its nobles. In 1047 a large part of the
   duchy rose in revolt, against its objectionable young lord.
   "It will be remembered that the western part of Normandy, the
   lands of Bayeux and Coutances, were won by the Norman dukes
   after the eastern part, the lands of Rouen and Evreux. And it
   will be remembered that these western lands, won more lately,
   and fed by new colonies from the North, were still heathen and
   Danish some while after eastern Normandy had become Christian
   and French-speaking. Now we may be sure that, long before
   William's day, all Normandy was Christian, but it is quite
   possible that the old tongue may have lingered on in the
   western lands. At any rate there was a wide difference in
   spirit and feeling between the more French and the more Danish
   districts, to say nothing of Bayeux, where, before the Normans
   came, there had been a Saxon settlement. One part of the duchy
   in short was altogether Romance in speech and manners, while
   more or less of Teutonic character still clave to the other.
   So now Teutonic Normandy rose against Duke William, and
   Romance Normandy was faithful to him. The nobles of the Bessin
   and Cotentin made league with William's cousin Guy of
   Burgundy, meaning, as far as one can see, to make Guy Duke of
   Rouen and Evreux, and to have no lord at all for themselves. …
   When the rebellion broke out, William was among them at
   Valognes, and they tried to seize him. But his fool warned him
   in the night; he rode for his life, and got safe to his own
   Falaise. All eastern Normandy was loyal; but William doubted
   whether he could by himself overcome so strong an array of
   rebels. So he went to Poissy, between Rouen and Paris, and
   asked his lord King Henry [of France] to help him. So King
   Henry came with a French army; and the French and those whom
   we may call the French Normans met the Teutonic Normans in
   battle at Val-ès-dunes, not far from Caen. It was William's
   first pitched battle," and he won a decisive victory. "He was
   now fully master of his own duchy; and the battle of
   Val-ès-dunes finally fixed that Normandy should take its
   character from Romance Rouen and not from Teutonic Bayeux.
   William had in short overcome Saxons and Danes in Gaul before
   he came to overcome them in Britain. He had to conquer his own
   Normandy before he could conquer England. … But before long
   King Henry got jealous of William's power, and he was now
   always ready to give help to any Norman rebels. … And the
   other neighbouring princes were jealous of him as well as the
   King. His neighbours in Britanny, Anjou, Chartres, and
   Ponthieu, were all against him. But the great Duke was able to
   hold his own against them all, and before long to make a great
   addition to his dominions." Between 1053 and 1058 the French
   King invaded Normandy three times and suffered defeat on every
   occasion. In 1063 Duke William invaded the county of Maine,
   and reduced it to entire submission. "From this time he ruled
   over Maine as well as over Normandy," although its people were
   often in revolt. "The conquest of Maine raised William's power
   and fame to a higher pitch than it reached at any other time
   before his conquest of England."

      E. A. Freeman,
      Short History of the Norman Conquest,
      chapter 4.

      ALSO IN:
      E. A. Freeman,
      History of the Norman Conquest,
      chapter 8.

      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 2, chapter 4.

{2366}

NORMANDY: A. D. 1066.
   Duke William becomes King of England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1042-1066; 1066; and 1066-1071.

NORMANDY: . D. 1087-1135.
   Under Duke Robert and Henry Beauclerc.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1096.
   The Crusade of Duke Robert.

      See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1203-1205.
   Wrested from England and restored to France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1180-1224;
      and ENGLAND: A. D. 1205.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1419.
   Conquest by Henry V. of England.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1417-1422.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1449.
   Recovery from the English.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1431-1453.

NORMANDY: 16th Century.
   Spread of the Reformation.
   Strength of Protestantism.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561.

   ----------NORMANS: Start--------

NORMANS.
NORTH MEN:
   Name and Origin.

   "The northern pirates, variously called Danes or Normans,
   according as they came from the islands of the Baltic Sea or
   the coast of Norway, … descended from the same primitive race
   with the Anglo-Saxons and the Franks; their language had roots
   identical with the idioms of these two nations: but this token
   of an ancient fraternity did not preserve from their hostile
   incursions either Saxon Britain or Frankish Gaul, nor even the
   territory beyond the Rhine, then exclusively inhabited by
   Germanic tribes. The conversion of the southern Teutons to the
   Christian faith had broken all bond of fraternity between them
   and the Teutons of the north. In the 9th century the man of
   the north still gloried in the title of son of Odin, and
   treated as bastards and apostates the Germans who had become
   children of the church. … A sort of religious and patriotic
   fanaticism was thus combined in the Scandinavian with the
   fiery impulsiveness of their character, and an insatiable
   thirst for gain. They shed with joy the blood of the priests,
   were especially delighted at pillaging the churches, and
   stabled their horses in the chapels of the palaces. … In three
   days, with an east wind, the fleets of Denmark and Norway,
   two-sailed vessels, reached the south of Britain. The soldiers
   of each fleet obeyed in general one chief, whose vessel was
   distinguished from the rest by some particular ornament. … All
   equal under such a chief, bearing lightly their voluntary
   submission and the weight of their mailed armour, which they
   promised themselves soon to exchange for an equal weight of
   gold, the Danish pirates pursued the 'road of the swans,' as
   their ancient national poetry expressed it. Sometimes they
   coasted along the shore, and laid wait for the enemy in the
   straits, the bays, and smaller anchorages, which procured them
   the surname of Vikings, or 'children of the creeks'; sometimes
   they dashed in pursuit of their prey across the ocean."

      A. Thierry,
      Conquest of England by the Normans,
      book 2 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      T. Carlyle,
      The Early Kings of Norway.

NORMANS: 8-9th Centuries.
   The Vikings and what sent them to sea.

   "No race of the ancient or modern world have ever taken to the
   sea with such heartiness as the Northmen. The great cause
   which filled the waters of Western Europe with their barks was
   that consolidation and centralization of the kingly power all
   over Europe which followed after the days of Charlemagne, and
   which put a stop to those great invasions and migrations by
   land which had lasted for centuries. Before that time the
   north and east of Europe, pressed from behind by other
   nationalities, and growing straitened within their own bounds,
   threw off from time to time bands of emigrants which gathered
   force as they slowly marched along, until they appeared in the
   west as a fresh wave of the barbarian flood. As soon as the
   west, recruited from the very source whence the invaders came,
   had gained strength enough to set them at defiance, which
   happened in the time of Charlemagne, these invasions by land
   ceased after a series of bloody defeats, and the north had to
   look for another outlet for the force which it was unable to
   support at home. Nor was the north itself slow to follow
   Charlemagne's example. Harold Fairhair, no inapt disciple of
   the great emperor, subdued the petty kings in Norway one after
   another, and made himself supreme king. At the same time he
   invaded the rights of the old freeman, and by taxes and tolls
   laid on his allodial holding drove him into exile. We have
   thus the old outlet cut off and a new cause for emigration
   added. No doubt the Northmen even then had long been used to
   struggle with the sea, and sea-roving was the calling of the
   brave, but the two causes we have named gave it a great
   impulse just at the beginning of the tenth century, and many a
   freeman who would have joined the host of some famous leader
   by land, or have lived on a little king at home, now sought
   the waves as a birthright of which no king could rob him.
   Either alone, or as the follower of some sea-king, whose realm
   was the sea's wide wastes, he went out year after year, and
   thus won fame and wealth. The name given to this pursuit was
   Viking, a word which is in no way akin to king. It is derived
   from 'Vik,' a bay or creek, because these sea-rovers lay
   moored in bays and creeks on the look-out for merchant ships;
   the 'ing' is a well known ending, meaning, in this case,
   occupation or calling. Such a sea-rover was called 'Vikingr,'
   and at one time or another in his life almost every man of
   note in the North had taken to the sea and lived a Viking
   life."

      G. W. Dasent,
      Story of Burnt Njal,
      volume 2, appendix.

   "Western viking expeditions have hitherto been ascribed to
   Danes and Norwegians exclusively. Renewed investigations
   reveal, however, that Swedes shared widely in these
   achievements, notably in the acquisition of England, and that,
   among other famous conquerors, Rolf, the founder of the
   Anglo-Norman dynasty, issued from their country. … Norwegians,
   like Swedes, were, in truth, merged in the terms Northmen and
   Danes, both of which were general to all Scandinavians abroad.
   … The curlier conversion of the Danes to Christianity and
   their more immediate contact with Germany account for the
   frequent application of their name to all Scandinavians."

      W. Roos,
      The Swedish Part in the Viking Expeditions
      (English History Review, April, 1892).

      ALSO IN:
      S. Laing,
      Preliminary Dissertation to Heimskringla.

      C. F. Keary,
      The Vikings of Western Christendom,
      chapter 5.

      P. B. Du Chaillu,
      The Viking Age.

      See, also, SCANDINAVIAN STATES.

{2367}

NORMANS: 8-9th Centuries.
   The island empire of the Vikings.

   We have hitherto treated the Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes
   under the common appellation of Northmen; and this is in many
   ways the most convenient, for it is often impossible to decide
   the nationality of the individual settlement. Indeed, it would
   appear probable that the devastating bands were often composed
   indiscriminately of the several nationalities. Still, in
   tracing the history of their conquests, we may lay it down as
   a general rule that England was the exclusive prey of the
   Danes; that Scotland and the islands to the north as far as
   Iceland, and to the south as far as Anglesea and Ireland, fell
   to the Norwegians, and Russia to the Swedes; while Gaul and
   Germany were equally the spoil of the Norwegians and the
   Danes. … While England had been overcome by the Danes, the
   Norwegians had turned their attention chiefly to the north of
   the British Isles and the islands of the West. Their
   settlements naturally fell into three divisions, which tally
   with their geographical position.
   1. The Orkneys and Shetlands, lying to the N. E. of Scotland.
   2. The isles to the west as far south as Ireland.
   3. Iceland and the Faroe Isles.

   The Orkneys and Shetlands: Here the Northmen first appear as
   early as the end of the 8th century, and a few peaceful
   settlements were made by those who were anxious to escape from
   the noisy scenes which distracted their northern country. In
   the reign of Harald Harfagr [the Fairhaired] they assumed new
   importance, and their character is changed. Many of those
   driven out by Harald sought a refuge here, and betaking
   themselves to piracy periodically infested the Norwegian coast
   in revenge for their defeat and expulsion. These ravages
   seriously disturbing the peace of his newly acquired kingdom,
   Harald fitted out an expedition and devoted a whole summer to
   conquering the Vikings and extirpating the brood of pirates.
   The country being gained, he offered it to his chief adviser,
   Rögnwald, Jarl of Möri in Norway, father of Rollo of Normandy,
   who, though refusing to go himself, held it during his life as
   a family possession, and sent Sigurd, his brother, there. …
   Rögnwald next sent his son Einar, and from his time [A. D.
   875] we may date the final establishment of the Jarls of
   Orkney, who henceforth owe a nominal allegiance to the King of
   Norway. … The close of the 8th century also saw the
   commencement of the incursions of the Northmen in the west of
   Scotland, and the Western Isles soon became a favourite resort
   of the Vikings. In the Keltic annals these unwelcome visitors
   had gained the name of Fingall, 'the white strangers,' from
   the fairness of their complexion; and Dugall, the black
   strangers, probably from the iron coats of mail worn by their
   chiefs. … By the end of the 9th century a sort of naval empire
   had arisen, consisting of the Hebrides, parts of the western
   coasts of Scotland, especially the modern Argyllshire, Man,
   Anglesea, and the eastern shores of Ireland. This empire was
   under a line of sovereigns who called themselves the Hy-Ivar
   (grandsons of Ivar), and lived now in Man, now in Dublin.
   Thence they often joined their kinsmen in their attacks on
   England, and at times aspired to the position of Jarls of the
   Danish Northumbria."

      A. H. Johnson,
      The Normans in Europe,
      chapter 2.

   "Under the government of these Norwegian princes [the Hy Ivar]
   the Isles appear to have been very flourishing. They were
   crowded with people; the arts were cultivated, and
   manufactures were carried to a degree of perfection which was
   then thought excellence. This comparatively advanced state of
   society in these remote isles may be ascribed partly to the
   influence and instructions of the Irish clergy, who were
   established all over the island before the arrival of the
   Norwegians, and possessed as much learning as was in those
   ages to be found in any part of Europe, except Constantinople
   and Rome; and partly to the arrival of great numbers of the
   provincial Britons flying to them as an asylum when their
   country was ravaged by the Saxons, and carrying with them the
   remains of the science, manufactures, and wealth introduced
   among them by their Roman masters. Neither were the Norwegians
   themselves in those ages destitute of a considerable portion
   of learning and of skill in the useful arts, in navigation,
   fisheries, and manufactures; nor were they in any respect such
   barbarians as those who know them only by the declamations of
   the early English writers may be apt to suppose them. The
   principal source of their wealth was piracy, then esteemed an
   honourable profession, in the exercise of which these
   islanders laid all the maritime countries of the west part of
   Europe under heavy contributions."

      D. Macpherson,
      Geographical Illustrations of Scottish History
      (Quoted by J. H. Burton, History of Scotland,
      chapter 15, volume 2, foot-note).

      See, also,
      IRELAND: 9-10TH CENTURIES.

NORMANS: A. D. 787-880.
   The so-called Danish invasions and settlements in England.

   "In our own English chronicles, 'Dena' or Dane is used as the
   common term for all the Scandinavian invaders of Britain,
   though not including the Swedes, who took no part in the
   attack, while Northman generally means 'man of Norway.' Asser
   however uses the words as synonymous, 'Nordmanni sive Dani.'
   Across the channel 'Northman' was the general name for the
   pirates, and 'Dane' would usually mean a pirate from Denmark.
   The distinction however is partly a chronological one; as,
   owing to the late appearance of the Danes in the middle of the
   ninth century, and the prominent part they then took in the
   general Wiking movement, their name tended from that time to
   narrow the area of the earlier term of 'Nordmanni.'"

      J. R. Green,
      The Conquest of England,
      page 68, foot-note.

   Prof. Freeman divides the Danish invasions of England into
   three periods:
   1. The period of merely plundering incursions, which
      began A. D. 787.
   2. The period of actual occupation and settlement, from 866 to
      the Peace of Wedmore, 880.
   3. The later period of conquest, within which England was
      governed by Danish kings, A. D. 980-1042.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880.

      ALSO IN:
      C. F. Keary,
      The Vikings in Western Christendom,
      chapters 6 and 12.

NORMANS: A. D. 841.
   First expedition up the Seine.

   In May, A. D. 841, the Seine was entered for the first time by
   a fleet of Norse pirates, whose depredations in France had
   been previously confined to the coasts. The expedition was
   commanded by a chief named Osker, whose plans appear to have
   been well laid. He led his pirates straight to the rich city
   of Rouen, never suffering them to slacken oar or sail, or to
   touch the tempting country through which they passed, until
   the great prize was struck. "The city was fired and plundered.
   Defence was wholly impracticable, and great slaughter ensued.
   … Osker's three days' occupation of Rouen was remuneratingly
   successful.
{2368}
   Their vessels loaded with spoil and captives, gentle and
   simple, clerks, merchants, citizens, soldiers, peasants, nuns,
   dames, damsels, the Danes dropped down the Seine, to complete
   their devastation on the shores. … The Danes then quitted the
   Seine; having formed their plans for renewing the encouraging
   enterprize,—another time they would do more. Normandy dates
   from Osker's three days' occupation Of Rouen."

      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 1, chapter 2 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      C. F. Keary,
      The Vikings in Western Christendom,
      chapter 9.

NORMANS: A. D. 845-861.
   Repeated ravages in the Seine.
   Paris thrice sacked.

      See PARIS; A. D. 845; and 857-861.

NORMANS: A. D. 849-860.
   The career of Hasting.

   "About the year of Alfred's birth [849] they laid siege to
   Tours, from which they were repulsed by the gallantry of the
   citizens, assisted by the miraculous aid of Saint Martin. It
   is at this siege that Hasting first appears as a leader. His
   birth is uncertain. In some accounts he is said to have been
   the son of a peasant of Troyes, the capital of Champagne, and
   to have forsworn his faith, and joined the Danes in his early
   youth, from an inherent lust of battle and plunder. In others
   he is called the son of the jarl Atte. But, whatever his
   origin, by the middle of the century he had established his
   title to lead the Northern hordes in those fierce forays which
   helped to shatter the Carlovingian Empire to fragments. … When
   the land was bare, leaving the despoiled provinces he again
   put to sea, and, sailing southwards still, pushed up the Tagus
   and Guadalquiver, and ravaged the neighbourhoods of Lisbon and
   Seville. But no settlement in Spain was possible at this time.
   The Peninsula had lately had for Caliph Abdalrahman the
   Second, called El Mouzaffer, 'The Victorious,' and the vigour
   of his rule had made the Arabian kingdom in Spain the most
   efficient power for defence in Europe. Hasting soon recoiled
   from the Spanish coasts, and returned to his old haunts. The
   leaders of the Danes in England, the Sidrocs and Hinguar and
   Hubba, had, as we have seen, a special delight in the
   destruction of churches and monasteries, mingling a fierce
   religious fanaticism with their thirst for battle and plunder.
   This exceeding bitterness of the Northmen may be fairly laid
   in great measure to the account of the thirty years of
   proselytising warfare, which Charlemagne had waged in Saxony,
   and along all the northern frontier of his empire. … Hasting
   seems to have been filled with a double portion of this
   spirit, which he had indulged throughout his career in the
   most inveterate hatred to priests and holy places. It was
   probably this, coupled with a certain weariness—commonplace
   murder and sacrilege having grown tame, and lost their
   charm—which incited him to the most daring of all his
   exploits, a direct attack on the head of Christendom, and the
   sacred city. Hasting then, about the year 860, planned an
   attack on Rome, and the proposal was well received by his
   followers. Sailing again round Spain, and pillaging on their
   way both on the Spanish and Moorish coasts, they entered the
   Mediterranean, and, steering for Italy, landed in the bay of
   Spezzia, near the town of Luna. Luna was the place where the
   great quarries of the Carrara marble had been worked ever
   since the times of the Cæsars. The city itself was, it is
   said, in great part built of white marble, and the 'candentia
   mœnia Lunæ' deceived Hasting into the belief that he was
   actually before Rome; so he sat down before the town which he
   had failed to surprise. The hope of taking it by assault was
   soon abandoned, but Hasting obtained his end by guile. … The
   priests were massacred, the gates thrown open, and the city
   taken and spoiled. Luna never recovered its old prosperity
   after the raid of the Northmen, and in Dante's time had fallen
   into utter decay. But Hasting's career in Italy ended with the
   sack of Luna; and, giving up all hope of attacking Rome, he
   re-embarked with the spoil of the town, the most beautiful of
   the women, and all the youths who could be used as soldiers or
   rowers. His fleet was, wrecked on the south coasts of France
   on its return westward, and all the spoil lost; but the devil
   had work yet for Hasting and his men, who got ashore in
   sufficient numbers to recompense themselves for their losses
   by the plunder of Provence."

      T. Hughes,
      Alfred the Great,
      chapter 20.

NORMANS: A. D. 860-1100.
   The discovery and settlement of Iceland.
   Development of the Saga literature.

   The discovery of Iceland is attributed to a famous Norse
   Viking named Naddodd, and dated in 860, at the beginning of
   the reign, in Norway, of Harald Haarfager, who drove out so
   many adventurers, to seek fortune on the seas. He is said to
   have called it Snowland; but others who came to the cold
   island in 870 gave it the harsher name which it still bears.
   "Within sixty years after the first settlement by the Northmen
   the whole was inhabited; and, writes Uno Von Troil (p. 64),
   'King Harold, who did not contribute a little towards it by
   his tyrannical treatment of the petty kings and lords in
   Norway, was obliged at last to issue an order, that no one
   should sail to Iceland without paying four ounces of fine
   silver to the Crown, in order to stop those continual
   emigrations which weakened his kingdom.' … Before the tenth
   century had reached its half-way period, the Norwegians had
   fully peopled the island with not less, perhaps, than 50,000
   souls. A census taken about A. D. 1100 numbered the franklins
   who had to pay Thing-tax at 4,500, without including cotters
   and proletarians."

      R. F. Burton,
      Ultima Thule, introduction,
      section 3 (volume 1).

   "About sixty years after the first settlement of the island, a
   step was taken towards turning Iceland into a commonwealth,
   and giving the whole island a legal constitution; and though
   we are ignorant of the immediate cause which led to this, we
   know enough of the state of things in the island to feel sure,
   that it could only have been with the common consent of the
   great chiefs, who, as Priests, presided over the various local
   Things.

      See THING.

   The first, want was a man who could make a code of laws." The
   man was found in one Ulfljót, who came from a Norwegian family
   long famous for knowledge of the customary law, and who was
   sent to the mother country to consult the wisest of his kin.
   "Three years he stayed abroad; and when he returned, the
   chiefs, who, no doubt, day by day felt more strongly the need
   of a common centre of action as well as of a common code, lost
   no time in carrying out their scheme. … The time of the annual
   meeting was fixed at first for the middle of the month of June,
   but in the year 999 it was agreed to meet a week later, and
   the Althing then met when ten full weeks of summer had passed.
{2369}
   It lasted fourteen days. … In its legal capacity it [the
   Althing] was both a deliberative and executive assembly; both
   Parliament and High Court of Justice in one. … With the
   establishment of the Althing we have for the first time a
   Commonwealth in Iceland."

      G. W. Dasent,
      The Story of Burnt Njal,
      introduction (volume 1).

   "The reason why Iceland, which was destitute of inhabitants at
   the time of its discovery, about the middle of the 9th
   century, became so rapidly settled and secured so eminent a
   position in the world's history and literature, must be sought
   in the events which took place in Norway at the time when
   Harald Hárfragi (Fairhair), after a long and obstinate
   resistance, succeeded in usurping the monarchical power. … The
   people who emigrated to Iceland were for the most part the
   flower of the nation. They went especially from the west coast
   of Norway, where the peculiar Norse spirit had been most
   perfectly developed. Men of the noblest birth in Norway set
   out with their families and followers to find a home where
   they might be as free and independent as their fathers had
   been before them. No wonder then that they took with them the
   cream of the ancient culture of the fatherland. … Toward the
   end of the 11th century it is expressly stated that many of
   the chiefs were so learned that they with perfect propriety
   might have been ordained to the priesthood [Christianity
   having been formally adopted by the Althing in the year 1000],
   and in the 12th century there were, in addition to those to be
   found in the cloisters, several private libraries in the
   island. On the other hand, secular culture, knowledge of law
   and history, and of the skaldic art, were, so to speak, common
   property. And thus, when the means for committing a literature
   to writing were at hand, the highly developed popular taste
   for history gave the literature the direction which it
   afterward maintained. The fact is, there really existed a
   whole literature which was merely waiting to be put in
   writing. … Many causes contributed toward making the
   Icelanders preeminently a historical people. The settlers were
   men of noble birth, who were proud to trace their descent from
   kings and heroes of antiquity, nay, even from the gods
   themselves, and we do not therefore wonder that they
   assiduously preserved the memory of the deeds of their
   forefathers. But in their minds was developed not only a taste
   for the sagas of the past; the present also received its full
   share of attention. … Nor did they interest themselves for and
   remember the events that took place in Iceland only. Reports
   from foreign lands also found a most hearty welcome, and the
   Icelanders had abundant opportunity of satisfying their thirst
   for knowledge in this direction. As vikings, as merchants, as
   courtiers and especially as skalds accompanying kings and
   other distinguished persons, and also as varangians in
   Constantinople, many of them found splendid opportunities of
   visiting foreign countries. … Such were then the conditions
   and circumstances which produced that remarkable development
   of the historical taste with which the people were endowed,
   and made Iceland the home of the saga."

      F. W. Horn,
      History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North,
      part 1, chapter 1.

   "The Icelanders, in their long winter, had a great habit of
   writing, and were, and still are, excellent in penmanship,
   says Dahlmann. It is to this fact that any little history
   there is of the Norse Kings and their old tragedies, crimes,
   and heroisms, is almost all due. The Icelanders, it seems, not
   only made beautiful letters on their paper or parchment, but
   were laudably observant and desirous of accuracy; and have
   left us such a collection of narratives (Sagas, literally
   'Says') as, for quantity and quality, is unexampled among rude
   nations."

      T. Carlyle,
      Early Kings of Norway,
      Preface.

      See, also,
      THINGS.
      THINGVALLA.

NORMANS: A. D. 876-911.
   Rollo's acquisition of Normandy.

   "One alone among the Scandinavian settlements in Gaul was
   destined to play a real part in history. This was the
   settlement of Rolf or Rollo at Rouen. [The genuine name is
   Hrolfr, Rolf, in various spellings. The French form is Rou,
   sometimes Rous …; the Latin is Rollo.—Foot-note.] This
   settlement, the kernel of the great Norman Duchy, had, I need
   hardly say, results of its own and an importance of its own,
   which distinguish it from every other Danish colony in Gaul.
   But it is well to bear in mind that it was only one colony
   among several, and that, when the cession was made, it was
   probably not expected to be more lasting or more important
   than the others. But, while the others soon lost any
   distinctive character, the Rouen settlement lasted, it grew,
   it became a power in Europe, and in Gaul it became even a
   determining power. … The lasting character of his work at once
   proves that the founder of the Rouen colony was a great man,
   but he is a great man who must be content to be judged in the
   main by the results of his actions. The authentic history of
   Rolf, Rollo, or Rou, may be summed up in a very short space.
   We have no really contemporary narrative of his actions,
   unless a few meagre and uncertain entries in some of the
   Frankish annals may be thought to deserve that name. … I
   therefore do not feel myself at all called upon to narrate in
   detail the exploits which are attributed to Rolf in the time
   before his final settlement. He is described as having been
   engaged in the calling of a Wiking both in Gaul and in Britain
   for nearly forty years before his final occupation of Rouen. …
   The exploits attributed to Rolf are spread over so many years,
   that we cannot help suspecting that the deeds of other
   chieftains have been attributed to him, perhaps that two
   leaders of the same name have been confounded. Among countless
   expeditions in Gaul, England, and Germany, we find Rolf
   charged with an earlier visit to Rouen [A. D. 876], with a
   share in the great siege of Paris [A. D. 885], and with an
   occupation or destruction of Bayeux. But it is not till we
   have got some way into the reign of Charles the Simple, not
   till we have passed several years of the tenth century, that
   Rolf begins clearly to stand out as a personal historic
   reality. He now appears in possession of Rouen, or of whatever
   vestiges of the city had survived his former ravages, and from
   that starting-point he assaulted Chartres. Beneath the walls
   of that city he underwent a defeat [A. D. 911] at the hands of
   the Dukes Rudolf of Burgundy and Robert of Paris, which was
   attributed to the miraculous powers of the great local relic,
   the under-garment of the Virgin.
{2370}
   But this victory, like most victories over the Northmen, had
   no lasting effect. Rolf was not dislodged from Rouen, nor was
   his career of devastation and conquest at all seriously
   checked. But, precisely as in the case of Guthrum in England,
   his evident disposition to settle in the country suggested an
   attempt to change him from a devastating enemy into a
   peaceable neighbour. The Peace of Clair-on-Epte [A. D. 911]
   was the duplicate of the Peace of Wedmore, and King Charles
   and Duke Robert of Paris most likely had the Peace of Wedmore
   before their eyes. A definite district was ceded to Rolf, for
   which he became the King's vassal; he was admitted to baptism
   and received the king's natural daughter in marriage. And,
   just as in the English case, the territory ceded was not part
   of the King's immediate dominions. … The grant to Rolf was
   made at the cost not of the Frankish King at Laon but of the
   French Duke at Paris. The district ceded to Rolf was part of
   the great Neustrian March or Duchy which had been granted to
   Odo [or Eudes] of Paris and which was now held by his brother
   Duke Robert. … It must not be thought that the district now
   ceded to Rolf took in the whole of the later Duchy of
   Normandy. Rouen was the heart of the new state, which took in
   lands on both sides of the Seine. From the Epte to the sea was
   its undoubted extent from the south-east to the north. But the
   western frontier is much less clearly defined. On the one
   hand, the Normans always claimed a certain not very well
   defined superiority over Britanny as part of the original
   grant. On the other hand, it is quite certain that Rolf did
   not obtain immediate possession of what was afterwards the
   noblest portion of the heritage of his descendants. The
   Bessin, the district of Bayeux, was not won till several years
   later, and the Côtentin, the peninsula of Coutances, was not
   won till after the death of Rolf. The district granted to Rolf
   … had—sharing therein the fate of Germany and France—no
   recognized geographical name. Its inhabitants were the
   Northmen, the Northmen of the Seine, the Northmen of Rouen.
   The land itself was, till near the end of the century, simply
   the Land of the Northmen"—the Terra Northmannorum.

      E. A. Freeman,
      Historical Norman Conquest of England,
      chapter 4 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 1, chapters 3-5.

      A. Thierry,
      Norman Conquest of England,
      book 2.

      See, also,
      FRANCE: A. D. 877-987.

NORMANS: A. D. 876-984.
   Discovery and settlement of Greenland.

   "The discovery of Greenland was a natural consequence of the
   settlement of Iceland, just as the discovery of America
   afterward was a natural consequence of the settlement of
   Greenland. Between the western part of Iceland and the eastern
   part of Greenland there is a distance of only 45 geographical
   miles. Hence, some of the ships that sailed to Iceland, at the
   time of the settlement of this island and later, could in case
   of a violent east wind, which is no rare occurrence in those
   regions, scarcely avoid approaching the coast of Greenland
   sufficiently to catch a glimpse of its jokuls,—nay, even to
   land on its islands and promontories. Thus it is said that
   Gunnbjorn, Ulf Krage's son, saw land lying in the ocean at the
   west of Iceland, when, in the year 876, he was driven out to
   the sea by a storm. Similar reports were heard, from time to
   time, by other mariners. About a century later a certain man,
   by name Erik the Red, … resolved to go in search of the land
   in the west that Gunnbjorn and others had seen. He set sail in
   the year 984, and found the land as he had expected, and
   remained there exploring the country for two years. At the end
   of this period he returned to Iceland, giving the
   newly-discovered country the name of Greenland, in order, as
   he said, to attract settlers, who would be favorably impressed
   with so pleasing a name. The result was that many Icelanders
   and Norsemen emigrated to Greenland, and a flourishing colony
   was established, with Gardar for its capital city, which, in
   the year 1261, became subject to the crown of Norway. The
   Greenland colony maintained its connection with the mother
   countries for a period of no less than 400 years: yet it
   finally disappeared, and was almost forgotten. Torfæus gives a
   list of seventeen bishops who ruled in Greenland."

      R. B. Anderson,
      America not Discovered by Columbus,
      chapter 7.

      ALSO IN:
      D. Crantz,
      History of Greenland,
      book 4, chapter 1.

NORMANS: A. D. 885-886.
   The Great Siege of Paris.

      See PARIS: A. D. 885-886.

NORMANS: 9-10th Centuries.
   The Danish conquests and settlements in Ireland.

      See IRELAND: 9-10th CENTURIES and A. D. 1014.

NORMANS: 9-10th Centuries.
   The ravages of the Vikings on the Continent.

   "Take the map and colour with vermilion the provinces,
   districts and shores which the Northmen visited. The colouring
   will have to be repeated more than ninety times successively
   before you arrive at the conclusion of the Carlovingian
   dynasty. Furthermore, mark by the usual symbol of war, two
   crossed swords, the localities where battles were fought by or
   against the pirates: where they were defeated or triumphant,
   or where they pillaged, burned or destroyed; and the valleys
   and banks of Elbe, Rhine and Moselle, Scheldt, Meuse, Somme
   and Seine, Loire, Garonne and Adour, the inland Allier, and
   all the coasts and coast-lands between estuary and estuary and
   the countries between the river-streams, will appear bristling
   as with chevaux-de-frise. The strongly-fenced Roman cities,
   the venerated Abbeys and their dependent bourgades, often more
   flourishing and extensive than the ancient seats of
   government, the opulent seaports and trading towns, were all
   equally exposed to the Danish attacks, stunned by the
   Northmen's approach, subjugated by their fury. … They
   constitute three principal schemes of naval and military
   operations, respectively governed and guided by the great
   rivers and the intervening sea-shores. … The first scheme of
   operations includes the territories between Rhine and Scheldt,
   and Scheldt and Elbe: the furthest southern point reached by
   the Northmen in this direction was somewhere between the Rhine
   and the Neckar. Eastward, the Scandinavians scattered as far
   as Russia; but we must not follow them there. The second
   scheme of operations affected the countries between Seine and
   Loire, and again from the Seine eastward towards the Somme and
   Oise. These operations were connected with those of the Rhine
   Northmen. The third scheme of operations was prosecuted in the
   countries between Loire and Garonne, and Garonne and Adour,
   frequently flashing towards Spain, and expanding inland as far
   as the Allier and central France, nay, to the very centre, to
   Bourges."

      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

{2371}

      ALSO IN:
      C. F. Keary,
      The Vikings in Western Christendom,
      chapters 9-15.

NORMANS: A. D. 979-1016.
   The Danish conquest of England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.

NORMANS: A. D. 986-1011.
   Supposed voyages to America.

      See AMERICA: 10-11th CENTURIES.

NORMANS: 10-13th Centuries.
   The breaking up of the Norse island empire.

   "At the close of the 10th and beginning of the 11th century
   the battles of Tara and Clontarf overthrew the power of these
   Norsemen (or Ostmen as they were called) in Ireland, and
   restored the authority of the native Irish sovereign. About
   this time they [the 'Hy-Ivar,' or sovereigns of the
   island-empire of the Northmen—see above: 8-9TH CENTURIES]
   became Christians, and in the year 1066 we find one of their
   princes joining Harald Hardrada of Norway in his invasion of
   England, which ended so disastrously in the battle of Stamford
   Bridge. Magnus of Norway, thirty-two years later, after
   subduing the independent Jarls of Shetland and the Orkneys,
   attempted to reassert his supremacy along the western coast.
   But after conquering Anglesea, whence he drove out the Normans
   [from England] who had just made a settlement there, he
   crossed to Ireland to meet his death in battle. The
   sovereignty of the Isles was then restored to its original
   owners, but soon after split into two parts—the Suderies and
   Norderies (whence the term Sodor and Man), north and south of
   Ardnamurchan Point. The next glimpse we have of these
   dominions is at the close of the 12th century, when we find
   them under a chief named Somarled, who exercised authority in
   the islands and Argyleshire, and from him the clans of the
   Highlands and the Western Isles love to trace their ancestry.
   After his death, according to the Highland traditions, the
   islands and Argyleshire were divided amongst his three sons.
   Thus the old Norse empire was finally broken up, and in the
   13th century, after another unsuccessful attempt by Haco, King
   of Norway, to re-establish the authority of the mother kingdom
   over their distant possessions, an attempt which ended in his
   defeat at the battle of Largs by the Scottish king, Alexander
   III., they were ceded to the Scottish kings by Magnus IV., his
   son, and an alliance was cemented between the two kingdoms by
   the marriage of Alexander's daughter, Margaret, to Eric of
   Norway." At the north of Scotland the Jarls of Orkney, in the
   11th century, "conquered Caithness and Sutherland, and wrested
   a recognition of their claim from Malcolm II. of Scotland.
   Their influence was continually felt in the dynastic and other
   quarrels of Scotland; the defeat of Duncan, in 1040, by the
   Jarl of Orkney, contributing not a little to Duncan's
   subsequent overthrow by Macbeth. They fostered the
   independence of the north of Scotland against the southern
   king, and held their kingdom until, in 1355, it passed by the
   female line to the house of Sinclair. The Sinclairs now
   transferred their allegiance to their natural master, the King
   of Scotland; and finally the kingdom of the Orkneys was handed
   over to James III. as the dowry of his bride, Margaret of
   Norway."

      A. H. Johnson,
      The Normans in Europe,
      chapter 2.

      ALSO IN:
      J. H. Burton,
      History of Scotland,
      chapter 15 (volume 2).

      See, also, IRELAND: A. D. 1014.

NORMANS: A. D. 1000-1063.
   The Northmen in France become French.

      See NORMANDY; A. D. 911-1000; and 1035-1063.

NORMANS: A. D. 1000-1194.
   Conquests and settlement in Southern Italy and Sicily.

      See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1000-1090;
      and 1081-1194.

NORMANS: A. D. 1016-1042.
   The reign of the Danish kings in England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1016-1042.

NORMANS: A. D. 1066-1071.
   Conquest of England by Duke William of Normandy.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1042-1066; 1066; and 1066-1071.

NORMANS: A. D. 1081-1085.
   Attempted conquest of the Byzantine Empire.

      See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1081-1085.

NORMANS: A. D. 1084.
   The sack and burning of Rome.

      See ROME: A. D. 1081-1084.

NORMANS: A. D. 1146.
   Ravages in Greece.

      See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1146.

NORMANS: A. D. 1504.
   Early enterprise on the Newfoundland fishing banks.

      See NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1501-1578.

   ----------NORMANS: End--------

NORTH, Lord, Administration of.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1770, to 1782-1783.

NORTH ANNA, The passage of the.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA).

NORTH BRITON, Number 45, The.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1762-1764.

   ----------NORTH CAROLINA: Start--------

NORTH CAROLINA:
   The aboriginal inhabitants.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
      ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, CHEROKEES,
      IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH,
      SHAWANESE, and TIMUQUANAN FAMILY.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1524.
   Discovery of the coast by Verrazano.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1523-1524.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1585-1587.
   Raleigh's attempted settlements at Roanoke.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1584-1586; and 1587-1590.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1629.
   The grant to Sir Robert Heath.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1629.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1639-1663.
   Pioneer and unorganized colonization.

   "An abortive attempt at colonization was made in 1639, and a
   titular governor appeared in Virginia; but this, and a number
   of conflicting claims originating in this patent [to Sir
   Robert Heath], and sufficiently troublesome to the
   proprietaries of a later time, were the only results of the
   grant of Charles I. This action on the part of the Crown, and
   the official information received, did not, however, suffice
   to prevent the Virginia Assembly lending itself to a scheme by
   which possession might be obtained of the neighboring
   territory, or at least substantial benefits realized therefrom
   by their constituents. With this object, they made grants to a
   trading company, which led, however, only to exploration and
   traffic. Other grants of a similar nature followed for the
   next ten years, at the expiration of which a company of
   Virginians made their way from Nansemond to Albemarle, and
   established a settlement there. The Virginian Burgesses
   granted them lands, and promised further grants to all who
   would extend these settlements to the southward. Emigration
   from Virginia began. Settlers, singly and in companies,
   crossed the border, and made scattered and solitary clearings
   within the wilds of North Carolina. Many of these people were
   mere adventurers; but some of them were of more substantial
   stuff, and founded permanent settlements on the Chowan and
   elsewhere. Other eyes, however, as watchful as those of the
   Virginians, were also turned to the rich regions of the South.
{2372}
   New England enterprise explored the American coast from one
   end to the other, in search of lucrative trade and new
   resting-places. After a long acquaintance with the North
   Carolina coast, they bought land of the Indians, near the
   mouth of Cape Fear River, and settled there. For some
   unexplained cause—possibly on account of the wild and
   dangerous character of the scattered inhabitants, who had
   already drifted thither from Virginia, possibly from the
   reason which they themselves gave—the New England colonists
   abandoned their settlement and departed, leaving a written
   opinion of the poor character of the country expressed in very
   plain language and pinned to a post. Here it was found by some
   wanderers from Barbadoes, who were of a different opinion from
   the New Englanders as to the appearance of things; and they
   accordingly repurchased the land from the Indians and began a
   settlement. At this date [1663], therefore, there was in North
   Carolina this infant settlement of the Barbadoes men, on the
   extreme southeastern point of the present State, and in the
   north-eastern corner the Virginia settlers scattered about,
   with here a solitary plantation and there a little group of
   farms, and always a restless van of adventurers working their
   way down the coast and into the interior. … Whatever rights
   the North Carolina settlers may have had in the eyes of the
   Virginians, who had granted them land, or in those of the
   Indians who had sold it, they had none recognized by the
   English King, who claimed to own all that vast region. It may
   be doubted whether anything was known of these early colonists
   in England; and their existence was certainly not regarded in
   the least when Charles II. lavished their territory, and much
   besides, upon a band of his courtiers and ministers."

      H. C. Lodge,
      Short History of the English Colonies,
      chapter 5.


      ALSO IN:
      J. W. Moore,
      History of North Carolina,
      volume 1, chapter 2.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1663-1670.
   The grant to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury and others.
   The organized colonies.

   "On the 24th March, 1663, King Charles II. granted to Edward,
   Earl of Clarendon; George [Monk], Duke of Albemarle; William,
   Earl of Craven; John, Lord Berkeley; Anthony, Lord Ashley
   [Earl of Shaftesbury]; Sir George Carteret, Sir John Colleton,
   and Sir William Berkeley, all the country between the Pacific
   and Atlantic Oceans, between 31° and 36° parallels of
   latitude, called Carolina, in honor of Charles. [The grant
   embraced the present States of Georgia, Alabama and
   Mississippi, as well as the two Carolinas.] In 1663, Sir
   William Berkeley, Governor of the Colony of Virginia, visited
   the province, and appointed William Drummond Governor of the
   Colony of Carolina. … Drummond, at his death in 1667, was
   succeeded by Stevens as governor. … The first assembly that
   made laws for Carolina, assembled in the fall of 1669. … A
   form of government, magnificent in design, and labored in
   detail, called 'The fundamental constitutions of Carolina,'
   were drawn up by the celebrated author of the Essay on the
   Human Understanding, John Locke. … On the death of Governor
   Stevens, who died in the colony full of years and wealth, the
   assembly chose Carteret for their governor, and on his return
   to England soon after, Eastchurch, who then was in Eng]and,
   was appointed governor, and Miller secretary."

      J. H. Wheeler,
      Historical Sketches of North Carolina,
      chapter 4.

   "The earliest grant made to the lords proprietors did not
   include the whole of the present State of North Carolina. Its
   northern line fell short of the southern boundary of Virginia
   by half a degree of latitude. Notwithstanding this, an
   unwarranted exhibition of authority established virtually the
   proprietary dominion over this unappropriated territory. …
   Colonel Byrd of Virginia, who was born not long after the
   charter of 1665 was made, and who lived during the
   administration of Berkeley, states, and no doubt truly, that
   'Sir William Berkeley, who was one of the grantees, and at
   that time governor of Virginia, finding a territory of 31
   miles in breadth between the inhabited part of Virginia and
   the above-mentioned boundary of Carolina [36°], advised the
   Lord Clarendon of it. And his lordship had interest enough
   with the king to obtain a second patent to include it, dated
   June 30th, 1665.' By this patent very large powers were
   granted; so large that, as Chalmers has remarked, 'no one
   prerogative of the crown was preserved, except only the
   sovereign dominion. … The existence of the colony from
   Barbadoes, under Sir John Yeamans, that settled in the old
   county of Clarendon, from its inception in 1665 to its
   abandonment in 1690, forms but an episode in the proprietary
   history of North Carolina. The colony, like all others
   similarly situated, sought at first to make provision for the
   supply of bodily wants, in securing food and shelter only; but
   having done this it next proceeded to make profitable the
   gifts of Heaven that were around it. Yeamans had brought with
   him negro slaves from Barbadoes, and so inviting was the new
   settlement deemed, that in the second year of its existence it
   contained 800 inhabitants. … But with all this prosperity, the
   colony on the Cape Fear was not destined to be permanent. The
   action of the lords proprietors themselves caused its
   abandonment. … In 1670, the lords proprietors, who seem to
   have been anxious to proceed more and more to the southward,
   sent out a considerable number of emigrants to form a colony
   at Port Royal, now Beaufort, in the present State of South
   Carolina. The individual who led the expedition was William
   Sayle, 'a man of experience,' says Chalmers, 'who had been
   appointed governor of that part of the coast lying
   southwestward of Cape Carteret.' … Scarcely however, had Sayle
   carried out his instructions and made his colonists somewhat
   comfortable, before his constitution yielded to a new and
   insalubrious climate, and he died. … It was not easy for the
   proprietors immediately to find a fit successor; and, even had
   such been at hand, some time must necessarily have elapsed
   before he could safely reach the scene of his labors. But Sir
   John Yeamans was near the spot: his long residence had
   acclimated him, and, as the historian states, he 'had hitherto
   ruled the plantation around Cape Fear with a prudence which
   precluded complaint.' He therefore was directed to extend his
   command from old Clarendon, on the Cape Fear, to the territory
   which was southwest of Cape Carteret. This was in August,
   1671. The shores with the adjacent land, and the streams
   making into the sea, were by this time very well known to all
   the dwellers in Carolina, for the proprietors had caused them
   to be surveyed with accuracy.
{2373}
   On the banks of Ashley River there was good pasturage, and
   land fit for tillage. The planters of Clarendon, therefore,
   turned their faces southward, while those from Port Royal
   travelled northward; and so the colonists from both
   settlements met on the banks of the Ashley, as on a middle
   ground, and here in the same year (1671) they laid, 'on the
   first high land,' the foundations of 'old Charlestown.' In
   1679, it was found that 'Oyster Point,' formed by the
   confluence of Ashley and Cooper rivers, was more convenient
   for a town than the spot previously selected, and the people,
   with the encouragement of the lords proprietors, began to
   remove thither. In the next year (1680) were laid the
   foundations of the present city of Charleston; thirty houses
   were built, and it was declared to be the capital of the
   southern part of the province, and also the port for all
   commercial traffic. This gradually depopulated old Clarendon.
   … We now return to trace the fortunes of the settlement on
   Albemarle, under Stephens. As before stated he entered upon
   his duties as governor in October, 1667. … His instructions
   were very full and explicit. The Assembly was to be composed
   of the governor, a council of twelve, and twelve delegates
   chosen by the freeholders. Of the twelve councillors, whose
   advice, by the way, the governor was required always to take
   and follow, one half was to be appointed by the Assembly, the
   other half by himself. To this Assembly belonged not only the
   power to make laws, but a large share of the executive
   authority also. … In 1669, the first legislature under this
   constitution assembled. And it is worthy of remark, that at
   this period, when the province may be said to have had, for
   the first time, a system of regular government, there was in
   it a recognition of two great principles which are now part of
   the political creed of our whole country, without distinction
   of party. These are, first, that the people are entitled to a
   voice in the selection of their law-makers; and secondly, that
   they cannot rightfully be taxed but by their own
   representatives. … The people, we have reason to believe, were
   contented and happy during the early part of Stephens'
   administration. … But this quiet condition of affairs was not
   to last. We have now reached a period in our history which
   illustrates the fact, that whatever wisdom may be apparent in
   the constitution given to the Albemarle colony by the
   proprietors, on the accession of Stephens, was less the result
   of deliberation than of a happy accident. … But the time had
   now come for the proprietors to carry out their magnificent
   project of founding an empire; and disregarding alike the
   nature of man, the lessons of experience, and the physical
   obstacles of an unsubdued wilderness (even not yet entirely
   reclaimed), they resolved that all should yield to their
   theories of government, and invoked the aid of philosophy to
   accomplish an impossibility. Locke was employed to prepare
   'the fundamental constitutions.'"

      F. L. Hawks,
      History of North Carolina,
      volume 2, pages 441-462.

      ALSO IN:
      W. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay,
      Popular History of thee United States,
      volume 2, chapter 12.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1669-1693.
   The Fundamental Constitutions of John Locke,
   and their failure.

   The royal grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Shaftesbury,
   Clarendon, and their associates invested them with "all the
   rights, jurisdiction, royalties, privileges, and liberties
   within the bounds of their province, to hold, use, and enjoy
   the same, in as ample a manner as the bishop of Durham did in
   that county-palatine in England: … Agreeably to these powers,
   the proprietors proceeded to frame a system of laws for the
   colony which they projected. Locke, the well-known
   philosopher, was summoned to this work, and the largest
   expectations were entertained in consequence of his
   co-operation. Locke, though subsequently one of the
   proprietors, was, at the beginning, simply the secretary of
   the earl of Shaftesbury. The probability is that, in preparing
   the constitution for the Carolinas, he rather carried out the
   notions of that versatile nobleman than his own. … The code of
   laws called the 'Fundamental Constitutions,' which was
   devised, and which subsequently became unpopular in the
   colony, is not certainly the work of his hands. It is ascribed
   by Oldmixon, a contemporary, to the earl of Shaftesbury, one
   of the proprietors. The most striking feature in this code
   provided for the creation of a nobility, consisting of land
   graves, cassiques, and barons. These were to be graduated by
   the landed estates which were granted with the dignity; the
   eldest of the proprietary lords was to be the superior, with
   the title of Palatine, and the people were to be serfs." The
   tenants, and the issue of the tenants, "were to be transferred
   with the soil, and not at liberty to leave it, but with the
   lord's permission, under hand and seal. The whole system was
   rejected after a few years' experiment. It has been harshly
   judged as … the crude conception of a mind conversant rather
   with books than men—with the abstract rather than the
   practical in government and society. And this judgment is
   certainly true of the constitutions in the case in which they
   were employed. They did not suit the absolute conditions of
   the country, or the class of people which subsequently made
   their way to it. But contemplating the institution of domestic
   slavery, as the proprietors had done from the beginning—a
   large villanage and a wealthy aristocracy, dominating almost
   without restraint or responsibility over the whole—the scheme
   was not without its plausibilities. But the feudal tenures
   were everywhere dying out. The time had passed, even in
   Europe, for such a system. … The great destitution of the
   first settlers left them generally without the means of
   procuring slaves; and the equal necessities, to which all are
   subject who peril life and fortune in a savage forest and on a
   foreign shore, soon made the titular distinctions of the few a
   miserable mockery, or something worse."

      W. G. Simms,
      History of South Carolina,
      book 2, chapter 1.

   "The constitutions were signed on the 21st of July, 1669;" but
   subsequently revised by the interpolation of a clause, against
   the wishes of Locke, establishing the Church of England. "This
   revised copy of 'the model' was not signed till March, 1670.
   To a colony of which the majority were likely to be
   dissenters, the change was vital; it was scarcely noticed in
   England, where the model became the theme of extravagant
   applause. … As far as depended upon the proprietaries, the
   government was immediately organized with Monk, duke of
   Albemarle, as palatine." But, meantime, the colonists in the
   northern part of the Carolina province had instituted a simple
   form of government for themselves, with a council of twelve,
   and an assembly composed of the governor, the council, and
   twelve delegates from the freeholders of the incipient
   settlements.
{2374}
   The assembly had already met and had framed some important
   laws, which remained "valid in North Carolina for more than
   half a century. Hardly had these laws been established when
   the new constitution was forwarded to Albemarle. Its
   promulgation did but favor anarchy by invalidating the
   existing system, which it could not replace. The
   proprietaries, contrary to stipulations with the colonists,
   superseded the existing government, and the colonists
   resolutely rejected the substitute." Much the same state of
   things appeared in the South Carolina settlements (not yet
   separately named), and successive disorders and revolutionary
   changes made up the history of the pseudo palatinate for many
   years.

      G. Bancroft,
      History of the United States
      (Author's last revision),
      part 2, chapter 7 (volume 1).

   In 1693, "to conciliate the colonists, and to get rid of the
   dispute which had arisen as to the binding force of the 'Grand
   Model,' the proprietors voted that, 'as the people have
   declared they would rather be governed by the powers granted
   by the charter, without regard to the fundamental
   constitutions, it will be for their quiet, and the protection
   of the well-disposed, to grant their request.' This abrogation
   of the labors of Locke removed one bone of contention; but as
   the 'Grand Model' had never been actually carried into effect,
   the government went on much as before. Each of the
   proprietaries continued to have his special delegate in the
   colony, or rather two delegates, one for South Carolina, the
   other for Albemarle, the eight together constituting the
   council in either province, over which the governor presided
   as delegate of the palatine, to whom his appointment
   belonged."

      R. Hildreth,
      History of the United States,
      chapter 21 (volume 2).

   The text of the "fundamental constitutions" is printed in
   volume 9 of the 12th edition of Locke's complete works, and in
   volume 10 of several prior editions.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1688-1729.
   Slow progress and unprosperous state of the colony.
   End of the Proprietary Government.

   In 1688, Carolina (the northern province) being afflicted with
   a governor, one Seth Sothel, who is accused of every variety
   of extortion and rapacity, the colonists rose up against him,
   tried him before their assembly, deposed him from his office
   and drove him into exile. "The Proprietors demurred to the
   form of this procedure, but acquiesced in the substance of it,
   and thereby did something to confirm that contempt for
   government which was one of the leading characteristics of the
   colony. During the years which followed, the efforts of the
   Proprietors to maintain any authority over their Northern
   province, or to connect it in any way with their Southern
   territory, were little more than nominal. For the most part
   the two settlements were distinguished by the Proprietors as
   'our colony north-east of Cape Fear,' and 'our colony
   south-west of Cape Fear.' As early as 1691 we find the
   expression North Carolina once used. After that we do not meet
   with it till 1696. From that time onward both expressions are
   used with no marked distinction, sometimes even in the same
   document. At times the Proprietors seem to have aimed at
   establishing a closer connexion between the two colonies by
   placing them under a single Governor. But in nearly all these
   cases provision was made for the appointment of separate
   Deputy-Governors, nor does there seem to have been any project
   for uniting the two legislative bodies. … In 1720 the first
   event occurred which throws any clear light from without on
   the internal life of the colony. In that year boundary
   disputes arose between Virginia and her southern neighbour and
   it was found necessary to appoint representatives on each side
   to settle the boundary line. The chief interest of the matter
   lies in the notes left to us by one of the Virginia
   Commissioners [Colonel William Byrd]. … After making all …
   deductions and checking Byrd's report by that of graver
   writers, there remains a picture of poverty, indolence, and
   thriftlessness which finds no counterpart in any of the other
   southern colonies. That the chief town contained only some
   fifty poor cottages is little or nothing more than what we
   find in Maryland or Virginia. But there the import trade with
   England made up for the deficiencies of colonial life. North
   Carolina, lacking the two essentials of trade, harbours and a
   surplus population, had no commercial dealings with the mother
   country. … The only possessions which abounded were horses and
   swine, both of which could be reared in droves without any
   care or attention. … The evils of slavery existed without its
   counterbalancing advantages. There was nothing to teach those
   habits of administration which the rich planters of Virginia
   and South Carolina learnt as part of their daily life. At the
   same time the colony suffered from one of the worst effects of
   slavery, a want of manual skill. … In 1729 the faint and
   meaningless shadow of proprietary government came to an end.
   The Crown bought up first the shares of seven Proprietors,
   then after an interval that of the eighth. In the case of
   other colonies the process of transfer had been effected by a
   conflict and by something approaching to revolution. In North
   Carolina alone it seems to have come about with the peaceful
   assent of all parties. … Without a struggle, North Carolina
   cast off all traces of its peculiar origin and passed into the
   ordinary state of a crown colony."

      J. A. Doyle,
      The English in America:
      Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas,
      chapter 12.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1710.
   Palatine colonization at New Berne.

      See PALATINES.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1711-1714.
   Indian rising and massacre of colonists.
   Subjugation and expulsion of the Tuscaroras.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
      IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1740.
   War with the Spaniards in Florida.

      See GEORGIA: A. D. 1738-1743.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761.
   The Cherokee War.

      See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1760-1766.
   The question of taxation by Parliament.
   The Stamp Act.
   The First Continental Congress.
   The repeal of the Stamp Act and the Declaratory Act.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1760-1775; 1763-1764; 1765; and 1766.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1766-1768.
   The Townshend Duties.
   The Circular Letter of Massachusetts.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1766-1767; and 1767-1768.

{2375}

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1766-1771.
   The insurrection of the Regulators.
   Battle of Alamance.

   Complaints of official extortion, which were loud in several
   of the colonies at about the same period, led to serious
   results in North Carolina. "Complaints were most rife in the
   middle counties, a very barren portion of the province, with a
   population generally poor and ignorant. These people
   complained, and not without reason—for the poor and ignorant
   are ever most exposed to oppression—not only that excessive
   fees were extorted, but that the sheriffs collected taxes of
   which they rendered no account. They seem also to have held
   the courts and lawyers—indeed, the whole system for the
   collection of debts —in great detestation. Presently, under
   the name of 'Regulators,' borrowed from South Carolina, they
   formed associations which not only refused the payment of
   taxes, but assaulted the persons and property of lawyers,
   judges, sheriffs, and other obnoxious individuals, and even
   proceeded so far as to break up the sessions of the courts.
   The common name of Regulators designated, in the two
   Carolinas, combinations composed of different materials, and
   having different objects in view. The Assembly of the province
   took decided ground against them, and even expelled one of
   their leaders, who had been elected a member. After
   negotiations and delays, and broken promises to keep the
   peace, Governor Tryon, at the head of a body of volunteers,
   marched into the disaffected counties. The Regulators
   assembled in arms, and an action was fought at Alamance, on
   the Haw, near the head waters of Cape Fear River, in which
   some 200 were left dead upon the field. Out of a large number
   taken prisoners, six were executed for high treason. Though
   the Regulators submitted, they continued to entertain a deadly
   hatred against the militia of the lower counties, which had
   taken part against them. Tryon was presently removed from
   North Carolina to New York. His successor, Joseph Martin,
   anxious to strengthen himself against the growing discontents
   of the province, promised to redress the grievances, and
   sedulously cultivated the good will of the Regulators, and
   with such success that they became, in the end, staunch
   supporters of the royal authority."

      R. Hildreth,
      History of the United States,
      chapter 29 (volume 2). 

      ALSO IN:
      F. X. Martin,
      History of North Carolina,
      chapters 7-8.

      J. H. Wheeler,
      History of North Carolina,
      chapter 8.

      F. L. Hawks,
      Battle of the Alamance
      (Revised History of North Carolina).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1768-1774.
   Opening events of the Revolution.

      See BOSTON: A. D. 1768, to 1773;
      and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1770, to 1774.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1769-1772.
   The first settlement of Tennessee.
   The Watauga Association.

      See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1769-1772.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775.
   The beginning of the War of the American Revolution.
   Lexington.
   Concord.
   Action on the news.
   Ticonderoga.
   The Siege of Boston.
   Bunker Hill.
   The Second Continental Congress.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775 (May).
   The Mecklenburg Declaration.

   "It has been strenuously claimed and denied that, at a meeting
   of the people of Mecklenburg County, in North Carolina, on May
   20, 1775, resolutions were passed declaring their independence
   of Great Britain. The facts in the case appear to be these:—On
   the 31st of May, 1775, the people of this county did pass
   resolutions quite abreast of the public sentiment of that
   time, but not venturing on the field of independency further
   than to say that these resolutions were to remain in force
   till Great Britain resigned its pretensions. These resolutions
   were well written, attracted notice, and were copied into the
   leading newspapers of the colonies, North and South, and can
   be found in various later works (Lossing's 'Field-Book,' ii,
   619, etc.). A copy of the 'South Carolina Gazette' containing
   them was sent by Governor Wright, of Georgia, to Lord
   Dartmouth, and was found by Bancroft in the State Paper
   Office, while in the Sparks MSS. (no. lvi) is the record of a
   copy sent to the home government by Governor Martin of North
   Carolina, with a letter dated June 30, 1775. Of these
   resolutions there is no doubt (Frothingham's 'Rise of the
   Republic,' 422). In 1793, or earlier, some of the actors in
   the proceeding, apparently ignorant that the record of these
   resolutions had been preserved in the newspapers, endeavored
   to supply them from memory, unconsciously intermingling some
   of the phraseology of the Declaration of July 4th, in
   Congress, which gave them the tone of a pronounced
   independency. Probably through another dimness of memory they
   affixed the date of May 20, 1775, to them. These were first
   printed in the 'Raleigh Register,' April 30, 1819. They are
   found to resemble in some respects the now known resolves of
   May 31st, as well as the national Declaration in a few
   phrases. In 1829 Martin printed them, much altered, in his
   'North Carolina' (ii, 272) but it is not known where this copy
   came from. In 1831 the State printed the text of the 1819
   copy, and fortified it with recollections and certificates of
   persons affirming that they were present when the resolutions
   were passed on the 20th."

      J. Winsor,
      Note in Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 6, page 256.

   "We are inclined to conjecture that there was a popular
   meeting at Charlottetown on the 19th and 20th of May, where
   discussion was had on the subject of independence, and
   probably some more or less explicit understanding arrived at,
   which became the basis of the committee's action on the 31st.
   If so, we make no doubt that J. McN. Alexander was secretary
   of that meeting. He, probably, in that case, recorded the
   proceedings, and among them some resolution or resolutions in
   regard to the propriety of throwing off the British yoke. … It
   was in attempting to remember the records of that meeting,
   destroyed by fire, that John McN. Alexander, then an old man,
   fell into the errors" which led him, in 1800, to certify, as
   Secretary, a copy of the document called the Mecklenburg
   Declaration of Independence.

      H. S. Randall,
      Life of Jefferson,
      volume 3, appendix 2.

      ALSO IN:
      W. A. Graham,
      Address on the Mecklenburg Declaration, 1875.

      F. L. Hawks,
      The Mecklenburg Declaration
      (Revised History of Georgia).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775-1776.
   The arming of the loyalist Highlanders
   and their defeat at Moore's Creek.
   The first colony vote for independence.

   "North Carolina was the first colony to act as a unit in favor
   of independence. It was the fourth in importance of the United
   Colonies. Its Provincial Congress had organized the militia,
   and vested the public authority in a provincial council for
   the whole colony, committees of safety for the districts, and
   county and town committees. A large portion of the people were
   adherents of the crown,—among them a body of Highland
   emigrants, and most of the party of regulators. Governor
   Martin represented, not without grounds, that, if these
   loyalists were supported by a British force, the colony might
   be gained to the royal side.
{2376}
   The loyalists were also numerous in Georgia and South
   Carolina. Hence it was determined by the King to send an
   expedition to the Southern Colonies in the winter, to restore
   the royal authority. This was put under the command of Sir
   Henry Clinton, and ordered to rendezvous at Cape Fear. 'I am
   clear,' wrote George III., 'the first attempt should be made
   on North Carolina, as the Highland settlers are said to be
   well inclined.' Commissions were issued to men of influence
   among them, one being Allan McDonald, the husband of the
   chivalrous Flora McDonald, who became famous by romantic
   devotion to Prince Charles Edward. Donald McDonald was
   appointed the commander. These officers, under the direction
   of the governor, after much secret consultation, enrolled
   about 1,500 men. The popular leaders, however, were informed
   of their designs. The militia were summoned, and took the
   field under Colonel James Moore. At length, when Sir Henry
   Clinton was expected at Cape Fear, General McDonald erected
   the royal standard at Cross Creek, now Fayetteville, and moved
   forward to join Clinton. Colonel Moore ordered parties of the
   militia to take post at Moore's Creek Bridge, over which
   McDonald would be obliged to pass. Colonel Richard Caswell was
   at the head of one of these parties: hence the force here was
   under his command: and this place on the 27th of February
   [1776] became a famous battle-field. The Provincials were
   victorious. They captured a great quantity of military
   supplies, nearly 900 men, and their commander. This was the
   Lexington and Concord of that region. The newspapers
   circulated the details of this brilliant result. The spirit of
   the Whigs run high. … A strong force was soon ready and
   anxious to meet Clinton. Amidst these scenes, the people
   elected delegates to a Provincial Congress, which met, on the
   4th of April [1776], at Halifax. … Attempts were made to
   ascertain the sense of the people on independence. … The
   subject was referred to a committee, of which Cornelius
   Harnett was the chairman. They reported an elaborate preamble
   … and a resolution to empower the delegates in the General
   Congress 'to concur with the delegates in the other colonies
   in declaring independency and forming foreign
   alliances,—reserving to the colony the sole and exclusive
   right of forming a constitution and laws for it,' also 'of
   appointing delegates in a general representation of the
   colonies for such purposes as might be agreed upon.' This was
   unanimously adopted on the 12th of April. Thus the popular
   party carried North Carolina as a unit in favor of
   independence, when the colonies, from New England to Virginia,
   were in solid array against it. The example was warmly
   welcomed by the patriots, and commended for imitation."

      R. Frothingham,
      The Rise of the Republic,
      chapter 11.

      ALSO IN:
      J. W. Moore,
      History of North Carolina,
      volume 1, chapter 10.

      D. L. Swain,
      British Invasion of North Carolina in 1776
      (Revised History of North Carolina).

      See, also, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A: D. 1776 (JUNE).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1776.
   Annexation of the Watauga settlements (Tennessee).

      See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1776-1784.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1776-1780.
   Independence declared.
   Adoption of State Constitution.
   The war in the North.
   British conquest of Georgia.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776, to 1780.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1780-1783.
   The war in the South.
   Greene's campaign.
   King's Mountain.
   The Cowpens.
   Guilford Court House.
   Hobkirk's Hill.
   Eutaw Springs.
   Yorktown.
   Peace.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780, to 1783.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1784.
   Revolt of the Tennessee settlements
   against their cession to Congress.

      See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1776-1784.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1785-1788.
   The state of Franklin organized by the Tennessee settlers.
   Its brief and troubled history.

      See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1785; and 1785-1796.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1786.
   Importation of Negroes discouraged.

      See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1776-1808.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1787~1789.
   Formation and adoption of the Federal Constitution.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1787; and 1787-1789.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1790.
   Renewed cession of western Territory (Tennessee)
   to the United States.

      See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1785-1796;
      also, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1861 (January-May).
   The difficult dragging of the state into Secession.

   "A large majority of the people of North Carolina were opposed
   to secession. They did not regard it as a constitutional
   right. They were equally opposed to a separation from the
   Union in resentment of the election of Mr. Lincoln. But the
   Governor, John W. Ellis, was in full sympathy with the
   secessionists. He spared no pains to bring the state into line
   with South Carolina [which had passed her ordinance of
   Secession December 20, 1860.]

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1860 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

   The legislature met on the 20th of November. The governor, in
   his message, recommended that the legislature should invite a
   conference with the Southern States, or send delegates to them
   for the purpose of securing their co-operation. He also
   recommended the reorganization of the militia, and the call of
   a state convention. Bills were introduced for the purpose of
   carrying these measures into effect. … On the 30th of January,
   a bill for calling a state convention was passed. It provided
   that no secession ordinance, nor one connecting the state with
   the Southern Confederacy, would be valid until it should be
   ratified by a majority of the qualified voters of the state.
   The vote of the people was appointed to take place on the 28th
   of February. The delegates were elected on the day named. A
   large majority of them were Unionists. But, at the same time,
   the convention itself was voted down. The vote for a
   convention was 46,671; against a convention, 47,333. The
   majority against it was 662. This majority against a
   convention, however, was no criterion of popular sentiment in
   regard to secession. The true test was the votes received,
   respectively, by the Union and secession delegates. The former
   received a majority of nearly 30,000. But the indefatigable
   governor was not to be balked by the popular dislike for
   secession. The legislature was called together in extra
   session on May 1. On the same day they voted to have another
   election for delegates to a state convention on the 13th of
   the month. The election took place accordingly, and the
   delegates convened on the 20th. On the following day the
   secession ordinance was adopted, and the Confederate
   Constitution ratified. To save time, and avoid further
   obstructions, the question of popular approval was taken for
   granted."

      S. S. Cox,
      Three Decades of Federal Legislation,
      pages 119-120.

      ALSO IN:
      J. W. Moore,
      History of North Carolina,
      volume 2, chapter 5.

      See, also, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1861 (MARCH-APRIL).

{2377}

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1861 (April).
   Governor Ellis' reply to President Lincoln's call for troops.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL)
      PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S CALL TO ARMS.

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1861 (August).
   Hatteras Inlet taken by the Union forces.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1861 (AUGUST: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1862 (January-April).
   Capture of Roanoke Island, Newbern and Beaufort
   by the Union forces.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-APRIL: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1862 (May).
   Appointment of a Military Governor.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D.1862 (MARCH-JUNE).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1864 (April-May).
   Exploits of the ram Albemarle.
   Confederate capture of Plymouth.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (APRIL-MAY: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1864 (October).
   Destruction of the ram Albemarle.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (OCTOBER: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1864-1865 (December-January).
   The capture of Fort Fisher.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864-1865 (DECEMBER-JANUARY:

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1865 (February-March).
   Sherman's March.
   The Battle of Bentonsville.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: THE CAROLINAS).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1865 (February-March).
   Federal occupation of Wilmington.
   Battle of Kinston.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1865 (May).
   Provisional government under
   President Johnson's Plan of Reconstruction.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY).

NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1865-1868.
   Reconstruction.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY), and after, to 1868-1870.

   ----------NORTH CAROLINA: End--------

NORTH DAKOTA:
   Admission to the Union (1889).

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

NORTH RIVER, The.

      See SOUTH RIVER.

NORTHAMPTON, Battle of.

   One of the battles in the English civil wars of the 15th
   century called the Wars of the Roses, fought July 10, 1460.
   The royalist party (Lancastrians) were signally defeated, King
   Henry VI. taken prisoner, and Queen Margaret driven in flight
   to the north.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

NORTHAMPTON, Peace of.

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1328.

NORTHBROOK, LORD, The Indian administration of.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1862-1876.

NORTHEASTERN BOUNDARY QUESTION, Settlement of the.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1842.

NORTHERN CIRCARS, OR SIRKARS.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1758-1761.

NORTHERN MARITIME LEAGUE, The.

   See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.

NORTHMEN.

      See NORMANS.

   ----------NORTHUMBRIA: Start--------

NORTHUMBRIA, Kingdom of.

   The northernmost of the kingdoms formed by the Angles in
   Britain in the 6th century. It embraced the two kingdoms of
   Bernicia and Deira, sometimes ruled by separate princes,
   sometimes united, as Northumbria, under one, and extending
   from the Humber to the Forth.

      See ENGLAND: IA. D. 547-633.

NORTHUMBRIA: 10-11th Centuries.
   Lothian joined to Scotland.

      See SCOTLAND: 10-11th CENTURIES.

   ----------NORTHUMBRIA: End--------

NORTHWEST FUR COMPANY.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1869-1873.

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES OF CANADA.

   "The North West Territories comprise all lands [of the
   Dominion of Canada] not within the limits of any province or
   of the District of Keewatin. The area of the Territories is
   about 3,000,000 square miles or four times as great as the
   area of all the provinces together. The Territories were ceded
   to Canada by an Order in Council dated the 24th June 1870. …

      See CANADA: A. D. 1869-1873.

   The southern portion of the territories between Manitoba and
   British Columbia has been formed into four provisional
   districts, viz. Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and
   Athabasca. By the Dominion Act 38 Vie. c. 49 executive and
   legislative powers were conferred on a Lieutenant-Governor and
   a Council of five members subject to instructions given by
   Order in Council or by the Canadian Secretary of State."

      J. E. C. Munro,
      The Constitution of Canada,
      chapter 2.

   ----------NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
              UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Start--------

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
   The Old.

   "This northwestern land lay between the Mississippi, the Ohio,
   and the Great Lakes. It now constitutes five of our large
   States and part of a sixth [namely, western Pennsylvania,
   Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan]. But when
   independence was declared it was quite as much a foreign
   territory, considered from the standpoint of the old thirteen
   colonies, as Florida or Canada; the difference was that,
   whereas during the war we failed in our attempts to conquer
   Florida and Canada, we succeeded in conquering the Northwest.
   The Northwest formed no part of our country as it originally
   stood; it had no portion in the declaration of independence.
   It did not revolt; it was conquered. … We made our first
   important conquest during the Revolution itself."

      T. Roosevelt,
      The Winning of the West,
      volume 1, pages 32-33.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1673-1751.
   Early French exploration and occupation.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673; 16611-1687; 1700-1735;
      also ILLINOIS: A. D. 1700-1750; and 1751.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1748-1763.
   Struggle of the French and English for possession.

      See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754, 1754, 1755;
      and CANADA: A. D. 1758.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1763.
   Cession to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris.
   Possession taken.

      See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES;
      and ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765.

{2378}

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1763.
   The king's proclamation excluding settlers, and reserving
   the whole interior of the continent for the Indians.

   "On the 7th of October, 1763, George III. issued a
   proclamation, providing for four new governments or colonies,
   namely: Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Grenada [the
   latter embracing 'the island of that name, together with the
   Grenadines, and the islands of Dominico, St. Vincent and
   'Tobago'], and defining their boundaries. The limits of Quebec
   did not vary materially from those of the present province of
   that name, and those of East and West Florida comprised the
   present State of Florida and the country north of the Gulf of
   Mexico to the parallel of 31° latitude. It will be seen that
   no provision was made for the government of nine tenths of the
   new territory acquired by the Treaty of Paris, and the
   omission was not an oversight, but was intentional. The
   purpose was to reserve as crown lands the Northwest territory,
   the region north of the great lakes, and the country between
   the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, and to exclude them from
   settlement by the American colonies. They were left, for the
   time being, to the undisputed possession of the savage tribes.
   The king's 'loving subjects' were forbidden making purchases
   of land from the Indians, or forming any settlements 'westward
   of the sources of the rivers which fall into the sea from the
   West and Northwest,' 'and all persons who have wilfully or
   inadvertently seated themselves upon any lands' west of this
   limit were warned 'forthwith to remove themselves from such
   settlements.' Certain reasons for this policy were assigned in
   the proclamation, such as, 'preventing irregularities in the
   future, and that the Indians may be convinced of our justice,'
   etc.; but the real explanation appears in the Report of the
   Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, in 1772, on the
   petition of Thomas Walpole and others for a grant of land on
   the Ohio. The report was drawn by Lord Hillsborough, the
   president of the board. The report states: 'We take leave to
   remind your lordships of that principle which was adopted by
   this Board, and approved and confirmed by his Majesty,
   immediately after the Treaty of Paris, viz.: the confining the
   western extent of settlements to such a distance from the
   sea-coasts as that those settlements should lie within reach
   of the trade and commerce of this kingdom, … and also of the
   exercise of that authority and jurisdiction which was
   conceived to be necessary for the preservation of the colonies
   in a due subordination to, and dependence upon, the mother
   country. And these we apprehend to have been the two capital
   objects of his Majesty's proclamation of the 7th of October,
   1763. … The great object of colonizing upon the continent of
   North America has been to improve and extend the commerce,
   navigation, and manufactures of this kingdom. … It does appear
   to us that the extension of the fur trade depends entirely
   upon the Indians being undisturbed in the possession of their
   hunting-grounds, and that all colonizing does in its nature,
   and must in its consequences, operate to the prejudice of that
   branch of commerce. … Let the Savages enjoy their deserts in
   quiet. Were they driven from their forests the peltry-trade
   would decrease.' … Such in clear and specific terms was the
   cold and selfish policy which the British crown and its
   ministers habitually pursued towards the American colonies;
   and in a few years it changed loyalty into hate, and brought
   on the American Revolution."

      W. F. Poole,
      The West, from 1763 to 1783
      (Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 6, chapter 9).

   "The king's proclamation [of 1763] shows that, in the
   construction put upon the treaty by the crown authorities, the
   ceded territory was a new acquisition by conquest. The
   proclamation was the formal appropriation of it as the king's
   domain, embracing all the country west of the heads or sources
   of the rivers falling into the Atlantic."

      R. King,
      Ohio,
      chapter 5.

   The text of the Proclamation of 1763 is in

      Force's
      American Archives,
      series 4, volume 1, page 172.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1763-1764.
   Pontiac's War.

      See PONTIAC'S WAR.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1765-1768.
   The Indian Treaties of German Flats and Fort Stanwix.
   Boundary arrangement with the Six Nations.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1774.
   The territorial claims of Virginia.
   Lord Dunmore's War.

      See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774;
      also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1774.
   Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1778-1779.
   Its conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark,
   and its organization under the jurisdiction of Virginia.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1778-1779 CLARK'S CONQUEST.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1781-1786.
   Cession of the conflicting territorial claims of the States
   to the United States.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA:A. D. 1784.
   Jefferson's plan for new States.

   "The condition of the northwestern territory had long been
   under the consideration of the House [the Congress of the
   Confederation]. Several committees had been appointed, and
   several schemes listened to, for laying out new States, but it
   was not till the middle of April [1784], that a resolution
   was finally reached. One plan was to divide the ceded and
   purchased lands into seventeen States. Eight of these were to
   lie between the banks of the Mississippi and a north and south
   line through the falls of the Ohio. Eight more were to be
   marked out between this line and a second one parallel to it,
   and passing through the western bank of the mouth of the Great
   Kanawha. What remained was to form the seventeenth State. But
   few supporters were found for the measure, and a committee,
   over which Jefferson presided, was ordered to place before
   Congress a new scheme of division. Chase and Howe assisted
   him; and the three devised a plan whereby the prairie-lands
   were to be parted out among ten new States. The divisions then
   marked down have utterly disappeared, and the names given to
   them become so forgotten that nine tenths of the population
   which has, in our time, covered the whole region with wealthy
   cities and prosperous villages, and turned it from a waste to
   a garden, have never in their lives heard the words
   pronounced. Some were borrowed from the Latin and some from
   the Greek; while others were Latinized forms of the names the
   Indians had given to the rivers. The States were to be, as far
   as possible, two degrees of latitude in width and arranged in
   three tiers. The Mississippi and a meridian through the falls
   of the Ohio included the western tier. The meridian through
   the falls of the Ohio and a second through the mouth of the
   Great Kanawha were the boundaries of the middle tier. Between
   this and the Pennsylvania West Line lay the third tier. That
   vast tract stretching from the 45th parallel of latitude to
   the Lake of the Woods, and dense with forests of pine, of
   hickory, and of oak, they called Sylvania.
{2379}
   It was the northern State of the western tier. To the long
   tongue of land separating the water of Michigan from the
   waters of Erie and Huron they gave the name Cherronesus. A
   narrow strip, not more than two degrees of latitude in width,
   and stretching from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi, was
   called Michigania. As marked down on their rude maps,
   Michigania lay under Sylvania, in the very heart of what is
   now Wisconsin. South of this to the 41st parallel of latitude
   was Assenisipia, a name derived from Assenisipi, the Indian
   title of the river now called the Rock. Eastward, along the
   shore of Lake Erie, the country was named Metropotamia. It
   took the name Mother of Rivers from the belief that within its
   boundary were the fountains of many rivers, the Muskingum, the
   two Miamis of Ohio, the Wabash, the Illinois, the Sandusky,
   and the Miami of the Lake. That part of Illinois between the
   39th and 41st parallels was called, from the river which
   waters it, Illinoia. On to the east was Saratoga, and beyond
   this lay Washington, a broad and level tract shut in by the
   Ohio river, the waters of the lake, and the boundaries of
   Pennsylvania. Under Illinoia and Saratoga, and stretching
   along the Ohio, was the ninth State. Within its confines the
   waters of the Wabash, the Sawane, the Tanissee, the Illinois,
   and the Ohio were mingled with the waters of the Mississippi
   and Missouri. The committee therefore judged that a fitting
   name would be Polypotamia. Pelisipia was the tenth State. It
   lay to the east of Polypotamia, and was named from Pelisipi, a
   term the Cherokees often applied to the river Ohio. At the
   same time that the boundaries of the new States were defined,
   a code of laws was drawn up which should serve as a
   constitution for each State, till 20,000 free inhabitants
   acquired the right of self-government. The code was in no wise
   a remarkable performance, yet there were among its articles
   two which cannot be passed by in silence. One provided for the
   abolition of slavery after the year 1800. The other announced
   that no one holding an hereditary title should ever become a
   citizen of the new States. Each was struck out by the House.
   Yet each is deserving of notice. The one because it was the
   first attempt at a national condemnation of slavery, the other
   because it was a public expression of the dread with which our
   ancestors beheld the growth of the Society of the Cincinnati."

      J. B. McMaster,
      History of the People of the United States,
      chapter 2 (volume 1).

  The report of Jefferson's committee "was recommitted to the
  same committee on the 17th of March, and a new one was
  submitted on the 22d of the same month. The second report
  agreed in substance with the first. The principal difference
  was the omission of the paragraph giving names to the States to
  be formed out of the Western Territory." After striking out the
  clauses prohibiting slavery after the year 1800 and denying
  citizenship to all persons holding hereditary titles, the
  Congress adopted the report, April 23, 1784. "Thus the
  substance of the report of Mr. Jefferson of a plan for the
  government of the Western Territory (without restrictions as to
  slavery) became a law, and remained so during 1784 to 1787,
  when these resolutions were repealed in terms by the passage of
  the ordinance for the government of the 'Territory of the
  United States northwest of the river Ohio.'"

      T. Donaldson,
      The Public Domain: its History,
      pages 148-149.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1786-1788.
   The Ohio Company of Revolutionary soldiers and
   their land purchase.
   The settlement at Marietta.

   "The Revolutionary War had hardly closed before thousands of
   the disbanded officers and soldiers were looking anxiously to
   the Western lands for new homes, or for means of repairing
   their shattered fortunes. In June, 1783, a strong memorial was
   sent to Congress asking a grant of the lands between the Ohio
   and Lake Erie. Those who lived in the South were fortunate in
   having immediate access to the lands of Kentucky, Tennessee,
   and the back parts of Georgia. The strife in Congress over the
   lands of the Northwest delayed the surveys and the bounties so
   long that the soldiers of the North almost lost hope."
   Finally, there "was a meeting of officers and soldiers,
   chiefly of the Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut
   lines, at Boston, March 1, 1786, when they formed a new Ohio
   Company for the purchase and settlement of Western lands, in
   shares of $1,000. General Putnam [Rufus], General Samuel H.
   Parsons, and the Rev. Manasseh Cutler, were made the
   directors, and selected for their purchase the lands on the
   Ohio River situated on both sides of the Muskingum, and
   immediately west of the Seven Ranges. The treasury board in
   those days were the commissioners of public lands, but with no
   powers to enter into absolute sales unless such were approved
   by Congress. Weeks and months were lost in waiting for a
   quorum of that body to assemble. This was effected on the 11th
   of July, and Dr. Cutler, deputed by his colleagues, was in
   attendance, but was constantly baffled in pursuing his
   objects. … The members were disposed to insert conditions
   which were not satisfactory to the Ohio Company. But the
   doctor carried his point by formally intimating that he should
   retire, and seek better terms with some of the States, which
   were offering their lands at half the price Congress was to
   receive. The grant to the Ohio Company, upon the terms
   proposed, was voted by Congress, and the contract formally
   signed October 27, 1787, by the treasury board, and by Dr.
   Cutler and Winthrop Sargent, as agents of the Ohio Company.
   Two companies, including surveyors, boat-builders, carpenters,
   smiths, farmers and laborers, 48 persons in all, with their
   outfit, were sent forward in the following months of December
   and January, under General Putnam as leader and
   superintendent. They united in February on the Youghiogheny
   River and constructed boats. … Embarking with their stores
   they descended the Ohio, and on the 7th of April, 1788, landed
   at the Muskingum. On the upper point, opposite Fort Harmar,
   they founded their town, which at Boston had first been named
   Adelphia. At the first meeting of the directors, held on the
   ground July 2d, the name of Marietta was adopted, in honor of
   the French Queen Marie Antoinette, and compounded of the first
   and last syllables."

      R. King,
      Ohio,
      chapter 8.

      ALSO IN:
      W. P. and J. P. Cutler,
      Life, Journals and Correspondence
      of Reverend Manasseh Cutler,
      volume 1, chapters 4-7 and 9.

      C. M. Walker,
      History of Athens County, Ohio,
      chapter 2.

{2380}

NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF USA: A. D. 1787.
   The great Ordinance for its government.
   Perpetual Exclusion of Slavery.

   "Congress at intervals discussed the future of this great
   domain, but for a while little progress was made except to
   establish that Congress could divide the territory as might
   seem best. Nathan Dane came forward with a motion for a
   committee to plan some temporary scheme of government. A
   committee on this point reported (May 10, 1786) that the
   number of States should be from two to five, to be admitted as
   States according to Jefferson's proposition, but the question
   of slavery in them was left open. Nothing definite was done
   till a committee—Johnson of Connecticut, Pinckney of South
   Carolina, Smith of New York, Dane of Massachusetts, and Henry
   of Maryland—reported on April 26, 1787, 'An ordinance for the
   government of the Western territory,' and after various
   amendments it was fairly transcribed for a third reading, May
   10th. Further consideration was now delayed until July. It was
   at this point that Manasseh Cutler appeared in New York,
   commissioned to buy land for the Ohio Company in the region
   whose future was to be determined by this ordinance, and it
   was very likely, in part, by his influence that those features
   of the perfected ordinance as passed five days later, and
   which has given it its general fame, were introduced. On July
   9th the bill was referred to a new committee, of which a
   majority were Southern men, Carrington of Virginia taking the
   chairmanship from Johnson; Dane and Smith were retained, but
   Richard Henry Lee and Kean of South Carolina supplanted
   Pinckney and Henry. This change was made to secure the
   Southern support; on the other hand, acquiescence in the
   wishes of Northern purchasers of lands was essential in any
   business outcome of the movement. 'Up to this time,' says
   Poole, 'there were no articles of compact in the bill, no
   anti-slavery clause, nothing about liberty of conscience or of
   the press, the right of habeas corpus, or of trial by jury, or
   the equal distribution of estates. The clause that, "religion,
   morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and
   the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education
   shall be forever encouraged," was not there.' These omissions
   were the New England ideas, which had long before this been
   engrafted on the Constitution of Massachusetts. This new
   committee reported the bill, embodying all these provisions
   except the anti-slavery clause, on the 11th, and the next day
   this and other amendments were made. On the 13th, but one
   voice was raised against the bill on its final passage, and
   that came from Yates of New York. Poole intimates that it was
   the promise of the governorship of the territory under the
   ordinance which induced St. Clair, then President of Congress,
   to lend it his countenance. The promise, if such it was, was
   fulfilled, and St. Clair became the first governor."

      J. Winsor and E. Channing,
      Territorial Acquisitions and Divisions
      (Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 7, appendix).

      ALSO IN:
      B. A. Hinsdale,
      The Old Northwest,
      chapter 15.

      W. F. Poole,
      Doctor Cutler and the Ordinance of 1787
      (North American Review, April, 1876.

      W. P. and J. P. Cutler,
      Life of Manasseh Cutler,
      volume 1, chapter 8.

      J. P. Dunn, Jr.,
      Indiana,
      chapter 5.

      T. Donaldson,
      The Public Domain,
      pages 149-159.

      J. A. Barrett,
      Evolution of the Ordinance of 1787
      (University of Nebraska, Seminary Papers, 1891).

      J. P. Dunn, editor,
      Slavery Petitions
      (Indiana Historical Society,
      volume 2, number 12).

      See, also,
      EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA.: A. D. 1785-1880.

   The following is the text of the "Ordinance for the Government
   of the Territory of the United States Northwest of the River
   Ohio," commonly known as the "Ordinance of 1787":

   "Be it ordained by the United States in Congress assembled,
   That the said territory, for the purposes of temporary
   government, be one district, subject, however, to be divided
   into two districts, as future circumstances may, in the
   opinion of Congress, make it expedient. Be it ordained by the
   authority aforesaid, That the estates, both of resident and
   non-resident proprietors in the said territory, dying
   intestate, shall descend to, and be distributed among, their
   children, and the descendants of a deceased child, in equal
   parts; the descendants of a deceased child or grandchild to
   take the share of their deceased parent in equal parts among
   them: And where there shall be no children or descendants,
   then in equal parts to the next of kin in equal degree; and,
   among collaterals, the children of a deceased brother or
   sister of the intestate shall have, in equal parts among them,
   their deceased parents' share; and there shall, in no case, be
   a distinction between kindred of the whole and half-blood;
   saving, in all cases, to the widow of the intestate her third
   part of the real estate for life, and one-third part of the
   personal estate; and this law, relative to descents and dower,
   shall remain in full force until altered by the legislature of
   the district. And, until the governor and judges shall adopt
   laws as hereinafter mentioned, estates in the said territory
   may be devised or bequeathed by wills in writing, signed and
   sealed by him or her, in whom the estate may be (being of full
   age,) and attested by three witnesses; and real estates may be
   conveyed by lease and release, or, bargain and sale, signed,
   sealed, and delivered by the person, being of full age, in
   whom the estate may be, and attested by two witnesses,
   provided such wills be duly proved, and such conveyances be
   acknowledged, or the execution thereof duly proved, and be
   recorded within one year after proper magistrates, courts, and
   registers shall be appointed for that purpose: and personal
   property may be transferred by delivery; saving, however to
   the French and Canadian inhabitants, and other settlers of the
   Kaskaskias, St. Vincents, and the neighboring villages who
   have heretofore professed themselves citizens of Virginia,
   their laws and customs now in force among them, relative to
   the descent and conveyance of property. Be it ordained by the
   authority aforesaid, That there shall be appointed, from time
   to time, by Congress, a governor, whose commission shall
   continue in force for the term of three years, unless sooner
   revoked by Congress; he shall reside in the district, and have
   a freehold estate therein in 1,000 acres of land, while in the
   exercise of his office. There shall be appointed, from time to
   time, by Congress, a secretary, whose commission shall
   continue in force for four years unless sooner revoked; he
   shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate
   therein in 500 acres of land, while in the exercise of his
   office; it shall be his duty to keep and preserve the acts and
   laws passed by the legislature, and the public records of the
   district, and the proceedings of the governor in his Executive
   department; and transmit authentic copies of such acts and
   proceedings, every six months, to the Secretary of Congress:
{2381}
   There shall also be appointed a court to consist of three
   judges, any two of whom to form a court, who shall have a
   common law jurisdiction, and reside in the district, and have
   each therein a freehold estate in, 500 acres of land while in
   the exercise of their offices; and their commissions shall
   continue in force during good behavior. The governor and
   judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and publish in the
   district such laws of the original States, criminal and civil,
   as may be necessary and best suited to the circumstances of
   the district, and report them to Congress from time to time:
   which laws shall be in force in the district until the
   organization of the General Assembly therein, unless
   disapproved of by Congress; but, afterwards, the legislature
   shall have authority to alter them as they shall think fit.
   The governor, for the time being, shall be commander-in-chief
   of the militia, appoint and commission all officers in the
   same below the rank of general officers; all general Officers
   shall be appointed and commissioned by Congress. Previous to
   the organization of the General Assembly, the governor shall
   appoint such magistrates and other civil officers, in each
   county or township, as he shall find necessary for the
   preservation of the peace and good order in the same: After
   the General Assembly shall be organized, the powers and duties
   of the magistrates and other civil officers, shall be
   regulated and defined by the said assembly; but all
   magistrates and other civil officers, not herein otherwise
   directed, shall, during the continuance of this temporary
   government, be appointed by the governor. For the prevention
   of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall
   have force in all parts of the district, and for the execution
   of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper
   divisions thereof; and he shall proceed, from time to time, as
   circumstances may require, to layout the parts of the district
   in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into
   counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations
   as may thereafter be made by the legislature. So soon as there
   shall be 5,000 free male inhabitants of full age in the
   district, upon giving proof thereof to the governor, they
   shall receive authority, with time and place, to elect
   representatives from their counties or townships to represent
   them in the General Assembly: Provided, That, for every 500
   free male inhabitants, there shall be one representative, and
   so on progressively with the number of free male inhabitants,
   shall the right of representation increase, until the number
   of representatives shall amount to 25; after which, the number
   and proportion of representatives shall be regulated by the
   legislature: Provided, That no person be eligible or qualified
   to act as a representative unless he shall have been a citizen
   of one of the United States three years, and be a resident in
   the district, or unless he shall have resided in the district
   three years; and, in either case, shall likewise hold in his
   own right, in fee simple, 200 acres of land within the same:
   Provided, also, That a freehold in 50 acres of land in the
   district, having been a citizen of one of the States, and
   being resident in the district, or the like freehold and two
   years residence in the district, shall be necessary to qualify
   a man as an elector of a representative. The representatives
   thus elected, shall serve for the term of two years; and, in
   case of the death of a representative, or removal from office,
   the governor shall issue a writ to the county or township for
   which he was a member, to elect another in his stead, to serve
   for the residue of the term. The General Assembly, or
   Legislature, shall consist of the governor, legislative
   council, and a house of representatives. The legislative
   council shall consist of five members, to continue in office
   five years, unless sooner removed by Congress; any three of
   whom to be a quorum: and the members of the council shall be
   nominated and appointed in the following manner, to wit: As
   soon as representatives shall be elected, the governor shall
   appoint a time and place for them to meet together; and, when
   met, they shall nominate ten persons, residents in the
   district, and each possessed of a freehold in 500 acres of
   land, and return their names to Congress; five of whom
   Congress shall appoint and commission to serve as aforesaid;
   and, whenever a vacancy shall happen in the council, by death
   or removal from office, the house of representatives shall
   nominate two persons, qualified as aforesaid, for such
   vacancy, and return their names to Congress; one of whom
   Congress shall appoint and commission for the residue of the
   term. And every five years, four months at least before the
   expiration of the time of service of the members of council,
   the said house shall nominate ten persons, qualified as
   aforesaid, and return their names to Congress; five of whom
   Congress shall appoint and commission to serve as members of
   the council five years, unless sooner removed. And the
   governor, legislative council, and house of representatives,
   shall have authority to make laws in all cases, for the good
   government of the district, not repugnant to the principles
   and articles in this ordinance established and declared. And
   all bills, having passed by a majority in the house, and by a
   majority in the council, shall be referred to the governor for
   his assent; but no bill, or legislative act whatever, shall be
   of any force without his assent. The governor shall have power
   to convene, prorogue, and dissolve the General Assembly, when,
   in his opinion, it shall be expedient. The governor, judges,
   legislative council, secretary, and such other officers as
   Congress shall appoint in the district, shall take an oath or
   affirmation of fidelity and of office; the governor before the
   President of Congress, and all other officers before the
   governor. As soon as a legislature shall be formed in the
   district, the council and house assembled in one room, shall
   have authority, by joint ballot, to elect a delegate to
   Congress, who shall have a seat in Congress, with a right of
   debating but not of voting during this temporary government.
   And, for extending the fundamental principles of civil and
   religious liberty, which form the basis whereon these
   republics, their laws and constitutions are erected; to fix
   and establish those principles as the basis of all laws,
   constitutions, and governments, which forever hereafter shall
   be formed in the said territory: to provide also for the
   establishment of States, and permanent government therein, and
   for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an
   equal footing with the original States, at as early periods as
   may be consistent with the general interest: It is hereby
   ordained and declared by the authority aforesaid, That the
   following articles shall be considered as articles of compact
   between the original States and the people and States in the
   said territory and forever remain unalterable, unless by
   common consent, to wit:

{2382}

   Article 1st.
   No person, demeaning himself in a peaceable and orderly
   manner, shall ever be molested on account of his mode of
   worship or religious sentiments, in the said territory.

   Article 2d.
   The inhabitants of the said territory shall always be entitled
   to the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus, and of the trial
   by jury; of a proportionate representation of the people in
   the legislature; and of judicial proceedings according to the
   course of the common law. All persons shall be bailable,
   unless for capital offences, where the proof shall be evident
   or the presumption great. All fines shall be moderate; and no
   cruel or unusual punishments shall be inflicted. No man shall
   be deprived of his liberty or property, but by the judgment of
   his peers or the law of the land: and, should the public
   exigencies make it necessary, for the common preservation, to
   take any person's property, or to demand his particular
   services, full compensation shall be made for the same. And,
   in the just preservation of rights and property, it is
   understood and declared, that no law ought ever to be made, or
   have force in the said territory, that shall, in any manner
   whatever, interfere with or affect private contracts or
   engagements, bona fide, and without fraud, previously formed.

   Article 3d.
   Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good
   government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means
   of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good
   faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their
   lands and property shall never be taken from them without
   their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty,
   they shall never be invaded or, disturbed, unless in just and
   lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in
   justice and humanity, shall, from time to time, be made for
   preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace
   and friendship with them.

   Article 4th.
   The said territory, and the States which may be formed
   therein, shall forever remain a part of this confederacy of
   the United States of America, subject to the Articles of
   Confederation, and to such alterations therein as shall be
   constitutionally made; and to all the acts and ordinances of
   the United States in Congress assembled, conformable thereto.
   The inhabitants and settlers in the said territory shall be
   subject to pay a part of the federal debts contracted or to be
   contracted, and a proportional part of the expenses of
   government, to be apportioned on them by Congress according to
   the same common rule and measure by which apportionments
   thereof shall be made on the other States; and the taxes, for
   paying their proportion, shall be laid and levied by the
   authority and direction of the legislatures of the district or
   districts, or new States, as in the original States, within
   the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress
   assembled. The legislatures of those districts or new States,
   shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by
   the United States in Congress assembled, nor with any
   regulations Congress may find necessary for securing the title
   in such soil to the bona fide purchasers. No tax shall be
   imposed on lands the property of the United States: and, in no
   case, shall non-resident proprietors be taxed higher than
   residents. The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi
   and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same,
   shall be common highways, and forever free, as well to the
   inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the
   United States, and those of any other States that may be
   admitted into the Confederacy, without any tax, impost, or
   duty, therefor.

   Article 5th.
   There shall be formed in the said territory, not less than
   three nor more than five States; and the boundaries of the
   States, as soon as Virginia shall alter her act of cession,
   and consent to the same, shall become fixed and established as
   follows, to wit: The Western State in the said territory,
   shall be bounded by the Mississippi, the Ohio, and Wabash
   rivers; a direct line drawn from the Wabash and Post St.
   Vincent's, due North, to the territorial line between the
   United States and Canada; and, by the said territorial line,
   to the Lake of the Woods and Mississippi. The middle State
   shall be bounded by the said direct line, the Wabash from Post
   Vincent's, to the Ohio: by the Ohio, by a direct line, drawn
   due North from the mouth of the Great Miami, to the said
   territorial line, and by the said territorial line. The
   Eastern State shall be bounded by the last mentioned direct
   line, the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said territorial line:
   Provided, however, and it is further understood and declared,
   that the boundaries of these three States shall be subject so
   far to be altered, that, if Congress shall hereafter find it
   expedient, they shall have authority to form one or two States
   in that part of the said territory which lies North of an East
   and West line drawn through the Southerly bend or extreme of
   Lake Michigan. And, whenever any of the said States shall have
   60,000 free inhabitants therein, such State shall be admitted,
   by its delegates, into the Congress of the United States, on
   an equal footing with the original States in all respects
   whatever, and shall be at liberty to form a permanent
   constitution and State government: Provided, the constitution
   and government so to be formed, shall be republican, and in
   conformity to the principles contained in these articles; and,
   so far as it can be consistent with the general interest of
   the confederacy, such admission shall be allowed at an earlier
   period, and when there may be a less number of free
   inhabitants in the State than 60,000.

   Article 6th.
   There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in
   the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of
   crimes, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted:
   Provided, always, That any person escaping into the same, from
   whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the
   original States, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and
   conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as
   aforesaid. Be It ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the
   resolutions of the 23d of April, 1784, relative to the subject
   of this ordinance, be, and the same are hereby, repealed and
   declared null and void. Done by the United States, in Congress
   assembled, the 13th day of July, in the year of our Lord 1787,
   and of their sovereignty and independence the twelfth."

{2383}

NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1788-1802.
   Extinguished by divisions.
   Creation of the Territory of Indiana and the State of Ohio.

   "Arthur St. Clair was appointed governor by the Congress [of
   the Confederation] February 1, 1788, and Winthrop Sargent
   secretary. August 7th, 1789, Congress [under the federal
   constitution], in view of the new method of appointment of
   officers as provided in the Constitution, passed an amendatory
   act to the Ordinance of 1787, providing for the nomination of
   officers for the Territory by the President. … August 8, 1789,
   President Washington sent to the Senate the names of Arthur
   St. Clair for governor, Winthrop Sargent for secretary, and
   Samuel Holden Parsons, John Cleves Symmes, and William Barton,
   for judges. … They were all confirmed. President Washington in
   this message designated the country as 'The Western
   Territory.' The supreme court was established at Cincinnati (…
   named by St. Clair in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati,
   he having been president of the branch society in
   Pennsylvania). St. Clair remained governor until November 22,
   1802. Winthrop Sargent afterwards, in 1798, went to
   Mississippi as governor of that Territory. William Henry
   Harrison became secretary in 1797, representing it in Congress
   in 1799-1800, and he became governor of the Territory of
   Indiana in 1800. May 7, 1800, Congress, upon petition, divided
   this [Northwest] Territory into two separate governments.
   Indiana Territory was created, with its capital at St.
   Vincennes, and from that portion of the Northwest Territory
   west of a line beginning opposite the mouth of the Kentucky
   River in Kentucky, and running north to the Canada line. The
   eastern portion now became the 'Territory Northwest of the
   river Ohio,' with its capital at Chillicothe. This portion,
   November 29, 1802, was admitted into the Union. … The
   territory northwest of the river Ohio ceased to exist as a
   political division after the admission of the State of Ohio
   into the Union, November 29, 1802, although in acts of
   Congress it was frequently referred to and its forms affixed
   by legislation to other political divisions."

      T. Donaldson,
      The Public Domain,
      pages 159-160.

      ALSO IN:
      J. Burnet,
      Notes on the Settlement of the Northwest Territory,
      chapters 14-20.

      C. Atwater,
      History of Ohio, period 2.

      J. B. Dillon,
      History of Indiana,
      chapters 19-31.

      W. H. Smith,
      The St. Clair Papers,
      volume 1, chapters 6-9.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.
   Indian war.
   The disastrous expeditions of Harmar and St. Clair
   and Wayne's decisive victory.
   The Greenville Treaty.

   "The Northwestern Indians, at Washington's installation,
   numbered, according to varying estimates, from 20,000 to
   40,000 souls. Of these the Wabash tribes had for years been
   the scourge of the new Kentucky settlers. So constant, indeed,
   was bloodshed and retaliation, that the soil of this earliest
   of States beyond the mountains acquired the name of 'the dark
   and bloody ground.' A broad river interposed no sufficient
   barricade to these deadly encounters. … What with their own
   inadmissible claims to territory, and this continuous war to
   the knife, all the tribes of the Northwestern country were now
   so maddened against the United States that the first
   imperative necessity, unless we chose to abandon the Western
   settlements altogether, was to chastise the Indians into
   submission. … Brigadier-General Harmar, who commanded the
   small force of United States regulars in the Territory, was …
   a Revolutionary veteran. Our frontier military stations
   extended as far as Vincennes, on the Wabash, which Major
   Hamtranck, a Canadian Frenchman, commanded. The British
   commandant was at Detroit, whence he communicated constantly
   with the Governor-General of the provinces, Lord Dorchester,
   by whose instigation the Northwestern Indians at this period
   were studiously kept at enmity with the United States. … A
   formidable expedition against the Indians was determined upon
   by the President and St. Clair [Governor of the Northwest
   Territory]; and in the fall of the year [1790] General Harmar
   set out from Fort Washington for the Miami country, with a
   force numbering somewhat less than 1,500, near three-fourths
   of whom were militia raised in Western Pennsylvania and
   Kentucky." Successful at first, the campaign ended in a
   disastrous defeat on the Maumee.

      J. Schouler,
      History of the United States,
      chapter 2, section 1 (volume 1).

   "The remnant of his army which Harmar led back to Cincinnati
   [Fort Washington] had the unsubdued savages almost continually
   at their heels. As a rebuke to the hostile tribes the
   expedition was an utter failure, a fact which was soon made
   manifest. Indian attacks on the settlers immediately became
   bolder. … Every block house in the territory was soon almost
   in a state of siege. … Washington was authorized to raise an
   army of 3,000 men for the protection of the Northwest. The
   command of this army was given to St. Clair. At the same time
   a corps of Kentucky volunteers was selected and placed under
   General Charles Scott. The Kentuckians dashed into the Wabash
   country, scattered the Indians, burned their villages and
   returned with a crowd of prisoners. The more pretentious
   expedition of St. Clair was not to be accomplished with so
   fine a military flourish. Like Harmar's army, that led by St.
   Clair was feeble in discipline, and disturbed by jealousies.
   The agents of the Government equipped the expedition in a
   shameful manner, delivering useless muskets, supplying powder
   that would scarcely burn, and neglecting entirely a large
   number of necessary supplies; so that after St. Clair with his
   2,300 regulars and 600 militia had marched from Ludlow's
   Station, north of Cincinnati, he found himself under the
   necessity of delaying the march to secure supplies. The
   militia deserted in great numbers. For the purpose of
   capturing deserters and bringing up belated supplies, one of
   the best regiments in the army was sent southward. While
   waiting on one of the branches of the Wabash for the return of
   this regiment the main force was on the fourth of November,
   1791, surrounded and attacked by the lurking Indians. At the
   first yell of the savages scores of the terrified militia
   dropped their guns and bolted. St. Clair, who for some days
   had been too ill to sit upon a horse, now exerted all his
   strength in an effort to rally the wavering troops. His horses
   were all killed, and his hat and clothing were ripped by the
   bullets. But the lines broke, the men scattered and the
   artillery was captured. Those who stood their ground fell in
   their tracks till the fields were covered by 600 dead and
   dying men. At last a retreat was ordered. … For many miles,
   over a track littered with coats, hats, boots and powder
   horns, the whooping victors chased the routed survivors of St.
   Clair's army. It was a ghastly defeat. The face of every
   settler in Ohio blanched at the news. Kentucky was thrown into
   excitement and even Western Pennsylvania nervously petitioned
   for protection. St. Clair was criticised and insulted. A
   committee of Congress found him without blame. But he had been
   defeated, and no amount of reasoning could unlink his name from
   the tragedy of the dark November morning.
{2384}
   Every effort was made to win over the Indians before making
   another use of force. The Government sent peace messengers
   into the Northwest. In one manner or another nearly every one
   of the messengers was murdered. The Indians who listened at
   all would hear of no terms of peace that did not promise the
   removal of the whites from the northern side of the Ohio. The
   British urged the tribes to make this extreme demand. Spain
   also sent mischief-makers into the camps of the exultant red
   men. … More bloodshed became inevitable; and in execution of
   this last resort came one of the most popular of the
   Revolutionary chieftains—'Mad Anthony' Wayne. Wayne led his
   army from Cincinnati in October of 1793. He advanced carefully
   in the path taken by St. Clair, found and buried the bones of
   St. Clair's 600 lost, wintered at Greenville, and in the
   summer of 1794 moved against the foe with strong
   reinforcements from Kentucky. After a preliminary skirmish
   between the Indians and the troops, Wayne, in accordance with
   his instructions, made a last offer of peace. The offer was
   evasively met, and Wayne pushed on. On the morning of
   Wednesday the twentieth of August, 1794, the 'legion' came
   upon the united tribes of Indians encamped on the north bank
   of the Maumee and there, near the rapids of the Maumee, the
   Indians were forced to face the most alert and vigorous enemy
   they had yet encountered. The same daring tactics that had
   carried Stony Point and made Anthony Wayne historic were here
   directed against the Indian's timber coverts. … Encouraging
   and marshaling the Indians were painted Canadian white men
   bearing British arms. Many of these fell in the heaps of dead
   and some were captured. When Wayne announced his victory he
   declared that the Indian loss was greater than that incurred
   by the entire Federal army in the war with Great Britain. Thus
   ended the Indian reign of terror. After destroying the Indian
   crops and possessions, in sight of the British fort, Wayne
   fell back to Greenville and there made the celebrated treaty
   by which on August 3, 1795, the red men came to a permanent
   peace with the Thirteen Fires. From Cincinnati to Campus
   Martius Wayne's victory sent a thrill of relief. The treaty,
   ceding to the Union two thirds of the present State,
   guaranteed the safety of all settlers who respected the
   Indians' rights, and set in motion once more the machinery of
   immigration."

      A. Black,
      The Story of Ohio,
      chapter 6.

      ALSO IN:
      A. St. Clair,
      Narrative of Campaign.

      C. W. Butterfield,
      History of the Girtys,
      chapters 23-30.

      W. H. Smith,
      The St. Clair Papers,
      volume 2.

      W. L. Stone,
      Life of Brant,
      volume 2, chapters 10-12.

NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1811.
   Harrison's campaign against Tecumseh and his League.
   Battle of Tippecanoe.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1811.

   ----------NORTHWEST TERRITORY: End--------


NORTHWESTERN OR OREGON BOUNDARY QUESTION, Settlement of the.

      See OREGON: A. D. 1844-1846,
      and ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1871.

NORTHWESTERN OR SAN JUAN WATER-BOUNDARY QUESTION.

      See SAN JUAN WATER-BOUNDARY QUESTION.

NORTHWESTERN PROVINCES OF INDIA, English Acquisition of the.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1798-1805.

NORUMBEGA.

   "Norembega, or Norumbega, more properly called Arambec
   (Hakluyt, III. 167), was, in Ramusio's map, the country
   embraced within Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, and a
   part of Maine. De Laet confines it to a district about the
   mouth of the Penobscot. Wytfleit and other early writers say
   that it had a capital city of the same name; and in several
   old maps this fabulous metropolis is laid down, with towers
   and churches, on the river Penobscot. The word is of Indian
   origin."

      F. Parkman,
      Pioneers of France in the New World: Champlain,
      chapter 1, foot-note.

   On Gastaldi's map, of New France, made in 1550, "the name 'La
   Nuova Francia' is written in very large letters, indicating
   probably that this name is meant for the entire country. The
   name 'Terra de Nurumbega' is written in smaller letters, and
   appears to be attached only to the peninsula of Nova Scotia.
   Crignon, however, the author of the discourse which this map
   is intended to illustrate, gives to this name a far greater
   extent. He says: 'Going beyond the cape of the Bretons, there
   is a country contiguous to this cape, the coast of which
   trends to the west a quarter southwest to the country of
   Florida, and runs along for a good 500 leagues; which coast
   was discovered fifteen years ago by Master Giovanni da
   Verrazano, in the name of the king of France and of Madame la
   Regente; and this country is called by many 'La Francese,' and
   even by the Portuguese themselves; and its end is toward
   Florida under 78° W., and 38° N. … The country is named by the
   inhabitants 'Nurumbega'; and between it and Brazil is a great
   gulf, in which are the islands of the West Indies, discovered
   by the Spaniards. From this it would appear that, at the time
   of the discourse, the entire east coast of the United States,
   as far as Florida, was designated by the name of Nurumbega.
   Afterwards, this name was restricted to New England; and, at a
   later date, it was applied only to Maine, and still later to
   the region of the Penobscot. … The name 'Norumbega,' or
   'Arambec,' in Hakluyt's time, was applied to Maine, and
   sometimes to the whole of New England."

      J. G. Kohl,
      History of the Discovery of Maine
      (Maine Historical Society Collection,
      series 2, volume 1), pages 231 and 283.

   "The story of Norumbega is invested with the charms of fable
   and romance. The name is found in the map of Hieronimus da
   Verrazano of 1529, as 'Aranbega,' being restricted to a
   definite and apparently unimportant locality. Suddenly, in
   1539, Norumbega appears in the narrative of the Dieppe Captain
   as a vast and opulent region, extending from Cape Breton to
   the Cape of Florida. About three years later Allefonsce
   described the 'River of Norumbega,' now identified with the
   Penobscot, and treated the capital of the country as an
   important market for the trade in fur. Various maps of the
   period of Allefonsce confine the name of Norumbega to a
   distinct spot; but Gastaldi's map, published by Ramusio in
   1556,—though modelled after Verrazano's, of which indeed it is
   substantially an extract,—applies the name to the region lying
   between Cape Breton and the Jersey coast. From this time until
   the seventeenth century Norumbega was generally regarded as
   embracing all New England, and sometimes portions of Canada,
   though occasionally the country was known by other names.
{2385}
   Still, in 1582, Lok seems to have thought that the Penobscot
   formed the southern boundary of Norumbega, which he shows on
   his map as an island; while John Smith, in 1620, speaks of
   Norumbega as including New England and the region as far south
   as Virginia. On the other hand Champlain, in 1605, treated
   Norumbega as lying within the present territory of Maine. He
   searched for its capital on the banks of the Penobscot, and as
   late as 1669 Heylin was dreaming of the fair city of
   Norumbega. Grotius, for a time at least, regarded the name as
   of Old Northern origin and connected with 'Norbergia.' It was
   also fancied that a people resembling the Mexicans once lived
   upon the banks of the Penobscot. Those who have labored to
   find an Indian derivation for the name say that it means 'the
   place of a fine city.' At one time the houses of the city were
   supposed to be very splendid, and to be supported upon pillars
   of crystal and silver."

      B. F. De Costa,
      Norumbega and its English Explorers
      (Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 3, chapter 6).

      ALSO IN:
      J. Winsor,
      Cartography of North East Coast of America,
      (N. and C. History of America,
      volume 4, chapter 2).

NORWAY.

      See SCANDINAVIAN STATES.

NOSE MONEY.

   A poll-tax levied among the ancient Scandinavians seems to
   have borne this name because a defaulting tax-payer might
   suffer the loss of his nose, and the Danes in Ireland are
   thought to have imposed the same there.

      T. Moore,
      History of Ireland,
      volume 2, chapter 17.

NOTABLES, The Assembly of the.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1774-1788.

NOTIUM, Battle of (B. C. 407).

      See GREECE: B. C. 411-407.

NOTTOWAYS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH.

   ----------NOVA SCOTIA: Start--------

NOVA SCOTIA:
   The aboriginal inhabitants.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ABNAKIS, and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1000.
   Supposed identity with the Markland of Norse sagas.

      See AMERICA: 10-11TH CENTURIES.

NOVA SCOTIA: 16th century.
   Embraced in the Norumbega of the old geographers.

      See NORUMBEGA;
      also CANADA: NAMES.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1603-1608.
   The first French settlements, at Port Royal (Annapolis).

      See CANADA: A. D. 1603-1605; and 1606-1608.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1604.
   Origin of the name Acadia.

   In 1604, after the death of De Chastes, who had sent out
   Champlain on his first voyage to Canada, Pierre du Guast,
   Sieur de Monts, took the enterprise in hand and "petitioned
   the king for leave to colonize La Cadie, or Acadie, a region
   defined as extending from the 40th to the 46th degree of north
   latitude, or from Philadelphia to beyond Montreal. … De Monts
   gained his point. He was made Lieutenant-General in Acadia. …
   This name is not found in any earlier public document. It was
   afterwards restricted to the peninsula of Nova Scotia, but the
   dispute concerning the limits of Acadia was a proximate cause
   of the war of 1755. The word is said to be derived from the
   Indian Aquoddiauke, or Aquoddie, supposed to mean the fish
   called a pollock. The Bay of Passamaquoddy, 'Great Pollock
   Water,' if we may accept the same authority, derives its name
   from the same origin, Potter in 'Historical Magazine,' I. 84.
   This derivation is doubtful. The Micmac word, 'Quoddy,'
   'Kady,' or 'Cadie,' means simply a place or region, and is
   properly used in conjunction with some other noun; as, for
   example, 'Katakady,' the Place of Eels. … Dawson and Rand, in
   'Canadian Antiquarian and Numismatic Journal.'"

      F. Parkman,
      Pioneers of France in the New World: Champlain,
      chapter 2, and foot-note.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1610-1613.
   The Port Royal colony revived,
   but destroyed by the English of Virginia.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1610-1613.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1621-1668.
   English grant to Sir William Alexander.
   Cession to France.
   Quarrels of La Tour and D'Aulnay.
   English reconquest and recession to France.

   "In 1621, Sir William Alexander, a Scotchman of some literary
   pretensions, had obtained from King James [through the Council
   for New England, or Plymouth Company—see NEW ENGLAND: A. D.
   1621-1631] a charter, (dated September 10, 1621) for the
   lordship and barony of New Scotland, comprising the territory
   now known as the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
   Under this grant he made several unsuccessful attempts at
   colonization; and in 1625 he undertook to infuse fresh life
   into his enterprise by parcelling out the territory into
   baronetcies. Nothing came of the scheme, and by the treaty of
   St. Germains, in 1632, Great Britain surrendered to France all
   the places occupied by the English within these limits. Two
   years before this, however, Alexander's rights in a part of
   the territory had been purchased by Claude and Charles de la
   Tour; and shortly after the peace the Chevalier Razilly was
   appointed by Louis XIII. governor of the whole of Acadia. He
   designated as his lieutenants Charles de la Tour for the
   portion east of the St. Croix, and Charles de Menou, Sieur
   d'Aulnay-Charnisé, for the portion west of that river. The
   former established himself on the River St. John, where the
   city of St. John now stands, and the latter at Castine, on the
   eastern shore of Penobscot Bay. Shortly after his appointment,
   La Tour attacked and drove away a small party of Plymouth men
   who had set up a trading-post at Machias; and in 1635 D'Aulnay
   treated another party of the Plymouth colonists in a similar
   way. In retaliation for this attack, Plymouth hired and
   despatched a vessel commanded by one Girling, in company with
   their own barque, with 20 men under Miles Standish, to
   dispossess the French; but the expedition failed to accomplish
   anything. Subsequently the two French commanders quarrelled,
   and, engaging in active hostilities, made efforts (not
   altogether unsuccessful) to enlist Massachusetts in their
   quarrel. For this purpose La Tour visited Boston in person in
   the summer of 1643, and was hospitably entertained. He was not
   able to secure the direct cooperation of( Massachusetts; but
   he was permitted to hire four vessels and a pinnace to aid him
   in his attack on D'Aulnay. The expedition was so far
   successful as to destroy a mill and some standing corn
   belonging to his rival. In the following year La Tour made a
   second visit to Boston for further help; but he was able only
   to procure the writing of threatening letters from the
   Massachusetts authorities to D'Aulnay. Not long after La
   Tour's departure from Boston, envoys from D'Aulnay arrived
   here; and after considerable delay a treaty was signed
   pledging the colonists to neutrality, which was ratified by
   the Commissioners of the United Colonies in the following
   year; but it was not until two years later that it was
   ratified by new envoys from the crafty Frenchman.
{2386}
   In this interval D'Aulnay captured by assault La Tour's fort
   at St. John, securing booty to a large amount; and a few weeks
   afterward Madame la Tour, who seems to have been of a not less
   warlike turn than her husband, and who had "bravely defended
   the fort, died of shame and mortification. La Tour was reduced
   to the last extremities; but he finally made good his losses,
   and in 1653 he married the widow of his rival, who had died
   two or three years before. In 1654, in accordance with secret
   instructions from Cromwell, the whole of Acadia was subjugated
   by an English force from Boston under the command of Major
   Robert Sedgwick, of Charlestown, and Captain John Leverett, of
   Boston. To the latter the temporary government of the country
   was intrusted. Ineffectual complaints of this aggression were
   made to the British government; but by the treaty of
   Westminster, in the following year, England was left in
   possession, and the question of title was referred to
   commissioners. In 1656 it was made a province by Cromwell, who
   appointed Sir Thomas Temple governor, and granted the whole
   territory to Temple and to one William Crown and Stephen de la
   Tour, son of the late governor. The rights of the latter were
   purchased by the other two proprietors, and Acadia remained in
   possession of the English until the treaty of Breda, in 1668,
   when it was ceded to France with undefined limits. Very little
   was done by the French to settle and improve the country."

      C. C. Smith,
      Acadia
      (Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 4, chapter 4).

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1690-1692.
   Temporary conquest by the Massachusetts colonists.
   Recovery by the French.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1689-1690; and 1692-1697.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1710.
   Final conquest by the English and change of name.

      See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1702-1710.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1713.
   Relinquished to Great Britain.

      See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714;
      NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1713;
      and CANADA: A. D. 1711-1713.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1713-1730.
   Troubles with the French inhabitants—the Acadians.
   Their refusal to swear allegiance.
   Hostilities with the Indians.

   "It was evident from the first that the French intended to
   interpret the cession of Acadia in as restricted a sense as
   possible, and that it was their aim to neutralize the power of
   England in the colony, by confining it within the narrowest
   limits. The inhabitants numbered some 2,500 at the time of the
   treaty of Utrecht, divided into three principal settlements at
   Port Royal, Mines, and Chignecto. The priests at these
   settlements during the whole period from the treaty of Utrecht
   to the expulsion of the Acadians were, with scarcely an
   exception, agents of the French Government, in their pay, and
   resolute opponents of English rule. The presence of a powerful
   French establishment at Louisburg, and their constant
   communications with Canada, gave to the political teachings of
   those priests a moral influence, which went far towards making
   the Acadians continue faithful to France. They were taught to
   believe that they might remain in Acadia, in an attitude of
   scarcely concealed hostility to the English Government, and
   hold their lands and possessions as neutrals, on the condition
   that they should not take up arms either for the French or
   English. … By the 14th article of the treaty of Utrecht, it
   was stipulated 'that the subjects of the King of France may
   have liberty to remove themselves within a year to any other
   place, with all their movable effects. But those who are
   willing to remain, and to be subject to the King of Great
   Britain, "are to enjoy the free exercise of their religion
   according to the usages of the church of Rome, as far as the
   laws of Great Britain do allow the same.' … It was never
   contemplated that the Acadians should establish themselves in
   the country a colony of enemies of British power, ready at all
   times to obstruct the authority of the government, and to make
   the possession of Acadia by England merely nominal. … Queen
   Anne died in August, 1714, and in January, 1715, Messrs.
   Capoon and Button were commissioned by Governor Nicholson to
   proceed in the sloop of war Caulfield to Mines, Chignecto,
   River St. John, Passamaquoddy and Penobscot, to proclaim King
   George, and to tender and administer the oaths of allegiance
   to the French inhabitants. The French refused to take the
   oaths, and some of the people of Mines made the pretence that
   they intended to withdraw from the colony. … A year later the
   people of Mines notified Caulfield [Lieutenant-Governor] that
   they intended to remain in the country, and at this period it
   would seem that most of the few French inhabitants who
   actually left the Province had returned. Caulfield then
   summoned the inhabitants of Annapolis, and tendered them the
   oath of allegiance, but with no better success than his
   deputies had met at Mines and Chignecto. … General Phillips,
   who became Governor of Nova Scotia in 1717, and who arrived in
   the Province early in 1720, had no more success than his
   predecessors in persuading the Acadians to take the oaths.
   Every refusal on their part only served to make them more bold
   in defying the British authorities. … They held themselves in
   readiness to take up arms against the English the moment war
   was declared between the two Crowns, and to restore Acadia to
   France. But, as there was a peace of thirty years duration
   between France and England after the treaty of Utrecht, there
   was no opportunity of carrying this plan into effect.
   Vaudreuil, Governor of Canada, however, continued to keep the
   Acadians on the alert by means of his agents, and the Indians
   were incited to acts of hostility against the English, both in
   Acadia and Maine. The first difficulty occurred at Canso in
   1720, by a party of Indians assailing the English fishermen
   there. … The Indians were incited to this attack by the French
   of Cape Breton, who were annoyed at one of their vessels being
   seized at Canso by a British war vessel for illegal fishing. …
   The Indians had indeed some reason to be disquieted, for the
   progress of the English settlements east of the Kennebec
   filled them with apprehensions. Unfortunately the English had
   not been always so just in their dealings with them that they
   could rely entirely on their forbearance. The Indians claimed
   their territorial rights in the lands over which the English
   settlements were spreading; the French encouraged them in this
   claim, alleging that they had never surrendered this territory
   to the English. While these questions were in controversy the
   Massachusetts authorities were guilty of an act which did not
   tend to allay the distrust of the Indians.
{2387}
   This was nothing less than an attempt to seize the person of
   Father Ralle, the Jesuit missionary at Norridgewock. He,
   whether justly or not, was blamed for inciting the Indians to
   acts of hostility, and was therefore peculiarly obnoxious to
   the English." The attempt to capture Father Ralle, at
   Norridgewock, which was made in December, 1721, and which
   failed, exasperated the Indians, and "in the summer of 1722 a
   war commenced, in which all the Indian tribes from Cape Canso
   to the Kennebec were involved. The French could not openly
   take part in the war, but such encouragement and assistance as
   they could give the Indians secretly they freely supplied."
   This war continued until 1725, and cost the lives of many of
   the colonists of New England and Nova Scotia. Its most serious
   event was the destruction of Norridgewock and the barbarous
   murder of Father Ralle, by an expedition from Massachusetts in
   the summer of 1724. In November, 1725, a treaty of peace was
   concluded, the Indians acknowledging the sovereignty of King
   George. After the conclusion of the Indian war, the
   inhabitants of Annapolis River took a qualified oath of
   allegiance, with a clause exempting them from bearing arms. At
   Mines and Chignecto they still persisted in their refusal; and
   when, on the death of George I. and the accession of George
   II., the inhabitants of Annapolis were called upon to renew
   their oath, they also refused again. In 1729 Governor Phillips
   returned to the province and had great success during the next
   year in persuading the Acadians, with a few exceptions only
   throughout the French settlements, to take an oath of
   allegiance without any condition as to the bearing or not
   bearing of arms. "The Acadians afterwards maintained that when
   they took this oath of allegiance, it was with the
   understanding that a clause was to be inserted, relieving them
   from bearing arms. The statement was probably accurate, for
   that was the position they always assumed, but the matter
   seems to have been lost sight of, and so for the time the
   question of oaths, which had been such a fertile cause of
   discord in the Province, appeared to be set at rest."

      J. Hannay,
      History of Acadia,
      chapter 17.

      ALSO IN:
      F. Parkman,
      Montcalm and Wolfe,
      volume 1, chapter 4.

      P. H. Smith,
      Acadia,
      pages 114-121.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1744-1748.
   The Third Intercolonial War (King George's War).

      See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1744; 1745;
      and 1745-1748.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1749-1755.
   Futile discussion of boundary questions.
   The Acadian "Neutrals" and their conduct.
   The founding of Halifax.
   Hostilities renewed.

   "During the nominal peace which followed the Treaty of
   Aix-la-Chapelle, the representatives of the two governments
   were anxiously engaged in attempting to settle by actual
   occupation the question of boundaries, which was still left
   open by that treaty. It professed to restore the boundaries as
   they had been before the war; and before the war the entire
   basin of the Mississippi, as well as the tract between the St.
   Lawrence River and Gulf, the Bay of Fundy, and the Kennebec,
   was claimed by both nations, with some show of reason, as no
   convention between them had ever defined the rights of each.
   Names had been given to vast tracts of land whose limits were
   but partly defined, or at one time defined in one way, at
   another time in another, and when these names were mentioned
   in treaties they were understood by each party according to
   its own interest. The treaty of 1748, therefore, not only left
   abundant cause for future war, but left occasion for the
   continuance of petty border hostilities in time of nominal
   peace. Commissioners were appointed, French and English, to
   settle the question of the disputed territory, but the
   differences were too wide to be adjusted by anything but
   conquest. While the most important question was that of the
   great extent of territory at the west, and … both nations were
   devising means for establishing their claims to it, Acadia, or
   Nova Scotia, was the scene of a constant petty warfare. The
   French were determined to restrict the English province to the
   peninsula now known by that name. The Governor of Canada sent
   a "few men under Boishebert to the mouth of the St. John's to
   hold that part of the territory. A little old fort built by
   the Indians had stood for fifty years on the St. John's at the
   mouth of the Nerepis, and there the men established
   themselves. A larger number was sent under La Corne to keep
   possession of Chignecto, on the isthmus which, according to
   French claims, formed the northern boundary of English
   territory. In all the years that England had held nominal rule
   in Acadia, not a single English settlement had been formed,
   and apparently not a step of progress had been taken in
   gaining the loyalty of the inhabitants. A whole generation had
   grown up during the time; but they were no less devoted to
   France than their fathers had been. It was said that the king
   of England had not one truly loyal subject in the peninsula,
   outside of the fort at Annapolis. … Among the schemes
   suggested for remedying this state of affairs, was one by
   Governor Shirley [of Massachusetts], to place strong bands of
   English settlers in all the important towns, in order that the
   Government might have friends and influence throughout the
   country. Nothing came of this; but in 1749 Parliament voted
   £40,000 for the purpose of settling a colony. … Twenty-five
   hundred persons being ready to go in less than two months from
   the time of the first advertisement, the colony was entrusted
   to Colonel Edward Cornwallis (uncle of the Cornwallis of the
   Revolutionary War), and he was made Governor of Nova Scotia.
   Chebucto was selected as the site of the colony, and the town
   was named Halifax in honor of the president of the Lords of
   Trade and Plantations [see, also, HALIFAX: A. D. 1749]. … In
   July, a council was held at Halifax, when Governor Cornwallis
   gave the French deputies a paper declaring what the Government
   would allow to the French subjects, and what would be required
   of them." They were called upon to take the oath of
   allegiance, so often refused before. They claimed the
   privilege of taking a qualified oath, such as had been
   formerly allowed in certain cases, and which exempted them
   from bearing arms. "They wished to stand as neutrals, and,
   indeed, were often called so. Cornwallis replied that nothing
   less than entire allegiance would be accepted. … About a month
   later the people sent in a declaration with a thousand
   signatures, stating that they had resolved not to take the
   oath, but were determined to leave the country. Cornwallis
   took no steps to coerce them, but wrote to England for
   instructions."
{2388}
   Much of the trouble with the Acadians was attributed to a
   French missionary, La Loutre, who was also accused of inciting
   the Indians to hostilities. In 1750, Major Lawrence was sent
   to Chignecto, with 400 men, to build a block-house on the
   little river Messagouche, which the French claimed as their
   southern boundary. "On the southern bank was a prosperous
   village called Beaubassin, and La Corne [the French commander]
   had compelled its inhabitants to take the oath of allegiance
   to the King of France. When Lawrence arrived, all the
   inhabitants of Beaubassin, about 1,000, having been persuaded
   by La Loutre, set fire to their houses, and, leaving behind
   the fruits of years of industry, turned their backs on their
   fertile fields, and crossed the river, to put themselves under
   the protection of La Corne's troops. Many Acadians from other
   parts of the peninsula also left their homes, and lived in
   exile and poverty under the French dominion, hoping for a
   speedy change of masters in Nova Scotia. … In the same year a
   large French fort, Beau Séjour, was built on the northern side
   of the Messagouche, and a smaller one, Gaspereaux, at Baie
   Verte. Other stations were also planted, forming a line of
   fortified posts from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the month of
   the St. John's. … The commission appointed to settle the
   question of boundaries had broken up without accomplishing any
   results; and it was resolved by the authorities in Nova Scotia
   and Massachusetts [1754] that an expedition should be sent
   against Fort Beau Séjour. … Massachusetts … raised about 2,000
   troops for the contemplated enterprise, who were under the
   command of Lieutenant-Colonel John Winslow. To this force were
   added about 800 regulars, and the whole was placed under the
   command of Lieutenant-Colonel Moncton. They reached Chignecto
   on the 2d of June," 1755. The French were found unprepared for
   long resistance, and Beau Séjour was surrendered on the 16th.
   "After Beau Séjour, the smaller forts were quickly reduced.
   Some vessels sent to the mouth of the St. John's found the
   French fort deserted and burned. The name of Beau Séjour was
   changed to Cumberland."

      R. Johnson.
      History of the French War,
      chapter 10.

      ALSO IN:
      J. G. Palfrey,
      History of New England,
      book 5, chapter 11 (volume 5).

      W. Kingsford,
      History of Canada,
      book 11, chapters 3 and 6 (volume 3).

      See, also, CANADA: A. D. 1750-1753;
      and ENGLAND: A. D. 1754-1755.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1755.
   Frustrated naval expedition of the French.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1755 (JUNE).

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1755.
   The removal of the Acadians and their dispersion in exile.

   "The campaign of the year 1755, which had opened in Nova
   Scotia with so much success, and which promised a glorious
   termination, disappointed the expectations and awakened the
   fears of the Colonists. The melancholy and total defeat of the
   army under General Braddock, while on his march against Fort
   du Quesnè, threw a gloom over the British Provinces. Niagara
   and Crown-point were not only unsubdued, but it was evident
   that Governor Shirley would have to abandon, for this year at
   least, the attempt; while Louisburg was reinforced, the
   savages let loose upon the defenceless settlements of the
   English, and the tide of war seemed ready to roll back upon
   the invaders. Amidst this general panic, Governor Lawrence and
   his Council, aided by Admirals Boscawen and Moystyn, assembled
   to consider the necessary measures that were to be adopted
   towards the Acadians, whose character and situation were so
   peculiar as to distinguish them from every other people who
   had suffered under the scourge of war. … It was finally
   determined, at this consultation, to remove and disperse this
   whole people among the British Colonies; where they could not
   unite in any offensive measures, and where they might be
   naturalized to the Government and Country. The execution of
   this unusual and general sentence was allotted chiefly to the
   New England Forces, the Commander of which [Colonel Winslow],
   from the humanity and firmness of his character, was well
   qualified to carry it into effect. It was, without doubt, as
   he himself declared, disagreeable to his natural make and
   temper; and his principles of implicit obedience as a soldier
   were put to a severe test by this ungrateful kind of duty;
   which required an ungenerous, cunning, and subtle severity. …
   They were kept entirely ignorant of their destiny until the
   moment of their captivity, and were overawed, or allured, to
   labour at the gathering in of their harvest, which was
   secretly allotted to the use of their conquerors."

      T. C. Haliburton,
      Account of Nova Scotia,
      volume 1, pages 170-175.

   "Winslow prepared for the embarkation. The Acadian prisoners
   and their families were divided into groups answering to their
   several villages, in order that those of the same village
   might, as far as possible, go in the same vessel. It was also
   provided that the members of each family should remain
   together; and notice was given them to hold themselves in
   readiness. 'But even now,' he writes. 'I could not persuade
   the people I was in earnest.' Their doubts were soon ended.
   The first embarkation took place on the 8th of October [1755].
   … When all, or nearly all, had been sent off from the various
   points of departure, such of the houses and barns as remained
   standing were burned, in obedience to the orders of Lawrence,
   that those who had escaped might be forced to come in and
   surrender themselves. The whole number removed from the
   province, men, women, and children, was a little above 6,000.
   Many remained behind; and while some of these withdrew to
   Canada, Isle St. Jean, and other distant retreats, the rest
   lurked in the woods, or returned to their old haunts, whence
   they waged for several years a guerilla warfare against the
   English. Yet their strength was broken, and they were no
   longer a danger to the province. Of their exiled countrymen,
   one party overpowered the crew of the vessel that carried
   them, ran her ashore at the mouth of the St. John, and
   escaped. The rest were distributed among the colonies from
   Massachusetts to Georgia, the master of each transport having
   been provided with a letter from Lawrence addressed to the
   Governor of the province to which he was bound, and desiring
   him to receive the unwelcome strangers. The provincials were
   vexed at the burden imposed upon them; and though the Acadians
   were not in general ill-treated, their lot was a hard one.
   Still more so was that of those among them who escaped to
   Canada. … Many of the exiles eventually reached Louisiana,
   where their descendants now form a numerous and distinct
   population. Some, after incredible hardship, made their way
   back to Acadia, where, after the peace, they remained
   unmolested. … In one particular the authors of the deportation
   were disappointed in its results.
{2389}
   They had hoped to substitute a loyal population for a
   disaffected one; but they failed for some time to find
   settlers for the vacated lands. … New England humanitarianism,
   melting into sentimentality at a tale of woe, has been unjust
   to its own. Whatever judgment may be passed on the cruel
   measure of wholesale expatriation, it was not put in execution
   till every resource of patience and persuasion had been tried
   in vain."

      F. Parkman,
      Montcalm and Wolfe,
      volume 1, chapter 8.

   "The removal of the French Acadians from their homes was one
   of the saddest episodes in modern history, and no one now will
   attempt to justify it; but it should be added that the genius
   of our great poet [Longfellow in 'Evangeline'] has thrown a
   somewhat false and distorted light over the character of the
   victims. They were not the peaceful and simple-hearted people
   they are commonly supposed to have been; and their houses, as
   we learn from contemporary evidence, were by no means the
   picturesque, vine-clad, and strongly built cottages described
   by the poet. The people were notably quarrelsome among
   themselves, and to the last degree superstitious. They were
   wholly under the influence of priests appointed by the French
   bishops. … Even in periods when France and England were at
   peace, the French Acadians were a source of perpetual danger
   to the English colonists. Their claim to a qualified
   allegiance was one which no nation then or now could sanction.
   But all this does not justify their expulsion in the manner in
   which it was executed."

      C. C. Smith,
      The Wars on the Seaboard
      (Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 5, chapter 7).

   "We defy all past history to produce a parallel case, in which
   an unarmed and peaceable people have suffered to such an
   extent as did the French Neutrals of Acadia at the hands of
   the New England troops."

      P. H. Smith,
      Acadia,
      page 216.

      ALSO IN:
      W. B. Reed,
      The Acadian Exiles in Pennsylvania
      (Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs,
      volume 6, pages 283-316).

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1763.
   Cession by France to England confirmed in the Treaty of Paris.

      See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1763.
   Cape Breton added to the government.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1782-1784.
   Influx of Refugee Loyalists from the United States.

      See TORIES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1820-1837.
   The Family Compact.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1820-1837.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1854-1866.
   The Reciprocity Treaty with the United States.

      See TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES AND CANADA):
      A. D. 1854-1866.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1867.
   Embraced in the Confederation of the Dominion of Canada.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1871.
   The Treaty of Washington.

      See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1871.

NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1877-1888.
   The Halifax Fishery Award.
   Termination of the Fishery Articles of the Treaty of Washington.
   Renewed Fishery disputes.

      See FISHERIES, NORTH AMERICAN: A. D. 1877-1888.

   ----------NOVA SCOTIA: End--------

NOVANTÆ, The.

   A tribe which, in Roman times, occupied the modern counties of
   Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, Scotland.

      See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

NOVARA,
   Battle of (1513).

      See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

NOVARA,
   Battle of (1821).

      See ITALY: A. D. 1820-1821.

NOVARA,
   Battle of (1849).

      See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

NOVELS OF JUSTINIAN.

      See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

NOVEMBER FIFTH.

      See Guy FAWKES' DAY.

   ----------NOVGOROD: Start--------

NOVGOROD: Origin.

      See RUSSIA.
      RUSSIANS: A. D. 862.

NOVGOROD: 11th Century.
   Rise of the Commonwealth.

      See RUSSIA: A. D. 1054-1237.

NOVGOROD: A. D. 1237-1478.
   Prosperity and greatness of the city as a commercial republic.

      See RUSSIA: A. D. 1237-1480.

NOVGOROD: 14-15th Centuries.
   In the Hanseatic League.

      See HANSA TOWNS.

   ----------NOVGOROD: End--------

NOVI, Battle of.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

NOVIOMAGUS.
   Modern Nimeguen.

      See BATAVIANS.

NOYADES.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1793-1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

NOYON, Treaty of.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1516-1517.

NUBIANS, The.

      See AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES.

NUITHONES, The.

   See AVIONES.

   ----------NULLIFICATION: Start--------

NULLIFICATION:
   First assertion of the doctrine
   in the United States of America.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1798.

NULLIFICATION:
   Doctrine and Ordinance in South Carolina.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1828-1833.

   ----------NULLIFICATION: End--------

NUMANTIAN WAR, The.

   "In 143 B. C. the Celtiberians again appeared in the field
   [resisting the Romans in Spain]; and when, on the death of
   Viriathus, D. Junius Brutus had pushed the legions to the
   Atlantic in 137 B. C., and practically subdued Lusitania, the
   dying spirit of Spanish independence still held out in the
   Celtiberian fortress city of Numantia. Perched on a
   precipitous hill by the banks of the upper Douro, occupied
   only by eight thousand men, this little place defied the power
   of Rome as long as Troy defied the Greeks. … In 137 B. C. the
   consul, C. Hostilius Mancinus, was actually hemmed in by a
   sortie of the garrison, and forced to surrender. He granted
   conditions of peace to obtain his liberty; but the senate
   would not ratify them, though the young quæstor, Tiberius
   Gracchus, who had put his hand to the treaty, pleaded for
   faith and honour. Mancinus, stripped and with manacles on his
   hands, was handed over to the Numantines, who, like the
   Samnite Pontius, after the Caudine Forks, refused to accept
   him. In 134 B. C. the patience of the Romans was exhausted;
   Scipio was sent. … The mighty destroyer of Carthage drew
   circumvallations five miles in length around the stubborn
   rock, and waited for the result. The Virgilian picture of the
   fall of Troy is not more moving than are the brave and ghastly
   facts of the fall of Numantia. The market-place was turned
   into a funeral pyre for the gaunt, famine-stricken citizens to
   leap upon. … When the surrender was made only a handful of men
   marched out."

      R. F. Horton,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 18.

      ALSO IN:
      G. Long,
      Decline of the Roman Republic,
      chapters 6-7.

      See, also, LUSITANIA;
      and SPAIN: B. C. 218-25.

{2390}

NUMERIANUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 283-284.

   ----------NUMIDIA: Start--------

NUMIDIA: The Country and People.

      See NUMIDIANS.

NUMIDIA: B. C. 204.
   Alliance with Carthage.
   Subjection to Rome.

      See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.

NUMIDIA: B. C. 118-104.
   The Jugurthine War.

   The Numidian kingdom, over which the Romans, at the end of the
   second Punic War, had settled their friend Masinissa, passed
   at his death to his son Micipsa. In 118 B. C. Micipsa died,
   leaving two young sons, and also a bastard nephew, Jugurtha,
   whom he feared. He divided the kingdom between these three,
   hoping to secure the fidelity of Jugurtha to his sons. It was
   a policy that failed. Jugurtha made sure of what was given to
   him, and then grasped at the rest. One of his young cousins
   was soon cleared from his path by assassination; on the other
   he opened war. This latter, Adherbal by name, appealed to
   Rome, but Jugurtha despatched agents with money to bribe the
   senate, and a commission sent over to divide Numidia gave him
   the western and better half. The commissioners were no sooner
   out of Africa than he began war upon Adherbal afresh, shut him
   up in his strong capital, Cirta [B. C. 112], and placed the
   city under siege. The Romans again interfered, but, he
   captured Cirta, notwithstanding, and tortured Adherbal to
   death. The corrupt party at Rome which Jugurtha kept in his
   pay made every effort to stifle discussion of his nefarious
   doings; but one bold tribune, C. Memmius, roused the people on
   the subject and forced the senate to declare war against him.
   Jugurtha's gold, however, was still effectual, and it
   paralyzed the armies sent to Africa, by corrupting the venial
   officers who commanded them. Once, Jugurtha went to Rome,
   under a safe conduct, invited to testify as a witness against
   the men whom he had bribed, but really expecting to be able to
   further his own cause in the city. He found the people furious
   against him and he only saved himself from being forced to
   criminate his Roman senatorial mercenaries by buying a
   tribune, who brazenly vetoed the examination of the Numidian
   king. Jugurtha being, then, ordered out of Rome, the war
   proceeded again, and in 109 B. C. the command passed to an
   honest general, Q. Metellus, who took with him Caius Marius,
   the most capable soldier of Rome, whose capability was at that
   time not half understood. Under Metellus the Romans penetrated
   Numidia to Zama, but failed to take the town, and narrowly
   escaped a great disaster on the Muthul, where a serious battle
   was fought. In 107 B. C. Metellus was superseded by Marius,
   chosen consul for that year and now really beginning his
   remarkable career. Meantime Jugurtha had gained an ally in
   Bocchus, king of Mauretania, and Marius, after two campaigns
   of doubtful result, found more to hope from diplomacy than
   from war. With the help of Sulla,—his future great rival—who
   had lately been sent over to his army, in command of a troop
   of horse, he persuaded the Mauretanian king to betray Jugurtha
   into his hands. The dreaded Numidian was taken to Rome [B. C.
   104], exhibited in the triumph of Marius, and then brutally
   thrust into the black dungeon called the Tullianum to die of
   slow starvation. Bocchus was rewarded for his treachery by the
   cession to him of part of Numidia; Marius, intoxicated with
   the plaudits of Rome, first saved it from the Cimbri and then
   stabbed it with his own sword; Sulla, inexplicable harbinger
   of the coming Cæsars, bided his time.

      W. Ihne,
      History of Rome,
      book 7, chapter 8.

      ALSO IN:
      G. Long,
      Decline of the Roman Republic,
      volume 1, chapters 26-29.

      Sallust,
      Jugurthine War.

NUMIDIA: B. C. 46.
   The kingdom extinguished by Cæsar and annexed to Rome.

      See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

NUMIDIA: A. D. 374-398.
   Revolts of Firmus and Gildo.

      See ROME: A. D. 396-398.

   ----------NUMIDIA: End--------

NUMIDIANS AND MAURI, The.

   "The union of the Aryan invaders [of North Africa] with the
   ancient populations of the coast sprung from Phut gave birth
   to the Mauri, or Maurusii, whose primitive name it has been
   asserted was Medes, probably an alteration of the word
   Amazigh. The alliance of the same invaders with the Getulians
   beyond the Atlas produced the Numidians. The Mauri were
   agriculturists, and of settled habits; the Numidians, as their
   Greek appellation indicates, led a nomadic life."

      F. Lenormant,
      Manual of Ancient History of the East,
      book 6, chapter 5 (volume 2).

   In northern Africa, "on the south and west of the immediate
   territory of the Carthaginian republic, lived various races of
   native Libyans who are commonly known by the name of
   Numidians. But these were in no way, as their Greek name
   ('Nomads') would seem to imply, exclusively pastoral races.
   Several districts in their possession, especially in the
   modern Algeria, were admirably suited for agriculture. Hence
   they had not only fixed and permanent abodes, but a number of
   not unimportant cities, of which Hippo and Cirta, the
   residences of the chief Numidian princes, were the most
   considerable."

      W. Ihne,
      History of Rome,
      book 4, chapter 1 (volume 2).

   The various peoples of North Africa known anciently and
   modernly as Libyans, Numidians, or Nomades, Mauri,
   Mauritanians or Moors, Gaetulians and Berbers, belong
   ethnographically to one family of men, distinguished alike
   from the negroes and the Egyptians.

      T. Mommsen,
      History of Rome,
      book 8, chapter 13.

      See, also, LIBYANS; CARTHAGE: B. C. 146;
      PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND; and NUMIDIA: B. C. 118-104.

NUNCOMAR AND WARREN HASTINGS.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

NUR MAHAL, OR NUR JAHAN, Empress of India.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1605-1658.

   ----------NUREMBERG: Start--------

NUREMBERG.

   "Nuremberg (Nürnberg) (Norimberga) is situated on the Regnitz,
   in the centre of Middle Franconia, about 90 miles northwest of
   Munich, to which it is second in size and importance, with a
   population of about 90,000. The name is said to be derived
   from the ancient inhabitants of Noricum, who migrated hither
   about the year 451, on being driven from their early
   settlements on the Danube by the Huns. Here they distinguished
   themselves by their skill in the working of metals, which
   abound in the neighbouring mountains. Before the eleventh
   century the history of Nuremberg is enveloped in a mist of
   impenetrable obscurity, from which it does not emerge until
   the time of the Emperor Henry III., who issued an edict, dated
   July 16, 1050, 'ad castrum Noremberc,' a proof that it was a
   place of considerable importance even at this early period.
   Nuremberg afterwards became the favourite residence of the
   Emperor Henry IV."

      W. J. Wyatt,
      History of Prussia,
      volume 2, page 456.

{2391}

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1417.
   Office of Burgrave bought by the city.

      See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1417-1640.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1522-1524.
   The two diets, and their recesses in favor of the Reformation.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1525.
   Formal establishment of the Reformed Religion.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1529.
   Joined in the Protest which gave rise to the name Protestants.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1532.
   Pacification of Charles V. with the Protestants.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1632.
   Welcome to Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.
   Siege by Wallenstein.
   Battle on the Fürth.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1801-1803.
   One of six free cities which survived the Peace of Luneville.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1806.
   Loss of municipal freedom.
   Absorption in the kingdom of Bavaria.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.

   ----------NUREMBERG: End--------

NUYS, The Siege of

   In 1474 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, ambitious to
   extend his dominions along the left bank of the Rhine, down to
   the Netherlands, took advantage of a quarrel between the
   citizens of Cologne and their prince-archbishop, to ally
   himself with the latter. The citizens of Cologne had appointed
   Herman of Hesse to be protector of the see, and he had
   fortified himself at Nuys. Charles, with 60,000 men, laid
   siege to the place, expecting to reduce it speedily. On the
   contrary, he wasted months in the fruitless endeavor, and
   became involved in the quarrel with the Swiss which brought
   about his downfall. The abortive siege of Nuys was the
   beginning of his disasters.

      C. M. Davies,
      History of Holland,
      part 2, chapter 2.

      See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1476-1477.

NYANTICS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

NYSTAD, Peace of.
   See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

O.

O. S.
   Old Style.

      See GREGORIAN CALENDAR.

OAK BOYS.

      See. IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

OATES, Titus, and the "Popish Plot."

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1678-1679.

OBELISKS, Egyptian.

      See EGYPT: ABOUT B. C. 1700-1400.

OBERPFALZ.

      See FRANCONIA: THE DUCHY AND THE CIRCLE.

OBES, The.

      See GERUSIA;
      and SPARTA: THE CONSTITUTION, &c.

OBLATES, The.

   "The Oblates, or Volunteers, established by St. Charles
   Borromeo in 1578, are a congregation of secular priests. …
   Their special aim was to give edification to the diocese, and
   to maintain the integrity of religion by the purity of their
   lives, by teaching, and by zealously discharging the duties
   committed to them by their bishop. These devoted ecclesiastics
   were much loved by St. Charles. … Strange to say, they do not
   seem to have been much appreciated elsewhere."

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      volume 3, page 456.

OBNUNTIATIO.

      See ÆLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS.

OBOLLA.

      See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651.

OBOLUS.

      See TALENT.

OBOTRITES, The.

      See SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

OBRENOVITCH DYNASTY, The.

      See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14-19TH CENTURIES (SERVIA).

OC, Langue d'.

      See LANGUE D'OC.

OCANA, Battle of.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

OCCASIONAL CONFORMITY BILL.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1711-1714.

OCEAN STEAM NAVIGATION, The beginnings of.

      See STEAM NAVIGATION: ON THE OCEAN.

OCHLOCRACY.

   This term was applied by the Greeks to an unlimited democracy,
   where rights were made conditional on no gradations of
   property, and where "provisions were made, not so much that
   only a proved and worthy citizen should be elected, as that
   everyone, without distinction, should be eligible for
   everything."

      G. Schömann,
      Antiquity of Greece: The State,
      part 1, chapter 3.

O'CONNELL, Daniel, The political agitations of.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829, to 1841-1848.

OCTAETËRIS, The.

      See METON, THE YEAR OF.

OCTAVIUS, Caius (afterwards called Augustus),
and the founding of the Roman Empire.

      See ROME: B. C. 44, after Cæsar's death,
      to B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

OCTOBER CLUB, The.

      See CLUBS: THE OCTOBER.

ODAL.

      See ADEL.

ODELSRET.

      See CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY, TITLE V., ARTICLE 16.

ODELSTHING.

      See CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY.

ODENATHUS, The rule at Palmyra of.

      See PALMYRA: THE RISE AND THE FALL.

ODEUM AT ATHENS, The.

   "Pericles built, at the south-eastern base of the citadel, the
   Odeum, which differed from the neighbouring theatre in this,
   that the former was a covered space, in which musical
   performances took place before a less numerous public. The
   roof, shaped like a tent, was accounted an imitation of the
   gorgeous tent pitched of old by Xerxes upon the soil of
   Attica."

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 3, chapter 3.

ODOACER, and the end of the line of Roman Emperors in the West.

      See ROME: A. D. 455-476; and 488-526.

ODYSSEY, The.

      See HOMER.

ŒA.

      See LEPTIS MAGNA.

ŒCUMENICAL, OR ECUMENICAL, COUNCIL.

   A general or universal council of the entire Christian Church.
   Twenty such councils are recognized by the Roman Catholic
   Church.

      See COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH.

{2392}

ŒKIST.

   The chief-founder of a Greek colonial city,—the leader of a
   colonizing settlement, —was so entitled.

      G. Grote,
      History of Greece,
      part 2, chapter 47.

OELAND, Naval battle of (1713).

      See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

ŒNOË, Battle of.

   A battle of some importance in the Corinthian War, fought
   about B. C. 388, in the valley of the Charander, on the road
   from Argos to Mantinea. The Lacedæmonians were defeated by the
   Argives and Athenians.

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 5, chapter 4.

ŒNOPHYTA, Battle of (B. C. 456).

      See GREECE: B. C. 458-456.

ŒNOTRIANS, The.

   "The territory [in Italy] known to Greek writers of the fifth
   century B. C. by the names of Œnotria on the coast of the
   Mediterranean, and Italia on that of the Gulfs of Tarentum and
   Squillace, included all that lies south of a line drawn across
   the breadth of the country, from the Gulf of Poseidonia
   (Pæstum) and the river Silarus on the Mediterranean Sea, to
   the north-west corner of the Gulf of Tarentum. It was bounded
   northwards by the Iapygians and Messapians, who occupied the
   Salentine peninsula and the country immediately adjoining to
   Tarentum, and by the Peuketians on the Ionic Gulf. … This
   Œnotrian or Pelasgian race were the population whom the Greek
   colonists found there on their arrival. They were known
   apparently under other names, such as the Sikels [Sicels],
   (mentioned even in the Odyssey, though their exact locality in
   that poem cannot be ascertained) the Italians, or Itali,
   properly so called—the Morgetes,—and the Chaones,—all of them
   names of tribes either cognate or subdivisional. The Chaones
   or Chaonians are also found, not only in Italy, but in Epirus,
   as one of the most considerable of the Epirotic tribes. … From
   hence, and from some other similarities of name, it has been
   imagined that Epirots, Œnotrians, Sikels, &c., were all names
   of cognate people, and all entitled to be comprehended under
   the generic appellation of Pelasgi. That they belonged to the
   same ethnical kindred there seems fair reason to presume, and
   also that in point of language, manners, and character, they
   were not very widely separated from the ruder branches of the
   Hellenic race. It would appear, too (as far as any judgment
   can be formed on a point essentially obscure) that the
   Œnotrians were ethnically akin to the primitive population of
   Rome and Latium on one side, as they were to the Epirots on
   the other; and that tribes of this race, comprising Sikels and
   Itali properly so called, as sections, had at one time
   occupied most of the territory from the left bank of the river
   Tiber southward between the Appenines and the Mediterranean."

      G. Grote,
      History of Greece,
      part 2, chapter 22.

OESTERREICH.

      See AUSTRIA.

ŒTA.

      See THESSALY.

OFEN, Sieges and capture of (1684-1686).

      See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

OFFA, King of Mercia, A. D. 758-794.

OFFA'S DYKE.

   An earthen rampart which King Offa, of Mercia, in the eighth
   century, built from the mouth of the Wye to the mouth of the
   Tee, to divide his kingdom from Wales and protect it from
   Welsh incursions. A few remains of it are still to be seen.

      J. Rhys,
      Celtic Britain.

OGALALAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

OGAM.

      See OGHAM.

OGDEN TRACT, The.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

OGHAM INSCRIPTIONS.

   "In the south and south-western counties of Ireland are to be
   found, in considerable numbers, a class of inscribed
   monuments, to which the attention of Irish archæologists has
   been from time to time directed, but with comparatively little
   result. … They [the inscriptions] are found engraved on pillar
   stones in that archaic character known to Irish philologists
   as the Ogham, properly pronounced Oum, and in an ancient
   dialect of the Gaedhelic (Gaelic). These monuments are almost
   exclusively found in the counties of Kerry, Cork, and
   Waterford, numbering, as far as I have been able to ascertain,
   147; the rest of Ireland supplies 13. … Again it is worthy of
   remark, that while 29 Irish counties cannot boast of an Ogham
   monument, they have been found in England, Wales, and
   Scotland. In Devonshire, at Fardel, a stone has been
   discovered bearing not only a fine and well-preserved Ogham
   inscription, but also one in Romano-British letters. It is now
   deposited in the British Museum. … The Ogham letters, as found
   on Megalithic monuments, are formed by certain combinations of
   a simple short line, placed in reference to one continuous
   line, called the fleasg, or stem line; these combinations
   range from one to five, and their values depend upon their
   being placed above, across, or below the stem line; there are
   five consonants above, five consonants below, and five
   consonants across the line, two of which, NG and ST are
   double, and scarcely ever used. The vowels are represented by
   oval dots, or very short lines across the stem line. … The
   characters in general use on the monuments are 18 in number. …
   It may be expected from me that I should offer some conjecture
   as to the probable age of this mode of writing. This, I
   honestly acknowledge, I am unable to do, even approximately. …
   I am however decided in one view, and it is this, that the
   Ogham was introduced into Ireland long anterior to
   Christianity, by a powerful colony who landed on the
   south-west coast, who spread themselves along the southern and
   round the eastern shores, who ultimately conquered or settled
   the whole island, imposing their language upon the aborigines,
   if such preceded them."

      R. R. Brash,
      Trans. Int. Cong. of Prehistoric Archæology, 1868.

      ALSO IN:
      R. R. Brash,
      Ogam Inscribed Monuments.

OGLETHORPE'S GEORGIA COLONY.

      See GEORGIA: A. D. 1732-1739.

OGULNIAN LAW, The.

      See ROME: B. C. 300.

OGYGIA.

      See IRELAND: THE NAME.

   ----------OHIO: Start--------

OHIO:
   The Name.

   "The words Ohio, Ontario, and Onontio (or Yonnondio)—which
   should properly be pronounced as if written 'Oheeyo,'
   'Ontareeyo,' and 'Ononteeyo'—are commonly rendered 'Beautiful
   River,' 'Beautiful Lake,' 'Beautiful Mountain.' This,
   doubtless, is the meaning which each of the words conveys to
   an Iroquois of the present day, unless he belongs to the
   Tuscarora tribe. But there can be no doubt that the
   termination 'īo' (otherwise written 'iyo,' 'iio,' 'eeyo,'
   etc.) had originally the sense, not of 'beautiful,' but of
   'great.' … Ontario is derived from the Huron 'yontare,' or
   'ontare,' lake (Iroquois, 'oniatare'), with this termination.
   … Ohio, in like manner, is derived, as M. Cuoq in the valuable
   notes to his Lexicon (p. 159) informs us, from the obsolete
   'ohia,' river, now only used in the compound form 'ohionha.'"

      H. Hale,
      The Iroquois Book of Rites,
      appendix, note B.

{2393}

OHIO: (Valley):
   The aboriginal inhabitants.

      See AMERICA, PREHISTORIC;
      AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
      ALLEGHANS, DELAWARES, SHAWANESE.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1700-1735.
   The beginnings of French Occupation.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1748-1754.
   The first movements of the struggle
   of French and English for possession.

   "The close of King George's War was marked by an extraordinary
   development of interest in the Western country. The
   Pennsylvanians and Virginians had worked their way well up to
   the eastern foot-hills of the last range of mountains
   separating them from the interior. Even the Connecticut men
   were ready to overleap the province of New York and take
   possession of the Susquehanna. The time for the English
   colonists to attempt the Great Mountains in force had been
   long in coming, but it had plainly arrived. In 1748 the
   Ingles-Draper settlement, the first regular settlement of
   English-speaking men on the Western waters, was made at
   'Draper's Meadow,' on the New River, a branch of the Kanawha.
   The same year Dr. Thomas Walker, accompanied by a number of
   Virginia gentlemen and a party of hunters, made their way by
   Southwestern Virginia into Kentucky and Tennessee. … The same
   year the Ohio company, consisting of thirteen prominent
   Virginians and Marylanders, and one London merchant, was
   formed. Its avowed objects were to speculate in Western lands,
   and to carry on trade on an extensive scale with the Indians.
   It does not appear to have contemplated the settlement of a
   new colony. The company obtained from the crown a conditional
   grant of 500,000 acres of land in the Ohio Valley, to be
   located mainly between the Monongahela and Kanawha Rivers, and
   it ordered large shipments of goods for the Indian trade from
   London. … In 1750 the company sent Christopher Gist, a veteran
   woodsman and trader living on the Yadkin, down the northern
   side of the Ohio, with instructions, as Mr. Bancroft
   summarizes them, 'to examine the Western country as far as the
   Falls of the Ohio; to look for a large tract of good level
   land; to mark the passes in the mountains; to trace the
   courses of the rivers; to count the falls; to observe the
   strength of the Indian nations.' Under these instructions,
   Gist made the first English exploration of Southern Ohio of
   which we have any report. The next year he made a similar
   exploration of the country south of the Ohio, as far as the
   Great Kanawha. … Gist's reports of his explorations added to
   the growing interest in the over-mountain country. At that
   time the Ohio Valley was waste and unoccupied, save by the
   savages, but adventurous traders, mostly Scotch-Irish, and
   commonly men of reckless character and loose morals, made
   trading excursions as far as the River Miami. The Indian town
   of Pickawillany, on the upper waters of that stream, became a
   great centre of English trade and influence. Another evidence
   of the growing interest in the West is the fact that the
   colonial authorities, in every direction, were seeking to
   obtain Indian titles to the Western lands, and to bind the
   Indians to the English by treaties. The Iroquois had long
   claimed, by right of conquest, the country from the Cumberland
   Mountains to the Lower Lakes and the Mississippi, and for many
   years the authorities of New York had been steadily seeking to
   gain a firm treaty-hold of that country. In 1684, the
   Iroquois, at Albany, placed themselves under the protection of
   King Charles and the Duke of York [see NEW YORK: A. D. 1684];
   in 1726, they conveyed all their lands in trust to England
   [see NEW YORK: A. D. 1726], to be protected and defended by
   his Majesty to and for the use of the grantors and their
   heirs, which was an acknowledgment by the Indians of what the
   French had acknowledged thirteen years before at Utrecht. In
   1744, the very year that King George's War began, the deputies
   of the Iroquois at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, confirmed to
   Maryland the lands within that province, and made to Virginia
   a deed that covered the whole West as effectually as the
   Virginian interpretation of the charter of 1609 [see VIRGINIA:
   A. D. 1744]. … This treaty is of the greatest importance in
   subsequent history; it is the starting-point of later
   negotiations with the Indians concerning Western lands. It
   gave the English their first real treaty-hold upon the West;
   and it stands in all the statements of the English claim to
   the Western country, side by side with the Cabot voyages. …
   There was, indeed, no small amount of dissension among the
   colonies, and it must not be supposed that they were all
   working together to effect a common purpose, The royal
   governors could not agree. There were bitter dissensions
   between governors and assemblies. Colony was jealous of
   colony. … Fortunately, the cause of England and the colonies
   was not abandoned to politicians. The time had come for the
   Anglo-Saxon column, that had been so long in reaching them, to
   pass the Endless Mountains; and the logic of events swept
   everything into the Westward current. In the years following
   the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the French were not idle.
   Galissonière, the governor of Canada, thoroughly comprehended
   what was at stake. In 1749 he sent Cèloron de Bienville into
   the Ohio Valley, with a suitable escort of whites and savages,
   to take formal possession of the valley in the name of the
   King of France, to propitiate the Indians, and in all ways
   short of actual warfare to thwart the English plans. Bienville
   crossed the portage from Lake Erie to Lake Chautauqua, the
   easternmost of the portages from the Lakes to the southern
   streams ever used by the French, and made his way by the
   Alleghany River and the Ohio as far as the Miami, and returned
   by the Maumee and Lake Erie to Montreal. His report to the
   governor was anything but reassuring. He found the English
   traders swarming in the valley, and the Indians generally well
   disposed to the English. Nor did French interests improve the
   two or three succeeding years. The Marquis Duquesne, who
   succeeded Galissonière, soon discovered the drift of events.
   He saw the necessity of action; he was clothed with power to
   act, and he was a man of action, And so, early in the year
   1753, while the English governors and assemblies were still
   hesitating and disputing, he sent a strong force by Lake
   Ontario and Niagara to seize and hold the northeastern
   branches of the Ohio. This was a master stroke: unless
   recalled, it would lead to war; and Duquesne was not the man
   to recall it.
{2394}
   This force, passing over the portage between Presque Isle and
   French Creek, constructed Forts Le Bœuf and Venango, the
   second at the confluence of French Creek and the Alleghany
   River."

      B. A. Hinsdale,
      The Old Northwest,
      chapter 5.

      ALSO IN:
      J. H. Perkins,
      Annals of the West,
      chapter 2.

      B. Fernow
      The Ohio Valley in Colonial Days,
      chapter 5.

      See, also, CANADA: A. D. 1750-1753.

      O. H. Marshall,
      De Celoron's Expedition to the Ohio in 1749
      (Historical Writings, pages 237-274).

      N. B. Craig,
      The Olden Time,
      volume 1, pages 1-10.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1754.
   The opening battle.
   Washington's first campaign.

   The planting of the French at Forts Le Bœuf and Venango "put
   them during high water in easy communication by boat with the
   Alleghany River. French tact conciliated the Indians, and
   where that failed arrogance was sufficient, and the expedition
   would have pushed on to found new forts, but sickness weakened
   the men, and Marin, the commander, now dying, saw it was all
   he could do to hold the two forts, while he sent the rest of
   his force back to Montreal to recuperate. Late in the autumn
   Legardeur de Saint-Pierre arrived at Le Bœuf, as the successor
   of Marin. He had not been long there when on the 11th of
   December [1753] a messenger from Governor Dinwiddie, of
   Virginia, with a small escort, presented himself at the fort.
   The guide of the party was Christopher Gist; the messenger was
   George Washington, then adjutant-general of the Virginia
   militia. Their business was to inform the French commander
   that he was building forts on English territory, and that he
   would do well to depart peaceably. … At Le Bœuf Washington
   tarried three days, during which Saint-Pierre framed his
   reply, which was in effect that he must hold his post, while
   Dinwiddie's letter was sent to the French commander at Quebec.
   It was the middle of February, 1754, when Washington reached
   Williamsburg on his return, and made his report to Dinwiddie.
   The result was that Dinwiddie drafted 200 men from the
   Virginia militia, and despatched them under Washington to
   build a fort at the forks of the Ohio. The Virginia assembly,
   forgetting for the moment its quarrel with the governor, voted
   £10,000 to be expended, but only under the direction of a
   committee of its own. Dinwiddie found difficulty in getting
   the other colonies to assist, and the Quaker element in
   Pennsylvania prevented that colony from being the immediate
   helper which it might, from its position, have become.
   Meanwhile some backwoodsmen had been pushed over the mountains
   and had set to work on a fort at the forks. A much larger
   French force under Contrecœur soon summoned them, and the
   English retired. The French immediately began the erection of
   Fort Duquesne [on the site now covered by the city of
   Pittsburgh]. While this was doing, Dinwiddie was toiling with
   tardy assemblies and their agents to organize a regiment to
   support the backwoodsmen. Joshua Fry was to be its colonel,
   with Washington as second in command. The latter, with a
   portion of the men, had already pushed forward to Will's
   Creek, the present Cumberland. Later he advanced with 150 men
   to Great Meadows, where he learned that the French, who had
   been reinforced, had sent out a party from their new fort,
   marching towards him. Again he got word from an Indian —who,
   from his tributary character towards the Iroquois, was called
   Half-King, and who had been Washington's companion on his trip
   to Le Bœuf—that this chieftain with some followers had tracked
   two men to a dark glen, where he believed the French party
   were lurking. Washington started with forty men to join
   Half-King, and under his guidance they approached the glen and
   found the French. Shots were exchanged. The French leader,
   Jumonville, was killed, and all but one of his followers were
   taken or slain. The mission of Jumonville was to scour for
   English, by order of Contrecœur, now in command of Duquesne,
   and to bear a summons to any he could find, warning them to
   retire from French territory. The precipitancy of Washington's
   attack gave the French the chance to impute to Washington the
   crime of assassination; but it seems to have been a pretence
   on the part of the French to cover a purpose which Jumonville
   had of summoning aid from Duquesne, while his concealment was
   intended to shield him till its arrival. Rash or otherwise,
   this onset of the youthful Washington began the war. The
   English returned to Great Meadows, and while waiting for
   reinforcements from Fry, Washington threw up some
   entrenchments, which he called Fort Necessity. The men from
   Fry came without their leader, who had sickened and died, and
   Washington, succeeding to the command of the regiment, found
   himself at the head of 300 men, increased soon by an
   independent company from South Carolina. Washington again
   advanced toward Gist's settlement, when, fearing an attack, he
   sent back for Mackay, whom he had left with a company of
   regulars at Fort Necessity. Rumors thickening of an advance of
   the French, the English leader again fell back to Great
   Meadows, resolved to fight there. It was now the first of
   July, 1754. Coulon de Villiers, a brother of Jumonville, was
   now advancing from Duquesne. The attack was made on a rainy
   day, and for much of the time a thick mist hung between the
   combatants. After dark a parley resulted in Washington's
   accepting terms offered by the French, and the English marched
   out with the honors of war. The young Virginian now led his
   weary followers back to Will's Creek. … Thus they turned their
   backs upon the great valley, in which not an English flag now
   waved."

      J. Winsor,
      The Struggle for the Great Valleys of North America
      (Narrative and Critical History of America,
      volume 5, chapter 8).

      ALSO IN:
      W. Irving,
      Life of Washington,
      volume 1, chapters 7-12.

      H. C. Lodge,
      George Washington,
      volume 1, chapter 3.

      N. B. Craig,
      The Olden Time,
      volume 1, pages 10-62.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1755.
   Braddock's defeat.
   The French possess the West and
   devastate the English frontiers.

   "Now the English Government awoke to the necessity of vigorous
   measures to rescue the endangered Valley of the Ohio. A
   campaign was planned which was to expel the French from Ohio,
   and wrest from them some portions of their Canadian territory.
   The execution of this great design was intrusted to General
   Braddock, with a force which it was deemed would overbear all
   resistance.
{2395}
   Braddock was a veteran who had seen the wars of forty years. …
   He was a brave and experienced soldier, and a likely man, it
   was thought, to do the work assigned to him. But that proved a
   sad miscalculation. Braddock had learned the rules of war; but
   he had no capacity to comprehend its principles. In the
   pathless forests of America he could do nothing better than
   strive to give literal effect to those maxims which he had
   found applicable in the well-trodden battlegrounds of Europe.
   The failure of Washington in his first campaign had not
   deprived him of public confidence. Braddock heard such
   accounts of his efficiency that he invited him to join his
   staff. Washington, eager to efface the memory of his defeat,
   gladly accepted the offer. The troops disembarked at
   Alexandria. … After some delay, the army, with such
   reinforcements as the province afforded, began its march.
   Braddock's object was to reach Fort Du Quesne, the great
   centre of French influence on the Ohio. … Fort Du Quesne had
   been built [or begun] by the English, and taken from them by
   the French. It stood at the confluence of the Alleghany and
   Monongahela; which rivers, by their union at this point, form
   the Ohio. It was a rude piece of fortification, but the
   circumstances admitted of no better. … Braddock had no doubt
   that the fort would yield to him directly he showed himself
   before it. Benjamin Franklin looked at the project with his
   shrewd, cynical eye. He told Braddock that he would assuredly
   take the fort if he could only reach it; but that the long
   slender line which his army must form in its march 'would be
   cut like thread into several pieces' by the hostile Indians.
   Braddock 'smiled at his ignorance.' Benjamin offered no
   further opinion. It was his duty to collect horses and
   carriages for the use of the expedition, and he did what was
   required of him in silence. The expedition crept slowly
   forward, never achieving more than three or four miles in a
   day; stopping, as Washington said, 'to level every mole-hill,
   to erect a bridge over every brook.' It left Alexandria on the
   20th April. On the 9th July Braddock, with half his army, was
   near the fort. There was yet no evidence that resistance was
   intended. No enemy had been seen; the troops marched on as to
   assured victory. So confident was their chief that he refused
   to employ scouts, and did not deign to inquire what enemy
   might be lurking near. The march was along a road twelve feet
   wide, in a ravine, with high ground in front and on both
   sides. Suddenly the Indian war-whoop burst from the woods. A
   murderous fire smote down the troops. The provincials, not
   unused to this description of warfare, sheltered themselves
   behind trees and fought with steady courage. Braddock,
   clinging to his old rules, strove to maintain his order of
   battle on the open ground. A carnage, most grim and
   lamentable, was the result. His undefended soldiers were shot
   down by an unseen foe. For three hours the struggle lasted;
   then the men broke and fled in utter rout and panic. Braddock,
   vainly fighting, fell mortally wounded, and was carried off
   the field by some of his soldiers. The poor pedantic man never
   got over his astonishment at a defeat so inconsistent with the
   established rules of war. 'Who would have thought it?' he
   murmured, as they bore him from the field. He scarcely spoke
   again, and died in two or three days. Nearly 800 men, killed
   and wounded, were lost in this disastrous encounter —about
   one-half of the entire force engaged. All the while England
   and France were nominally at peace. But now war was declared."

      R. Mackenzie,
      America: a history,
      book 2, chapter 3.

   "The news of the defeat caused a great revulsion of feeling.
   The highest hopes had been built on Braddock's expedition. …
   From this height of expectation men were suddenly plunged into
   the yawning gulf of gloom and alarm. The whole frontier lay
   exposed to the hatchet and the torch of the remorseless red
   man. … The apprehensions of the border settlers were soon
   fully justified. Dumas, who shortly succeeded de Contrecœur in
   the command at Fort Duquesne, set vigorously to work to put
   the Indians on the war-path against the defenceless
   settlements. 'M. de Contrecœur had not been gone a week,' he
   writes, 'before I had six or seven different war parties in
   the field at once, always accompanied by Frenchmen. Thus far,
   we have lost only two officers and a few soldiers; but the
   Indian villages are full of prisoners of every age and sex.
   The enemy has lost far more since the battle than on the day
   of his defeat.' All along the frontier the murderous work went
   on."

      T. J. Chapman,
      The French in the Allegheny Valley,
      pages 71-73.

      ALSO IN:
      F. Parkman,
      Montcalm and Wolfe,
      volume 1, chapters 7 and 10.

      W. Sargent,
      History of Braddock's Expedition
      (Pennsylvania Historical Society Mem's, volume 5).

      N. B. Craig,
      The Olden Time,
      volume 1, pages 64-133.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1758.
   Retirement of the French.
   Abandonment of Fort Duquesne.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1758.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1763.
   Relinquishment to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris.

      See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1763.
   The king's proclamation excluding settlers.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1763.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D; 1763-1764.
   Pontiac's War.

      See PONTIAC'S WAR

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1765-1768.
   Indian Treaties of German Flats and Fort Stanwix.
   Pretended cession of lands south of the Ohio.
   The Walpole Company and its proposed Vandalia settlement.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1772-1782.
   The Moravian settlement and mission on the Muskingum.

      See MORAVIAN BRETHREN.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1774.
   Lord Dunmore's War with the Indians.
   The territorial claims of Virginia.
   The wrongs of Logan and his famous speech.

   "On the eve of the Revolution, in 1774, the frontiersmen had
   planted themselves firmly among the Alleghanies. Directly west
   of them lay the untenanted wilderness, traversed only by the
   war parties of the red men, and the hunting parties of both
   reds and whites. No settlers had yet penetrated it, and until
   they did so there could be within its borders no chance of
   race warfare. … But in the southwest and the northwest alike,
   the area of settlement already touched the home lands of the
   tribes. … It was in the northwest that the danger of collision
   was most imminent; for there the whites and Indians had
   wronged one another for a generation, and their interests
   were, at the time, clashing more directly than ever. Much the
   greater part of the western frontier was held or claimed by
   Virginia, whose royal governor was, at the time, Lord Dunmore.
{2396}
   … The short but fierce and eventful struggle that now broke
   out was fought wholly by Virginians, and was generally known
   by the name of Lord Dunmore's war. Virginia, under her
   charter, claimed that her boundaries ran across to the South
   Seas, to the Pacific Ocean. The king of Britain had graciously
   granted her the right to take so much of the continent as lay
   within these lines, provided she could win it from the
   Indians, French, and Spaniards. … A number of grants had been
   made with the like large liberality, and it was found that
   they sometimes conflicted with one another. The consequence
   was that while the boundaries were well marked near the coast,
   where they separated Virginia from the long-settled regions of
   Maryland and North Carolina, they became exceeding vague and
   indefinite the moment they touched the mountains. Even at the
   south this produced confusion, … but at the north the effect
   was still more confusing, and nearly resulted in bringing
   about an inter-colonial war between Pennsylvania and Virginia.
   The Virginians claimed all of extreme western Pennsylvania,
   especially Fort Pitt and the valley of the Monongahela, and,
   in 1774, proceeded boldly to exercise jurisdiction therein.
   Indeed a strong party among the settlers favored the Virginian
   claim. … The interests of the Virginians and Pennsylvanians
   not only conflicted in respect to the ownership of the land,
   but also in respect to the policy to be pursued regarding the
   Indians. The former were armed colonists, whose interest it
   was to get actual possession of the soil; whereas in
   Pennsylvania the Indian trade was very important and
   lucrative. … The interests of the white trader from
   Pennsylvania and of the white settler from Virginia were so
   far from being identical that they were usually diametrically
   opposite. The northwestern Indians had been nominally at peace
   with the whites for ten years, since the close of Bouquet's
   campaign. … Each of the ten years of nominal peace saw plenty
   of bloodshed. Recently they had been seriously alarmed by the
   tendency of the whites to encroach on the great
   hunting-grounds south of the Ohio. … The cession by the
   Iroquois of the same hunting-grounds, at the treaty of Fort
   Stanwix [see UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768], while
   it gave the whites a colorable title, merely angered the
   northwestern Indians. Half a century earlier they would hardly
   have dared dispute the power of the Six Nations to do what
   they chose with any land that could be reached by their war
   parties; but in 1774 they felt quite able to hold their own
   against their old oppressors. … The savages grew continually
   more hostile, and in the fall of 1773 their attacks became so
   frequent that it was evident a general outbreak was at hand. …
   The Shawnees were the leaders in all these outrages; but the
   outlaw bands, such as the Mingos and Cherokees, were as bad,
   and parties of Wyandots and Delawares, as well as of the
   various Miami and Wabash tribes, joined them. Thus the spring
   of 1774 opened with everything ripe for an explosion. … The
   borderers were anxious for a war; and Lord Dunmore was not
   inclined to baulk them. … Unfortunately the first stroke fell
   on friendly Indians." Dunmore's agent or lieutenant in the
   country, one Dr. Conolly, issued an open letter in April which
   was received by the backwoodsmen as a declaration and
   authorization of war. One band of these, led by a Maryland
   borderer, Michael Cresap, proceeded to hostilities at once by
   ambushing and shooting down some friendly Shawnees who were
   engaged in trade. This same party then set out to attack the
   camp of the famous chief Logan, whose family and followers
   were then dwelling at Yellow Creek, some 50 miles away. Logan
   was "an Iroquois warrior, who lived at that time away from the
   bulk of his people, but who was a man of note … among the
   outlying parties of Senecas and Mingos, and the fragments of
   broken tribes that dwelt along the upper Ohio. … He was
   greatly liked and respected by all the white hunters and
   frontiersmen whose friendship and respect were worth having;
   they admired him for his dexterity and prowess, and they loved
   him for his straightforward honesty, and his noble loyalty to
   his friends." Cresap's party, after going some miles toward
   Logan's camp, "began to feel ashamed of their mission; calling
   a halt, they discussed the fact that the camp they were
   preparing to attack consisted exclusively of friendly Indians,
   and mainly of women and children; and forthwith abandoned
   their proposed trip and returned home. … But Logan's people
   did not profit by Cresap's change of heart. On the last day of
   April a small party of men, women, and children, including
   almost all of Logan's kin, left his camp and crossed the river
   to visit Greathouse [another borderer, of a more brutal type],
   as had been their custom; for he made a trade of selling rum
   to the savages, though Cresap had notified him to stop. The
   whole party were plied with liquor, and became helplessly
   drunk, in which condition Greathouse and his associated
   criminals fell on and massacred them, nine souls in all. … At
   once the frontier was in a blaze, and the Indians girded
   themselves for revenge. … They confused the two massacres,
   attributing both to Cresap, whom they well knew as a warrior.
   … Soon all the back country was involved in the unspeakable
   horrors of a bloody Indian war," which lasted, however, only
   till the following October. Governor Dunmore, during the
   summer, collected some 3,000 men, one division of which he led
   personally to Fort Pitt and thence down the Ohio,
   accomplishing nothing of importance. The other division,
   composed exclusively of backwoodsmen, under General Andrew
   Lewis, marched to the mouth of the Kanawha River, and there,
   at Point Pleasant, the cape of land jutting out between the
   Ohio and the Kanawha, they fought, on the 10th of October, a
   great battle with the Indians which practically ended the war.
   This is sometimes called the battle of Point Pleasant, and
   sometimes the battle of the Great Kanawha. "It was the most
   closely contested of any battle ever fought with the
   northwestern Indians; and it was the only victory gained over
   a large body of them by a force but slightly superior in
   numbers. … Its results were most important. It kept the
   northwestern tribes quiet for the first two years of the
   Revolutionary struggle; and above all it rendered possible the
   settlement of Kentucky, and therefore the winning of the West.
   Had it not been for Lord Dunmore's War, it is more than likely
   that when the colonies achieved their freedom they would have
   found their western boundary fixed at the Alleghany
   Mountains."
{2397}
   For some time after peace had been made with the other chiefs
   Logan would not join in it. When he did yield a sullen assent,
   Lord Dunmore "was obliged to communicate with him through a
   messenger, a frontier veteran named John Gibson. … To this
   messenger Logan was willing to talk. Taking him aside, he
   suddenly addressed him in a speech that will always retain its
   place as perhaps the finest outburst of savage eloquence of
   which we have any authentic record. The messenger took it down
   in writing, translating it literally." The authenticity of
   this famous speech of Logan has been much questioned, but
   apparently with no good ground.

      T. Roosevelt,
      The Winning of the West,
      volume 1, chapters 8-9.
      https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11941

      ALSO IN:
      J. H. Perkins,
      Annals of the West,
      chapter 5.

      J. G. M. Ramsey,
      Annals of Tennessee,
      page 112.

      V. A. Lewis,
      History of West Virginia,
      chapter 9.

      J. R. Gilmore (E. Kirke),
      The Rear-guard of the Revolution,
      chapter 4.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1774.
   Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1778-1779.
   Conquest of the Northwest from the British by the Virginia
   General Clark, and its annexation to the Kentucky
   District of Virginia.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1778-1779 CLARK'S CONQUEST.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1781-1786.
   Conflicting territorial claims of Virginia, New York and
   Connecticut.
   Their cession to the United States,
   except the Western Reserve of Connecticut.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

OHIO: (Valley): A: D. 1784.
   Included in the proposed States of Metropotamia, Washington,
   Saratoga and Pelisipia.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1784.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1786-1788.
   The Ohio Company of Revolutionary soldiers
   and their settlement at Marietta.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1786-1788.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1786-1796.
   Western Reserve of Connecticut.
   Founding of Cleveland.

   In September, 1786, Connecticut ceded to Congress the western
   territory which she claimed under her charter (see UNITED
   STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786; and PENNSYLVANIA: A. D.
   1753-1799), reserving, however, from the cession a tract
   "bounded north by the line of 42° 2', or, rather, the
   international line, east by the western boundary of
   Pennsylvania, south by the 41st parallel, and west by a line
   parallel with the eastern boundary and distant from it 120
   miles—supposed, at the time, to be equal in extent to the
   Susquehanna tract given to Pennsylvania, 1782. … This
   territory Connecticut was said 'to reserve,' and it soon came
   to be called 'The Connecticut Western Reserve,' 'The Western
   Reserve,' etc. … On May 11, 1792, the General Assembly
   quit-claimed to the inhabitants of several Connecticut towns
   who had lost property in consequence of the incursions into
   the State made by the British troops in the Revolution, or
   their legal representatives when they were dead, and to their
   heirs and assigns, forever, 500,000 acres lying across the
   western end of the reserve, bounded north by the lake shore. …
   The total number of sufferers, as reported, was 1,870, and the
   aggregate losses, £161,548, 11s., 6½. The grant was of the
   soil only. These lands are known in Connecticut history as
   'The Sufferers' Lands,' in Ohio history as 'The Fire Lands.'
   In 1796 the Sufferers were incorporated in Connecticut, and in
   1803 in Ohio, under the title 'The Proprietors of the
   Half-million Acres of Land lying south of Lake Erie.' … In
   May, 1793, the Connecticut Assembly offered the remaining part
   of the Reserve for sale." In September, 1795, the whole tract
   was sold, without surveyor measurement, for $1,200,000, and
   the Connecticut School Fund, which amounts to something more
   than two millions of dollars, consists wholly of the proceeds
   of that sale, with capitalized interest. "The purchasers of
   the Reserve, most of them belonging to Connecticut, but some
   to Massachusetts and New York, were men desirous of trying
   their fortunes in Western lands. Oliver Phelps, perhaps the
   greatest land-speculator of the time, was at their head.
   September 5, 1795, they adopted articles of agreement and
   association, constituting themselves the Connecticut Land
   Company. The company was never incorporated, but was what is
   called to-day a 'syndicate.'" In the spring of 1796 the
   company sent out a party of surveyors, in charge of its agent,
   General Moses Cleaveland, who reached "the mouth of the
   Cuyahoga River, July 22d, from which day there have always
   been white men on the site of the city that takes its name
   from him." In 1830 the spelling of the name of the infant city
   was changed from Cleaveland to Cleveland by the printer of its
   first newspaper, who found that the superfluous "a" made a
   heading too long for his form, and therefore dropped it out.

      B. A. Hinsdale,
      The Old Northwest,
      chapter 19, with foot-notes.

      ALSO IN:
      C. Whittlesey,
      Early History of Cleveland,
      page 145, and after.

      H. Rice,
      Pioneers of the Western Reserve,
      chapters 6-7.

      R. King,
      Ohio,
      chapters 7-8.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1787.
   The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory.
   Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1788.
   The founding of Cincinnati.

      See CINCINNATI: A. D. 1788.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1790-1795.
   Indian war.
   Disastrous expeditions of Harmar and St. Clair,
   and Wayne's decisive victory.
   The Greenville Treaty.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.

OHIO: (Territory and State): A. D. 1800-1802.
   Organized as a separate Territory
   and admitted to the Union as a State.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1788-1802.

OHIO: A. D. 1812-1813.
   Harrison's campaign for the recovery of Detroit.
   Winchester's defeat.
   Perry's naval victory.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813.

OHIO: A. D. 1835.
   Settlement of Boundary dispute with Michigan.

      See MICHIGAN: A. D. 1836.

OHIO: A. D. 1863.
   John Morgan's Rebel Raid.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).

   ----------OHIO: End--------

OHOD, Battle of.

   See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST; A. D. 609-632.

OJIBWAS, OR CHIPPEWAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: OJIBWAS;
      also, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

OKLAHOMA, The opening of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

OL., OR OLYMP.

      See OLYMPIADS.

OLAF II.,
   King of Denmark, A. D. 1086-1095.

   Olaf III., King of Denmark, 1376-

{2398}

   1387; and VII. of Norway, 1380-1387.

   Olaf III. (Tryggveson), King of Norway, 995-1000.

   Olaf IV. (called The Saint), King of Norway, 1000-1030.

   Olaf V., King of Norway, 1069-1093.

   Olaf VI., King of Norway, 1103-1116.

OLBIA.

      See BORYSTHENES.

OLD CATHOLIC MOVEMENT, The.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

OLD COLONY, The.

      See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629.

OLD DOMINION, The.

      See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1650-1660.

OLD IRONSIDES.

   This name was popularly given to the "Constitution," the most
   famous of the American frigates in the War of 1812-14 with
   Great Britain.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813; and 1814.

OLD LEAGUE OF HIGH GERMANY, The.

      See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1332-1460.

OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN, The.

      See ASSASSINS.

OLD POINT COMFORT: Origin of its Name.

      See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1606-1607.

   ----------OLD SARUM: Start--------

OLD SARUM:
   Origin.

      See SORBIODUNUM.

OLD SARUM:
   A Rotten Borough.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1830.

   ----------OLD SARUM: End--------

OLD SOUTH CHURCH, The founding of the.

      See BOSTON: A. D. 1657-1669.

OLD STYLE.

      See CALENDAR, GREGORIAN.

OLDENBURG: The duchy annexed to France by Napoleon.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

OLERON, The Laws of.

   "The famous maritime laws of Oleron (which is an island
   adjacent to the coast of France) are usually ascribed to
   Richard I, though none of the many writers, who have had
   occasion to mention them, have been able to find any
   contemporary authority, or even any antient satisfactory
   warrant for affixing his name to them. They consist of
   forty-seven short regulations for average, salvage, wreck, &c.
   copied from the antient Rhodian maritime laws, or perhaps more
   immediately from those of Barcelona."

      D. Macpherson,
      Annals of Commerce,
      volume 1, page 358.

OLIGARCHY.

      See ARISTOCRACY.

OLISIPO.

   The ancient name of Lisbon.

      See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

OLIVA, Treaty of (1660).

      See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1640-1688;
      and SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

OLIVETANS, The.

   "The Order of Olivetans, or Brethren of St. Mary of Mount
   Olivet, … was founded in 1313, by John Tolomei of Siena, a
   distinguished professor of philosophy in his native city, in
   gratitude for the miraculous restoration of his sight. In
   company with a few companions, he established himself in a
   solitary olive-orchard, near Siena, obtained the approbation
   of John XXII. for his congregation, and, at the command of the
   latter, adopted the Rule of St. Benedict."

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      volume 3, page 149.

OLLAMHS.

   The Bards (see FILI) of the ancient Irish.

OLMUTZ, Abortive siege of.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

OLNEY, Treaty of.

   A treaty between Edmund Ironsides and Canute, or Cnut,
   dividing the English kingdom between them, A. D. 1016. The
   conference was held on an island in the Severn, called Olney.

OLPÆ, Battle of.

   A victory won, in the Peloponnesian War (B. C. 426-5) by the
   Acarnanians and Messenians, under the Athenian general
   Demosthenes, over the Peloponnesians and Ambraciotes, on the
   shore of the Ambracian gulf.

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 4, chapter 2.

OLUSTEE, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: FLORIDA).

OLYBRIUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 472.

OLYMPIA, Battle of (B. C. 365).

      See GREECE: B. C. 371-362.

OLYMPIADS, The Era of the.

   "The Era of the Olympiads, so called from its having
   originated from the Olympic games, which occurred every fifth
   year at Olympia, a city in Elis, is the most ancient and
   celebrated method of computing time. It was first instituted
   in the 776th year before the birth of our Saviour, and
   consisted of a revolution of four years. The first year of
   Jesus Christ is usually considered to correspond with the
   first year of the 195th olympiad; but as the years of the
   olympiads commenced at the full moon next after the summer
   solstice, i. e., about the first of July, … it must be
   understood that it corresponds only with the six last months
   of the 195th olympiad. … Each year of an olympiad was
   luni–solar, and contained 12 or 13 months, the names of which
   varied in the different states of Greece. The months consisted
   of 30 and 29 days alternately; and the short year consequently
   contained 354 days, while the intercalary year had 384. The
   computation by olympiads … ceased after the 364th olympiad, in
   the year of Christ 440."

      Sir H. Nicolas,
      Chronology of History,
      pages 1-2.

OLYMPIC GAMES.

   "The character of a national institution, which the
   Amphictyonic council affected, but never really acquired, more
   truly belonged to the public festivals, which, though
   celebrated within certain districts, were not peculiar to any
   tribe, but were open and common to all who could prove their
   Hellenic blood. The most important of these festivals was that
   which was solemnized every fifth year on the banks of the
   Alpheus, in the territory of Elis; it lasted four days, and,
   from Olympia, the scene of its celebration, derived the name
   of the Olympic contest, or games, and the period itself which
   intervened between its returns was called an olympiad. The
   origin of this institution is involved in some obscurity,
   partly by the lapse of time, and partly by the ambition of the
   Eleans to exaggerate its antiquity and sanctity. … Though,
   however, the legends fabricated or adopted by the Eleans to
   magnify the antiquity and glory of the games deserve little
   attention, there can be no doubt that, from very early times,
   Olympia had been a site hallowed by religion; and it is highly
   probable that festivals of a nature similar to that which
   afterwards became permanent had been occasionally celebrated
   in the sanctuary of Jupiter. … Olympia, not so much a town as
   a precinct occupied by a great number of sacred and public
   buildings, originally lay in the territory of Pisa, which, for
   two centuries after the beginning of the olympiads, was never
   completely subject to Elis, and occasionally appeared as her
   rival, and excluded her from all share in the presidency of
   the games.
{2399}
   … It is probable that the northern Greeks were not at first
   either consulted or expected to take any share in the
   festival; and that, though never expressly confined to certain
   tribes, in the manner of an Amphictyonic congress, it
   gradually enlarged the sphere of its fame and attraction till
   it came to embrace the whole nation. The sacred truce was
   proclaimed by officers sent round by the Eleans: it put a stop
   to warfare, from the time of the proclamation, for a period
   sufficient to enable strangers to return home in safety.
   During this period the territory of Elis itself was of course
   regarded as inviolable, and no armed force could traverse it
   without incurring the penalty of sacrilege. … It [the
   festival] was very early frequented by spectators, not only
   from all parts of Greece itself, but from the Greek colonies
   in Europe, Africa, and Asia; and this assemblage was not
   brought together by the mere fortuitous impulse of private
   interest or curiosity, but was in part composed of deputations
   which were sent by most cities as to a religious solemnity,
   and were considered as guests of the Olympian god. The
   immediate object of the meeting was the exhibition of various
   trials of strength and skill, which, from time to time, were
   multiplied so as to include almost every mode of displaying
   bodily activity. They included races on foot and with horses
   and chariots; contests in leaping, throwing, wrestling, and
   boxing; and some in which several of the exercises were
   combined; but no combats with any kind of weapon. The
   equestrian contests, particularly that of the four-horsed
   chariots, were, by their nature, confined to the wealthy; and
   princes and nobles vied with each other in such demonstrations
   of their opulence. But the greater part were open to the
   poorest Greek, and were not on that account the lower in
   public estimation. … In the games described by Homer valuable
   prizes were proposed, and this practice was once universal;
   but, after the seventh olympiad, a simple garland, of leaves
   of the wild olive, was substituted at Olympia, as the only
   meed of victory. The main spring of emulation was undoubtedly
   the celebrity of the festival and the presence of so vast a
   multitude of spectators, who were soon to spread the fame of
   the successful athletes to the extremity of the Grecian world.
   … The Altis, as the ground consecrated to the games was called
   at Olympia, was adorned with numberless statues of the
   victors, erected, with the permission of the Eleans, by
   themselves or their families, or at the expense of their
   fellow citizens. It was also usual to celebrate the joyful
   event, both at Olympia and at the victor's home, by a
   triumphal procession, in which his praises were sung, and were
   commonly associated with the glory of his ancestors and his
   country. The most eminent poets willingly lent their aid on
   such occasions, especially to the rich and great. And thus it
   happened that sports, not essentially different from those of
   our village greens, gave birth to masterpieces of sculpture,
   and called forth the sublimest strains of the lyric muse. …
   Viewed merely as a spectacle designed for public amusement,
   and indicating the taste of the people, the Olympic games
   might justly claim to be ranked far above all similar
   exhibitions of other nations. It could only be for the sake of
   a contrast, by which their general purity, innocence, and
   humanity would be placed in the strongest light, that they
   could be compared with the bloody sports of a Roman or a
   Spanish amphitheatre, and the tournaments of our chivalrous
   ancestors, examined by their side, would appear little better
   than barbarous shows."

      C. Thirlwall,
      History of Greece,
      chapter 10.

OLYMPIUM AT ATHENS, The.

   The building of a great temple to Jupiter Olympius was begun
   at Athens by Peisistratus as early as 530 B. C. Republican
   Athens refused to carry on a work which would be associated
   with the hateful memory of the tyrant, and it stood untouched
   until B. C. 174, when Antiochus Epiphanes employed a Roman
   architect to proceed with it. He, in turn, left it still
   unfinished, to be afterwards resumed by Augustus, and
   completed at last by Hadrian, 650 years after the foundations
   were laid.

      W. M. Leake,
      Topography of Athens,
      volume 1, appendix 10.

OLYMPUS.

   The name Olympus was given by the Greeks to a number of
   mountains and mountain ranges; but the one Olympus which
   impressed itself most upon their imaginations, and which
   seemed to be the home of their gods, was the lofty height that
   terminates the Cambunian range of mountains at the east and
   forms part of the boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia. Its
   elevation is nearly 10,000 feet above the level of the sea and
   all travelers have seemed to be affected by the peculiar
   grandeur of its aspect. Other mountains called Olympus were in
   Elis, near Olympia, where the great games were celebrated, and
   in Laconia, near Sellasia. There was also an Olympus in the
   island of Cyprus, and two in Asia Minor, one in Lycia, and a
   range in Mysia, separating Bithynia from Galatia and Phrygia.

      See THESSALY, and DORIANS AND IONIANS.

OLYNTHIAC ORATIONS, The.

      See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

   ----------OLYNTHUS: Start--------

OLYNTHUS: B. C. 383-379.
   The Confederacy overthrown by Sparta.

      See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

OLYNTHUS: B. C. 351-348.
   War with Philip of Macedon.
   Destruction of the city.

      See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

   ----------OLYNTHUS: End--------

OMAGUAS, The.

      See EL DORADO.

OMAHAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY,
      and SIOUAN FAMILY.

OMAR I.,
   Caliph, A. D. 634-643.

   Omar II., Caliph, 717-720.

OMER, OR GOMER, The.

      See EPHAH.

OMMIADES,
OMEYYADES, The.

      See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST:
      A. D. 661; 680; 715-750, and 756-1031.

OMNIBUS BILL, The.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

ON.

   "A solitary obelisk of red granite, set up at least 4,000
   years ago, alone marks the site of On, also called the City of
   the Sun, in Hebrew Beth-shemesh, in Greek Heliopolis. Nothing
   else can be seen of the splendid shrine and the renowned
   university which were the former glories of the place. … The
   university to which the wise men of Greece resorted perished
   when a new centre of knowledge was founded in the Greek city
   of Alexandria. … It was during the temporary independence of
   the country under native kings, after the first Persian rule,
   that Plato the philosopher and Eudoxus the mathematician
   studied at Heliopolis. … The civil name of the town was An,
   the Hebrew On, the sacred name Pe-Ra, the 'Abode of the Sun.'"

      R. S. Poole,
      Cities of Egypt,
      chapter 9.

{2400}

   The site of On, or Heliopolis, is near Cairo. There was
   another city in Upper Egypt called An by the Egyptians, but
   Hermonthis by the Greeks.

ONEIDAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

O'NEILS, The wars and the flight of the.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603;
      and 1607-1611.

ONONDAGAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

ONTARIO:
   The Name.

      See OHIO: THE NAME.

ONTARIO, Lake, The Discovery of.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1611-1616.

ONTARIO, The province.

   The western division of Canada, formerly called Upper Canada,
   received the name of Ontario when the Confederation of the
   Dominion of Canada was formed.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

ONTARIO SCHOOL SYSTEM.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1844-1876.

OODEYPOOR.

      See RAJPOOTS.

OPEQUAN CREEK, OR WINCHESTER, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

OPHIR, Land of.

   The geographical situation of the land called Ophir in the
   Bible has been the subject of much controversy. Many recent
   historians accept, as "conclusively demonstrated," the opinion
   reached by Lassen in his Indische Alterthumskunde, that the
   true Ophir of antiquity was the country of Abhira, near the
   mouths of the Indus, not far from the present province of
   Guzerat. But some who accept Abhira as being the original
   Ophir conjecture that the name was extended in use to southern
   Arabia, where the products of the Indian Ophir were marketed.

OPIUM WAR, The.

      See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1842.

   ----------OPORTO: Start--------

OPORTO: Early history.
   Its name given to Portugal.

      See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

OPORTO: A. D. 1832.
   Siege by Dom Miguel.

      See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1824-1889.

   ----------OPORTO: End--------

OPPIAN LAW, The.

   A law passed at Rome during the second Punic War (3d century,
   B. C.), forbidding any woman to wear a gay–colored dress, or
   more than half an ounce of gold ornament, and prohibiting the
   use of a car drawn by horses within a mile of any city or
   town. It was repealed B. C. 194.

      H. G. Liddell,
      History of Rome,
      book 4, chapter 3 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      R. F. Horton,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 16.

OPPIDUM.

   Among the Gauls and the Britons a town, or a fortified place,
   was called an oppidum. As Cæsar explained the term, speaking
   of the oppidum of Cassivellaunus, in Britain, it signified a
   "stockade or enclosed space in the midst of a forest, where
   they took refuge with their flocks and herds in case of an
   invasion."

      E. H. Bunbury,
      History of Ancient Geography,
      chapter 19, note E (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      Cæsar,
      Gallic War,
      book 5, chapter 21.

OPTIMATES.

   "New names came into fashion [in Rome], but it is difficult to
   say when they were first used. We may probably refer the
   origin of them to the time of the Gracchi [B. C. 133-121]. One
   party was designated by the name of Optimates, 'the class of
   the best.' The name shows that it must have been invented by
   the 'best,' for the people would certainly not have given it
   to them. We may easily guess who were the Optimates. They were
   the rich and powerful, who ruled by intimidation, intrigue,
   and bribery, who bought the votes of the people and sold their
   interests. … Opposed to the Optimates were the Populares."

      G. Long,
      Decline of the Roman Republic,
      volume 1, chapter 20.

      See ROME: B. C. 159-133.

ORACLES OF THE GREEKS.

   "Wherever the worship of Apollo had fixed its roots, there
   were sibyls and prophets; for Apollo is nowhere conceivable
   without the beneficent light of prophecy streaming out from
   his abode. The happy situation and moral significance of
   leading colleges of priests procured a peculiar authority for
   individual oracles. Among these are the Lycian Patara, the
   Thymbræan oracle near Troja (to which belongs Cassandra, the
   most famed of Apollo's prophetesses), the Gryneum on Lesbos,
   the Clarian oracle near Colophon, and finally the most
   important of all the oracles of Asia Minor, the Didymæum near
   Miletus, where the family of the Branchidæ held the prophetic
   office as a hereditary honorary right. Delos connects the
   Apolline stations on the two opposite sides of the water:
   here, too, was a primitive oracle, where Anius, the son of
   Apollo, was celebrated as the founder of a priestly family of
   soothsayers. … The sanctuaries of Ismenian Apollo in Thebes
   were founded, the Ptoïum on the hill which separates the
   Hylian plain of the sea from the Copæic, and in Phocis the
   oracle of Abæ. The reason why the fame of all these celebrated
   seats of Apollo was obscured by that of Delphi lies in a
   series of exceptional and extraordinary circumstances by which
   this place was qualified to become a centre, not only of the
   lands in its immediate neighbourhood, like the other oracles,
   but of the whole nation. … With all the more important
   sanctuaries there was connected a comprehensive financial
   administration, it being the duty of the priests, by shrewd
   management, by sharing in profitable undertakings, by
   advantageous leases, by lending money, to increase the annual
   revenues. … There were no places of greater security, and they
   were, therefore, used by States as well as by private persons
   as places of deposit for their valuable documents, such as
   wills, compacts, bonds, or ready money. By this means the
   sanctuary entered into business relations with all parts of
   the Greek world, which brought it gain and influence. The
   oracles became money-institutions, which took the place of
   public banks. … It was by their acquiring, in addition to the
   authority of religious holiness, and the superior weight of
   mental culture, that power which was attainable by means of
   personal relations of the most comprehensive sort, as well as
   through great pecuniary means and national credit, that it was
   possible for the oracle-priests to gain so comprehensive an
   influence upon all Grecian affairs. … With the extension of
   colonies the priests' knowledge of the world increased, and
   with this the commanding eminence of the oracle-god. … The
   oracles were in every respect not only the provident eye, not
   only the religious conscience, of the Greek nation, but they
   were also its memory."

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 2, chapter 4.

{2401}

   "The sites selected for these oracles were generally marked by
   some physical property, which fitted them to be the scenes of
   such miraculous manifestations. They were in a volcanic
   region, where gas escaping from a fissure in the earth might
   be inhaled, and the consequent exhilaration or ecstasy, partly
   real and partly imaginary, was a divine inspiration. At the
   Pythian oracle in Delphi there was thought to be such an
   exhalation. Others have supposed that the priests possessed
   the secret of manufacturing an exhilarating gas. … In each of
   the oracular temples of Apollo, the officiating functionary
   was a woman, probably chosen on account of her nervous
   temperament;—at first young, but, a love affair having
   happened, it was decided that no one under fifty should be
   eligible to the office. The priestess sat upon a tripod,
   placed over the chasm in the centre of the temple."

      C. C. Felton,
      Greece, Ancient and Modern,
      chapter 2, lecture 9.

   ----------ORAN: Start--------

ORAN: A. D. 1505.
   Conquest by Cardinal Ximenes.

      See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1505-1510.

ORAN: A. D. 1563.
   Siege, and repulse of the Moors.

      See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1563-1565:

   ----------ORAN: End--------

ORANGE, The Prince of:
   Assassination.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584, and 1584-1585.

ORANGE, The Principality.

   "The little, but wealthy and delicious, tract of land, of
   which Orange is the capital, being about four miles in length
   and as many in breadth, lies in the Comté Venaissin, bordering
   upon that of Avignon, within a small distance of the Rhone;
   and made no inconsiderable part of that ancient and famous
   Kingdom of Arles which was established by Boso towards the end
   of the 9th century. …"

      See BURGUNDY: A. D. 888-1032; and 1032.

   "In the beginning of the 9th century, historians tell us of
   one William, sirnamed Cornet, of uncertain extraction,
   sovereign of this State, and highly esteemed by the great
   Emperor Charlemagne, whose vassal he then was. Upon failure of
   the male descendants of this prince in the person of Rambald
   IV.; who died in the 13th century, his lands devolved to
   Tiburga, great aunt to the said Rambald, who brought them in
   marriage to Bertrand II. of the illustrious house of Baux.
   These were common ancestors to Raymond V., father to Mary,
   with whom John IV. of Chalon contracted an alliance in 1386;
   and it was from them that descended in a direct male line the
   brave Philibert of Chalon, who, after many signal services
   rendered the Emperor Charles V., as at the taking of Rome more
   particularly, had the misfortune to be slain, leaving behind
   him no issue, in a little skirmish at Pistoya, while he had
   the command of the siege before Florence. Philibert had one
   only sister, named Claudia, whose education was at the French
   court," where, in 1515, she married Henry, of Nassau, whereby
   the principality passed to that house which was made most
   illustrious, in the next generation, by William the Silent,
   Prince of Orange. The Dutch stadtholders retained the title of
   Princes of Orange until William III. Louis XIV. seized the
   principality in 1672, but it was restored to the House of
   Nassau by the Peace of Ryswick.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

   On the death of William III. it was declared to be forfeited
   to the French crown, and was bestowed on the Prince of Conti;
   but the king of Prussia, who claimed it, was permitted, under
   the Treaty of Utrecht, to bear the title, without possession
   of the domain.

      See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

      J. Breval,
      History of the House of Nassau.

      ALSO IN:
      E. A. Freeman,
      Orange
      (Historical Essays, volume 4).

      See, also, NASSAU.

ORANGE, The town: Roman origin.

      See ARAUSIO.

ORANGE FREE STATE.

      See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

ORANGE SOCIETY, The formation of the.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1795-1796.

ORARIANS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.

ORATIONES, Roman Imperial.

      See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

ORATORY, Congregation of the.

      See CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY.

ORBITELLO, Siege of (1646).

      See ITALY: A. D. 1646-1654.

ORCHA, Battle of.

      See RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

ORCHAN, Ottoman Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1325-1359.

ORCHIAN, FANNIAN, DIDIAN LAWS.

   "In the year 181 B. C. [Rome] a law (the Lex Orchia) was
   designed to restrain extravagance in private banquets, and to
   limit the number of guests. This law proved ineffectual, and
   as early as 161 B. C. a far stricter law was introduced by the
   consul, C. Fannius (the Lex Fannia) which prescribed how much
   might be spent on festive banquets and common family meals. …
   The law, moreover, prohibited certain kinds of food and drink.
   By a law in the year 143 B. C. (the Lex Didia) this regulation
   was extended over the whole of Italy."

      W. Ihne,
      History of Rome,
      book 6, chapter 12 (volume 4).

ORCHOMENOS.

      See MINYI, THE.

ORCHOMENOS, Battle of (B. C. 85).

      See MITHRIDATIC WARS.

ORCYNIAN FOREST, The.

      See HERCYNIAN.

ORDAINERS, The.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1310-1311.

ORDEAL, The.

   "During the full fervor of the belief that the Divine
   interposition could at all times be had for the asking, almost
   any form of procedure, conducted under priestly observances,
   could assume the position and influence of an ordeal. As early
   as 592, we find Gregory the Great alluding to a simple
   purgatorial oath, taken by a Bishop on the relics of St.
   Peter, in terms which convey evidently the idea that the
   accused, if guilty, had exposed himself to imminent danger,
   and that by performing the ceremony unharmed he had
   sufficiently proved his innocence. But such unsubstantial
   refinements were not sufficient for the vulgar, who craved the
   evidence of their senses, and desired material proof to rebut
   material accusations. In ordinary practice, therefore, the
   principal modes by which the will of Heaven was ascertained
   were the ordeal of fire, whether administered directly, or
   through the agency of boiling water or red-hot iron; that of
   cold water; of bread or cheese; of the Eucharist; of the
   cross; the lot; and the touching of the body of the victim in
   cases of murder.
{2402}
   Some of these, it will be seen, required a miraculous
   interposition to save the accused; others to condemn; some
   depended altogether on volition, others on the purest chance;
   while others, again, derived their power from the influence
   exerted on the mind of the patient. They were all accompanied
   with solemn religious observances. … The ordeal of boiling
   water ('æneum,' 'judicium aquæ ferventis,' 'cacabus,'
   'caldaria') is probably the oldest form in which the
   application of fire was judicially administered in Europe as a
   mode of proof. … A caldron of water was brought to the boiling
   point, and the accused was obliged with his naked hand to find
   a small stone or ring thrown into it; sometimes the latter
   portion was omitted, and the hand was simply inserted, in
   trivial cases to the wrist, in crimes of magnitude to the
   elbow, the former being termed the single, the latter the
   triple ordeal. … The cold-water ordeal ('judicium aquæ
   frigidæ') differed from most of its congeners in requiring a
   miracle to convict the accused, as in the natural order of
   things he escaped. … The basis of this ordeal was the
   superstitious belief that the pure element would not receive
   into its bosom anyone stained with the crime of a false oath."

      H. C. Lea,
      Superstition and Force,
      chapter 3.

      See, also, LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1198-1199.

ORDERS, Monastic.

      See
      AUSTIN CANONS;
      BENEDICTINE ORDERS;
      CAPUCHINS;
      CARMELITE FRIARS;
      CARTHUSIAN ORDER;
      CISTERCIAN ORDER;
      CLAIRVAUX;
      CLUGNY;
      MENDICANT ORDERS;
      RECOLLECTS;
      SERVITES;
      THEATINES;
      TRAPPISTS.

ORDERS IN COUNCIL, Blockade by British.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1806-1810; and
      UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809.

ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.

      See KNIGHTHOOD.

ORDINANCE OF 1787.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

ORDINANCES OF SECESSION.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1860 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER);
      1861 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

ORDINANCES OF 1311.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1310-1311.

ORDOÑO I.,
   King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. D. 850-866.

   Ordoño II., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 914-923.

   Ordoño III., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 950-955.

ORDOVICES, The.
   One of the tribes of ancient Wales.

      See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

   ----------OREGON: Start--------

OREGON:
   The aboriginal inhabitants.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHINOOKAN FAMILY,
      and SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.

OREGON: A. D: 1803.
   Was it embraced in the Louisiana Purchase?
   Grounds of American possession.

      See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

OREGON: A. D. 1805.
   Lewis and Clark's exploring expedition.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805.

OREGON: A. D. 1844-1846.
   The Boundary dispute with Great Britain and its settlement.

   "The territory along the Pacific coast lying between
   California on the south and Alaska on the north —Oregon as it
   was comprehensively called—had been a source of dispute for
   some time between the United States and Great Britain. After
   some negotiations both had agreed with Russia to recognize the
   line of 54° 40' as the southern boundary of the latter's
   possessions; and Mexico's undisputed possession of California
   gave an equally well marked southern limit, at the 42d
   parallel. All between was in dispute. The British had trading
   posts at the mouth of the Columbia, which they emphatically
   asserted to be theirs; we, on the other hand, claimed an
   absolutely clear title up to the 49th parallel, a couple of
   hundred miles north of the mouth of the Columbia, and asserted
   that for all the balance of the territory up to the Russian
   possessions our title was at any rate better than that of the
   British. In 1818 a treaty had been made providing for the
   joint occupation of the territory by the two powers, as
   neither was willing to give up its claim to the whole, or at
   the time at all understood the value of the possession, then
   entirely unpeopled. This treaty of joint occupancy had
   remained in force ever since. Under it the British had built
   great trading stations, and used the whole country in the
   interests of certain fur companies. The Americans, in spite of
   some vain efforts, were unable to compete with them in this
   line; but, what was infinitely more important, had begun, even
   prior to 1840, to establish actual settlers along the banks of
   the rivers, some missionaries being the first to come in. …
   The aspect of affairs was totally changed when in 1842 a huge
   caravan of over 1,000 Americans made the journey from the
   frontiers of Missouri, taking with them their wives and their
   children, their flocks and herds, carrying their long rifles
   on their shoulders, and their axes and spades in the great
   canvas-topped wagons. The next year 2,000 more settlers of
   the same sort in their turn crossed the vast plains, wound
   their way among the Rocky Mountains through the pass explored
   by Fremont, Benton's son-in-law, and after suffering every
   kind of hardship and danger, and warding off the attacks of
   hostile Indians, descended the western slope of the great
   water–shed to join their fellows by the banks of the Columbia.
   When American settlers were once in actual possession of the
   disputed territory, it became evident that the period of Great
   Britain's undisputed sway was over. … Tyler's administration
   did not wish to embroil itself with England; so it refused any
   aid to the settlers, and declined to give them grants of land,
   as under the joint occupancy treaty that would have given
   England offense and cause for complaint. But Benton and the
   other Westerners were perfectly willing to offend England, if
   by so doing they could help America to obtain Oregon, and were
   too rash and headstrong to count the cost of their actions.
   Accordingly, a bill was introduced providing for the
   settlement of Oregon, and giving each settler 640 acres, and
   additional land if he had a family. … It passed the Senate by
   a close vote, but failed in the House. … The unsuccessful
   attempts made by Benton and his supporters, to persuade the
   Senate to pass a resolution, requiring that notice of the
   termination of the joint occupancy treaty should forthwith be
   given, were certainly ill-advised. However, even Benton was
   not willing to go to the length to which certain Western men
   went, who insisted upon all or nothing. … He sympathized with
   the effort made by Calhoun while secretary of state to get the
   British to accept the line of 49° as the frontier; but the
   British government then rejected this proposition. In 1844 the
   Democrats made their campaign upon the issue of 'fifty-four
   forty or fight'; and Polk, when elected, felt obliged to
   insist upon this campaign boundary.
{2403}
   To this, however, Great Britain naturally would not consent;
   it was, indeed, idle to expect her to do so, unless things
   should be kept as they were until a fairly large American
   population had grown up along the Pacific coast, and had thus
   put her in a position where she could hardly do anything else.
   Polk's administration was neither capable nor warlike, however
   well disposed to bluster; and the secretary of state, the
   timid, shifty, and selfish politician, Buchanan, naturally
   fond of facing both ways, was the last man to wish to force a
   quarrel on a high-spirited and determined antagonist, like
   England. Accordingly, he made up his mind to back down and try
   for the line of 49°, as proposed by Calhoun, when in Tyler's
   cabinet; and the English, for all their affected indifference,
   had been so much impressed by the warlike demonstrations in
   the United States, that they in turn were delighted …;
   accordingly they withdrew their former pretensions to the
   Columbia River and accepted [June 15, 1846] the offered
   compromise."

      T. Roosevelt,
      Life of Thomas H. Benton,
      chapter 12.

      ALSO IN:
      T. H. Benton,
      Thirty Years' View,
      volume 2, chapters 143, and 156-159.

      Treaties and Conventions between the United States
      and other countries (edition of 1889),
      page 438.

      W. Barrows,
      Oregon.

OREGON: A. D. 1859.
   Admission into the Union, with a constitution
   excluding free people of color.

   "The fact that the barbarism of slavery was not confined to
   the slave States had many illustrations. Among them, that
   afforded by Oregon was a signal example. In 1857 she formed a
   constitution, and applied for admission into the Union. Though
   the constitution was in form free, it was very thoroughly
   imbued with the spirit of slavery; and though four fifths of
   the votes cast were for the rejection of slavery, there were
   seven eighths for an article excluding entirely free people of
   color. As their leaders were mainly proslavery, it is probable
   that the reason why they excluded slavery from the
   constitution was their fear of defeat in their application for
   admission. … On the 11th of February, 1859, Mr. Stephens
   reported from the Committee on Territories a bill for the
   admission of Oregon as a State. A minority report, signed by
   Grow, Granger, and Knapp, was also presented, protesting
   against its admission with a constitution so discriminating
   against color. The proposition led to an earnest debate;" but
   the bill admitting Oregon prevailed, by a vote of 114 to 103
   in the House and 35 to 17 in the Senate.

      H. Wilson,
      History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power,
      volume 2, chapter 49.

   ----------OREGON: End--------

OREJONES, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

ORELLANA, and his discovery of the Amazons River (1541).

      See AMAZONS RIVER.

ORESTÆ, The.

      See MACEDONIA.

ORIENTAL CHURCH, The.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054;
      ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY; and FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY.

ORIFLAMME, The.

   "The Oriflamme was originally the Banner of the Abbey of St.
   Denis, and was received by the Counts of the Vexin, as
   'Avoués' of that Monastery, whenever they engaged in any
   military expedition. On the union of the Vexin with the Crown
   effected by Philip I., a similar connexion with the Abbey was
   supposed to be contracted by the Kings; and accordingly Louis
   the Fat received the Banner, with the customary solemnities,
   on his knees, bare-headed, and ungirt. The Banner was a square
   Gonfalon of flame-coloured silk, unblazoned, with the lower
   edge cut into three swallow-tails."

      E. Smedley,
      History of France,
      part 1, chapter 3, foot-note.

   "The Oriflamme was a flame-red banner of silk; three-pointed
   on its lower side, and tipped with green. It was fastened to a
   gilt spear."

      G. W. Kitchin,
      History of France,
      volume 1, book 3, chapter 5, foot-note.

ORIK, OR OURIQUE, Battle of (1139).

      See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

ORISKANY, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

ORKNEYS: 8-14th Centuries.
   The Norse Jarls.

      See NORMANS: 8-9TH CENTURIES; and 10-13TH CENTURIES.

ORLEANISTS.

      See LEGITIMISTS.

ORLEANS, The Duke of: Regency.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1715-1723.

   ----------ORLEANS, The House of: Start--------

ORLEANS, The House of:
   Origin.

      See BOURBON, THE HOUSE OF.

ORLEANS, The House of: A. D. 1447.
   Origin of claims to the duchy of Milan.

      See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454.

   ----------ORLEANS, The House of: End--------

   ----------ORLEANS, The City: Start--------

ORLEANS, The City:
   Origin and name.

   "The Loire, flowing first northwards, then westwards,
   protects, by its broad sickle of waters, this portion of Gaul,
   and the Loire itself is commanded at its most northerly point
   by that city which, known in Caesar's day as Genabum, had
   taken the name Aureliani from the great Emperor, the conqueror
   of Zenobia, and is now called Orleans."

      T. Hodgkin,
      Italy and Her Invaders,
      book 2, chapter 3 (volume 2).

      See, also, GENABUM.

ORLEANS, The City:
   Early history.

      See GAUL: B. C. 58-51.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 451.
   Siege by Attila.

      See HUNS: A. D. 451.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 511-752.
   A Merovingian capital.

      See FRANKS: A. D. 511-752.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 1429.
   Deliverance by Joan of Arc.

   In the summer of 1428 the English, under the Duke of Bedford,
   having maintained and extended the conquests of Henry V., were
   masters of nearly the whole of France north of the Loire. The
   city of Orleans, however, on the north bank of that river, was
   still held by the French, and its reduction was determined
   upon. The siege began in October, and after some months of
   vigorous operations there seemed to be no doubt that the
   hard-pressed city must succumb. It was then that Joan of Arc,
   known afterwards as the Maid of Orleans, appeared, and by the
   confidence she inspired drove the English from the field. They
   raised the siege on the 12th of May, 1429, and lost ground in
   France from that day.

      Monstrelet,
      Chronicles,
      book 2, chapters 52-60.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 1870.
   Taken by the Germans.
   Recovered by the French.
   Again lost.
   Repeated battles.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER); and 1870-1871.

   ----------ORLEANS, The City: End--------

ORLEANS, The Territory of.

      See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1804-1812; and 1812.

ORMÉE OF BORDEAUX, The.

      See BORDEAUX: A. D. 1652-1653.

{2404}

OROPUS, Naval Battle at.

   The Athenians suffered a defeat at the hands of the Spartans
   in a sea fight at Oropus, B. C. 411, as a consequence of which
   they lost the island of Eubœa. It was one of the most disastrous
   in the later period of the Peloponnesian War.

      Thucydides,
      History,
      book 8, section 95.

ORPHANS, The.

      See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

ORSINI, OR URSINI, The.

      See ROME: 13-14TH CENTURIES.

ORTHAGORIDÆ, The.

      See SICYON.

ORTHES, Battle of (1814).

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

ORTHODOX, OR GREEK CHURCH, The.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054;
      also, ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY,
      and FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY.

ORTOSPANA.

   The ancient name of the city of Cabul.

ORTYGIA.

      See SYRACUSE.

OSAGES, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
      PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY, and SIOUAN FAMILY.

OSCANS, The.

   "The Oscan or Opican race was at one time very widely spread
   over the south (of Italy]. The Auruncans of Lower Latium
   belonged to this race, as also the Ausonians, who once gave
   name to Central Italy, and probably also the Volscians and the
   Æquians. In Campania the Oscan language was preserved to a
   late period in Roman history, and inscriptions still remain
   which can be interpreted by those familiar with Latin."

      H. G. Liddell,
      History of Rome,
      introduction, section 2.

      See, also, ITALY: ANCIENT.

OSCAR I.,
   King of Sweden, A. D. 1844-1859.

   Oscar II., King of Sweden, 1872-.

OSI, The.

      See ARAVISCI; also, GOTHINI.

OSISMI, The.

      See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

OSMAN.
OSMANLI.

      See OTHMAN.

OSMANLIS.

      See TURKS (OTTOMANS): A. D. 1240-1326.

OSNABRÜCK: A. D. 1644-1648.
   Negotiation of the Peace of Westphalia.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

OSRHOËNE,
OSROËNE.

   A small principality or petty kingdom surrounding the city of
   Edessa, its capital, in northwestern Mesopotamia. It appears
   to have acquired its name and some little importance during
   the period of Parthian supremacy. It was a prince of Osrhoëne
   who betrayed the ill-fated army of Crassus to the Parthians at
   Carrhæ. In the reign of Caracalla Osrhoëne was made a Roman
   province. Edessa, the capital, claimed great antiquity, but is
   believed to have been really founded by Seleucus. During the
   first ten or eleven centuries of the Christian era Edessa was
   a city of superior importance in the eastern world, under
   dependent kings or princes of its own. It was especially noted
   for its schools of theology.

      G. Rawlinson,
      Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy,
      chapter 11.

      ALSO IN:
      T. Mommsen,
      History of Rome,
      book 5, chapter 2.

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapters 8 and 47.

      P. Smith,
      History of the World,
      volume 3 (American edition),
      page 151.

OSSA AND PELION.

      See THESSALY.

   ----------OSTEND: Start--------

OSTEND: A. D. 1602-1604.
   Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1594-1609.

OSTEND: A. D. 1706.
   Besieged and reduced by the Allies.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

OSTEND: A. D. 1722-1731.
   The obnoxious Company.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725; and 1726-1731.

OSTEND: A. D. 1745-1748.
   Taken by the French, and restored.

      See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745;
      and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

   ----------OSTEND: End--------

OSTEND MANIFESTO, The.

      See CUBA: A. D. 1845-1860.

OSTIA.

   Ostia, the ancient port of Rome, at the mouth of the Tiber,
   was regarded as a suburb of the city and had no independent
   existence. Its inhabitants were Roman citizens. In time, the
   maintaining of a harbor at Ostia was found to be
   impracticable, owing to deposits of silt from the Tiber, and
   artificial harbors were constructed by the emperors Claudius,
   Nero and Trajan, about two miles to the north of Ostia. They
   were known by the names Portus Augusti and Portus Trajani. In
   the 12th century the port and channel of Ostia were partially
   restored, for a time, but only to be abandoned again. The
   ancient city is now represented by a small hamlet, about two
   miles from the sea shore.

      R. Burn,
      Rome and the Campagna,
      chapter 14.

OSTMEN.

      See NORMANS: 10-13TH CENTURIES.

OSTRACH, Battle of (1799).

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799.(AUGUST-APRIL).

OSTRACISM.

   "The state [Athens] required means of legally removing persons
   who, by an excess of influence and adherents, virtually put an
   end to the equality among the citizens established by law, and
   thus threatened the state with a revival of party-rule. For
   this purpose, in the days of Clisthenes, and probably under
   his influence, the institution of ostracism, or judgment by
   potsherds, was established. By virtue of it the people were
   themselves to protect civic equality, and by a public vote
   remove from among them whoever seemed dangerous to them. For
   such a sentence, however, besides a public preliminary
   discussion, the unanimous vote of six thousand citizens was
   required. The honour and property of the exile remained
   untouched, and the banishment itself was only pronounced for a
   term of ten years."

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 2, chapter 2 (volume 1).

   "The procedure (in ostracism] was as follows: —Every year, in
   the sixth or seventh Prytany, the question was put to the
   people whether it desired ostracism to be put in force or not.
   Hereupon of course orators came forward to support or oppose
   the proposal. The former they could only do by designating
   particular persons as sources of impending danger to freedom,
   or of confusion and injury to the commonwealth; in opposition
   to them, on the other side, the persons thus designated, and
   anyone besides who desired it, were of course free to deny the
   danger, and to show that the anxiety was unfounded. If the
   people decided in favour of putting the ostracism in force, a
   day was appointed on which it was to take place. On this day
   the people assembled at the market, where an enclosure was
   erected with ten different entrances and accordingly, it is
   probable, the same number of divisions for the several Phylæ.
   Every citizen entitled to a vote wrote the name of the person
   he desired to have banished from the state upon a potsherd. …
   At one of the ten entrances the potsherds were put into the
   hands of the magistrates posted there, the Prytanes and the
   nine Archons, and when the voting was completed were counted
   one by one. The man whose name was found written on at least
   six thousand potsherds was obliged to leave the country within
   ten days at latest."

      G. F. Schömann,
      Antiquities of Greece,
      part 3, chapter 3.

{2405}

OSTROGOTHS.

      See GOTHS.

OSTROLENKA, Battle of (1831).

      See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

OSTROVNO, Battle of.

      See RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

OSWALD, King of Northumbria, A. D. 635-642.

   ----------OSWEGO: Start--------

OSWEGO: A. D. 1722.
   Fort built by the English.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

OSWEGO: A. D. 1755.
   English position strengthened.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1755 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).

OSWEGO: A. D. 1756.
   The three forts taken by the French.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1756-1757.

OSWEGO: A. D. 1759.
   Reoccupied by the English.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1759.

OSWEGO: A. D. 1783-1796.
   Retained by the English after peace with the United States.
   Final surrender.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1783-1796; and 1794-1795.

   ----------OSWEGO: End--------

OSWI, King of Northumbria, A. D. 655-670.

OTADENI,
OTTEDENI, The.

   One of the tribes in Britain whose territory lay between the
   Roman wall and the Firth of Forth. Mr. Skene thinks they were
   the same people who are mentioned in the 4th century as the
   "Attacotti."

      W. F. Skene,
      Celtic Scotland,
      volume l.

      See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

OTCHAKOF, Siege of (1737).

      See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.

OTFORD, Battle of.

   Won by Edmund Ironsides, A. D. 1016, over Cnut, or Canute, the
   Danish claimant of the English crown.

OTHMAN, Caliph, A. D. 643-655.

   Othman, or Osman, founder of the Ottoman or
   Osmanli dynasty of Turkish Sultans, 1307-1325.

   Othman II., Turkish Sultan, 1618-1622.

   Othman III., Turkish Sultan, 1754-1757.

OTHO,
   Roman Emperor, A. D. 69.

   Otho (of Bavaria), King of Hungary, 1305-1307.

   Otho, or Otto I. (called the Great),
   King of the East Franks (Germany), 936-973;
   King of Lombardy, and Emperor, 962-973.

   Otho II., King of the East Franks (Germany),
   King of Italy, and Emperor, 967-983.

   Otho Ill., King of the East Franks (Germany), 983-1002;
   King of Italy and Emperor, 996-1002.

   Otho IV., King of Germany, 1208-1212; Emperor, 1209-1212.

OTHRYS.

      See THESSALY.

OTIS, James, The speech of, against Writs of Assistance.

      See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1761.

OTOES,
OTTOES, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
      PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY, and SIOUAN FAMILY.

OTOMIS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: OTOMIS.

OTRANTO: Taken by the Turks (1480).

      See TURKS: A. D. 1451-1481.

OTTAWA, Canada:
   The founding of the City.

   "In 1826 the village of Bytown, now Ottawa, the capital of the
   Dominion of Canada, was founded. The origin of this beautiful
   city was this: Colonel By, an officer of the Royal Engineers,
   came to survey the country with a view of making a canal to
   connect the tidal waters of the St. Lawrence with the great
   lakes of Canada. After various explorations, an inland route
   up the Ottawa to the Rideau affluent, and thence by a ship
   canal to Kingston on Lake Ontario, was chosen. Colonel By made
   his headquarters where the proposed canal was to descend, by
   eight locks, a steep declivity of 90 feet to the Ottawa River.
   'The spot itself was wonderfully beautiful.' … It was the
   centre of a vast lumber-trade, and had expanded by 1858 to a
   large town."

      W. P. Greswell,
      History of the Dominion of Canada,
      page 168.

OTTAWAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and OJIBWAS;
      also PONTIAC'S WAR.

OTTERBURN, Battle of.

   This famous battle was fought, August 19, 1388, between a
   small force of Scots, harrying the border, under Earl Douglas
   and a hastily assembled body of English led by Sir Henry
   Percy, the famous Hotspur. The English, making a night attack
   on the Scottish camp, not far from Newcastle, were terribly
   beaten, and Hotspur was taken prisoner; but Douglas fell
   mortally wounded. The battle was a renowned encounter of
   knightly warriors, and greatly interested the historians of
   the age. It is narrated in Froissart's chronicles (volume 3,
   chapter 126), and is believed to be the action sung of in the
   famous old ballad of Chevy Chase, or the "Hunting of the
   Cheviot."

      J. H. Burton,
      History of Scotland,
      chapter 26 (volume 3).

OTTIMATI, The.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

OTTO.

      See OTHO.

OTTOCAR,
OTOKAR,
   King of Bohemia, A. D. 1253-1278.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE.

      See TURKS (OTTOMANS): A. D. 1240-1326, and after.

OTTOMAN GOVERNMENT.

      See SUBLIME PORTE.

OTUMBA, Battle of.

      See MEXICO: A. D. 1520-1521.

OTZAKOF:
   Storming, capture, and massacre of inhabitants
   by the Russians (1788).

      See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.

OUAR KHOUNI, The.

      See AVARS.

   ----------OUDE: Start--------

OUDE, OR OUDH.

   "Before the British settler had established himself on the
   peninsula of India, Oude was a province of the Mogul Empire.
   When that empire was distracted and weakened by the invasion
   of Nadir Shah [see INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748], the treachery of
   the servant was turned against the master, and little by
   little the Governor began to govern for himself. But holding
   only an official, though an hereditary title, he still
   acknowledged his vassalage; and long after the Great Mogul had
   shrivelled into a pensioner and pageant, the Newab–Wuzeer of
   Oude was nominally his minister. Of the earliest history of
   British connexion with the Court of the Wuzeer, it is not
   necessary to write in detail. There is nothing less creditable
   in the annals of the rise and progress of the British power in
   the East. The Newab had territory; the Newab had subjects; the
   Newab had neighbours; more than all, the Newab had money.
{2406}
   But although he possessed in abundance the raw material of
   soldiers, he had not been able to organise an army sufficient
   for all the external and internal requirements of the State;
   and so he was fain to avail himself of the superior military
   skill and discipline of the white men, and to hire British
   battalions to do his work. … In truth it was a vicious system,
   one that can hardly be too severely condemned. By it we
   established a Double Government of the worst kind. The
   Political and Military government was in the hands of the
   Company; the internal administration of the Oude territories
   still rested with the Newab–Wuzeer. In other words, hedged in
   and protected by the British battalions, a bad race of Eastern
   Princes were suffered to do, or not to do, what they liked. …
   Every new year saw the unhappy country lapsing into worse
   disorder, with less disposition, as time advanced, on the part
   of the local Government to remedy the evils beneath which it
   was groaning. Advice, protestation, remonstrance were in vain.
   Lord Cornwallis advised, protested, remonstrated: Sir John
   Shore advised, protested, remonstrated. At last a statesman of
   a very different temper appeared upon the scene. Lord
   Wellesley was a despot in every pulse of his heart. But he was
   a despot of the right kind; for he was a man of consummate
   vigour and ability, and he seldom made a mistake. The
   condition of Oude soon attracted his attention; not because
   its government was bad and its people were wretched, but
   because that country might either be a bulwark of safety to
   our own dominions, or A sea of danger which might overflow and
   destroy us. … It was sound policy to render Oude powerful for
   good and powerless for evil. To the accomplishment of this it
   was necessary that large bodies of ill-disciplined and
   irregularly paid native troops in the service of the
   Newab-Wuzeer—lawless bands that had been a terror alike to him
   and to his people—should be forthwith disbanded, and that
   British troops should occupy their place. … The additional
   burden to be imposed upon Oude was little less than half a
   million of money, and the unfortunate Wuzeer, whose resources
   had been strained to the utmost to pay the previous subsidy,
   declared his inability to meet any further demands on his
   treasury. This was what Lord Wellesley expected—nay, more, it
   was what he wanted. If the Wuzeer could not pay in money, he
   could pay in money's worth. He had rich lands that might be
   ceded in perpetuity to the Company for the punctual payment of
   the subsidy. So the Governor-General prepared a treaty ceding
   the required provinces, and with a formidable array of British
   troops at his call, dragooned the Wuzeer into sullen
   submission to the will of the English Sultan. The new treaty
   was signed; and districts then yielding a million and a half
   of money, and now nearly double that amount of annual revenue,
   passed under the administration of the British Government.
   Now, this treaty—the last ever ratified between the two
   Governments—bound the Newab-Wuzeer to 'establish in his
   reserved dominions such a system of administration, to be
   carried on by his own officers, as should be conducive to the
   prosperity of his subjects, and he calculated to secure the
   lives and properties of the inhabitants,' and he undertook at
   the same time 'always to advise with and to act in conformity
   to the counsels of the officers of the East India Company.'
   But the English ruler knew well that there was small hope of
   these conditions being fulfilled. … Whilst the counsels of our
   British officers did nothing for the people, the bayonets of
   our British soldiers restrained them from doing anything for
   themselves. Thus matters grew from bad to worse, and from
   worse to worst. One Governor-General followed another; one
   Resident followed another; one Wuzeer followed another; but
   still the great tide of evil increased in volume, in darkness,
   and in depth. But, although the Newab-Wuzeers of Oude were,
   doubtless, bad rulers and bad men, it must be admitted that
   they were good allies. … They supplied our armies, in time of
   war, with grain; they supplied us with carriage–cattle; better
   still, they supplied us with cash. There was money in the
   Treasury of Lucknow, when there was none in the Treasury of
   Calcutta; and the time came when the Wuzeer's cash was needed
   by the British ruler. Engaged in an extensive and costly war,
   Lord Hastings wanted more millions for the prosecution of his
   great enterprises. They were forthcoming at the right time;
   and the British Government were not unwilling in exchange to
   bestow both titles and territories on the Wuzeer. The times
   were propitious. The successful close of the Nepaul war placed
   at our disposal an unhealthy and impracticable tract of
   country at the foot of the Hills. This 'terai' ceded to us by
   the Nepaulese was sold for a million of money to the Wuzeer,
   to whose domains it was contiguous, and he himself expanded
   and bloomed into a King under the fostering sun of British
   favour and affection."

      J. W. Kaye,
      History of the Sepoy War in India,
      chapter 3 (volume 1).

   "By Lord Wellesley's treaty with the then Nawab-Vizier of
   Oude, that prince had agreed to introduce into his then
   remaining territories, such a system of administration as
   should be conducive to the prosperity of his subjects, and to
   the security of the lives and property of the inhabitants; and
   always to advise with, and act in conformity to the counsel
   of, the officers of the Company's Government. Advantage had
   been taken of this clause, from time to time, to remonstrate
   with the Oude princes on their misgovernment. I have no doubt
   that the charges to this effect were in great measure correct.
   The house of Oude has never been remarkable for peculiar
   beneficence as governors. A work lately published, the
   'Private Life of an Eastern King,' affords, I suppose, a true
   picture of what they may have been as men. Still, the charges
   against them came, for the most part, from interested lips. …
   Certain it is that all disinterested English observers—Bishop
   Heber, for instance—entering Oude fresh from Calcutta, and
   with their ears full of the current English talk about its
   miseries, were surprised to find a well–cultivated country, a
   manly and independent people. … Under Lord Dalhousie's rule,
   however, and after the proclamation of his annexation policy,
   complaints of Oude misgovernment became—at Calcutta—louder
   and louder. Within Oude itself, these complaints were met, and
   in part justified, by a rising Moslem fanaticism. Towards the
   middle of 1855, a sanguinary affray took place at Lucknow"
   between Hindoos and Mussulmans, "in which the King took part
   with his co-religionists, against the advice of Colonel
   Outram, the then Resident. Already British troops near Lucknow
   were held in readiness to act; already the newspapers were
   openly speculating on immediate annexation. … At Fyzabad, new
   disturbances broke out between Hindoos and Moslems.
{2407}
   The former were victorious. A Moolavee, or doctor, of high
   repute, named Ameer Alee, proclaimed the holy war. Troops were
   ordered against him. … The talk of annexation grew riper and
   riper. The Indian Government assembled 16,000 men at Cawnpore.
   For months the Indian papers had been computing what revenue
   Oude yielded to its native prince—what revenue it might yield
   under the Company's management. Lord Dalhousie's successor,
   Lord Canning, was already at Bombay. But the former seems to
   have been anxious to secure for himself the glory of this
   step. The plea—the sole plea—for annexation, was maltreatment
   of their people by the Kings of Oude. … The King had been
   warned by Lord William Bentinck, by Lord Hardinge. He had
   declined to sign a new treaty, vesting the government of his
   country exclusively in the East India Company. He was now to
   be deposed; and all who withheld obedience to the
   Governor-General's mandate were to be rebels (7th February,
   1856). The King followed the example of Pertaub Shean of
   Sattara—withdrew his guns, disarmed his troops, shut up his
   palace. Thus we entered into possession of 24,000 square miles
   of territory, with 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 inhabitants,
   yielding £1,000,000 of revenue. But it was expected by
   officials that it could be made to yield £1,500,000 of
   surplus. Can you wonder that it was annexed?"

      J. M. Ludlow,
      British India,
      part 2, lecture 15 (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      E. Arnold,
      The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India,
      chapter 25 (volume 2).

      Sir W. W. Hunter,
      The Marquess of Dalhousie,
      chapter 8.

      W. M. Torrens,
      Empire in Asia: How we came by it,
      chapter 26.

OUDE: A. D. 1763-1765.
   English war with the Nawab.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.

   ----------OUDE: End--------

OUDE, The Begums of, and Warren Hastings.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

   ----------OUDENARDE: Start--------

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1582.
   Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1659.
   Taken by the French and restored to Spain.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1667.
   Taken by the French.

      See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1668.
   Ceded to France.

      See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1679.
   Restored to Spain.

      See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1706.
   Surrendered to Marlborough and the Allies.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1708.
   Marlborough's victory.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1745-1748.
   Taken by the French, and restored.

      See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745;
      and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE; THE CONGRESS.

   ----------OUDENARDE: End--------

OUDH.

      See OUDE.

OUIARS,
OUIGOURS, The.

      See AVARS.

OUMAS,
HUMAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKOGEAN FAMILY.

OUR LADY OF MONTESA, The Order of.

   This was an order of knighthood founded by King Jayme II., of
   Aragon, in 1317.

      S. A. Dunham,
      History of Spain and Portugal,
      volume 4, page 238 (American edition).

OURIQUE, Battle of (1139).

      See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

OVATION, The Roman.

      See TRIUMPH.

OVIEDO, Origin of the kingdom of.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 713-737.

OVILIA.

      See CAMPUS MARTIUS.

OXENSTIERN, Axel: His leadership in Germany.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

OXFORD, The Headquarters of King Charles.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1642 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

OXFORD, Provisions of.

   A system or constitution of government secured in 1258 by the
   English barons, under the lead of Earl Simon de Montfort. The
   king, Henry III., "was again and again forced to swear to it,
   and to proclaim it throughout the country. The special
   grievances of the barons were met by a set of ordinances
   called the Provisions of Westminster, which were produced
   after some trouble in October 1259."

      W. Stubbs,
      The Early Plantagenets,
      page 190.

   The new constitution was nominally in force for nearly six
   years, repeatedly violated and repeatedly sworn to afresh by
   the king, civil war being constantly imminent. At length both
   sides agreed to submit the question of maintaining the
   Provisions of Oxford to the arbitration of Louis IX. of
   France, and his decision, called the Mise of Amiens, annulled
   them completely. De Montfort's party thereupon repudiated the
   award and the civil war called the "Barons' War" ensued.

      C. H. Pearson,
      History of England in the Early and Middle Ages,
      volume 2, chapter 8.

      ALSO IN:
      W. Stubbs,
      Select Charters,
      part 6.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

OXFORD, OR TRACT ARIAN MOVEMENT, The.

   "Never was religion in England so uninteresting as it was in
   the earlier part of the 19th century. Never was a time when
   thought was so active, criticism so keen, taste so fastidious;
   and which so plainly demanded a religion intellectual,
   sympathetic, and attractive. This want the Tractarian, or
   Oxford movement, as it is called, attempted to supply. … But
   the Tractarians put before themselves an aim far higher than
   that. They attempted nothing less than to develope and place
   on a firm and imperishable basis what Laud and the Non-Jurors
   had tried tentatively to do; namely, to vindicate the Church
   of England from all complicity with foreign Protestantism, to
   establish her essential identity with the Church of the
   Apostles and Fathers through the mediæval Church, and to place
   her for the first time since the Reformation in her true
   position with regard to the Church in the East and the West. …
   Naturally the first work undertaken was the explanation of
   doctrine. The 'Tracts for the Times,' mainly written by Dr.
   Newman and Dr. Pusey, put before men what the writers believed
   to be the doctrine of the Church of England, with a boldness
   and precision of statement hitherto unexampled. The divine
   Authority of the Church. Her essential unity in all parts of
   the world. The effectiveness of regeneration in Holy Baptism.
   The reality of the presence of our Lord in Holy Communion. The
   sacrificial character of Holy Communion. The reality of the
   power to absolve sin committed by our Lord to the priesthood.
{2408}
   Such were the doctrines maintained in the Tractarian writings.
   … They were, of course, directly opposed to the popular
   Protestantism of the day, as held by the Evangelical party.
   They were equally opposed to the Latitudinarianism of the
   Broad Church party, who—true descendants of Tillotson and
   Burnet—were under the leadership of men like Arnold and
   Stanley, endeavouring to unite all men against the wickedness
   of the time on the basis of a common Christian morality under
   the guardianship of the State, unhampered by distinctive
   creeds or definite doctrines. No two methods could be more
   opposite."

      H. O. Wakeman,
      History of Religion in England,
      chapter 11.

   "The two tasks … which the Tractarians set themselves, were to
   establish first that the authority of the primitive Church
   resided in the Church of England, and second, that the
   doctrines of the English Church were really identical with
   those of pre-Tridentine Christianity. … The Tractarians'
   second object is chiefly recollected because it produced the
   Tract which brought their series to an abrupt conclusion
   [1841]. Tract XC. is an elaborate attempt to prove that the
   articles of the English Church are not inconsistent with the
   doctrines of mediæval Christianity; that they may be
   subscribed by those who aim at being Catholic in heart and
   doctrine. … Few books published in the present century have
   made so great a sensation as this famous Tract. … Bagot,
   Bishop of Oxford, Mr. Newman's own diocesan, asked the author
   to suppress it. The request placed the author in a singular
   dilemma. The double object which he had set himself to
   accomplish became at once impossible. He had laboured to prove
   that authority resided in the English Church, and authority,
   in the person of his own diocesan, objected to his
   interpretation of the articles. For the moment Mr. Newman
   resolved on a compromise. He did not withdraw Tract XC., but
   he discontinued the series. … The discontinuance of the
   Tracts, however, did not alter the position of authority. The
   bishops, one after another; 'began to charge against' the
   author. Authority, the authority which Mr. Newman had laboured
   to establish, was shaking off the dust of its feet against
   him. The attacks of the bishops made Mr. Newman's continuance
   in the Church of England difficult. But, long before the
   attack was made, he had regarded his own position with
   dissatisfaction." It became intolerable to him when, in 1841,
   a Protestant bishop of Jerusalem was appointed, who exercised
   authority over both Lutherans and Anglicans. "A communion with
   Lutherans, Calvinists, and even Monophysites seemed to him an
   abominable thing, which tended to separate the English Church
   further and further from Rome. … From the hour that the see
   was established, his own lot was practically decided. For a
   few years longer he remained in the fold in which he had been
   reared, but he felt like a dying man. He gradually withdrew
   from his pastoral duties, and finally [in 1845] entered into
   communion with Rome. … A great movement never perishes for
   want of a leader. After the secession of Mr. Newman, the
   control of the movement fell into the hands of Dr. Pusey."

      S. Walpole,
      History of England from 1815,
      chapter 21 (volume 4).

      ALSO IN:
      J. H. Newman,
      History of my Religious Opinions (Apologia pro Vita Sua).

      J. H. Newman,
      Letters and Correspondence to 1845.

      R. W. Church,
      The Oxford Movement.

      W. Palmer,
      Narrative of Events Connected with
      the Tracts for the Times.

      T. Mozley,
      Reminiscences.

      Sir J. T. Coleridge,
      Life of John Keble.

OXFORD UNIVERSITY.

      See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: ENGLAND, and after.

OXGANG.

      See BOVATE.

OXUS, The.

   Now called the Amoo, or Jihon River, in Russian Central Asia.

OYER AND TERMINER, Courts of.

      See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1285.

P.

PACAGUARA, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

PACAMORA, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

PACHA.

      See BEY.

PACIFIC OCEAN:
   Its Discovery and its Name.

   The first European to reach the shores of the Pacific Ocean
   was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who saw it, from "a peak in Darien"
   on the 25th of September, 1513 (see AMERICA: A. D. 1513-1517).
   "It was not for some years after this discovery that the name
   Pacific was applied to any part of the ocean; and for a long
   time after parts only of it were so termed, this part of it
   retained the original name of South Sea, so called because it
   lay to the south of its discoverer. The lettering of the early
   maps is here significant. All along from this time to the
   middle of the 17th century, the larger part of the Pacific was
   labeled 'Oceanus Indicus Orientalis,' or 'Mar del Sur,' the
   Atlantic, opposite the Isthmus, being called 'Mar del Norte.'
   Sometimes the reporters called the South Sea 'La Otra Mar,' in
   contradistinction to the 'Mare Oceanus' of Juan de la Cosa, or
   the 'Oceanus Occidentalis' of Ptolemy, as the Atlantic was
   then called. Indeed, the Atlantic was not generally known by
   that name for some time yet. Schöner, in 1520, terms it, as
   does Ptolemy in 1513, 'Oceanus Occidentalis'; Grynæus, in
   1532, 'Oceanus Magnus'; Apianus, appearing in the Cosmography
   of 1575, although thought to have been drawn in 1520, 'Mar
   Atlicum.' Robert Thorne, 1527, in Hakluyt's Voy., writes'
   Oceanus Occiden.'; Bordone, 1528, 'Mare Occidentale'; Ptolemy,
   1530, 'Occean Occidentalis'; Ramusio, 1565, Viaggi, iii. 455,
   off Central America, 'Mar del Nort,' and in the great ocean,
   both north and south, 'Mar Ociano'; Mercator, 1569, north of
   the tropic of cancer, 'Oceanius Atlanticvs'; Hondius, 1595,
   'Mar del Nort'; West-Indische Spieghel, 1624, 'Mar del Nort';
   De Laet, 1633, 'Mar del Norte'; Jacob Colon, 1663, 'Mar del
   Nort'; Ogilby, 1671, 'Oceanus Atlanticum,' 'Mar del Norte,'
   and 'Oceanus Æthiopicus'; Dampier, 1699, 'the North or
   Atlantick Sea.' The Portuguese map of 1518, Munich Atlas, iv.,
   is the first upon which I have seen a name applied to the
   Pacific; and there it is given … as 'Mar visto pelos
   Castelhanos,' Sea seen by the Spaniards. … On the globe of
   Johann Schöner, 1520, the two continents of America are
   represented with a strait dividing them at the Isthmus.
{2409}
   The great island of Zipangri, or Japan, lies about midway
   between North America and Asia. North of this island … are the
   words 'Orientalis Oceanus,' and to the same ocean south of the
   equator the words 'Oceanus Orientalis Indicus' are applied.
   Diego Homem, 1558, marks out upon his map a large body of
   water to the north-west of 'Terra de Florida,' and west of
   Canada, and labels it 'Mare leparamantium.' … Colon and Ribero
   call the South Sea 'Mar del Svr.' In Hakluyt's Voy. we find
   that Robert Thorne, in 1527, wrote 'Mare Australe.' Ptolemy,
   in 1530, places near the Straits of Magellan, 'Mare
   pacificum.' Ramusio, 1565, Viaggi, iii. 455, off Central
   America, places 'Mar del Sur,' and off the Straits of
   Magellan, 'Mar Oceano.' Mercator places in his atlas of 1569
   plainly, near the Straits of Magellan, 'El Mar Pacifico,' and
   in the great sea off Central America 'Mar del Zur.' On the map
   of Hondius, about 1595, in Drake's' 'World Encompassed,' the
   general term 'Mare Pacificvm' is applied to the Pacific Ocean,
   the words being in large letters extending across the ocean
   opposite Central America, while under it in smaller letters is
   'Mar del Sur.' This clearly restricts the name South Sea to a
   narrow locality, even at this date. In Hondius' Map, 'Purchas,
   His Pilgrimes,' iv. 857, the south Pacific is called 'Mare
   Pacificum,' and the central Pacific 'Mar del Sur.'"

      H. H. Bancroft,
      History of the Pacific States,
      volume 1, pages 373-374, foot-note.

PACTA CONVENTA, The Polish.

      See POLAND: A. D. 1573.

PACTOLUS, Battle of the (B. C. 395).

      See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.

PADISCHAH.

      See BEY; also CRAL.

   ----------PADUA: Start--------

PADUA: Origin.

      See VENETI OF CISALPINE GAUL.

PADUA: A. D. 452.
   Destruction by the Huns.

      See HUNS: A. D. 452;
      also VENICE: A. D. 452.

PADUA: 11-12th Centuries.
   Rise and acquisition of Republican independence.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1056-1152.

PADUA: A. D. 1237-1256:
   The tyranny of Eccelino di Romano.
   The Crusade against him.
   Capture and pillage of the city by its deliverers.

      See VERONA: A. D. 1236-1259.

PADUA: A. D. 1328-1338.
   Submission to Can' Grande della Scala.
   Recovery from his successor.
   The founding of the sovereignty of the Carrara family.

      See VERONA: A. D. 1260-1338.

PADUA: A. D. 1388.
   Yielded to the Visconti of Milan.

      See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

PADUA: A. D. 1402.
   Struggle of Francesco Carrara with Visconti of Milan.

      See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447;
      and FLORENCE: A. D. 1390-1406.

PADUA: A. D. 1405.
   Added to the dominion of Venice.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1402-1406.

PADUA: A. D. 1509-1513.
   In the War of the League of Cambrai.
   Siege by the Emperor Maximilian.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

   ----------PADUA: End--------

PADUCAH: Repulse of Forrest.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (APRIL: TENNESSEE).

PADUS, The.

   The name by which the river Po was known to the Romans.
   Dividing Cisalpine Gaul, as the river did, into two parts,
   they called the northern part Transpadane and the southern
   part Cispadane Gaul.

PÆANS.

   "The pæans [among the ancient Greeks] were songs of which the
   tune and words expressed courage and confidence. 'All sounds
   of lamentation,' … says Callimachus, 'cease when the Ie Pæan,
   Ie Pæan, is heard.' … Pæans were sung, not only when there was
   a hope of being able, by the help of the gods, to overcome a
   great and imminent danger, but when the danger was happily
   past; they were songs of hope and confidence as well as of
   thanksgiving for, victory and safety."

      K. O. Müller,
      History of the Literature of Ancient Greece,
      volume 1, page 27.

PÆONIANS, The.

   "The Pæonians, a numerous and much-divided race, seemingly
   neither Thracian nor Macedonian nor Illyrian, but professing
   to be descended from the Teukri of Troy, … occupied both banks
   of the Strymon, from the neighbourhood of Mount Skomius, in
   which that river rises, down to the lake near its mouth. … The
   Pæonians, in their north-western tribes, thus bordered upon
   the Macedonian Pelagonia, —in their northern tribes upon the
   Illyrian Dardani and Autariatæ,—in the eastern, southern and
   south-eastern tribes, upon the Thracians and Pierians."

      G. Grote,
      History of Greece,
      part 2, chapter 25.

   Darius, king of Persia, is said to have caused a great part of
   the Pæonians to be transported to a district in Phrygia, but
   they escaped and returned home.

PAGANISM: Suppressed in the Roman Empire.

      See ROME: A. D. 391-395.

PAGE.

      See CHIVALRY.

PAGUS.

      See GENS, ROMAN;
      also, HUNDRED.

PAIDONOMUS, The.

   The title of an officer who was charged with the general
   direction of the education and discipline of the young in
   ancient Sparta.

      G. Schömann,
      Antiquities of Greece: The State,
      part 3, chapter 1.

PAINE, Thomas, and the American Revolution.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-JUNE)
      KING GEORGE'S WAR MEASURES.

PAINTED CHAMBER.

      See WESTMINSTER PALACE.

PAINTSVILLE, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

PAIONIANS, The.

      See ALBANIANS.

PAIRS, Legislative.

      See WHIPS, PARTY.

PAITA: A. D. 1740.
   Destroyed by Commodore Anson.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1739-1741.

PAITA, The.

      See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

PALACE, Origin of the name.

   The house of the first of the Roman Emperors, Augustus, was on
   the Palatine Hill, which had been appropriated by the nobility
   for their residence from the earliest age of the republic. The
   residence of Augustus was a quite ordinary mansion until A. U.
   C. 748 (B. C. 6) when it was destroyed by fire. It was then
   rebuilt on a grander scale, the people contributing, in small
   individual sums—a kind of popular testimonial—to the cost.
   Augustus affected to consider it public property, and gave up
   a large part of it to the recreation of the citizens. His
   successors added to it, and built more and more edifices
   connected with it; so that, naturally, it appropriated to
   itself the name of the hill and came to be known as the
   Palatium, or Palace.

      C. Merivale,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 40.

PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD.

      See STONE AGE.

{2410}

PALÆOLOGI, The.

   The family which occupied the Greek imperial throne, at Nicæa
   and at Constantinople, from 1260, when Michael Palæologus
   seized the crown, until the Empire was extinguished by the
   Turks in 1453.

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 62 (Genealogical table).

      ALSO IN:
      Sir J. E. Tennant,
      History of Modern Greece.

PALÆOPOLIS,
PALÆPOLIS.

      See NEAPOLIS.

PALÆSTRA, The.

      See GYMNASIA, GREEK.

PALAIS ROYAL, The.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1642-1643.

   ----------PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: Start--------

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE.
PALATINE ELECTORATE.

   The Palatine Electorate or Palatinate (Pfalz in German), arose
   in the breaking up of the old Duchy of Franconia.

      See FRANCONIA;
      also PALATINE COUNTS,
      and GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1214.
   Acquisition by the Wittelsbach or Bavarian House.

   The House of Wittelsbach (or Wisselbach), which acquired the
   Duchy of Bavaria in 1180, came also into possession of the
   Palatinate of the Rhine in 1214 (see BAVARIA: A. D.
   1180-1356). In the next century the two possessions were
   divided. "Rudolph, the elder brother of Louis III. [the
   emperor, known as Louis the Bavarian] inherited the County
   Palatine, and formed a distinct line from that of Bavaria for
   many generations. The electoral dignity was attached to the
   Palatine branch."

      Sir A. Halliday,
      Annals of the House of Hanover,
      volume I, page 424.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1518-1572.
   The Protestant Reformation.
   Ascendancy of Calvinism.

   "The Electors Palatine of the Rhine might be justly regarded,
   during the whole course of the 16th century, as more powerful
   princes than those of Brandenburg. The lower Palatine, of
   which Heidelberg was then the capital, formed a considerable
   tract of country, situate on the banks of the Rhine and the
   Neckar, in a fertile, beautiful, and commercial part of
   Germany. … The upper Palatinate, a detached and distant
   province situated between Bohemia, Franconia, and Bavaria,
   which constituted a part of the Electoral dominions, added
   greatly to their political weight, as members of the Germanic
   body. … Under Louis V., Luther began to disseminate his
   doctrines at Heidelberg, which were eagerly and generally
   imbibed; the moderate character of the Elector, by a felicity
   rare in that age, permitting the utmost freedom of religious
   opinion, though he continued, himself, to profess the Catholic
   faith. His successors, who withdrew from the Romish see,
   openly declared their adherence to Lutheranism; but, on the
   accession of Frederic III., a new ecclesiastical revolution
   took place. He was the first among the Protestant German
   princes who introduced and professed the reformed religion
   denominated Calvinism. As the toleration accorded by the
   'Peace of religion' to those who embraced the 'Confession of
   Augsburg,' did not in a strict and legal sense extend to or
   include the followers of Calvin, Frederic might have been
   proscribed and put to the Ban of the Empire: nor did he owe
   his escape so much to the lenity or friendship of the
   Lutherans, as to the mild generosity of Maximilian II., who
   then filled the Imperial throne, and who was an enemy to every
   species of persecution. Frederic III., animated with zeal for
   the support of the Protestant cause, took an active part in
   the wars which desolated the kingdom of France under Charles
   IX.; protected all the French exiles who fled to his court or
   dominions; and twice sent succours, under the command of his
   son John Casimir, to Louis, Prince of Condé, then in arms, at
   the head of the Hugonots."

      Sir N. W. Wraxall,
      History of France, 1574-1610,
      volume 2, pages 163-165.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1608.
   The Elector at the head of the Evangelical Union.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1619-1620.
   Acceptance of the crown of Bohemia by the Elector.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1621-1623.
   The Elector placed under the ban of the empire.
   Devastation and conquest of his dominions.
   The electoral dignity transferred to the Duke of Bavaria.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1631-1632.
   Temporary recovery by Gustavus Adolphus.
   Obstinate bigotry of the Elector.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1632.
   Death of Frederick V.
   Treaty with the Swedes.
   Nominal restoration of the young Elector.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1648.
   Division in the Peace of Westphalia.
   Restoration of the Lower Palatinate to the old Electoral Family.
   Annexation of the Upper to Bavaria.
   The recreated electorate.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1674.
   In the Coalition against Louis XIV.
   Ravaged by Turenne.

      See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1672-1674; and 1674-1678.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1679-1680.
   Encroachments by France upon the territory of the Elector.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1680.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1686.
   The claims of Louis XIV. in the name of the Duchess of Orleans.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1690.
   The second devastation and the War of the League of Augsburg.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690, and after.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1697.
   The Peace of Ryswick.
   Restitutions by France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1705.
   The Upper Palatinate restored to the Elector.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1705.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A: D. 1709-1710.
   Emigration of inhabitants to England,
   thence to Ireland and America.

      See PALATINES.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1714.
   The Upper Palatinate ceded to the Elector of Bavaria
   in exchange for Sardinia.

      See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1801-1803.
   Transferred in great part to Baden.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1849.
   Revolution suppressed by Prussian troops.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1848-1850.

   ----------PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: Start--------

PALATINATES, American.

      See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632;
      NEW ALBION;
      MAINE: A. D. 1639;
      NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1610-1655;
      NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1669-1693.

PALATINE, Counts.

   In Germany, under the early emperors, after the dissolution of
   the dominion of Charlemagne, an office came into existence
   called that of the 'comes palatii'—Count Palatine. This office
   was created in the interest of the sovereign, as a means of
   diminishing the power of the local rulers.
{2411}
   The Counts Palatine were appointed as their coadjutors, often
   with a concurrent and sometimes with a sole jurisdiction.
   Their "functions were more extensive than those of the ancient
   'missi dominici.' Yet the office was different. Under the
   Carlovingian emperors there had been one dignitary with that
   title, who received appeals from all the secular tribunals of
   the empire. The missi dominici were more than his mere
   colleagues, since they could convoke any cause pending before
   the ordinary judges and take cognisance of more serious cases
   even in the first instance. As the missi were disused, and as
   the empire became split among the immediate descendants of
   Louis le Debonnaire, the count palatine (comes palatii) was
   found inadequate to his numerous duties; and coadjutors were
   provided him for Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. After the
   elevation of Arnulf, however, most of these dignities ceased;
   and we read of one count palatine only—the count or duke of
   Franconia or Rhenish France. Though we have reason to believe
   that this high functionary continued to receive appeals from
   the tribunals of each duchy, he certainly could not exercise
   over them a sufficient control; nor, if his authority were
   undisputed, could he be equal to his judicial duties. Yet to
   restrain the absolute jurisdiction of his princely vassals was
   no less the interest of the people than the sovereign; and in
   this view Otho I. restored, with even increased powers, the
   provincial counts palatine. He gave them not only the
   appellant jurisdiction of the ancient comes palatii, but the
   primary one of the missi dominici. … They had each a castle,
   the wardenship of which was intrusted to officers named
   burgraves, dependent on the count palatine of the province. In
   the sequel, some of these burgraves became princes of the
   empire."

      S. A. Dunham,
      History of the Germanic Empire,
      volume 1, pages 120-121.

PALATINE, The Elector.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152;
      and PALATINATE OF THE RHINE.

PALATINE, The English Counties.

   "The policy of the Norman kings stripped the earls of their
   official character. They ceased to have local jurisdiction or
   authority. Their dignity was of a personal nature, and they
   must be regarded rather as the foremost of the barons, and as
   their peers, than as a distinct order in the state. … An
   exception to the general policy of William [the Conqueror] as
   to earldoms was made in those governments which, in the next
   century, were called palatine. These were founded in Cheshire,
   and perhaps in Shropshire, against the Welsh, and in the
   bishopric of Durham both to oppose the Scots, and to restrain
   the turbulence of the northern people, who slew Walcher, the
   first earl bishop, for his ill government. An earl palatine
   had royal jurisdiction within his earldom. So it was said of
   Hugh, earl of Chester, that he held his earldom in right of
   his sword, as the king held all England in right of his crown.
   All tenants-in–chief held of him; he had his own courts, took
   the whole proceeds of jurisdiction, and appointed his own
   sheriff. The statement that Bishop Odo had palatine
   jurisdiction in Kent may be explained by the functions which
   he exercised as justiciary."

      W. Hunt,
      Norman Britain,
      pages 118-119.

   "The earldom of Chester has belonged to the eldest son of the
   sovereign since 1396; the palatinate jurisdiction of Durham
   was transferred to the crown in 1836 by act of Parliament, 6
   Will. IV, c. 19."

      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 9,
      section 98, footnote (volume 1).

      See, also, PALATINE, THE IRISH COUNTIES.

PALATINE, The Hungarian.

      See HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442.

PALATINE, The Irish Counties.

   "The franchise of a county palatine gave a right of exclusive
   civil and criminal jurisdiction; so that the king's writ
   should not run, nor his judges come within it, though judgment
   in its courts might be reversed by writ of error in the king's
   bench. The lord might enfeoff tenants to hold by knights'
   service of himself; he had almost all regalian rights; the
   lands of those attainted for treason escheated to him; he
   acted in every thing rather as one of the great feudatories of
   France or Germany than a subject of the English crown. Such
   had been the earl of Chester, and only Chester, in England;
   but in Ireland this dangerous independence was permitted to
   Strongbow in Leinster, to Lacy in Meath, and at a later time
   to the Butlers and Geraldines in parts of Munster. Strongbow's
   vast inheritance soon fell to five sisters, who took to their
   shares, with the same palatine rights, the counties of Carlow,
   Wexford, Kilkenny, Kildare, and the district of Leix, since
   called the Queen's County. In all these palatinates, forming
   by far the greater portion of the English territories, the
   king's process had its course only within the lands belonging
   to the church."

      E. Hallam,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 18 (volume 3).

PALATINE HILL, The.
   The Palatine City.
   The Seven Mounts.

   "The town which in the course of centuries grew up as Rome, in
   its original form embraced according to trustworthy testimony
   only the Palatine, or 'square Rome' (Roma quadrata), as it was
   called in later times from the irregularly quadrangular form
   of the Palatine hill. The gates and walls that enclosed this
   original city remained visible down to the period of the
   empire. … Many traces indicate that this was the centre and
   original seat of the urban settlement. … The 'festival of the
   Seven Mounts' ('septimontium'), again, preserved the memory of
   the more extended settlement which gradually formed round the
   Palatine. Suburbs grew up one after another, each protected by
   its own separate though weaker circumvallation and joined to
   the original ring-wall of the Palatine. … The 'Seven Rings'
   were, the Palatine itself; the cermalus, the slope of the
   Palatine in the direction of the morass that in the earliest
   times extended between it and the Capitoline (velabrum); the
   Velia, the ridge which connected the Palatine with the
   Esquiline, but in subsequent times was almost wholly
   obliterated by the buildings of the empire; the Fagutal, the
   Oppius, and the Cispius, the three summits of the Esquiline;
   lastly, the Sucusa, or Subura, a fortress constructed outside
   of the earthern rampart which protected the new town on the
   Carinae, in the low ground between the Esquiline and the
   Quirinal, beneath S. Pietro in Vincoli. These additions,
   manifestly the results of a gradual growth, clearly reveal to
   a certain extent the earliest history of the Palatine Rome. …
   The Palatine city of the Seven Mounts may have had a history
   of its own; no other tradition of it has survived than simply
   that of its having once existed. But as the leaves of the
   forest make room for the new growth of spring, although they
   fall unseen by human eyes, so has this unknown city of the
   Seven Mounts made room for the Rome of history."

      T. Mommsen,
      History of Rome,
      book 1, chapter 4 (volume 1).

      See, also, QUIRINAL;
      and SEVEN HILLS OF ROME.

{2412}

PALATINES: A. D. 1709-1710.
   Migration to Ireland and America.

   "The citizens of London [England] were astonished to learn, in
   May and June, 1709, that 5,000 men, women and children,
   Germans from the Rhine, were under tents in the suburbs. By
   October the number had increased to 13,000, and comprised
   husbandmen, tradesmen, school teachers and ministers. These
   emigrants had deserted the Palatinate, owing to French
   oppression and the persecution by their prince, the elector
   John William, of the House of Newburgh, who had become a
   devoted Romanist, though his subjects were mainly Lutherans
   and Calvinists. Professor Henry A. Homes, in a paper treating
   of this emigration, read before the Albany Institute in 1871,
   holds that the movement was due not altogether to unbearable
   persecutions, but largely to suggestions made to the Palatines
   in their own country by agents of companies who were anxious
   to obtain settlers for the British colonies in America, and
   thus give value to the company's lands. The emigrants were
   certainly seized with the idea that by going to England its
   government would transport them to the provinces of New York,
   the Carolinas, and Pennsylvania. Of the latter province they
   knew much, as many Germans were already there. … Great efforts
   were made to prevent suffering among these poor people;
   thousands of pounds were collected for their maintenance from
   churches and individuals all over England; they were lodged in
   warehouses, empty dwellings and in barns, and the Queen had a
   thousand tents pitched for them back of Greenwich, on
   Blackheath. … Notwithstanding the great efforts made by the
   English people, very much distress followed this unhappy
   hegira. … Numbers of the younger men enlisted in the British
   army serving in Portugal, and some made their own way to
   Pennsylvania. … The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland petitioned the
   Queen that some of the people might be sent to him, and by
   February, 1710, 3,800 had been located across the Irish Sea,
   in the province of Munster, near Limerick. … Professor Homes
   recites in his monograph that they 'now number about 12,000
   souls, and, under the name of Palatinates, continue to impress
   a peculiar character upon the whole district they inhabit.' …
   According to 'Luttrell's Diary,' about one-tenth of the whole
   number that reached England were returned by the Crown to
   Germany." A Swiss land company, which had bought 10,000 acres
   of land from the Lords Proprietors of Carolina, "covenanted
   with the English authorities for the transfer of about 700 of
   these poor Heidelberg refugees to the colony. Before the end
   of the year they had arrived with them at a point in North
   Carolina where the rivers Neuse and Trent join. Here they
   established a town, calling it New-Berne, in honor of Berne,
   Switzerland. … It has not been found possible to properly
   account for all the 13,000 Palatines who reached England.
   Queen Anne sent some of them to Virginia, settling them above
   the falls of the Rappahanock, in Spottsylvania County, from
   whence they spread into several adjoining counties, and into
   North Carolina. … After the Irish transportation, the largest
   number that was moved in one body, and probably the final one
   under government auspices, was the fleet-load that in the
   spring of 1710 was despatched to New York. … A fleet of ten
   ships set sail with Governor Hunter in March, having on board,
   as is variously estimated, between 3,000 and 4,000 Germans. …
   The immigrants were encamped on Nut, now Governor's Island,
   for about three months, when a tract of 6,000 acres of the
   Livingston patent was purchased for them, 100 miles up the
   Hudson, the locality now being embraced in Germantown,
   Columbia County. Eight hundred acres were also acquired on the
   opposite side of the river at the present location of
   Saugerties, in Ulster County. To these two points most of the
   immigrants were removed." But dissatisfaction with their
   treatment and difficulties concerning land titles impelled
   many of these Germans to move off, first into Schoharie
   County, and afterwards to Palatine Bridge, Montgomery County
   and German Flats, Herkimer County, New York, to both of which
   places they have affixed the names. Others went into
   Pennsylvania, which was for many years the favorite colony
   among German immigrants.

      A. D. Mellick, Jr.,
      The Story of an Old Farm,
      chapter 4.

      ALSO IN:
      C. B. Todd,
      Robert Hunter and the Settlement of the Palatines
      (Memorial History of the City of New York,
      volume 2, chapter 4).

PALE, The English.

   "That territory within which the English retreated and
   fortified themselves when a reaction began to set in after
   their first success [under Henry II.] in Ireland," acquired
   the name of the Pale or the English Pale. But "that term did
   not really come into use until about the beginning of the 16th
   century. In earlier times this territory was called the
   English Land. It is generally called Galldacht, or the
   'foreigner's territory,' in the Irish annals, where the term
   Galls comes to be applied to the descendants of the early
   adventurers, and that of Saxons to Englishmen newly arrived.
   The formation of the Pale is generally considered to date from
   the reign of Edward I. About the period of which we are now
   treating [reign of Henry IV.—beginning of 15th century] it
   began to be limited to the four counties of Louth, Meath,
   Kildare, and Dublin, which formed its utmost extent in the
   reign of Henry VIII. Beyond this the authority of the king of
   England was a nullity."

      M. Haverty,
      History of Ireland,
      pages 313-314, foot-note.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175; and 1515.

PALE, The Jewish, in Russia.

      See JEWS: A. D. 1727-1880, and 19TH CENTURY.

PALE FACES, The (Ku-Klux Klan).

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

PALENQUE, Ruins of.

      See MEXICO, ANCIENT;
      and AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS.

   ----------PALERMO: Start--------

PALERMO: Origin.

      See PANORMUS;
      also SICILY: EARLY INHABITANTS.

PALERMO: A. D. 1146.
   Introduction of silk culture.

      See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1146.

PALERMO: A. D. 1282.
   The Sicilian Vespers.

      See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1282-1300.

PALERMO: A. D. 1848-1849.
   Expulsion of the Neapolitan garrison.
   Surrender to King "Bomba."

      See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

PALERMO: A. D. 1860.
   Capture by Garibaldi and his volunteers.
   Bombardment by the Neapolitans.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

{2413}

   ----------PALESTINE: Start--------

PALESTINE:
   Early inhabitants.

      See
      AMALEKITES;
      AMMONITES;
      AMORITES;
      HITTITES;
      JEWS: EARLY HEBREW HISTORY;
      MOABITES; PHILISTINES; PHŒNICIANS.

PALESTINE:
   Name.

   After the suppression of the revolt of the Jews in A. D. 130,
   by Hadrian, the name of their province was changed from Judæa
   to Syria Palæstina, or Syria of the Philistines, as it had
   been called by Herodotus six centuries before. Hence the
   modern name, Palestine.

      See JEWS: A. D. 130-134.

PALESTINE:
   History.

      See
      EGYPT: about B. C. 1500-1400;
      JEWS;
      JERUSALEM;
      SYRIA;
      CHRISTIANITY;
      MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE;
      CRUSADES.

   ----------PALESTINE: End--------

PALESTRO, Battle of (1859).

   See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859.

PALFREYS,
PALAFRENI.

      See DESTRIERS.

PALI.

   "The earlier form of the ancient spoken language [of the Aryan
   race in India], called Pali or Magadhi, … was introduced into
   Ceylon by Buddhist missionaries from Magadha when Buddhism
   began to spread, and is now the sacred language of Ceylon and
   Burmah, in which all their Buddhist literature is written."
   The Pali language is thought to represent one of the stages in
   the development of the Prakrit, or common speech of the
   Hindus, as separated from the Sanskrit, or language of the
   learned.

      See SANSKRIT.

      M. Williams,
      Indian Wisdom,
      introduction, pages xxix-xxx, foot-note.

PALILIA, Festival of the.

   "The festival named Palilia [at Rome] was celebrated on the
   Palatine every year on the 21st April, in honour of Pales, the
   tutelary divinity of the shepherds, who dwelt on the Palatine.
   This day was held sacred as an anniversary of the day on which
   Romulus commenced the building of the city."

      H. M. Westropp,
      Early and Imperial Rome,
      page 40.

PALLA, The.

      See STOLA.

PALLADIUM, The.

   "The Palladium, kept in the temple of Vesta at Rome, was a
   small figure of Pallas, roughly carved out of wood, about
   three feet high. Ilos, King of Troy, grandfather of Priam,
   after building the city asked Zeus to give him a visible sign
   that he would take it under his special protection. During the
   night the Palladium fell down from heaven, and was found the
   next morning outside his tent. The king built a temple for it,
   and from that time the Trojans firmly believed that as long as
   they could keep this figure their town would be safe; but if
   at any time it should be lost or stolen, some dreadful
   calamity would overtake them. The story further relates that,
   at the siege of Troy, its whereabouts was betrayed to Diomed,
   and he and the wily Ulysses climbed the wall at night and
   carried it off. The Palladium, enraged at finding itself in
   the Grecian camp, sprang three times in the air, its eyes
   flashing wildly, while drops of sweat stood on its brow. The
   Greeks, however, would not give it up, and Troy, robbed of her
   guardian, was soon after conquered by the Greeks. But an
   oracle having warned Diomed not to keep it, he, on landing in
   Italy, gave it to one of Æneas' companions, by whom it was
   brought into the neighbourhood of the future site of Rome.
   Another legend relates that Æneas saved it after the
   destruction of Troy, and fled with it to Italy, where it was
   afterwards placed by his descendants in the Temple of Vesta,
   in Rome. Here the inner and most sacred place in the Temple
   was reserved for it, and no man, not even the chief priest,
   was allowed to see it except when it was shown on the occasion
   of any high festival. The Vestals had strict orders to guard
   it carefully, and to save it in case of fire, as the welfare
   of Rome depended on its preservation."

      F. Nösselt,
      Mythology, Greek and Roman,
      page 3.

PALLESCHI, The.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

PALLIUM, The.

   "The pallium, or mantle of the Greeks, from its being less
   cumbersome and trailing than the toga of the Romans, by
   degrees superseded the latter in the country and in the camp.
   When worn over armour, and fastened on the right shoulder with
   a clasp or button, this cloak assumed the name of
   paludamentum."

      T. Hope,
      Costume of the Ancients,
      volume 1, p 37.

PALM, The Execution of.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

PALMERSTON MINISTRIES.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1855; 1858-1859.

PALMI.

      See FOOT, THE ROMAN.

   ----------PALMYRA: Start--------

PALMYRA,
   Earliest knowledge of.

   "The outlying city of Palmyra—the name of which is first
   mentioned during the wars of M. Antony in Syria [B. C. 41]—was
   certainly at this period [of Augustus, B. C. 31-A. D. 14]
   independent and preserved a position of neutrality between the
   Romans and Parthians, while it carried on trade with both. It
   does not appear however to have as yet risen to a place of
   great importance, as its name is not mentioned by Strabo. The
   period of its prosperity dates only from the time of Hadrian."

      E. H. Bunbury,
      History of Ancient Geography,
      chapter 20, section 1 (volume 2).

PALMYRA:
   Rise and fall.

   "Amidst the barren deserts of Arabia a few cultivated spots
   rise like islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of
   Tadmor, or Palmyra, by its signification in the Syriac as well
   as in the Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees
   which afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region. The
   air was pure, and the soil, watered by some invaluable
   springs, was capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A
   place possessed of such singular advantages, and situated at a
   convenient distance between the gulf of Persia and the
   Mediterranean, was soon frequented by the caravans which
   conveyed to the nations of Europe a considerable part of the
   rich commodities of India. [It has been the opinion of some
   writers that Tadmor was founded by Solomon as a commercial
   station, but the opinion is little credited at present.]
   Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent
   city, and, connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by
   the mutual benefits of commerce, was suffered to observe an
   humble neutrality, till at length, after the victories of
   Trajan, the little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and
   flourished more than one hundred and fifty years in the
   subordinate though honourable rank of a colony." On the
   occasion of the invasion of Syria by the Persian king, Sapor,
   when the Emperor Valerian was defeated and taken prisoner (A.
   D. 260-261), the only effectual resistance opposed to him was
   organized and led by a wealthy senator of Palmyra, Odenathus
   (some ancient writers call him a Saracen prince), who founded,
   by his exploits at that time, a substantial military power.
{2414}
   Aided and seconded by his famous wife, Zenobia, who is one of
   the great heroines of history, he extended his authority over
   the Roman East and defeated the Persian king in several
   campaigns. On his death, by assassination, in 267, Zenobia
   ascended the Palmyrenian throne and ruled with masculine
   firmness of character. Her dominions were extended from the
   Euphrates and the frontiers of Bithynia to Egypt, and are
   said, with some doubtfulness, to have included even that rich
   province, for a time. But the Romans, who had acquiesced in
   the rule of Odenathus, and recognized it, in the day of their
   weakness, now resented the presumption and the power of his
   widowed queen. Perhaps they had reason to fear her ambition
   and her success. Refusing to submit to the demands that were
   made upon her, she boldly challenged the attack of the warlike
   emperor, Aurelian, and suffered defeat in two great, battles,
   fought A. D. 272 or 273, near Antioch and near Emesa. A vain
   attempt to hold Palmyra against the besieging force of the
   Roman, an unsuccessful flight and a capture by pursuing
   horsemen, ended the political career of the brilliant 'Queen
   of the East.' She saved her life somewhat ignobly by giving up
   her counsellors to Aurelian's vengeance. The philosopher
   Longinus was one who perished. Zenobia was sent to Rome and
   figured among the captives in Aurelian's triumph. She was then
   given for her residence a splendid villa at Tibur (Tivoli)
   twenty miles from Rome, and lived quietly through the
   remainder of her days, connecting herself, by the marriage of
   her daughters, with the noble families of Rome. Palmyra, which
   had been spared on its surrender, rashly rose in revolt
   quickly after Aurelian had left its gates. The enraged emperor
   returned and inflicted on the fated city a chastisement from
   which it never rose."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapters 10-11.

   ----------PALMYRA: End--------

PALMYRÊNÉ, The.

   "Palmyrêné, or the Syrian Desert—the tract lying between
   Cœle-Syria on the one hand, and the valley of the middle
   Euphrates on the other, and abutting towards the south on the
   great Arabian Desert, to which it is sometimes regarded as
   belonging. It is for the most part a hard sandy, or gravelly
   plain, intersected by low rocky ranges, and either barren or
   productive only of some sapless shrubs and of a low thin
   grass. Occasionally, however, there are oases, where the
   fertility is considerable. Such an oasis is the region about
   Palmyra itself, which derived its name from the palm groves in
   the vicinity; here the soil is good, and a large tract is even
   now under cultivation. … Though large armies can never have
   traversed the desert even in this upper region, where it is
   comparatively narrow, trade in ancient times found it
   expedient to avoid the long 'détour' by the Orontes valley,
   Aleppo, and Bambuk and to proceed directly from Damascus by
   way of Palmyra to Thapsacus on the Euphrates."

      G. Rawlinson,
      Five Great Monarchies: Babylonia,
      chapter 1.

PALO ALTO, Battle of.

      See MEXICO: A. D. 1846-1847.

PALSGRAVE.

   An Anglicized form of Pfalzgraf.

      See PALATINE COUNT.

PALUDAMENTUM, The.

   "As soon as the [Roman] consul entered upon his military
   career, he assumed certain symbols of command. The cloak of
   scarlet or purple which the imperator threw over his corslet
   was named the paludamentum, and this, which became in later
   times the imperial robe, he never wore except on actual
   service."

      C. Merivale,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 31.

      See, also, PALLIUM.

PALUS MÆOTIS,
MÆOTIS PALUS.

   The ancient Greek name of the Sea of Azov.

PAMLICOS.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAMPAS.
LLANOS.

   "In the southern continent [of America], the regions which
   correspond with the prairies of the United States are the
   'pampas' of the La Plata and the 'llanos' of Columbia [both
   'pampa' and 'llano' having in Spanish the signification of 'a
   plain']. … The llanos of Venezuela and New Granada have an
   area estimated at 154,000 square miles, nearly equal to that
   of France. The Argentine pampas, which are situated at the
   other extremity of the continent, have a much more
   considerable extent, probably exceeding 500,000 square miles.
   This great central plain … stretches its immense and nearly
   horizontal surface over a length of at least 1,900 miles, from
   the burning regions of tropical Brazil to the cold countries
   of Patagonia."

      E. Reclus,
      The Earth,
      chapter 15.

   For an account of the Indian tribes of the Pampas.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

PAMPELUNA: Siege by the French (1521).

      See NAVARRE: A. D. 1442-1521.

PAMPTICOKES, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS, The.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

PAN-HANDLE, The.

      See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1779-1786.

PAN-IONIC AMPHICTYONY.

      See IONIC AMPHICTYONY.

   ----------PANAMA: Start--------

PANAMA: A. D. 1501-1502.
   Discovery by Bastidas.
   Coasted by Columbus.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505, and 1500.

PANAMA: A. D. 1509.
   Creation of the Province of Castilla del Oro.
   Settlement on the Gulf of Uraba.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1509-1511.

PANAMA: A. D. 1513-1517.
   Vasco Nuñez de Balboa and the discovery of the Pacific.
   The malignant rule of Pedrarias Davila.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1513-1517.

PANAMA: A. D. 1519.
   Name and Origin of the city.

   Originally, Panama was the native name of an Indian fishing
   village, on the Pacific coast of the Isthmus, the word
   signifying "a place where many fish are taken." In 1519 the
   Spaniards founded there a city which they made their capital
   and chief mart on the Pacific coast.

      H. H. Bancroft,
      History of the Pacific States,
      volume 1, chapters 10-11 and 15.

PANAMA: A. D. 1671-1680.
   Capture, destruction and recapture of the city of Panama
   by the Buccaneers.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700.

PANAMA: A. D. 1688-1699.
   The Scottish colony of Darien.

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1695-1699.

PANAMA: A. D. 1826.
   The Congress of American States.

      See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1826.

PANAMA: A. D. 1846-1855.
   American right of transit secured by Treaty.
   Building of the Panama Railroad.

      See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.

PANAMA: A. D. 1855.
   An independent state in the Colombian Confederation.
   Opening of the Panama Railway.

      See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1830-1886.

{2415}

PANAMA CANAL.
PANAMA SCANDAL.

   "The commencement of an undertaking [projected by Count
   Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal] for
   connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, through the
   Isthmus of Panama, was a natural result of the success
   achieved by the Suez Canal. Various sites have been proposed
   from time to time for the construction of a canal across the
   Isthmus, the most northern being the Tehuantepec route, at a
   comparatively broad part of the Isthmus, and the most southern
   the Atrato route, following for some distance the course of
   the Atrato River. The site eventually selected, in 1879, for
   the construction of a canal was at the narrowest part of the
   Isthmus, and where the central ridge is the lowest, known as
   the Panama route, nearly following the course of the Panama
   Rail way. It was the only scheme that did not necessarily
   involve a tunnel or locks. The length of the route between
   Colon on the Atlantic, and Panama on the Pacific, is 46 miles,
   not quite half the length of the Suez Canal; but a tide-level
   canal involved a cutting across the Cordilleras, at the
   Culebra Pass, nearly 300 feet deep, mainly through rock. The
   section of the canal was designed on the lines of the Suez
   Canal, with a bottom width of 72 feet, and a depth of water of
   27 feet, except in the central rock cutting, where the width
   was to be increased to 78¾ feet on account of the nearly
   vertical sides, and the depth to 29½ feet. … The work was
   commenced in 1882. … The difficulties and expenses, however,
   of the undertaking had been greatly under–estimated. The
   climate proved exceptionally unhealthy, especially when the
   soil began to be turned up by the excavations. The actual cost
   of the excavation was much greater than originally estimated;
   and the total amount of excavation required to form a level
   canal, which had originally been estimated at 100 million
   cubic yards, was subsequently computed, on more exact data, at
   176½ million cubic yards. The preliminary works were also very
   extensive and costly; and difficulties were experienced, after
   a time, in raising the funds for carrying on the works, even
   when shares were offered at a very great discount. Eventually,
   in 1887, the capital at the disposal of the company had nearly
   come to an end; whilst only a little more than one-fifth of
   the excavation had been completed. … At that period it was
   determined to expedite the work, and reduce the cost of
   completing the canal, by introducing locks, and thus diminish
   the remaining amount of excavation by 85 million cubic yards;
   though the estimated cost, even with this modification, had
   increased from £33,500,000 to £65,500,000. … The financial
   embarrassments, however, of the company have prevented the
   carrying out of this scheme for completing the canal; and the
   works are at present [1891] at a standstill, in a very
   unfinished state."

      L. F. Vernon-Harcourt,
      Achievements in Engineering,
      chapter 14.

   "It was on December 14, 1888, that the Panama Canal Company
   stopped payments. Under the auspices of the French Government,
   a parliamentary inquiry was started in the hope of finding
   some means of saving the enterprise. Facts soon came to light,
   which, in the opinion of many, justified a prosecution. The
   indignation of the shareholders against the Count de Lesseps,
   his son, and the other Directors, waxed loud. In addition to
   ruinous miscalculations, these men were charged with corrupt
   expenditure with a view to influence public opinion. … The
   gathering storm finally burst on November 21 [1892], when the
   interpellation in regard to the Canal question was brought
   forward in the Chamber. M. Delahaye threw out suggestions of
   corruption against a large number of persons, alleging that
   3,000,000 francs had been used by the company to bribe 150
   Senators and Deputies. Challenged to give their names, he
   persisted in merely replying that if the Chamber wanted
   details, they must vote an inquiry. … It was ultimately
   agreed, by 311 to 243, to appoint a special Committee of 33
   Members to conduct an investigation. The judicial summonses
   against the accused Directors were issued the same day,
   charging them with 'the use of fraudulent devices for creating
   belief in the existence of a chimerical event, the spending of
   sums accruing from issues handed to them for a fixed purpose,
   and the swindling of all or part of the fortune of others.'
   The case being called in the Court of Appeals, November 25,
   when all of the defendants—M. Ferdinand de Lesseps; Charles,
   his son; M. Marius Fontanes, Baron Cottu, and M. Eiffel—were
   absent, it was adjourned to January 10, 1893. … On November
   28, the Marquis de la Ferronaye, followed by M. Brisson, the
   Chairman of the Committee of Inquiry, called the attention of
   the Government to the rumors regarding the death of Baron
   Reinach, and pressed the demand of the Committee that the body
   be exhumed, and the theory of suicide be tested. But for his
   sudden death, the Baron would have been included in the
   prosecution. He was said to have received immense sums for
   purposes of corruption; and his mysterious and sudden death on
   the eve of the prosecution started the wildest rumors of
   suicide and even murder. Public opinion demanded that full
   light be thrown on the episode; but the Minister of Justice
   said, that, as no formal charges of crime had been laid, the
   Government had no power to exhume the body. M. Loubet would
   make no concession in the matter; and, when M. Brisson moved a
   resolution of regret that the Baron's papers had not been
   sealed at his death, petulantly insisted that the order of the
   day 'pure and simple' be passed. This the Chamber refused to
   do by a vote of 304 to 219. The resignation of the Cabinet
   immediately followed. … A few days' interregnum followed
   during which M. Brisson and M. Casimir-Périer successively
   tried in vain to form a Cabinet. M. Ribot, the Foreign
   Minister, finally consented to try the task, and, on December
   5, the new Ministry was announced. … The policy of the
   Government regarding the scandal now changed. … In the course
   of the investigation by the Committee, the most startling
   evidence of corruption was revealed. It was discovered that
   the principal Paris papers had received large amounts for
   puffing the Canal scheme. M. Thierrée, a banker, asserted that
   Baron Reinach had paid into his bank 3,390,000 francs in
   Panama funds, and had drawn it out in 26 checks to bearer. …
   On December 13, M. Rouvier, the Finance Minister, resigned,
   because his name had been connected with the scandal. … In the
   meantime, sufficient evidence had been gathered to cause the
   Government, on December 16, to arrest M. Charles de Lesseps,
   M. Fontane, and M. Sans-Leroy, Directors of the Canal Company,
   on the charge, not, as before, of maladministration of the
   company's affairs, but of corrupting public functionaries.
   This was followed by the adoption of proceedings against five
   Senators and five Deputies.

      Quarterly Register of Current History,
      March, 1893.

{2416}

   "The trial of the De Lesseps, father and son, MM. Fontane,
   Cottu, and Eiffel, began January 10, before the court of
   appeals. MM. Fontane and Eiffel confessed, the latter to the
   bribery of Hebrard, director of 'Le Temps,' a newspaper, with
   1,750,000 francs. On February 14, sentence was pronounced
   against Ferdinand and Charles De Lesseps, each being condemned
   to spend five years in prison and to pay a fine of 3,000
   francs; MM. Fontane and Cottu, two years and 3,000 francs
   each; and M. Eiffel, two years and 20,000 francs. … On March
   8, the trial of the younger de Lesseps, MM. Fontane, Baihaut,
   Blondin, and ex-Minister Proust, Senator Beral, and others, on
   charges of corruption, began before the assize court. … De
   Lesseps, … with MM. Baihaut and Blondin, was found guilty
   March 21, and sentenced to one year more of imprisonment. M.
   Blondin received a two-year sentence; but M. Baihaut was
   condemned to five years, a fine of 75,000 francs, and loss of
   civil rights. The others were acquitted."

      Cyclopedic Review of Current History,
      volume 3, number 1 (1803).

   "On June 15 the Court of Cassation quashed the judgment in the
   first trial on the ground that the acts had been committed
   more than three years before the institution of proceedings,
   reversing the ruling of the trial court that a preliminary
   investigation begun in 1891 suspended the three years'
   prescription. Fontane and Eiffel were set at liberty, but
   Charles de Lesseps had still to serve out the sentence for
   corruption."

      Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia, 1893,
      page 321.

   The enemies of the Republic had wished to establish the
   venality of the popular representatives; "they succeeded only
   in showing the resistance that had been made to a temptation
   of which the public had not known before the strength and
   frequency. Instead of proving that many votes had been sold,
   they proved that many were found ready to buy them, which was
   very different."

      P. De Coubertin,
      L'Evolution Frarçaise sous la Troisième Republique,
      page 266.

PANATHENÆA, The Festival of the.

      See PARTHENON AT ATHENS.

PANDECTS OF JUSTINIAN.

      See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

PANDES.

      See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

PANDOURS.

      See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604.

PANICS OF 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1835-1837, 1873, 1893-1894;
      and TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1846-1861.

PANIPAT,
PANNIPUT, Battles of (1526, 1556, and 1761).

      See INDIA: A. D. 1399-1605; and 1747-1761.

PANIUM, Battle of (B. C. 198).

      See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

PANJAB, The.

      See PUNJAB.

PANNONIA AND NORICUM.

   "The wide extent of territory which is included between the
   Inn, the Danube, and the Save—Austria, Styria, Carinthia,
   Carniola, the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia—was known to the
   ancients under the names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their
   original state of independence their fierce inhabitants were
   intimately connected. Under the Roman government they were
   frequently united."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 1.

   Pannonia embraced much the larger part of the territory
   described above, covering the center and heart of the modern
   Austro-Hungarian empire. It was separated from Noricum, lying
   west and northwest of it, by Mons Cetius. For the settlement
   of the Vandals in Pannonia, and its conquest by the Huns and
   Goths:

      See VANDALS: ORIGIN, &c.;
      HUNS: A. D. 433-453, and 453;
      and GOTHS: A. D. 473-474.

PANO, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

PANORMUS.

   The modern city of Palermo was of very ancient origin, founded
   by the Phœnicians and passing from them to the Carthaginians,
   who made it one of their principal naval stations in Sicily.
   Its Greek name, Panorma, signified a port always to be
   depended upon.

PANORMUS, Battles at (B. C. 254-251).

      See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

PANTANO DE BARGAS, Battle of (1819).

      See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

PANTHEON AT ROME, The.

   "At the same time with his Thermæ, Agrippa [son-in-law and
   friend of Augustus] built the famous dome, called by Pliny and
   Dion Cassius, and in the inscription of Severus on the
   architrave of the building itself, the Pantheon, and still
   retaining that name, though now consecrated as a Christian
   church under the name of S. Maria ad Martyres or dell a
   Rotonda. This consecration, together with the colossal
   thickness of the walls, has secured the building against the
   attacks Of time, and the still more destructive attacks of the
   barons of the Middle Ages. … The Pantheon was always be
   reckoned among the masterpieces of architecture for solid
   durability combined with beauty of interior effect. The Romans
   prided themselves greatly upon it as one of the wonders of
   their great capital, and no other dome of antiquity could
   rival its colossal dimensions. … The inscription assigns its
   completion to the year A. D. 27, the third consulship of
   Agrippa. … The original name Pantheon, taken in connection
   with the numerous niches for statues of the gods in the
   interior, seems to contradict the idea that it was dedicated
   to any peculiar deity or class of deities. The seven principal
   niches may have been intended for the seven superior deities,
   and the eight ædiculæ for the next in dignity, while the
   twelve niches in the upper ring were occupied by the inferior
   inhabitants of Olympus. Dion hints at this explanation when he
   suggests that the name was taken from the resemblance of the
   dome to the vault of heaven."

      R. Burn,
      Rome and the Campagna,
      chapter 13, part 2.

   "The world has nothing else like the Pantheon. … The rust and
   dinginess that have dimmed the precious marble on the walls;
   the pavement, with its great squares and rounds of porphyry
   and granite, cracked crosswise and in a hundred directions,
   showing how roughly the troublesome ages have trampled here;
   the gray dome above, with its opening to the sky, as if heaven
   were looking down into the interior of this place of worship,
   left unimpeded for prayers to ascend the more freely: all
   these things make an impression of solemnity, which Saint
   Peter's itself fails to produce. 'I think,' said the sculptor,
   'it is to the aperture in the dome—that great Eye, gazing
   heavenward—that the Pantheon owes the peculiarity of its
   effect.'"

      N. Hawthorne,
      The Marble Faun,
      chapter 50.

{2417}

PANTIBIBLON, The exhumed Library of.

      See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT: BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.

PANTIKAPÆUM.

      See BOSPHORUS, THE CITY AND KINGDOM.

PAOLI, and the Corsican struggle.

      See CORSICA: A. D. 1729-1769.

PAOLI, Surprise of Wayne at.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

   ----------PAPACY: Start--------

PAPACY:
   St. Peter and the Church at Rome.

   "The generally received account among Roman Catholics, and one
   which can claim a long traditional acceptance, is that Peter
   came to Rome in the second year of Claudius (that is, A. D.
   42), and that he held the see twenty-five years, a length of
   episcopate never reached again until by Pio Nono, who exceeded
   it. … Now if it is possible to prove a negative at all, we may
   conclude, with at least high probability, that Peter was not
   at Rome during any of the time on which the writings of the
   canonical Scriptures throw much light, and almost certainly
   that during that time he was not its bishop. We have an
   Epistle of Paul to the Romans full of salutations to his
   friends there, but no mention of their bishop. Nor is anything
   said of work done by Peter in founding that Church. On the
   contrary, it is implied that no Apostle had as yet visited it;
   for such is the inference from the passage already cited, in
   which Paul expresses his wish to see the Roman Christians in
   order that he might impart some spiritual gift to the end that
   they might be established. We have letters of Paul from Rome
   in which no message is sent from Peter; and in the very last
   of these letters Paul complains of being left alone, and that
   only Luke was with him. Was Peter one of the deserters? The
   Scripture accounts of Peter place him in Judæa, in Antioch,
   possibly in Corinth, but finally in Babylon. … Plainly, if
   Peter was ever at Rome, it was after the date of Paul's second
   Epistle to Timothy. Some Protestant controversialists have
   asserted that Peter was never at Rome; but though the proofs
   that he was there are not so strong as I should like them to
   be if I had any doctrine depending on it, I think the historic
   probability is that he was; though, as I say, at a late period
   of the history, and not long before his death. … For myself, I
   am willing, in the absence of any opposing tradition, to
   accept the current account that Peter suffered martyrdom at
   Rome. We know with certainty from John xxi. that Peter
   suffered martyrdom somewhere. If Rome, which early laid claim
   to have witnessed that martyrdom, were not the scene of it,
   where then did it take place? Any city would be glad to claim
   such a connexion with the name of the Apostle, and none but
   Rome made the claim. … From the question, whether Peter ever
   visited Rome, we pass now to a very different question,
   whether he was its bishop. … We think it scandalous when we
   read of bishops a hundred years ago who never went near their
   sees. … But if we are to believe Roman theory, the bad example
   had been set by St. Peter, who was the first absentee bishop.
   If he became bishop of Rome in the second year of Claudius, he
   appears never afterwards to have gone near his see until close
   upon his death. Nay, he never even wrote a letter to his
   Church while he was away; or if he did, they did not think it
   worth preserving. Baronius (in Ann. lviii. § 51) owns the
   force of the Scripture reasons for believing that Peter was
   not in Rome during any time on which the New Testament throws
   light. His theory is that, when Claudius commanded all Jews to
   leave Rome, Peter was forced to go away. And as for his
   subsequent absences, they were forced on him by his duty as
   the chief of the Apostles, having care of all the Churches. …
   These, no doubt, are excellent reasons for Peter's not
   remaining at Rome; but why, then, did he undertake duties
   which he must have known he could not fulfil?"

      G. Salmon,
      The Infallibility of the Church,
      pages 347-350.

   The Roman Catholic belief as to St. Peter's episcopacy, and
   the primacy conferred by it on the Roman See, is stated by Dr.
   Dollinger as follows: "The time of … [St. Peter's] arrival in
   Rome, and the consequent duration of his episcopacy in that
   city, have been the subjects of many various opinions amongst
   the learned of ancient and modern times; nor is it possible to
   reconcile the apparently conflicting statements of ancient
   writers, unless we suppose that the prince of the apostles
   resided at two distinct periods in the imperial capital.
   According to St. Jerome, Eusebius, and Orosius, his first
   arrival in Rome was in the second year of the reign of
   Claudius (A. D. 42); but he was obliged, by the decree of the
   emperor, banishing all Jews from the city, to return to
   Jerusalem. From Jerusalem he undertook a journey through Asia
   Minor, and founded, or at least, visited, the Churches of
   Pontus, Gallacia, Cappadocia, and Bythinia. To these Churches
   he afterwards addressed his epistle from Rome. His second
   journey to Rome was in the reign of Nero; and it is of this
   journey that Dionysius, of Corinth, and Lactantius, write.
   There, with the blessed Paul, he suffered, in the year 67, the
   death of a martyr. We may now ascertain that the period of
   twenty-five years assigned by Eusebius and St. Jerome, to the
   episcopacy of St. Peter in Rome, is not a fiction of their
   imaginations; for from the second year of Claudius, in which
   the apostle founded the Church of Rome, to the year of his
   death, there intervene exactly twenty-five years. That he
   remained during the whole of this period in Rome, no one has
   pretended. … Our Lord conferred upon his apostle, Peter, the
   supreme authority in the Church. After he had required and
   obtained from him a public profession of his faith, he
   declared him to be the rock, the foundation upon which he
   would build his Church; and, at the same time, promised that
   he would give to him the keys of the kingdom of heaven. … In
   the enumeration of the apostles, frequently repeated by the
   Evangelists, we find that Peter is always the first named:—he
   is sometimes named alone, when the others are mentioned in
   general.
{2418}
   After the ascension of our Lord, it is he who directs and
   governs: he leads the assembly in which a successor to the
   apostle who had prevaricated, is chosen: after the descent of
   the Holy Ghost, he speaks first to the people, and announces
   to them Jesus Christ: he performs the first miracle, and, in
   the name of his brethren, addresses the synedrium: he punishes
   the crime of Ananias: he opens the gates of the Church to the
   Gentiles, and presides at the first council at Jerusalem. …
   The more the Church was extended, and the more its
   constitution was formed, the more necessary did the power with
   which Peter had been invested become,—the more evident was the
   need of a head which united the members in one body, of a
   point and centre of unity. … Succession by ordination was the
   means, by which from the beginning the power left by Christ in
   his Church was continued: thus the power of the apostles
   descended to the bishops, their successors, and thus as Peter
   died bishop of the Church of Rome, where he sealed his
   doctrine with his blood, the primacy which he had received
   would be continued in him by whom he was there succeeded. It
   was not without a particular interposition of Providence that
   this pre-eminence was granted to the city of Rome, and that it
   became the depository of ecclesiastical supremacy. This city,
   which rose in the midway between the east and the west, by its
   position, by its proximity to the sea, by its dignity, as
   capital of the Roman empire, being open on all sides to
   communication even with the most distant nations, was
   evidently more than any other adapted to become the centre of
   the universal Church. … There are not wanting, in the first
   three centuries, testimonies and facts, some of which directly
   attest, and others presuppose, the supremacy of the Roman
   Church and of its bishops."

      J. J. I. Dollinger,
      History of the Church,
      period 1, chapter 1, section 4,
      and chapter 3, section 4 (volume 1).

PAPACY:
   Supremacy of the Roman See: Grounds of the Claim.

   The historical ground of the claim to supremacy over the
   Christian Church asserted on behalf of the Roman See is stated
   by Cardinal Gibbons as follows: "I shall endeavor to show,
   from incontestable historical evidence, that the Popes have
   always, from the days of the Apostles, continued to exercise
   supreme jurisdiction, not only in the Western church, till the
   Reformation, but also throughout the Eastern church, till the
   great schism of the ninth century.

   1. Take the question of appeals. An appeal is never made from
   a superior to an inferior court, nor even from one court to
   another of co-ordinate jurisdiction. We do not appeal from
   Washington to Richmond, but from Richmond to Washington. Now
   if we find the See of Rome, from the foundation of
   Christianity, entertaining and deciding cases of appeal from
   the Oriental churches; if we find that her decision was final
   and irrevocable, we must conclude that the supremacy of Rome
   over all the churches is an undeniable fact. Let me give you a
   few illustrations: To begin with Pope St. Clement, who was the
   third successor of St. Peter, and who is laudably mentioned by
   St. Paul in one of his Epistles. Some dissension and scandal
   having occurred in the church of Corinth, the matter is
   brought to the notice of Pope Clement. He at once exercises
   his supreme authority by writing letters of remonstrance and
   admonition to the Corinthians. And so great was the reverence
   entertained for these Epistles, by the faithful of Corinth,
   that for a century later it was customary to have them
   publicly read in their churches. Why did the Corinthians
   appeal to Rome far away in the West, and not to Ephesus so
   near home in the East, where the Apostle St. John still lived?
   Evidently because the jurisdiction of Ephesus was local, while
   that of Rome was universal. About the year 190, the question
   regarding the proper day for celebrating Easter was agitated
   in the East, and referred to Pope St. Victor I. The Eastern
   church generally celebrated Easter on the day on which the
   Jews kept the Passover; while in the West it was observed
   then, as it is now, on the first Sunday after the full moon of
   the vernal equinox. St. Victor directs the Eastern churches,
   for the sake of uniformity, to conform to the practice of the
   West, and his instructions are universally followed.
   Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, about the middle of the third
   century, having heard that the Patriarch of Alexandria erred
   on some points of faith, demands an explanation of the
   suspected Prelate, who, in obedience to his superior, promptly
   vindicates his own orthodoxy. St. Athanasius, the great
   Patriarch of Alexandria, appeals in the fourth century, to
   Pope Julius I., from an unjust decision rendered against him
   by the Oriental bishops; and the Pope reverses the sentence of
   the Eastern council. St. Basil, Archbishop of Cæsarea, in the
   same century, has recourse, in his afflictions, to the
   protection of Pope Damasus. St. John Chrysostom, Patriarch of
   Constantinople, appeals in the beginning of the fifth century,
   to Pope Innocent I., for a redress of grievances inflicted on
   him by several Eastern Prelates, and by the Empress Eudoxia of
   Constantinople. St. Cyril appeals to Pope Celestine against
   Nestorius; Nestorius also appeals to the same Pontiff, who
   takes the side of Cyril. Theodoret, the illustrious historian
   and Bishop of Cyrrhus, is condemned by the pseudo-council of
   Ephesus in 449, and appeals to Pope Leo. … John, Abbot of
   Constantinople, appeals from the decision of the Patriarch of
   that city to Pope St. Gregory I., who reverses the sentence of
   the Patriarch. In 859, Photius addressed a letter to Pope
   Nicholas I., asking the Pontiff to confirm his election to the
   Patriarchate of Constantinople. In consequence of the Pope's
   conscientious refusal, Photius broke off from the communion of
   the Catholic Church, and became the author of the Greek
   schism. Here are a few examples taken at random from Church
   History. We see Prelates most eminent for their sanctity and
   learning, occupying the highest position in the Eastern
   church, and consequently far removed from the local influences
   of Rome, appealing in every period of the early church, from
   the decisions of their own Bishops and their Councils to the
   supreme arbitration of the Holy See. If this does not
   constitute superior jurisdiction, I have yet to learn what
   superior authority means.

   2. Christians of every denomination admit the orthodoxy of the
   Fathers of the first five centuries of the Church. No one has
   ever called in question the faith of such men as Basil,
   Chrysostom, Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose, and Leo. …
   Now the Fathers of the Church, with one voice, pay homage to
   the Bishops of Rome as their superiors. …

{2419}

   3. Ecumenical Councils afford another eloquent vindication of
   Papal supremacy. An Ecumenical or General Council is an
   assemblage of Prelates representing the whole Catholic Church.
   … Up to the present time, nineteen Ecumenical Councils have
   been convened, including the Council of the Vatican. … The
   first General Council was held in Nicæa, in 325; the second,
   in Constantinople, in 381; the third, in Ephesus, in 431; the
   fourth, in Chalcedon, in 451; the fifth, in Constantinople, in
   553; the sixth, in the same city, in 680; the seventh, in
   Nicæa, in 787; and the eighth, in Constantinople, in 809. The
   Bishops of Rome convoked these assemblages, or at least
   consented to their convocation; they presided by their legates
   over all of them, except the first and second councils of
   Constantinople, and they confirmed all these eight by their
   authority. Before becoming a law, the acts of the Councils
   required the Pope's signature.

   4. I shall refer to one more historical point in support of
   the Pope's jurisdiction over the whole Church. It is a most
   remarkable fact that every nation hitherto converted from
   Paganism to Christianity, since the days of the Apostles, has
   received the light of faith from missionaries who were either
   especially commissioned by the See of Rome, or sent by Bishops
   in open communion with that See. This historical fact admits
   of no exception. Let me particularize: Ireland's Apostle is
   St. Patrick. Who commissioned him? Pope St. Celestine, in the
   fifth century. St. Palladius is the Apostle of Scotland. Who
   sent him? The same Pontiff, Celestine. The Anglo-Saxons
   received the faith from St. Augustine, a Benedictine monk, as
   all historians Catholic and non-Catholic testify: Who
   empowered Augustine to preach? Pope Gregory I., at the end of
   the sixth century. St. Remigius established the faith in
   France, at the close of the fifth century. He was in active
   communion with the See of Peter. Flanders received the Gospel
   in the seventh century from St. Eligius, who acknowledged the
   supremacy of the reigning Pope. Germany and Bavaria venerate
   as their Apostle St. Boniface, who is popularly known in his
   native England by his baptismal name of Winfrid. He was
   commissioned by Pope Gregory II., in the beginning of the
   eighth century, and was consecrated Bishop by the same
   Pontiff. In the ninth century, two saintly brothers, Cyril and
   Methodius, evangelized Russia, Sclavonia, and Moravia, and
   other parts of Northern Europe. They recognized the supreme
   authority of Pope Nicholas I., and of his successors, Adrian
   II. and John VIII. In the eleventh century, Norway was
   converted by missionaries introduced from England by the
   Norwegian King St. Olave. The conversion of Sweden was
   consummated in the same century by the British Apostles Saints
   Ulfrid and Eskill. Both of these nations immediately after
   their conversion commenced to pay Rome-scot, or a small annual
   tribute to the Holy See,—a clear evidence that they were in
   communion with the Chair of Peter. All the other nations of
   Europe, having been converted before the Reformation, received
   likewise the light of faith from Roman Catholic missionaries,
   because Europe then recognized only one Christian Chief."

      James, Cardinal Gibbons,
      The Faith of our Fathers,
      chapter 10.

      ALSO IN:
      Francis P. Kenrick, Archbishop of Baltimore,
      The Primacy of the Apostolic See vindicated.

PAPACY:
   Supremacy of the Roman See:
   Grounds of the Denial.

   "The first document by which the partisans of the Papal
   sovereignty justify themselves, is the letter written by St.
   Clement in the name of the Church at Rome to the Church at
   Corinth. They assert, that it was written by virtue of a
   superior authority attached to his title of Bishop of Rome.
   Now, it is unquestionable, 1st. That St. Clement was not
   Bishop of Rome when he wrote to the Corinthians. 2d. That in
   this matter he did not act of his own authority, but in the
   name of the Church at Rome, and from motives of charity. The
   letter signed by St. Clement was written A. D. 69, immediately
   after the persecution by Nero, which took place between the
   years 64 and 68, as all learned men agree. … It may be seen
   from the letter itself that it was written after a
   persecution; if it be pretended that this persecution was that
   of Domitian, then the letter must be dated in the last years
   of the first century, since it was chiefly in the years 95 and
   96 that the persecution of Domitian took place. Now, it is
   easy to see from the letter itself, that it was written before
   that time, for it speaks of the Jewish sacrifices as still
   existing in the temple of Jerusalem. The temple was destroyed
   with the city of Jerusalem, by Titus A. D. 70. Hence, the
   letter must have been written before that year. Besides, the
   letter was written after some persecution, in which had
   suffered, at Rome, some very illustrious martyrs. There was
   nothing of the kind in the persecution of Domitian. The
   persecution of Nero lasted from the year 64 to the year 68.
   Hence it follows, that the letter to the Corinthians could
   only have been written in the year 69, that is to say,
   twenty-four years before Clement was Bishop of Rome. In
   presence of this simple calculation what becomes of the stress
   laid by the partisans of Papal sovereignty, upon the
   importance of this document as emanating from Pope St.
   Clement? Even if it could be shown that the letter of St.
   Clement was written during his episcopate, this would prove
   nothing, because this letter was not written by him by virtue
   of a superior and personal authority possessed by him, but
   from mere charity, and in the name of the Church at Rome. Let
   us hear Eusebius upon this subject: 'Of this Clement there is
   one epistle extant, acknowledged as genuine, … which he wrote
   in the name of the Church at Rome to that of Corinth, at the
   time when there was a dissension in the latter.' … He could
   not say more explicitly, that Clement did not in this matter
   act of his own authority, by virtue of any power he
   individually possessed. Nothing in the letter itself gives a
   suspicion of such authority. It thus commences: 'The Church of
   God which is at Rome, to the Church of God which is at
   Corinth.' … There is every reason to believe that St. Clement
   draughted this letter to the Corinthians. From the first
   centuries it has been considered as his work. It was not as
   Bishop of Rome, but as a disciple of the Apostles, that he
   wrote it. … In the second century the question concerning
   Easter was agitated with much warmth. Many Oriental Churches
   wished to follow the Judaical traditions, preserved by several
   Apostles in the celebration of that feast, and to hold it upon
   the fourteenth day of the March moon; other Eastern Churches,
   in agreement with the Western Churches according to an equally
   Apostolic tradition, celebrated the festival of Easter the Sunday
   following the fourteenth day of the March moon.
{2420}
   The question in itself considered was of no great importance;
   and yet it was generally thought that all the Churches should
   celebrate at one and the same time the great Christian
   festival, and that some should not be rejoicing over the
   resurrection of the Saviour, while others were contemplating
   the mysteries of his death. How was the question settled? Did
   the Bishop of Rome interpose his authority and overrule the
   discussion, as would have been the case had he enjoyed a
   supreme authority? Let us take the evidence of History. The
   question having been agitated, 'there were synods and
   convocations of the Bishops on this question,' says Eusebius,
   'and all unanimously drew up an ecclesiastical decree, which
   they communicated to all the Churches in all places. … There
   is an epistle extant even now of those who were assembled at
   the time; among whom presided Theophilus, Bishop of the Church
   in Cesarea and Narcissus, Bishop of Jerusalem. There is
   another epistle' (of the Roman Synod) 'extant on the same
   question, bearing the name of Victor. An epistle also of the
   Bishops in Pontus, among whom Palmas, as the most ancient,
   presided; also of the Churches of Gaul over whom Irenæus
   presided. Moreover, one from those in Osrhoene, and the cities
   there. And a particular epistle from Bacchyllus, Bishop of the
   Corinthians; and epistles of many others who, advancing one
   and the same doctrine, also passed the same vote.' It is
   evident that Eusebius speaks of the letter of the Roman synod
   in the same terms as of the others; he does not attribute it
   to Bishop Victor, but to the assembly of the Roman Clergy; and
   lastly, he only mentions it in the second place after that of
   the Bishops of Palestine. Here is a point irrefragably
   established; it is that in the matter of Easter, the Church of
   Rome discussed and judged the question in the same capacity as
   the other churches, and that the Bishop of Rome only signed
   the letter in the name of the synod which represented that
   Church."

      Abbé Guettée,
      The Papacy,
      pages 53-58.

   "At the time of the Council of Nicæa it was clear that the
   metropolitans of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, held a
   superior rank among their brethren, and had a kind of
   ill-defined jurisdiction over the provinces of several
   metropolitans. The fathers of Nicæa recognized the fact that
   the privileges of these sees were regulated by customs already
   regarded as primitive, and these customs they confirmed. … The
   empire was afterwards divided for the purposes of civil
   government into four Prefectures. … The organization of the
   Church followed in its main lines that of the empire. It also
   had its dioceses and provinces, coinciding for the most part
   with the similarly named political divisions. Not only did the
   same circumstances which marked out a city for political
   preeminence also indicate it as a fit centre of ecclesiastical
   rule, but it was a recognized principle with the Church that
   the ecclesiastical should follow the civil division. At the
   head of a diocese was a patriarch, at the head of a province
   was a metropolitan; the territory of a simple bishop was a
   parish. … The see of Constantinople … became the oriental
   counterpart of that of Rome. … But the patriarchal system of
   government, like every other, suffered from the shocks of
   time. The patriarch of Antioch had, in the first instance, the
   most extensive territory, for he claimed authority not only
   over the civil diocese of the East, but over the Churches in
   Persia, Media, Parthia, and India, which lay beyond the limits
   of the empire. But this large organization was but loosely
   knit, and constantly tended to dissolution. … After the
   conquests of Caliph Omar the great see of Antioch sank into
   insignificance. The region subject to the Alexandrian
   patriarch was much smaller than that of Antioch, but it was
   better compacted. Here too however the Monophysite tumult so
   shook its organization that it was no longer able to resist
   the claims of the patriarch of Constantinople. It also fell
   under the dominion of the Saracens—a fate which had already
   befallen Jerusalem. In the whole East there remained only the
   patriarch of Constantinople in a condition to exercise actual
   authority. … According to Rufinus's version of the sixth canon
   of the Council of Nicæa, the Bishop of Rome had entrusted to
   him the care of the suburbicarian churches [probably including
   Lower Italy and most of Central Italy, with Sicily, Sardinia
   and Corsica]. … But many causes tended to extend the authority
   of the Roman patriarch beyond these modest limits. The
   patriarch of Constantinople depended largely for his authority
   on the will of the emperor, and his spiritual realm was
   agitated by the constant intrigues of opposing parties. His
   brother of Rome enjoyed generally more freedom in matters
   spiritual, and the diocese over which he presided, keeping
   aloof for the most part from controversies on points of dogma,
   was therefore comparatively calm and united. Even the
   Orientals were impressed by the majesty of old Rome, and gave
   great honour to its bishop. In the West, the highest respect
   was paid to those sees which claimed an Apostle as founder,
   and among these the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul naturally
   took the highest place. It was, in fact, the one apostolic see
   of Western Europe, and as such received a unique regard. …
   Doubtful questions about apostolic doctrine and custom were
   addressed certainly to other distinguished bishops, as
   Athanasius and Basil, but they came more readily and more
   constantly to Rome, as already the last appeal in many civil
   matters. We must not suppose however that the Churches of the
   East were ready to accept the sway of Rome, however they might
   respect the great city of the West. … The authority of the
   Roman see increased from causes which are sufficiently obvious
   to historical enquirers. But the greatest of the Roman bishops
   were far too wise to tolerate the supposition that their power
   depended on earthly sanctions. They contended steadfastly that
   they were the heads of the Church on earth, because they were
   the successors of him to whom the Lord had given the keys of
   the kingdom of heaven, St. Peter. And they also contended that
   Rome was, in the most emphatic sense, the mother-church of the
   whole West. Innocent I. claims that no Church had ever been
   founded in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa, Sicily, or the
   Mediterranean islands, except by men who had received their
   commission from St. Peter or his successors. At the same time,
   they admitted that the privileges of the see were not wholly
   derived immediately from its founder, but were conferred by
   past generations out of respect for St. Peter's see.
{2421}
   But the bishop who most clearly and emphatically asserted the
   claims of the Roman see to preeminence over the whole Church
   on earth was no doubt Leo I., a great man who filled a most
   critical position with extraordinary firmness and ability.
   Almost every argument by which in later times the authority of
   the see of St. Peter was supported is to be found in the
   letters of Leo. … The Empire of the West never seriously
   interfered with the proceedings of the Roman bishop; and when
   it fell, the Church became the heir of the empire. In the
   general crash, the Latin Christians found themselves compelled
   to drop their smaller differences, and rally round the
   strongest representative of the old order. The Teutons, who
   shook to pieces the imperial system, brought into greater
   prominence the essential unity of all that was Catholic and
   Latin in the empire, and so strengthened the position of the
   see of Rome. … It must not however be supposed that the views
   of the Roman bishops as to the authority of Rome were
   universally accepted even in the West. Many Churches had grown
   up independently of Rome and were abundantly conscious of the
   greatness of their own past. … And in the African Church the
   reluctance to submit to Roman dictation which had showed
   itself in Cyprian's time was maintained for many generations.
   … In Gaul too there was a vigorous resistance to the
   jurisdiction of the see of St. Peter."

      S. Cheetham,
      History of the Christian Church
      during the First Six Centuries,
      pages 181-195.

   "A colossal city makes a colossal bishop, and this principle
   reached its maximum embodiment in Rome. The greatest City of
   the World made the greatest Bishop of the World. Even when the
   Empire was heathen the City lifted the Bishop so high that he
   drew to himself the unwelcome attention of the secular power,
   and in succession, in consequence, as in no other see, the
   early Bishops of Rome were martyrs. When the Empire became
   Christian, Rome's place was recognized as first, and the
   principle on which that primacy rested was clearly and
   accurately defined when the Second General Council, acting on
   this principle, assigned to the new seat of empire,
   Constantinople, the second place; it was the principle,
   namely, of honor, based upon material greatness. … The
   principle of the primacy, as distinguished from the supremacy
   growing out of Petrine claims was the heart and soul of
   Gallicanism in contrast to Ultramontanism, and was crushed out
   even in the Roman communion not twenty years ago."

      Rt. Rev. G. F. Seymour,
      The Church of Rome in her relation to Christian Unity
      ("History and Teachings of the Early Church," lecture 5).

      ALSO IN:
      H. Hallam,
      The Middle Ages,
      chapter 7, part 1.

PAPACY:
   Origin of the Papal title.

   "'Papa,' that strange and universal mixture of familiar
   endearment and of reverential awe, extended in a general sense
   to all Greek Presbyters and all Latin Bishops, was the special
   address which, long before the names of patriarch or
   archbishop, was given to the head of the Alexandrian church. …
   He was the Pope. The Pope of Rome was a phrase which had not
   yet [at the time of the meeting of the Council of Nicæa, A. D.
   325] emerged in history. But Pope of Alexandria was a
   well-known dignity. … This peculiar Alexandrian application of
   a name, in itself expressing simple affection, is thus
   explained:—Down to Heraclas (A. D. 230), the Bishop of
   Alexandria, being the sole Egyptian Bishop, was called 'Abba'
   (father), and his clergy 'elders.' From his time more bishops
   were created, who then received the name of 'Abba,' and
   consequently the name of 'Papa' ('ab-aba,' pater
   patrum=grandfather) was appropriated to the primate. The Roman
   account (inconsistent with facts) is that the name was first
   given to Cyril, as representing the Bishop of Rome in the
   Council of Ephesus. (Suicer, in voce). The name was fixed to
   the Bishop of Rome in the 7th century."

      A. P. Stanley,
      Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church,
      lecture 3.

      ALSO IN:
      J. Bingham,
      Antiquities of the Christian Church,
      book 2, chapter 2, section 7.

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Christian History,
      section 130.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 312-337.

PAPACY: A. D. 42-461.
   The early Bishops of Rome, to Leo the Great.

   The following is the succession of the popes, according to
   Roman Catholic authorities, during the first four hundred and
   twenty years:
   "Peter, to the year of Christ 67;
   Linus,
   Anencletus,
   Clement; (to 77?)
   Evaristus,
   Alexander,
   Xystus,
   Telesphorus,
   Hyginus, to 142;
   Pius, to 157;
   Anicetus, to 168;
   Soter, to 177;
   Eleutherius, to 193;
   Victor, to 202;
   Zephyrinus, to 219;
   Callistus, to 223;
   Urban, to 230;
   Pontianus, to 235;
   Anterus, to 236;
   Fabian, to 250;
   Cornelius, from 251 to 252;
   Lucius, to 253;
   Stephan, to 257;
   Xystus II, to 258;
   Dionysius, from 259 to 269;
   Felix, to 274;
   Eutychianus, to 283;
   Caius, to 296;
   Marcellinus, to 304;
   Marcellus, after a vacancy of four years, from 308 to 310;
   Eusebius, from the 20th of May to the 26th of September, 310;
   Melchiades, from 311 to 314;
   Silvester, from 314 to 335. …
   Mark was chosen on the 18th of January 336,
   and died on the 7th of October of the same year.
   Julius I, from 337 to 352, the steadfast defender of St.
   Athanasius. …

   The less steadfast Liberius, from 352 to 366, purchased, in
   358 his return from exile by an ill-placed condescension to
   the demands of the Arians. He, however, soon redeemed .the
   honour which he had forfeited by this step, by his
   condemnation of the council of Rimini, for which act he was
   again driven from his Church. During his banishment, the Roman
   clergy were compelled to elect the deacon Felix in his place,
   or probably only as administrator of the Roman Church. When
   Liberius returned to Rome, Felix fled from the city, and died
   in the country, in 365.

   Damasus, from 366 to 384, by birth a Spaniard, had, at the
   very commencement of his pontificate, to assert his rights
   against a rival named Ursicinus, who obtained consecration
   from some bishops a few days after the election of Damasus.
   The faction of Ursicinus was the cause of much bloodshed. …

   Siricius, from 385 to 389, was, although Ursicinus again
   endeavoured to intrude himself, unanimously chosen by the
   clergy and people. …

   Anastasius, from 398 to 402; a pontiff, highly extolled by his
   successor, and by St. Jerome, of whom the latter says, that he
   was taken early from this earth, because Rome was not longer
   worthy of him, and that he might not survive the desolation of
   the city by Alaric. He was succeeded by Innocent I, from 402
   to 417. … During the possession of Rome by Alaric [see ROME:
   A. D. 408-410], Innocent went to Ravenna, to supplicate the
   emperor, in the name of the Romans, to conclude a peace with
   the Goths. The pontificate of his successor, the Greek
   Zosimus, was only of twenty one months.
{2422}
   The election of Boniface, from 418 to 422, was disturbed by
   the violence of the archdeacon Eulalius, who had attached a
   small party to his interests. … He was followed by Celestine
   I, from 422 to 432, the combatant of Nestorianism and of
   Semipelagianism. To Sixtus III, from 432 to 440, the
   metropolitans, Helladius of Tarsus, and Eutherius of Tyana,
   appealed, when they were threatened with deposition at the
   peace between St. Cyril and John of Antioch. Leo the Great,
   from 440 to 461, is the first pope of whom we possess a
   collection of writings: they consist of 96 discourses on
   festivals, and 141 epistles. By his high and well-merited
   authority, he saved Rome, in 452, from the devastation of the
   Huns; and induced Attila, named 'the scourge of God,' to
   desist from his invasion of Italy [see HUNS: A. D. 452].
   Again, when, in 457 [455], the Vandal king Geiserich entered
   Rome [see ROME: A. D. 455], the Romans were indebted to the
   eloquent persuasions of their holy bishop for the
   preservation, at least, of their lives."

      J. J. I. Döllinger,
      History of the Church,
      volume 2, pages 213-215.

   "For many centuries the bishops of Rome had been comparatively
   obscure persons: indeed, Leo was the first really great man
   who occupied the see, but he occupied it under circumstances
   which tended without exception to put power in his hand. …
   Circumstances were thrusting greatness upon the see of St.
   Peter: the glory of the Empire was passing into her hands, the
   distracted Churches of Spain and Africa, harassed and torn in
   pieces by barbarian hordes and wearied with heresies, were in
   no position to assert independence in any matter, and were
   only too glad to look to any centre whence a measure of
   organization and of strength seemed to radiate; and the popes
   had not been slow in rising to welcome and promote the
   greatness with which the current and tendency of the age was
   investing them. Their rule seems to have been, more than
   anything else, to make the largest claim, and enforce as much
   of it as they could, but the theory of papal power was still
   indeterminate, vague, unfixed. She was Patriarch of the West
   —what rights did that give her? … Was her claim … a claim of
   jurisdiction merely, or did she hold herself forth as a
   doctrinal authority in a sense in which other bishops were
   not? In this respect, again, the claim into which Leo entered
   was indefinite and unformulated. … The Imperial instincts of
   old Rome are dominant in him, all that sense of discipline,
   order, government—all the hatred of uniformity, individuality,
   eccentricity. These are the elements which make up Leo's mind.
   He is above all things a governor and an administrator. He has
   got a law of ecclesiastical discipline, a supreme canon of
   dogmatic truth, and these are his instruments to subdue the
   troubled world. … The rule which governed Leo's conduct as
   pope was a very simple one, it was to take every opportunity
   which offered itself for asserting and enforcing the authority
   of his see: he was not troubled with historical or scriptural
   doubts or scruples which might cast a shadow of indecision,
   'the pale cast of thought,' on his resolutions and actions. To
   him the papal authority had come down as the great inheritance
   of his position; it was identified in his mind with the order,
   the authority, the discipline, the orthodoxy which he loved so
   dearly; it suited exactly his Imperial ambition, in a word,
   his 'Roman' disposition and character, and he took it as his
   single great weapon against heresy and social confusion."

      C. Gore,
      Leo the Great,
      chapters 6 and 7.

PAPACY: A. D. 461-604.
   The succession of Popes from Leo the Great
   to Gregory the Great.

   The successor of Leo the Great, "the Sardinian Hilarius, from
   461 to 468, had been one of his legates at the council of
   Ephesus in 449. … The zeal of Simplicius, from 468 to 483, was
   called into action chiefly by the confusion occasioned in the
   east by the Monophysites. The same may be said of Felix II (or
   III) from 483 to 492, in whose election the prefect Basilius
   concurred, as plenipotentiary of king Odoacer. Gelasius I,
   from 492 to 496, and Anastasius II, laboured, but in vain, in
   endeavouring to heal the schism, formed by Acacius, at
   Constantinople. This schism occasioned a division in Rome at
   the election of a new pontiff. The senator Festus had promised
   the emperor that he would enforce the reception of the
   Henoticon at Rome; and by means of corruption established
   against the deacon Symmachus, who had in his favour the
   majority of voices, a powerful party, which chose Laurence as
   antipope. Again was a double election the cause of bloody
   strife in the streets of Rome, until the Arian king,
   Theodoric, at Ravenna, declared for Symmachus, who gave to his
   rival the bishopric of Luceria. … More tranquil was the
   pontificate of the succeeding pope, Hormisdas, from 514 to
   523, and made illustrious by the restoration of peace, in 519,
   in the eastern Church.

   John I died at Ravenna, in 519, in prison, into which he was
   cast by the suspicious Theodoric, after his return from
   Constantinople.

   Felix III (or IV) from 526 to 530, was chosen by the Romans,
   at the command of the king. At short intervals, followed
   Boniface II, from 530 to 532; and John II, from 533 to 535.

   Agapite I went, at the desire of the Gothic king, Theodatus,
   to obtain peace from the emperor, to Constantinople, where he
   died in 536.

   Sylverius died, in 540, during his second exile, on the island
   of Palmaria. … Vigilius, who was ordained in 537, and who
   became lawful pope in 540, was compelled to remain in the
   east, from 546 to 554, sometimes a prisoner in Constantinople,
   and sometimes in exile. He died at Syracuse, on his return to
   Rome, in 555. Pelagius I, from 555 to 560, found difficulty in
   obtaining an acknowledgement of his election, as, by his
   condemnation of the three articles, he was considered in the
   west as a traitor to the council of Chalcedon, and because
   there existed a suspicion that he was accessory to the death
   of Vigilius.

   John III, from 560 to 573, beheld the commencement of the
   Lombard dominion in Italy.

   Benedict I, from 574 to 578, and Pelagius II, from 578 to 590,
   ruled the Church during the melancholy times of the Lombard
   devastations. One of the most splendid appearances in the
   series of the Roman pontiffs was that of Gregory the Great,
   from 590 to 604."

      J. J. I. Döllinger,
      History of the Church,
      volume 2, pages 213-217.

{2423}

   "Pope Pelagius died on the 8th of February, 590. The people of
   Rome … were at this time in the utmost straits. Italy lay
   prostrate and miserable under the Lombard invasion; the
   invaders now threatened Rome itself, and its inhabitants
   trembled; famine and pestilence within the city produced a
   climax of distress; an overflow of the Tiber at the time
   aggravated the general alarm and misery; Gregory himself, in
   one of his letters, compares Rome at this time to an old and
   shattered ship, letting in the waves on all sides, tossed by a
   daily storm, its planks rotten and sounding of wreck. In this
   state of things all men's thoughts at once turned to Gregory.
   The pope was at this period the virtual ruler of Rome, and the
   greatest power in Italy; and they must have Gregory as their
   pope; for, if anyone could save them, it was he. His abilities
   in public affairs had been proved; all Rome knew his character
   and attainments; he had now the further reputation of eminent
   saintliness. He was evidently the one man for the post; and
   accordingly he was unanimously elected by clergy, senate, and
   people. But he shrank from the proffered dignity. There was
   one way by which he might possibly escape it. No election of a
   pope could at this time take effect without the emperor's
   confirmation, and an embassy had to be sent to Constantinople
   to obtain it. Gregory therefore sent at the same time a letter
   to the emperor (Mauricius, who had succeeded Tiberius in 582),
   imploring him to withhold his confirmation; but it was
   intercepted by the prefect of the city, and another from the
   clergy, senate, and people sent in its place, entreating
   approval of their choice. … At length the imperial
   confirmation of his election arrived. He still refused; fled
   from the city in disguise, eluding the guards set to watch the
   gates, and hid himself in a forest cave. Pursued and
   discovered by means, it is said, of a supernatural light, he
   was brought back in triumph, conducted to the church of St.
   Peter, and at once ordained on the 3rd of September, 590. …
   Having been once placed in the high position he so little
   coveted, he rose to it at once, and fulfilled its multifarious
   duties with remarkable zeal and ability. His comprehensive
   policy, and his grasp of great issues, are not more remarkable
   than the minuteness of the details, in secular as well as
   religious matters, to which he was able to give his personal
   care. And this is the more striking in combination with the
   fact that, as many parts of his writings show, he remained all
   the time a monk at heart, thoroughly imbued with both the
   ascetic principles and the narrow credulity of contemporary
   monasticism. His private life, too, was still in a measure
   monastic: the monastic simplicity of his episcopal attire is
   noticed by his biographer; he lived with his clergy under
   strict rule, and in 595 issued a synodal decree substituting
   clergy for the boys and secular persons who had formerly
   waited on the pope in his chamber."

      J. Barmby,
      Gregory the Great,
      chapter 2.

   "Of the immense energy shown by St. Gregory in the exercise of
   his Principate, of the immense influence wielded by him both
   in the East and in the West, of the acknowledgment of his
   Principate by the answers which emperor and patriarch made to
   his demands and rebukes, we possess an imperishable record in
   the fourteen books of his letters which have been preserved to
   us. They are somewhat more than 850 in number. They range over
   every subject, and are addressed to every sort of person. If
   he rebukes the ambition of a patriarch, and complains of an
   emperor's unjust law, he cares also that the tenants on the
   vast estates of the Church which his officers superintend at a
   distance should not be in any way harshly treated. … The range
   of his letters is so great, their detail so minute, that they
   illuminate his time and enable us to form a mental picture,
   and follow faithfully that pontificate of fourteen years,
   incessantly interrupted by cares and anxieties for the
   preservation of his city, yet watching the beginnings and
   strengthening the polity of the western nations, and
   counterworking the advances of the eastern despotism. The
   divine order of greatness is, we know, to do and to teach.
   Few, indeed, have carried it out on so great a scale as St.
   Gregory. The mass of his writing preserved to us exceeds the
   mass preserved to us from all his predecessors together, even
   including St. Leo, who with him shares the name of Great, and
   whose sphere of action the mind compares with his. If he
   became to all succeeding times an image of the great
   sacerdotal life in his own person, so all ages studied in his
   words the pastoral care, joining him with St. Gregory of
   Nazianzum and St. Chrysostom. The man who closed his life at
   sixty-four, worn out, not with age, but with labour and bodily
   pains, stands, beside the learning of St. Jerome, the perfect
   episcopal life and statesmanship of St. Ambrose, the
   overpowering genius of St. Augustine, as the fourth doctor of
   the western Church, while he surpasses them all in that his
   doctorship was seated on St. Peter's throne. If he closes the
   line of Fathers, he begins the period when the Church, failing
   to preserve a rotten empire in political existence, creates
   new nations; nay, his own hand has laid for them their
   foundation-stones."

      T. W. Allies,
      The Holy See and the Wandering of the Nations,
      from St. Leo I. to St. Gregory I.,
      pages 309-335.

      See, also,
      ROME: A. D. 590-640.

PAPACY: A. D. 604-731.

   The succession of Popes.
   Sabinian, A. D. 604-606;
   Boniface III., 607;
   Boniface IV., 608-615;
   Deusdedit, 615-618;
   Boniface V., 619-625;
   Honorius I., 625-638;
   Severinus, 640;
   John IV., 640-642;
   Theodore I., 642-649;
   Martin I., 649-655;
   Eugenius I., 655-657;
   Vitalian, 657-672;
   Adeodatus II., 672-676;
   Donus I., 676-678;
   Agatho, 678-682;
   Leo II., 682-683;
   Benedict II., 684-685;
   John V., 685-686;
   Canon, 686-687;
   Sergius I.,687-701;
   John VI., 701-705;
   John VII., 705-707;
   Sisinnius, 708;
   Constantine, 708-715;
   Gregory II., 715-731.

PAPACY: A. D. 728-774.
   Rise of the Papal Sovereignty at Rome.

   The extinguishment of the authority of the Eastern emperors at
   Rome and in Italy began with the revolt provoked by the
   attempts of the iconoclastic Leo, the Isaurian, to abolish
   image-worship in the Christian churches (see ICONOCLASTIC
   CONTROVERSY). The Pope, Gregory II., remonstrated vehemently,
   but in vain. At his signal all central Italy rose in revolt.
   "The exarch was compelled to shut himself up in Ravenna; for
   the cities of Italy, instead of obeying the imperial officers,
   elected magistrates of their own, on whom they conferred, in
   some cases, the title of duke. Assemblies were held, and the
   project of electing an emperor of the West was adopted." But
   another danger showed itself at this juncture which alarmed
   Rome and Italy more than the iconoclastic persecutions of the
   Byzantine emperor. The king of the Lombards took advantage of
   the insurrection to extend his own domains. He invaded the
   exarchate and got actual possession of Ravenna; whereat Pope
   Gregory turned his influence to the Byzantine side, with such
   effect that the Lombards were beaten back and Ravenna
   recovered.
{2424}
   In 731 Gregory II. died and was succeeded by Pope Gregory III.
   "The election of Gregory III. to the papal chair was confirmed
   by the Emperor Leo in the usual form; nor was that pope
   consecrated until the mandate from Constantinople reached
   Rome. This was the last time the emperors of the East were
   solicited to confirm the election of a pope." Leo continued to
   press his severe measures against image-worship, and the pope
   boldly convened at Rome a synod of ninety-three bishops which
   excommunicated the whole body of the Iconoclasts, emperor and
   all. The latter now dispatched a strong expedition to Italy to
   suppress the threatening papal power; but it came to naught,
   and the Byzantine authority was practically at an end,
   already, within the range of papal leadership. "From this
   time, A. D. 733, the city of Rome enjoyed political
   independence under the guidance and protection of the popes;
   but the officers of the Byzantine emperors were allowed to
   reside in the city, justice was publicly administered by
   Byzantine judges, and the supremacy of the Eastern Empire was
   still recognised. So completely, however, had Gregory III.
   thrown off his allegiance, that he entered into negotiations
   with Charles Martel, in order to induce that powerful prince
   to take an active part in the affairs of Italy. The pope was
   now a much more powerful personage than the Exarch of Ravenna,
   for the cities of central Italy, which had assumed the control
   of their local government, intrusted the conduct of their
   external political relations to the care of Gregory, who thus
   held the balance of power between the Eastern emperor and the
   Lombard king. In the year 742, while Constantine V., the son
   of Leo, was engaged with a civil war, the Lombards were on the
   eve of conquering Ravenna, but Pope Zacharias threw the whole
   of the Latin influence into the Byzantine scale, and enabled
   the exarch to maintain his position until the year 751, when
   Astolph, king of the Lombards, captured Ravenna. The exarch
   retired to Naples, and the authority of the Byzantine emperors
   in central Italy ended."

      G. Finlay,
      History of the Byzantine Empire,
      book 1, chapter 1, section 2.

   The Lombards, having obtained Ravenna and overturned the
   throne of the Byzantine exarchs, were now bent on extending
   their sovereignty over Rome. But the popes found an ally
   beyond the Alps whose interests coincided with their own.
   Pepin, the first Carolingian king of the Franks, went twice to
   their rescue and broke the Lombard power; his son Charlemagne
   finished the work, and by the acts of both these kings the
   bishops of Rome were established in a temporal no less than a
   spiritual principality.

      See LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774.

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 49.

      ALSO IN:
      P. Godwin,
      History of France: Ancient Gaul,
      book 4, chapter 15.

      See, also, FRANKS: A. D. 768-814.

PAPACY: A. D. 731-816.
   The succession of Popes.

   Gregory III., A. D. 731-741;
   Zacharias, 741-752;
   Stephen I. (or II.), 752;
   Stephen II. (or III.), 752-757;
   Paul I., 757-767;
   Stephen III. (or IV.), 768-772;
   Hadrian I., 772-795;
   Leo III., 795-816.

PAPACY: A. D. 755-774.
   Origin of the Papal States.
   The Donations of Pepin and Charlemagne.

   As the result of Pepin's second expedition to Italy (A. D.
   755), "the Lombard king sued for quarter, promised to fulfil
   the terms of the treaty made in the preceding year, and to
   give up all the places mentioned in it. Pepin made them all
   over to the Holy See, by a solemn deed, which was placed in
   the archives of the Roman Church. … Pepin took such steps as
   should insure the execution of the Lombard's oath. Ravenna,
   Rimini, Resaro, Fano, Cesena, Sinigaglia, Jesi, Forlimpopoli,
   Forli, Castrocaro, Montefeltro, Acerragio, Montelucari,
   supposed to be the present Nocera, Serravalle, San Marigni,
   Bobio, Urbino, Caglio, Luccoli, Eugubio, Comacchio and Narni
   were evacuated by the Lombard troops; and the keys of the 22
   cities were laid, with King Pepin's deed of gift, upon the
   Confession of St. Peter. The independence of the Holy See was
   established."

      J; E. Darras,
      General History of the Catholic Church,
      period 3, chapter 10.

   "An embassy from the Byzantine emperor asserted, during the
   negotiation of the treaty, the claims of that sovereign to a
   restoration of the exarchate; but their petitions and demands
   failed of effect on 'the steadfast heart of Pippin' [or
   Pepin], who declared that he had fought alone in behalf of St.
   Peter, on whose Church he would bestow all the fruits of
   victory. Fulrad, his abbot, was commissioned to receive the
   keys of the twenty-two towns his arms had won, and to deposit
   them as a donation on the grave of the apostle at Rome. Thus
   the Pope was made the temporal head of that large district …
   which, with some few changes, has been held by his
   successors."

      P. Godwin,
      History of France: Ancient Gaul,
      book 4, chapter 15.

   "When on Pipin's death the restless Lombards again took up
   arms and menaced the possessions of the Church, Pipin's son
   Charles or Charlemagne swept down like a whirlwind from the
   Alps at the call of Pope Hadrian [774], seized king Desiderius
   in his capital, assumed himself the Lombard crown, and made
   northern Italy thenceforward an integral part of the Frankish
   empire. … Whether out of policy or from that sentiment of
   reverence to which his ambitious mind did not refuse to bow,
   he was moderate in claims of jurisdiction, he yielded to the
   pontiff the place of honour in processions, and renewed,
   although in the guise of a lord and conqueror, the gift of the
   Exarchate and Pentapolis, which Pipin had made to the Roman
   Church twenty years before."

      J. Bryce,
      The Holy Roman Empire,
      chapter 4.

   "It is reported, also, … that, jealous of the honor of
   endowing the Holy See in his own name, he [Charlemagne]
   amplified the gifts of Pippin by annexing to them the island
   of Corsica, with the provinces of Parma, Mantua, Venice, and
   Istria, and the duchies of Spoleto and Beneventum. … This
   rests wholly upon the assertion of Anastasius; but Karl could
   not give away what he did not possess, and we know that
   Corsica, Venice and Beneventum were not held by the Franks
   till several years later. … Of the nature and extent of these
   gifts nothing is determined: that they did not carry the right
   of eminent domain is clear from the subsequent exercise of
   acts of sovereignty within them by the Frankish monarchs; and
   the probability is, according to the habits of the times, that
   the properties were granted only under some form of feudal
   vassalage."

      P. Godwin,
      History of France: Ancient Gaul,
      book 4, chapter 16.

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 49.

{2425}

   "Indefinite in their terms, these grants were never meant by
   the donors to convey full dominion over the districts—that
   belonged to the head of the Empire—but only as in the case of
   other church estates, a perpetual usufruct or 'dominium
   utile.' They were, in fact, mere endowments. Nor had the gifts
   been ever actually reduced into possession."

      J. Bryce,
      The Holy Roman Empire,
      chapter 10.

PAPACY: A. D. 774 (?).
   Forgery of the "Donation of Constantine."

   "Before the end of the 8th century some apostolical scribe,
   perhaps the notorious Isidore, composed the decretals and the
   donation of Constantine, the two magic pillars of the
   spiritual and temporal monarchy of the popes.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 829-847.

   This memorable donation was introduced to the world by an
   epistle of Adrian I., who exhorts Charlemagne to imitate the
   liberality and revive the name of the great Constantine.
   According to the legend, the first of the Christian emperors
   was healed of the leprosy, and purified in the waters of
   baptism, by St. Silvester, the Roman bishop; and never was
   physician more gloriously recompensed. His royal proselyte
   withdrew from the seat and patrimony of St. Peter, declared
   his resolution of founding a new capital in the East; and
   resigned to the popes the free and perpetual sovereignty of
   Rome, Italy, and the provinces of the West. This fiction was
   productive of the most beneficial effects. The Greek princes
   were convicted of the guilt of usurpation: and the revolt of
   Gregory was the claim of his lawful inheritance. The popes
   were delivered from their debt of gratitude; and the nominal
   gifts of the Carlovingians were no more than the just and
   irrevocable restitution of a scanty portion of the
   ecclesiastical State."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 49.

   "But this is not all, although this is what historians, in
   admiration of its splendid audacity, have chiefly dwelt upon.
   The edict proceeds to grant to the Roman pontiff and his
   clergy a series of dignities and privileges, all of them
   enjoyed by the emperor and his senate, all of them shewing the
   same desire to make the pontifical a copy of the imperial
   office. The Pope is to inhabit the Lateran palace, to wear the
   diadem, the collar, the purple cloak, to carry the sceptre,
   and to be attended by a body of chamberlains. … The practice
   of kissing the Pope's foot was adopted in imitation of the old
   imperial court. It was afterwards revived by the German
   Emperors."

      J. Bryce,
      The Holy Roman Empire,
      chapter 7, and foot-note.

      ALSO IN:
      M. Gosselin,
      The Power of the Pope in the Middle Ages,
      volume 1, page 817.

      E. F. Henderson,
      Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages,
      book 8, number 8.

PAPACY: A. D. 800.
   The giving of the Roman imperial crown to Charlemagne.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 687-800; and 800.

PAPACY: A. D. 816-1073.

   The succession of Popes.
   Stephen IV. (or V.), A. D. 816-817;
   Paschal I., 817-:824;
   Eugene II., 824-827;
   Valentine, 827;
   Gregory IV., 827-844;
   Sergius II., 844-847;
   Leo IV., 847-855;
   Benedict III.; 855-858:
   Nicholas I., 858-867;
   Hadrian II., 867-872;
   John VIII., 872-882;
   Marinus: 882-884;
   Hadrian III., 884-885;
   Stephen V. (or VI.), 885-891;
   Formosus, 891-896;
   Boniface VI., 896;
   Stephen VI. (or VII.), 896-897;
   Romanus, 897-898;
   Theodore II., 898;
   John IX., 898-900;
   Benedict IV., 900-908;
   Leo V., 908;
   Sergius III., 904-911;
   Anastasius III., 911-918;
   Lando, 913-914;
   John X., 914-928;
   Leo VI., 928-929;
   Stephen VII. (or VIII.), 929-981;
   John XI., 981-986;
   Leo VII., 936-989;
   Stephen VIII. (or IX.). 989-942:
   Marinus II.,942-946;
   Agapetus II., 946-956;
   John XII., 956-964;
   Leo VIII., antipope, 963-965;
   Benedict V., 964-965;
   John XIII., 965-972;
   Benedict VI., 972-974;
   Donus II., 974-975;
   Benedict VII., 975-984;
   John XIV., 984-985;
   John XV., 985-996;
   Gregory V., 996-999;
   John XVI., antipope, 997-998;
   Sylvester II., 999-1003;
   John XVII., 1003;
   John XVIII., 1003-1009;
   Sergius IV., 1009-1012:
   Benedict VIII., 1012-1024;
   John XIX., 1024-1033;
   Benedict IX., 1033-1044;
   Sylvester III., antipope, 1044;
   Gregory VI., 1044-1046;
   Clement II., 1046-1047;
   Benedict IX., 1047-1048;
   Damasus II., 1048;
   Leo IX., 1049-1054;
   Victor II., 1055-1057;
   Stephen IX. (or X.), 1057-1058:
   Benedict X., antipope, 1058-1059;
   Nicholas II., 1058-1061;
   Alexander II., 1061-1073.

PAPACY: A. D. 829-847.
   The False Decretals.

   "There existed in each of the national churches, a collection
   of ecclesiastical laws, or canons, which were made use of as
   circumstances required. One of these collections was in use in
   Spain as early as the sixth century, and was subsequently
   attributed to Isidore, Bishop of Seville. Towards the middle
   of the ninth century, a new recension of these canons appeared
   in France, based upon the so–called Isidorian collection, but
   into which many spurious fragments, borrowed from private
   collections and bearing upon their face incontestable evidence
   of the ignorance of their authors, had been introduced. This
   recension contained also a number of forged documents. There
   were, altogether, above a hundred spurious decrees of popes,
   from Clement to Damasus (A. D. 384), not to mention some of
   other popes, and many false canons of councils. It also
   contained the forged Deed of Donation ascribed to Constantine
   [see above: A. D. 774?]. However, these decretals, which, as
   they stand, are now proved, both by intrinsic and extrinsic
   arguments, to be impudent forgeries, are nevertheless, in
   matter of fact, the real utterances of popes, though not of
   those to whom they are ascribed, and hence the forgery is, on
   the whole, one of chronological location, and does not affect
   their essential character."

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      volume 2, page 195.

   "Various opinions exist as to the time at which this
   collection was made, and the precise date of its publication.
   Mabillon supposes the compilation to have been made about A.
   D. 785; and in this opinion he is followed by others. But the
   collection did not appear until after the death of
   Charlemagne. Some think that these Decretals cannot be of an
   earlier date than 829, and Blondel supposed that he discovered
   in them traces of the acts of a council at Paris held in that
   year. All that can be determined is that most probably the
   Decretals were first published in France, perhaps at Mayence,
   about the middle of the ninth century; but it is impossible to
   discover their real author. The spuriousness of these
   Decretals was first exposed by the Magdeburg Centuriators,
   with a degree of historical and critical acumen beyond the age
   in which they lived. The Jesuit Turrianus endeavoured, but in
   vain, to defend the spurious documents against this attack. …
   Of these Epistles none (except two, which appear on other
   grounds to be spurious) were ever heard of before the ninth
   century. They contain a vast number of anachronisms and
   historical inaccuracies.
{2426}
   Passages are quoted from more recent writings, including the
   Vulgate, according to the version of Jerome; and, although the
   several Epistles profess to have been written by different
   pontiffs, the style is manifestly uniform, and often very
   barbarous, such as could not have proceeded from Roman writers
   of the first century. … The success of this forgery would
   appear incredible, did we not take into account the weak and
   confused government of the successors of Charlemagne, in whose
   time it was promulgated; the want of critical acumen and
   resources in that age; the skill with which the pontiffs made
   use of the Decretals only by degrees; and the great authority
   and power possessed by the Roman pontiffs in these times. The
   name of Isidore also served to recommend these documents, many
   persons being ready to believe that they were in fact only a
   completion of the genuine collection of Isidore, which was
   highly esteemed. … The unknown compiler was subsequently
   called Pseudo-Isidorus."

      J. E. Riddle,
      History of the Papacy,
      volume 1, pages 405-407.

      ALSO IN:
      A. Neander,
      General History of the Christian Religion and Church,
      volume 6 (Bohn's edition), pages 2-8.

      H. H. Milman,
      History of Latin Christianity,
      book 5, chapter 4.

      M. Gosselin,
      The Power of the Pope,
      volume 1, page 317.

      J. N. Murphy,
      The Chair of Peter,
      chapter 9.

      H. C. Lea,
      Studies in Christian History,
      pp. 43-76.

      P. Schaff,
      History of the Christian Church,
      volume 4, chapter 4, section 60.

PAPACY: A. D. 887-1046.
   Demoralization of the Church.
   Degradation of the Holy See.
   Reforms of the Emperor, Henry III.

   "No exaggeration is possible of the demoralized state into
   which the Christian world, and especially the Church of Rome,
   had fallen in the years that followed the extinction of the
   Carlovingian line (A. D. 887). The tenth century is even known
   among Protestants 'par excellence' as the sæculum obscurum,
   and Baronius expresses its portentous corruption in the vivid
   remark that Christ was as if asleep in the vessel of the
   Church. 'The infamies prevalent among the clergy of the time,'
   says Mr. Bowden [Life of Hildebrand], 'as denounced by Damiani
   and others, are to be alluded to, not detailed.' … When
   Hildebrand was appointed to the monastery of St. Paul at Rome,
   he found the offices of devotion systematically neglected, the
   house of prayer defiled by the sheep and cattle who found
   their way in and out through its broken doors, and the monks,
   contrary to all monastic rule, attended in their refectory by
   women. The excuse for these irregularities was the destitution
   to which the holy house was reduced by the predatory bands of
   Campagna; but when the monastic bodies were rich, as was the
   case in Germany, matters were worse instead of better. … At
   the close of the ninth century, Stephen VI. dragged the body
   of an obnoxious predecessor from the grave, and, after
   subjecting it to a mock trial, cut off its head and three
   fingers, and threw it into the Tiber. He himself was
   subsequently deposed, and strangled in prison. In the years
   that followed, the power of electing to the popedom fell into
   the hands of the intriguing and licentious Theodora, and her
   equally unprincipled daughters, Theodora and Marozia.

      See ROME: A. D. 903-964].

   These women, members of a patrician family, by their arts and
   beauty, obtained an unbounded influence over the aristocratic
   tyrants of the city. One of the Theodoras advanced a lover,
   and Marozia a son, to the popedom. The grandson of the latter,
   Octavian, succeeding to her power, as well as to the civil
   government of the city, elevated himself, on the death of the
   then Pope, to the apostolic chair, at the age of eighteen,
   under the title of John XII. (A. D. 956). His career was in
   keeping with such a commencement. 'The Lateran Palace,' says
   Mr. Bowden, 'was disgraced by becoming a receptacle for
   courtezans: and decent females were terrified from pilgrimages
   to the threshold of the Apostles by the reports which were
   spread abroad of the lawless impurity and violence of their
   representative and successor.' … At length he was carried off
   by a rapid illness, or by the consequences of a blow received
   in the prosecution of his intrigues. Boniface VII. (A. D.
   974), in the space of a few weeks after his elevation,
   plundered the treasury and basilica of St. Peter of all he
   could conveniently carry off, and fled to Constantinople. John
   XVIII. (A. D. 1003) expressed his readiness, for a sum of
   money from the Emperor Basil, to recognize the right of the
   Greek Patriarch to the title of ecumenical or universal
   bishop, and the consequent degradation of his own see; and was
   only prevented by the general indignation excited by the
   report of his intention. Benedict IX. (A. D. 1033) was
   consecrated Pope, according to some authorities, at the age of
   ten or twelve years, and became notorious for adulteries and
   murders. At length he resolved on marrying his first cousin;
   and, when her father would not assent except on the condition
   of his resigning the popedom, he sold it for a large sum, and
   consecrated the purchaser as his successor. Such are a few of
   the most prominent features of the ecclesiastical history of
   these dreadful times, when, in the words of St. Bruno, 'the
   world lay in wickedness, holiness had disappeared, justice had
   perished, and truth had been buried; Simon Magus lording it
   over the Church, whose bishops and priests were given to
   luxury and fornication.' Had we lived in such deplorable times
   as have been above described … we should have felt for
   certain, that if it was possible to retrieve the Church, it
   must be by some external power; she was helpless and
   resourceless; and the civil power must interfere, or there was
   no hope. So thought the young and zealous emperor, Henry III.
   (A. D. 1039), who, though unhappily far from a perfect
   character, yet deeply felt the shame to which the Immaculate
   Bride was exposed, and determined with his own right hand to
   work her deliverance. … This well-meaning prince did begin
   that reformation which ended in the purification and
   monarchical estate of the Church. He held a Council of his
   Bishops in 1047; in it he passed a decree that 'Whosoever
   should make any office or station in the Church a subject of
   purchase or sale, should suffer deprivation and be visited
   with excommunication;' at the same time, with regard to his
   own future conduct, he solemnly pledged himself as
   follows:—'As God has freely of His mere mercy bestowed upon me
   the crown of the empire, so will I give freely and without
   price all things that pertain unto His religion.' This was his
   first act; but he was aware that the work of reform, to be
   thoroughly executed, must proceed from Rome, as the centre of
   the ecclesiastical commonwealth, and he determined, upon those
   imperial precedents and feudal principles which Charlemagne had
   introduced, himself to appoint a Pope, who should be the
   instrument of his general reformation.
{2427}
   The reigning Pope at this time was Gregory VI., and he
   introduces us to so curious a history that we shall devote
   some sentences to it. Gregory was the identical personage who
   had bought the papal office of the profligate Benedict IX. for
   a large sum, and was consecrated by him, and yet he was far
   from a bad sort of man after all. … He had been known in the
   world as John Gratianus; and at the time of his promotion was
   arch-priest of Rome. 'He was considered,' says Mr. Bowden, 'in
   those bad times more than ordinarily religious; he had lived
   free from the gross vices by which the clergy were too
   generally disgraced.' … He could not be quite said to have
   come into actual possession of his purchase; for Benedict, his
   predecessor, who sold it to him, being disappointed in his
   intended bride, returned to Rome after an absence of three
   months, and resumed his pontifical station, while the party of
   his intended father-in-law had had sufficient influence to
   create a Pope of their own, John, Bishop of Sabina, who paid a
   high price for his elevation, and took the title of Sylvester
   III. And thus there were three self-styled Popes at once in
   the Holy City, Benedict performing his sacred functions at the
   Lateran, Gregory at St. Peter's, and Sylvester at Santa Maria
   Maggiore. Gregory, however, after a time, seemed to
   preponderate over his antagonists; he maintained a body of
   troops, and with these he suppressed the suburban robbers who
   molested the pilgrims. Expelling them from the sacred limits
   of St. Peter's, he carried his arms further, till he had
   cleared the neighbouring towns and roads of these marauders. …
   This was the point of time at which the Imperial Reformer made
   his visitation of the Church and See of the Apostles. He came
   into Italy in the autumn of 1046, and held a Council at Sutri,
   a town about thirty miles to the north of Rome. Gregory was
   allowed to preside; and, when under his auspices the
   abdication of Benedict had been recorded, and Sylvester had
   been stripped of his sacerdotal rank and shut up in a
   monastery for life, Gregory's own turn came" and he was
   persuaded to pronounce a sentence of condemnation upon himself
   and to vacate the pontifical chair. "The new Pope whom the
   Emperor gave to the Church instead of Gregory VI., Clement
   II., a man of excellent character, died within the year.
   Damasus II. also, who was his second nomination, died in three
   or four weeks after his formal assumption of his pontifical
   duties. Bruno, Bishop of Toul, was his third choice. … And now
   we are arrived at the moment when the State reformer struck
   his foot against the hidden rock. … He had chosen a Pope, but
   'quis custodiat ipsos custodes'? What was to keep fast that
   Pope in that very view of the relation of the State to the
   Church, that plausible Erastianism, as it has since been
   called, which he adopted himself? What is to secure the Pope
   from the influences of some Hildebrand at his elbow, who, a
   young man himself, shall rehearse, in the person of his
   superior, that part which he is one day to play in his own, as
   Gregory VII.? Such was the very fact; Hildebrand was with Leo,
   and thus commences the ecclesiastical career of that wonderful
   man."

      J. H. Newman,
      Essays Critical and Historical,
      volume 2, pages 255-265.

      See, also, ROME: A. D. 962-1057;
      and GERMANY: A. D. 973-1122.

PAPACY: A. D. 1053.
   Naples and Sicily granted as fiefs of the Church
   to the sons of Tancred—the Normans.

      See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1000-1090.

PAPACY: A. D. 1054.
   The Filioque Controversy.
   Separation of the Orthodox (Greek) Church.

      See FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY;
      also, CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054.

PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122.
   Hildebrand and Henry IV.
   The imperious pontifical reign of Gregory VII.
   Empire and Papacy in conflict.
   The War of Investitures.

   "Son of a Tuscan carpenter, but, as his name shows, of German
   origin, Hildebrand had been from childhood a monk in the
   monastery of Sta Maria, on Mount Aventine, at Rome, where his
   uncle was abbot, and where he became the pupil of a learned
   Benedictine archbishop, the famous Laurentius of Amalfi, and
   formed a tender friendship with St. Odilon of Cluny [or
   Clugny]. Having early attached himself to the virtuous Pope
   Gregory VI., it was with indignation that he saw him
   confounded with two unworthy competitors, and deposed together
   with them by the arbitrary influence of the emperor at Sutri.
   He followed the exiled pontiff to France, and, after his
   death, went to enrol himself among the monks of Cluny, where
   he had previously resided, and where, according to several
   writers, he held the office of prior. During a part of his
   youth, however, he must have lived at the German Court, where
   he made a great impression on the Emperor Henry III., and on
   the best bishops of the country, by the eloquence of his
   preaching. … It was at Cluny that Hildebrand met, in 1049, the
   new Pope, Bruno, Bishop of Toul. … Bruno himself had been a
   monk: his cousin, the Emperor Henry III., had, by his own
   authority, caused him to be elected at Worms, December 1048,
   and proclaimed under the name of Leo IX. Hildebrand, seeing
   him already clothed with the pontifical purple, reproached him
   for having accepted the government of the Church, and advised
   him to guard ecclesiastical liberty by being canonically
   elected at Rome. Bruno yielded to this salutary remonstrance;
   laying aside the purple and the pontifical ornaments, he
   caused Hildebrand to accompany him to Rome, where his election
   was solemnly renewed by the Roman clergy and people. This was
   the first blow given to the usurped authority of the emperor.
   From that moment Hildebrand was withdrawn from Cluny by the
   Pope, in spite of the strong resistance of the Abbot St. Hugh.
   Created Cardinal Subdeacon of the Roman Church, and Abbot of
   San Paolo fuori le Mura, he went on steadily towards the end
   he had in view. Guided by his advice, Leo IX., after having
   renewed his courage at Monte Cassino, prepared several decrees
   of formal condemnation against the sale of benefices and
   against the marriage of priests; and these decrees were
   fulminated in a series of councils on both sides the Alps, at
   Rome, Verceil, Mayence, and Reims. The enemy, till then calm
   in the midst of his usurped rule, felt himself sharply
   wounded. Nevertheless, the simoniacal bishops, accomplices or
   authors of all the evils the Pope wished to cure, pretended as
   well as they could not to understand the nature and drift of
   the pontiff's act. They hoped time would be their friend; but
   they were soon undeceived.
{2428}
   Among the many assemblies convoked and presided over by Pope
   Leo IX., the Council of Reims, held in 1094, was the most
   important. … Henry I., King of France, opposed the holding of
   this Council with all his might. … The Pope stood his ground:
   he was only able to gather round him twenty bishops; but, on
   the other hand, there came fifty Benedictine abbots. Thanks to
   their support, energetic canons were promulgated against the
   two great scandals of the time, and several guilty prelates
   were deposed. They went still further: a decree pronounced by
   this Council vindicated, for the first time in many years, the
   freedom of ecclesiastical elections, by declaring that no
   promotion to the episcopate should be valid without the choice
   of the clergy and people. This was the first signal of the
   struggle for the enfranchisement of the Church, and the first
   token of the preponderating influence of Hildebrand. From that
   time all was changed. A new spirit breathed on the Church —a
   new life thrilled the heart of the papacy. … Vanquished and
   made prisoner by the Normans—not yet, as under St. Gregory
   VII., transformed into devoted champions of the Church —Leo
   IX. vanquished them, in turn, by force of courage and
   holiness, and wrested from them their first oath of fidelity
   to the Holy See while granting to them a first investiture of
   their conquests. Death claimed the pontiff when he had reigned
   five years. … At the moment when the struggle between the
   papacy and the Western empire became open and terrible, the
   East, by a mysterious decree of Providence, finally separated
   itself from Catholic unity. … The schism was completed by
   Michael Cerularius, whom the Emperor Constantine Monomachius
   had placed, in 1043, on the patriarchal throne. The separation
   took place under the vain pretext of Greek and Latin
   observances on the subject of unleavened bread, of strangled
   meats, and of the singing of the Alleluia. … Leo IX. being
   dead, the Romans wished to elect Hildebrand, and only
   renounced their project at his most earnest entreaties. He
   then hastened to cross the Alps, and directed his steps to
   Germany [1054], provided with full authority from the Roman
   clergy and people to choose, under the eyes of the Emperor
   Henry III., whoever, among the prelates of the empire, that
   prince should judge most worthy of the tiara. … Hildebrand
   selected Gebhard, Bishop of Eichstadt; and in spite of the
   emperor, who desired to keep near him a bishop who enjoyed his
   entire confidence—in spite even of Gebhard himself—he carried
   him off to Rome, where, according to the ancient custom, the
   clergy proceeded to his election under the name of Victor II.
   The new Pope, at the risk of his life, adhered to the counsels
   of Hildebrand, and continued the war made by his predecessor
   on simoniacal bishops and married priests. … At this crisis
   [October, 1056] the Emperor Henry III. died in the flower of
   his age, leaving the throne of Germany to his only son, a
   child of six years old, but already elected and crowned—the
   regent being his mother, the Empress Agnes. … Victor II. had
   scarcely followed the emperor to the tomb [July, 1057] when
   the Roman clergy hastened, for the first time, to elect a Pope
   without any imperial intervention. In the absence of
   Hildebrand, the unanimous choice of the electors fixed on the
   former chancellor and legate at Constantinople of Leo IX., on
   Frederic, monk and abbot of Monte Cassino," raised to the
   throne by the name of Stephen, sometimes numbered as the
   ninth, but generally as the tenth Pope of that name.

      Count de Montalambert,
      The Monks of the West,
      book 19, chapter 2 (volume 6).

   Stephen X. died in the year following his election, and again
   the papal chair was filled during the absence of Hildebrand
   from Rome. The new Pope, who took the name of Benedict X., was
   obnoxious to the reforming party, of which Hildebrand was the
   head, and the validity of his election was denied. With the
   support of the imperial court in Germany, Gerard, Bishop of
   Florence, was raised to the throne, as Nicholas II., and his
   rival gave way to him. Nicholas II., dying in 1061, was
   succeeded by Alexander II. elected equally under Hildebrand's
   influence. On the death of Alexander in 1073, Hildebrand
   himself was forced against his will, to accept the papal
   tiara. He "knew well the difficulties that would beset one who
   should endeavour to govern the Church as became an upright and
   conscientious Pope. Hence, dreading the responsibility, he
   protested, but to no purpose, against his own elevation to the
   papal throne. … Shrinking from its onerous duties, Gregory
   thought he saw one way still open by which he might escape the
   burden. The last decree on papal elections contained an
   article requiring that the Pope-elect should receive the
   approval of the Emperor of Germany. Gregory, who still assumed
   only the title of 'Bishop-elect of Rome,' notified Henry IV.,
   King of Germany and Emperor–elect, of what had taken place,
   and begged him not to approve the action or confirm the choice
   of the Romans. 'But should you,' he went on to say, 'deny my
   prayer, I beg to assure you that I shall most certainly not
   allow your scandalous and notorious excesses to go
   unpunished.' Several historians, putting this bold declaration
   beside the decree of Nicholas II. (A. D. 1059), which went on
   the assumption that the King of Germany did not enjoy the
   right of approving the Pope-elect until after he had been
   crowned Emperor, and then, only by a concession made to
   himself personally, have pronounced it suppositious. But when
   it is recollected that its authenticity rests upon the
   combined testimony of Bonizo, Bishop of Sutri, the friend of
   Hildebrand, and of William, abbot of Metz, as well as on the
   authority of the Acta Vaticana, it is difficult to see how the
   objection can be sustained. … Henry IV., on receiving news of
   Hildebrand's election, sent Count Eberhard, of Nellenburg, as
   his plenipotentiary to Rome to protest against the proceeding.
   The politic Hildebrand was careful not to be taken at a
   disadvantage. 'I have indeed' said he, 'been elected by the
   people, but against my own will. I would not, however, allow
   myself to be forced to take priest's orders until my election
   should have been ratified by the king and the princes of
   Germany.' Lambert of Hersfeld informs us that Henry was so
   pleased with this manner of speech that he gave orders to
   allow the consecration to go on, and the ceremony was
   accordingly performed on the Feast of the Purification in the
   following year (A. D. 1074). This is the last instance of a
   papal election being ratified by an emperor. … Out of respect
   to the memory of Gregory VI., his former friend and master,
   Hildebrand, on ascending the papal throne, took the
   ever–illustrious name of Gregory VII."

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      volume 2, page 347-348.

{2429}

   "From the most remote Christian antiquity, the marriage of
   clergymen had been regarded with the dislike, and their
   celibacy rewarded by the commendation, of the people. … This
   prevailing sentiment had ripened into a customary law, and the
   observance of that custom had been enforced by edicts and
   menaces, by rewards and penalties. But nature had triumphed
   over tradition, and had proved too strong for Councils and for
   Popes. When Hildebrand ascended the chair first occupied by a
   married Apostle, his spirit burned within him to see that
   marriage held in her impure and unhallowed bonds a large
   proportion of those who ministered at the altar, and who
   handled there the very substance of the incarnate Deity. It
   was a profanation well adapted to arouse the jealousy, not
   less than to wound the conscience, of the Pontiff. Secular
   cares suited ill with the stern duties of a theocratic
   ministry. Domestic affections would choke or enervate in them
   that corporate passion which might otherwise be directed with
   unmitigated ardour towards their chief and centre. Clerical
   celibacy would exhibit to those who trod the outer courts of
   the great Christian temple, the impressive and subjugating
   image of a transcendental perfection, too pure not only for
   the coarser delights of sense, but even for the alloy of
   conjugal or parental love. It would fill the world with
   adherents of Rome, in whom every feeling would be quenched
   which could rival that sacred allegiance. … With such
   anticipations, Gregory, within a few weeks from his accession,
   convened a council at the Lateran, and proposed a law, not, as
   formerly, forbidding merely the marriage of priests, but
   commanding every priest to put away his wife, and requiring
   all laymen to abstain from any sacred office which any wedded
   priest might presume to celebrate. Never was legislative
   foresight so verified by the result. What the great Council of
   Nicæa had attempted in vain, the Bishops assembled in the
   presence of Hildebrand accomplished, at his instance, at once,
   effectually, and for ever. Lamentable indeed were the
   complaints, bitter the reproaches, of the sufferers. Were the
   most sacred ties thus to be torn asunder at the ruthless
   bidding of an Italian priest? Were men to become angels, or
   were angels to be brought down from heaven to minister among
   men? Eloquence was never more pathetic, more just, or more
   unavailing. Prelate after prelate silenced these complaints by
   austere rebukes. Legate after legate arrived with papal
   menaces to the remonstrants. Monks and abbots preached the
   continency they at least professed. Kings and barons laughed
   over their cups at many a merry tale of compulsory divorce.
   Mobs pelted, hooted, and besmeared with profane and filthy
   baptisms the unhappy victims of pontifical rigour. It was a
   struggle not to be prolonged —broken hearts pined and died
   away in silence. Expostulations subsided into murmurs, and
   murmurs were drowned in the general shout of victory. Eight
   hundred years have since passed away. Amidst the wreck of
   laws, opinions, and institutions, this decree of Hildebrand's
   still rules the Latin Church, in every land where sacrifices
   are offered on her altars. … With this Spartan rigour towards
   his adherents, Gregory combined a more than Athenian address
   and audacity towards his rivals and antagonists. So long as
   the monarchs of the West might freely bestow on the objects of
   their choice the sees and abbeys of their states, papal
   dominion could be but a passing dream, and papal independency
   an empty boast. Corrupt motives usually determined that
   choice; and the objects of it were but seldom worthy.
   Ecclesiastical dignities were often sold to the highest
   bidder, and then the purchaser indemnified himself by a use no
   less mercenary of his own patronage; or they were given as a
   reward to some martial retainer, and the new churchman could
   not forget that he had once been a soldier. The cope and the
   coat-of-mail were worn alternately. The same hand bore the
   crucifix in the holy festival, and the sword in the day of
   battle. … In the hands of the newly consecrated Bishop was
   placed a staff, and on his finger a ring, which, received as
   they were from his temporal sovereign, proclaimed that homage
   and fealty were due to him alone. And thus the sacerdotal
   Proconsuls of Rome became, in sentiment at least, and by the
   powerful obligation of honour, the vicegerents, not of the
   Pontifex Maximus, but of the Imperator. To dissolve this
   'trinoda necessitas' of simoniacal preferments, military
   service, and feudal vassalage, a feebler spirit would have
   exhorted, negotiated, and compromised. To Gregory it belonged
   to subdue men by courage, and to rule them by reverence.
   Addressing the world in the language of his generation, he
   proclaimed to every potentate, from the Baltic to the Straits
   of Calpé, that all human authority being holden of the divine,
   and God himself having delegated his own sovereignty over men
   to the Prince of the Sacred College, a divine right to
   universal obedience was the inalienable attribute of the Roman
   Pontiffs. … In turning ever the collection of the epistles of
   Hildebrand, we are every where met by this doctrine asserted
   in a tone of the calmest dignity and the most serene
   conviction. Thus he informs the French monarch that every
   house in his kingdom owed to Peter, as their father and
   pastor, an annual tribute of a penny, and he commands his
   legates to collect it in token of the subjection of France to
   the Holy See. He assures Solomon the King of Hungary, that his
   territories are the property of the Holy Roman Church. Solomon
   being incredulous and refractory, was dethroned by his
   competitor for the Hungarian crown. His more prudent
   successor, Ladislaus, acknowledged himself the vassal of the
   Pope, and paid him tribute. … From every part of the European
   continent, Bishops are summoned by these imperial missives to
   Rome, and there are either condemned and deposed, or absolved
   and confirmed in their sees. In France, in Spain, and in
   Germany, we find his legates exercising the same power; and
   the correspondence records many a stern rebuke, sometimes for
   their undue remissness, sometimes for their misapplied
   severity. The rescripts of Trajan scarcely exhibit a firmer
   assurance both of the right and the power to control every
   other authority, whether secular or sacerdotal, throughout the
   civilized world."

      Sir J. Stephen,
      Hildebrand
      (Edinburgh Review, April, 1845).

{2430}

   "At first Gregory appeared to desire to direct his weapons
   against King Philip of France, 'the worst of, the tyrants who
   enslaved the Church.' … But with a more correct estimate of
   the circumstances of Germany and the dangers which threatened
   from Lombardy, he let this conflict drop and turned against
   Henry IV. The latter had so alienated Saxony and Thuringia by
   harsh proceedings, that they desired to accuse him to the Pope
   of oppression and simony. Gregory immediately demanded the
   dismissal of the councillors who had been excommunicated by
   his predecessor. His mother, who was devoted to the Pope,
   sought to mediate, and the Saxon revolt which now broke out
   (still in 1073) still further induced him to give way. He
   wrote a submissive letter to the Pope, rendered a repentant
   confession at Nuremberg in 1074 in the presence of his mother
   and two Roman cardinals, and, along with the excommunicated
   councillors, who had promised on oath to surrender all church
   properties obtained by simony, was received into the communion
   of the Church. … But … Henry, after overthrowing his enemies,
   soon returned to his old manner, and the German clergy
   resisted the interference of the Pope. At the Roman Synod
   (February, 1075) Gregory then decreed numerous ecclesiastical
   penalties against resistant German and Lombard bishops, and
   five councillors of the King were once more laid under the ban
   on account of simony. But in addition, at a Roman synod of the
   same year, he carried through the bold law of investiture,
   which prohibited bishops and abbots from receiving a bishopric
   or abbacy from the hands of a layman, and prohibited the
   rulers from conferring investiture on penalty of
   excommunication. Before the publication of the law Gregory
   caused confidential overtures to be made to the King, in
   order, as it seems, to give the King an opportunity of taking
   measures to obviate the threatening dangers which were
   involved in this extreme step. At the same time he himself was
   threatened and entangled on all hands; Robert Guiscard, whom
   he had previously excommunicated, he once more laid under the
   ban. … Henry, who in the summer of 1075 still negotiated
   directly with the Pope through ambassadors, after completely
   overthrowing the Saxons now ceased to pay any attention. … At
   Worms (24th January 1076) he caused a great portion of the
   German bishops to declare the deposition of the Pope who, as
   was said, was shattering the Empire and degrading the bishops.
   The Lombard bishops subscribed the decree of deposition at
   Piacenza and Pavia. Its bearers aroused a fearful storm
   against themselves at the Lenten Synod of Rome (1076), and
   Gregory now declared the excommunication and deposition of
   Henry, and released his subjects from their oath. Serious
   voices did indeed deny the Pope's right to the latter course;
   but a portion of the German bishops at once humbled themselves
   before the Pope, others began to waver, and the German
   princes, angered over Henry's government, demanded at Tribur
   in October, 1076, that the King should give satisfaction to
   the Pope, and the Pope hold judgment on Henry in Germany
   itself; if by his own fault Henry should remain under the ban
   for a year's time, another King was to be elected. Henry then
   resolved to make his peace with the Pope in order to take
   their weapon out of the hands of the German princes. Before
   the Pope came to Germany, he hastened in the winter with his
   wife and child from Besançon, over Mont Cenis, and found a
   friendly reception in Lombardy, so that the Pope, already on
   the way to Germany, betook himself to the Castle of Canossa to
   the Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, fearing an evil turn of
   affairs from Henry and the Lombards who were hostile to the
   Pope. But Henry was driven by his threatened position in
   Germany to seek release from the ban above every thing. This
   brought him as a penitent into the courtyard of Canossa
   (January 1077), where Gregory saw him stand from morning till
   evening during three days before he released him from the ban
   at the intercession of Matilda."

      W. Moeller,
      History of the Christian Church in the Middle Ages,
      pages 256-258.

   "It was on the 25th of January, 1077, that the scene took
   place, which, as is natural, has seized so strongly upon the
   popular imagination, and has so often supplied a theme for the
   brush of the painter, the periods of the historian, the verse
   of the poet. … The king was bent upon escaping at any
   sacrifice from the bond of excommunication and from his
   engagement to appear before the Pontiff, at the Diet summoned
   at Augsburg for the Feast of the Purification. The character
   in which he presented himself before Gregory was that of a
   penitent, throwing himself in deep contrition upon the
   Apostolic clemency, and desirous of reconciliation with the
   Church. The Pope, after so long experience of his duplicity,
   disbelieved in his sincerity, while, as a mere matter of
   policy, it was in the highest degree expedient to keep him to
   his pact with the German princes and prelates. … On three
   successive days did he appear barefooted in the snowy
   court-yard of the castle, clad in the white garb of a
   penitent, suing for relief from ecclesiastical censure. It was
   difficult for Gregory to resist the appeal thus made to his
   fatherly compassion, the more especially as Hugh, Abbot of
   Cluny, and the Countess Matilda besought him 'not to break the
   bruised reed.' Against his better judgment, and in despite of
   the warnings of secular prudence, the Pope consented on the
   fourth day to admit to his presence the royal suppliant. … The
   conditions of absolution imposed upon the king were mainly
   four: that he should present himself upon a day and at a
   place, to be named by the Pontiff, to receive the judgment of
   the Apostolic See, upon the charges preferred by the princes
   and prelates of Germany, and that he should abide the
   Pontifical sentence—his subjects meanwhile remaining released
   from their oath of fealty; that he should respect the rights
   of the Church and carry out the papal decrees; and that breach
   of this engagement should entitle the Teutonic magnates to
   proceed to the election of another king. Such were the terms
   to which Henry solemnly pledged himself, and on the faith of
   that pledge the Pontiff, assuming the vestments of religion,
   proceeded to absolve him with the appointed rites. … So ends
   the first act in this great tragedy. Gregory's misgivings as
   to the king's sincerity soon receive too ample justification.
   'Fear not,' the Pontiff is reported to have said, with half
   contemptuous sadness to the Saxon envoys who complained of his
   lenity to the monarch: 'Fear not, I send him back to you more
   guilty than he came.' Henry's words to the Pope had been
   softer than butter; but he had departed with war in his heart.
   … Soon he lays a plot for seizing Gregory at Mantua, whither
   the Pontiff is invited for the purpose of presiding over a
   Council. But the vigilance of the Great Countess foils the
   proposed treachery.
{2431}
   Shortly the ill-advised monarch again assumes an attitude of
   open hostility to the Pope. … The Teutonic princes, glad to
   throw off an authority which they loathe and despise—not
   heeding the advice to pause given by the Roman legates—proceed
   at the Diet of Forchein to the election of another king. Their
   choice falls upon Rudolph of Swabia, who is crowned at Metz on
   the 20th of March, 1077. The situation is now complicated by
   the strife between the two rival sovereigns. … At last, in
   Lent, 1080, Gregory, no longer able to tolerate the continual
   violation by Henry of the pledges given at Canossa, and
   greatly moved by tidings of his new and manifold sacrileges
   and cruelties, pronounces again the sentence of
   excommunication against him, releasing his subjects from their
   obedience, and recognizing Rudolph as king. Henry thereupon
   calls together some thirty simoniacal and incontinent prelates
   at Brixen, and causes them to go through the form of electing
   an anti-pope in the person of Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna,
   an ecclesiastic some time previously excommunicated by Gregory
   for grave offences. Then the tide turns in Henry's favour. At
   the battle of the Elster (15th October, 1080), Rudolph is
   defeated and mortally wounded, and on the same day the army of
   the Great Countess is overthrown and dispersed at La Volta in
   the Mantuan territory. Next year, in the early spring, Henry
   crosses the Alps and advances towards Rome. … A little before
   Pentecost Henry appears under the walls of the Papal city,
   expecting that his party within it will throw open the gates
   to him; but his expectation is disappointed. … In 1082, the
   monarch again advances upon Rome and ineffectually assaults
   it. In the next year he makes a third and more successful
   attempt, and captures the Leonine city. … On the 21st of
   March, 1084, the Lateran Gate is opened to Henry by the
   treacherous Romans, and the excommunicated monarch, with the
   anti-pope by his side, rides in triumph through the streets.
   The next day, Guibert solemnly takes possession of St. John
   Lateran, and bestows the Imperial Crown upon Henry in the
   Vatican Basilica. Meanwhile Gregory is shut up in the Castle
   of St. Angelo. Thence, after six weeks, he is delivered by
   Guiscard, Duke of Calabria, the faithful vassal of the Holy
   See. But the burning of the city by Guiscard's troops, upon
   the uprising of the Romans, turns the joy of his rescue into
   mourning. Eight days afterwards he quits 'the smoking ruins of
   his once beautiful Rome,' and after pausing for a few days, at
   Monte Casino, reaches Salerno, where his life pilgrimage is to
   end."

      W. S. Lilly,
      The Turning-Point of the Middle Ages
      (Contemporary Review, August, 1882).

   Gregory died at Salerno on the 25th of May, 1085, leaving
   Henry apparently triumphant; but he had inspired the Papacy
   with his will and mind, and the battle went on. At the end of
   another generation—in A. D. 1122—the question of investitures
   was settled by a compromise called the Concordat of Worms.
   "Both of the contending parties gave up something, but one
   much more than the other; the Church shadows, the State
   substance. The more important elections should be henceforth
   made in the presence of the Emperor, he engaging not to
   interfere with them, but to leave to the Chapter or other
   electing body the free exercise of their choice. This was in
   fact to give over in most instances the election to the Pope;
   who gradually managed to exclude the Emperor from all share in
   Episcopal appointments. The temporalities of the See or Abbey
   were still to be made over to the Bishop or Abbot elect, not,
   however, any longer by the delivering to him of the ring and
   crozier, but by a touch of the sceptre, he having done homage
   for them, and taken the oath of obedience. All this was in
   Germany to find place before consecration, being the same
   arrangement that seven years earlier had brought the conflict
   between Anselm and our Henry I. to an end."

      R. C. Trench,
      Lectures on Medieval Church History,
      lecture 9.

      ALSO IN:
      A. F. Villemain,
      Life of Gregory VII.,
      book 2.

      W. R. W. Stephens.
      Hildebrand and His Times.

      H. H. Milman,
      History of Latin Christianity,
      books 6-8.

      E. F. Henderson,
      Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages,
      book 4.

      See, also,
      GERMANY: A. D. 973-1122;
      CANOSSA;
      ROME: A. D. 1081-1084.

PAPACY: A. D. 1059.
   Institution of the procedure of Papal Election.

   "According to the primitive custom of the church, an episcopal
   vacancy was filled up by election of the clergy and people
   belonging to the city or diocese. … It is probable that, in
   almost every case, the clergy took a leading part in the
   selection of their bishops; but the consent of the laity was
   absolutely necessary to render it valid. They were, however,
   by degrees excluded from any real participation, first in the
   Greek, and finally in the western church. … It does not appear
   that the early Christian emperors interfered with the freedom
   of choice any further than to make their own confirmation
   necessary in the great patriarchal sees, such as Rome and
   Constantinople, which were frequently the objects of violent
   competition, and to decide in controverted elections. … The
   bishops of Rome, like those of inferior sees, were regularly
   elected by the citizens, laymen as well as ecclesiastics. But
   their consecration was deferred until the popular choice had
   received the sovereign's sanction. The Romans regularly
   despatched letters to Constantinople or to the exarchs of
   Ravenna, praying that their election of a pope might be
   confirmed. Exceptions, if any, are infrequent while Rome was
   subject to the eastern empire. This, among other imperial
   prerogatives, Charlemagne might consider as his own. … Otho
   the Great, in receiving the imperial crown, took upon him the
   prerogatives of Charlemagne. There is even extant a decree of
   Leo VIII., which grants to him and his successors the right of
   naming future popes. But the authenticity of this instrument
   is denied by the Italians. It does not appear that the Saxon
   emperors went to such a length as nomination, except in one
   instance (that of Gregory V. in 990); but they sometimes, not
   uniformly, confirmed the election of a pope, according to
   ancient custom. An explicit right of nomination was, however,
   conceded to the emperor Henry III. in 1047, as the only means
   of rescuing the Roman church from the disgrace and depravity
   into which it had fallen. Henry appointed two or three very
   good popes. … This high prerogative was perhaps not designed
   to extend beyond Henry himself. But even if it had been
   transmissible to his successors, the infancy of his son Henry
   IV., and the factions of that minority, precluded the
   possibility of its exercise. Nicolas II., in 1059, published a
   decree which restored the right of election to the Romans, but
   with a remarkable variation from the original form.
{2432}
   The cardinal bishops (seven in number, holding sees in the
   neighbourhood of Rome, and consequently suffragans of the pope
   as patriarch or metropolitan) were to choose the supreme
   pontiff, with the concurrence first of the cardinal priests
   and deacons (or ministers of the parish churches of Rome), and
   afterwards of the laity. Thus elected, the new pope was to be
   presented for confirmation to Henry, 'now king, and hereafter
   to become emperor,' and to such of his successors as should
   personally obtain that privilege. This decree is the
   foundation of that celebrated mode of election in a conclave
   of cardinals which has ever since determined the headship of
   the church. … The real author of this decree, and of all other
   vigorous measures adopted by the popes of that age, whether
   for the assertion of their independence or the restoration of
   discipline, was Hildebrand"—afterwards Pope Gregory VII.

      H. Hallam,
      The Middle Ages,
      chapter 7, part 1 (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      E. F. Henderson,
      Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages,
      book 4, number 1.

PAPACY: A. D. 1077-1102.
   Donation of the Countess Matilda.

   "The Countess Matilda, born in 1040, was daughter of Boniface,
   Marquis of Tuscany, and Beatrice, sister of the Emperor Henry
   III. On the death of her only brother, without issue, she
   succeeded to all his dominions, of Tuscany, Parma, Lucca,
   Mantua and Reggio. Rather late in life, she married Guelpho,
   son of the Duke of Bavaria—no issue resulting from their
   union. This princess displayed great energy and administrative
   ability in the troubled times in which she lived, occasionally
   appearing at the head of her own troops. Ever a devoted
   daughter of the Church, she specially venerated Pope Gregory
   VII., to whom she afforded much material support, in the
   difficulties by which he was constantly beset. To this
   Pontiff, she made a donation of a considerable portion of her
   dominions, for the benefit of the Holy See, A. D. 1077,
   confirming the same in a deed to Pope Pascal II., in 1102,
   entituled 'Cartula donationis Comitissæ Mathildis facta S.
   Gregorio PP. VII., et innovata Paschali PP. II.'; apud Theiner
   'Codex Diplomaticus,' etc., tom. 1, p. 10. As the original
   deed to Gregory VII. is not extant, and the deed of
   confirmation or renewal does not recite the territories
   conveyed, there is some uncertainty about their exact limits.
   However, it is generally thought that they comprised the
   district formerly known as the Patrimony of Saint Peter, lying
   on the right bank of the Tiber, and extending from
   Aquapendente to Ostia. The Countess Matilda died in 1115, aged
   75."

      J. N. Murphy,
      The Chair of Peter,
      page 235, foot-note.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1122-1250.

PAPACY: A. D. 1086-1154.
   The succession of Popes.

   Victor III., A. D. 1086-1087;
   Urban II., 1088-1099;
   Pascal 11., 1099-1118;
   Gelasius 11., 1118-1119;
   Callistus II., 1119-1124;
   Honorius II., 1124-1130;
   Innocent II., 1130-1143;
   Celestine II., 1143-1144;
   Lucius II., 1144-1145;
   Eugene III., 1145-1153;
   Anastasius IV., 1153-1154.

PAPACY: A. D. 1094.
   Pope Urban II. and the first Crusade.
   The Council of Clermont.

      See CRUSADES: A. D. 1094.

PAPACY: A. D. 1122-1250.
   Continued conflict with the Empire.
   The Popes and the Hohenstaufen Emperors.

   "The struggle about investiture ended, as was to be expected,
   in a compromise; but it was a compromise in which all the
   glory went to the Papacy. Men saw that the Papal claims had
   been excessive, even impossible; but the object at which they
   aimed, the freedom of the Church from the secularising
   tendencies of feudalism, was in the main obtained. … But the
   contest with the Empire still went on. One of the firmest
   supporters of Gregory VII. had been Matilda, Countess of
   Tuscany, over whose fervent piety Gregory had thrown the spell
   of his powerful mind. At her death, she bequeathed her
   possessions, which embraced nearly a quarter of Italy, to the
   Holy See [see PAPACY: A. D. 1077-1102]. Some of the lands
   which she had held were allodial, some were fiefs of the
   Empire; and the inheritance of Matilda was a fruitful source
   of contention to two powers already jealous of one another.
   The constant struggle that lasted for two centuries gave full
   scope for the development of the Italian towns. … The old
   Italian notion of establishing municipal freedom by an
   equilibrium of two contending powers was stamped still more
   deeply on Italian politics by the wars of Guelfs and
   Ghibellins. The union between the Papacy and the Lombard
   Republics was strong enough to humble the mightiest of the
   Emperors. Frederic Barbarossa, who held the strongest views of
   the Imperial prerogative, had to confess himself vanquished by
   Pope Alexander III. [see ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162, to
   1174-1183], and the meeting of Pope and Emperor at Venice was
   a memorable ending to the long struggle; that the great
   Emperor should kiss the feet of the Pope whom he had so long
   refused to acknowledge, was an act which stamped itself with
   dramatic effect on the imagination of men, and gave rise to
   fables of a still more lowly submission [see VENICE: A. D.
   1177]. The length of the strife, the renown of Frederic, the
   unswerving tenacity of purpose with which Alexander had
   maintained his cause, all lent lustre to this triumph of the
   Papacy. The consistent policy of Alexander III., even in
   adverse circumstances, the calm dignity with, which he
   asserted the Papal claims, and the wisdom with which he used
   his opportunities, made him a worthy successor of Gregory VII.
   at a great crisis in the fortunes of the Papacy. It was
   reserved, however, for Innocent III. to realise most fully the
   ideas of Hildebrand. If Hildebrand was the Julius, Innocent
   was the Augustus, of the Papal Empire. He had not the creative
   genius nor the fiery energy of his great forerunner; but his
   clear intellect never missed an opportunity, and his
   calculating spirit rarely erred from its mark. … On all sides
   Innocent III. enjoyed successes beyond his hopes. In the East,
   the crusading zeal of Europe was turned by Venice to the
   conquest of Constantinople [see CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1203],
   and Innocent could rejoice for a brief space in the subjection
   of the Eastern Church. In the West, Innocent turned the
   crusading impulse to the interest of the Papal power, by
   diverting it against heretical sects which, in Northern Italy
   and the South of France, attacked the system of the Church
   [see ALBIGENSES]. … Moreover Innocent saw the beginning,
   though he did not perceive the full importance, of a movement
   which the reaction against heresy produced within the Church.
   The Crusades had quickened men's activity, and the heretical
   sects had aimed at kindling greater fervour of spiritual life. …
{2433}
   By the side of the monastic aim of averting, by the prayers
   and penitence of a few, God's anger from a wicked world, there
   grew up a desire for self-devotion to missionary labour.
   Innocent III. was wise enough not to repulse this new
   enthusiasm, but find a place for it within the ecclesiastical
   system. Francis of Assisi gathered round him a body of
   followers who bound themselves to a literal following of the
   Apostles, to a life of poverty and labour, amongst the poor
   and outcast; Dominic of Castile formed a society which aimed
   at the suppression of heresy by assiduous teaching of the
   truth. The Franciscan and Dominican orders grew almost at once
   into power and importance, and their foundation marks a great
   reformation within the Church [see MENDICANT ORDERS]. The
   reformation movement of the eleventh century, under the
   skilful guidance of Hildebrand, laid the foundations of the
   Papal monarchy in the belief of Europe. The reformation of the
   thirteenth century found full scope for its energy under the
   protection of the Papal power; for the Papacy was still in
   sympathy with the conscience of Europe, which it could quicken
   and direct. These mendicant orders were directly connected
   with the Papacy, and were free from all episcopal control.
   Their zeal awakened popular enthusiasm; they rapidly increased
   in number and spread into every land. The Friars became the
   popular preachers and confessors, and threatened to supersede
   the old ecclesiastical order. Not only amongst the common
   people, but in the universities as well, did their influence
   become supreme. They were a vast army devoted to the service
   of the Pope, and overran Europe in his name. They preached
   Papal indulgences, they stirred up men to crusades in behalf
   of the Papacy, they gathered money for the Papal use. … The
   Emperor Frederic II., who had been brought up under Innocent's
   guardianship, proved the greatest enemy of the newly-won
   sovereignty of the Pope. King of Sicily and Naples, Frederic
   was resolved to assert again the Imperial pretensions of North
   Italy, and then win back the Papal acquisitions in the centre;
   if his plan had succeeded, the Pope would have lost his
   independence and sunk to be the instrument of the house of
   Hohenstaufen. Two Popes of inflexible determination and
   consummate political ability were the opponents of Frederic.
   Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. flung themselves with ardour into
   the struggle, and strained every nerve till the whole Papal
   policy was absorbed by the necessities of the strife. …

      See ITALY: A. D. 1183-1250;
      and GERMANY: A. D. 1138-1268.

   Frederic II. died [1250], but the Popes pursued with their
   hostility his remotest descendants, and were resolved to sweep
   the very remembrance of him out of Italy. To accomplish their
   purpose, they did not hesitate to summon the aid of the
   stranger. Charles of Anjou appeared as their champion, and in
   the Pope's name took possession of the Sicilian kingdom.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1250-1268].

   By his help the last remnants of the Hohenstaufen house were
   crushed, and the claims of the Empire to rule over Italy were
   destroyed for ever. But the Papacy got rid of an open enemy
   only to introduce a covert and more deadly foe. The Angevin
   influence became superior to that of the Papacy, and French
   popes were elected that they might carry out the wishes of the
   Sicilian king. By its resolute efforts to escape from the
   power of the Empire, the Papacy only paved the way for a
   connexion that ended in its enslavement to the influence of
   France."

      M. Creighton,
      History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation,
      volume 1, pages 18-23.

      ALSO IN:
      T. L. Kington,
      History of Frederick II. Emperor of the Romans.

PAPACY: A. D. 1154-1198.
   The succession of Popes.

   Hadrian IV., A. D. 1154-1159;
   Alexander III., 1159-1181;
   Lucius III., 1181-1185;
   Urban III., 1185-1187;
   Gregory VIII., 1187;
   Clement III., 1187-1191;
   Celestine III., 1191-1198.

PAPACY: A. D. 1162-1170.
   Conflict of Church and State in England.
   Becket and Henry II.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

PAPACY: A. D. 1198-1216.
   The establishing of Papal Sovereignty
   in the States of the Church.

   "Innocent III. may be called the founder of the States of the
   Church. The lands with which Pippin and Charles had invested
   the Popes were held subject to the suzerainty of the Frankish
   sovereign and owned his jurisdiction. On the downfall of the
   Carolingian Empire the neighbouring nobles, calling themselves
   Papal vassals, seized on these lands; and when they were
   ousted in the Pope's name by the Normans, the Pope did not
   gain by the change of neighbours. Innocent III. was the first
   Pope who claimed and exercised the rights of an Italian
   prince. He exacted from the Imperial Prefect in Rome the oath
   of allegiance to himself; he drove the Imperial vassals from
   the Matildan domain [see TUSCANY: A. D. 685-1115], and
   compelled Constance, the widowed queen of Sicily, to recognise
   the Papal suzerainty over her ancestral kingdom. He obtained
   from the Emperor Otto IV. (1201) the cession of all the lands
   which the Papacy claimed, and so established for the first
   time an undisputed title to the Papal States."

      M. Creighton,
      History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation,
      volume 1. page 21.

PAPACY: A. D. 1198-1294.
   The succession of Pores.
   Innocent III., A. D. 1198-1216;
   Honorius II., 1216-1227;
   Gregory IX., 1227-1241;
   Celestine IV., 1241;
   Innocent IV., 1243-1204;
   Alexander IV., 1254-1261;
   Urban IV., 1261-1264;
   Clement IV., 1265-1268;
   Gregory X., 1271-1276;
   Innocent V., 1276;
   Hadrian V., 1276;
   John XXI., 1276-1277;
   Nicholas III., 1277-1280;
   Martin IV., 1281-1285;
   Honorius IV., 1285-1287;
   Nicholas IV., 1288-1292;
   Celestine V., 1294.

PAPACY: A. D. 1198-1303.
   The acme of Papal power.
   The pontificates from Innocent III. to Boniface VIII.

   "The epoch when the spirit of papal usurpation was most
   strikingly displayed was the pontificate of Innocent III. In
   each of the three leading objects which Rome had pursued,
   independent sovereignty, supremacy over the Christian church,
   control over the princes of the earth, it was the fortune of
   this pontiff to conquer. He realized … that fond hope of so
   many of his predecessors, a dominion over Rome and the central
   parts of Italy. During his pontificate Constantinople was
   taken by the Latins; and however he might seem to regret a
   diversion of the crusaders, which impeded the recovery of the
   Holy Land, he exulted in the obedience of the new patriarch
   and the reunion of the Greek church. Never, perhaps, either
   before or since, was the great eastern schism in so fair a way
   of being healed; even the kings of Bulgaria and Armenia
   acknowledged the supremacy of Innocent, and permitted his
   interference with their ecclesiastical institutions.
{2434}
   The maxims of Gregory VII. were now matured by more than a
   hundred years, and the right of trampling upon the necks of
   kings had been received, at least among churchmen, as an
   inherent attribute of the papacy. 'As the sun and the moon are
   placed in the firmament' (such is the language of Innocent),
   'the greater as the light of the day, and the lesser of the
   night, thus are there two powers in the church—the pontifical,
   which, as having the charge of souls, is the greater; and the
   royal, which is the less, and to which the bodies of men only
   are intrusted.' Intoxicated with these conceptions (if we may
   apply such a word to successful ambition), he thought no
   quarrel of princes beyond the sphere of his jurisdiction.
   'Though I cannot judge of the right to a fief,' said Innocent
   to the kings of France and England, 'yet it is my province to
   judge where sin is committed, and my duty to prevent all
   public scandals.' … Though I am not aware that any pope before
   Innocent III. had thus announced himself as the general
   arbiter of differences and conservator of the peace throughout
   Christendom, yet the scheme had been already formed, and the
   public mind was in some degree prepared to admit it. … The
   noonday of papal dominion extends from the pontificate of
   Innocent III. inclusively to that of Boniface VIII.; or, in
   other words, through the 13th century. Rome inspired during
   this age all the terror of her ancient name. She was once more
   the mistress of the world, and kings were her vassals."

      H. Hallam,
      The Middle Ages,
      chapter 7, parts 1-2 (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      J. Miley,
      History of the Papal States,
      volume 3, book 1, chapter 3.

      M. Gosselin,
      The Power of the Pope in the Middle Ages,
      part 2, chapter 3.

      M. Creighton,
      History of the Papacy during the Reformation,
      introduction, chapter 1 (volume 1).

PAPACY: A. D. 1203.
   The planting of the germs of the Papal Inquisition.

      See INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.

PAPACY: A. D. 1205-1213.
   Subjugation of the English King John.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1205-1213.

PAPACY: A. D. 1215.
   The beginning, in Italy, of the Wars
   of the Guelfs and Ghibellines.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1215.

PAPACY: A. D. 1266.
   Transfer of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
   to Charles of Anjou.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1250-1268.

PAPACY: A. D. 1268.
   The Pragmatic Sanction of St. Louis,
   affirming the rights of the Gallican Church.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1268.

PAPACY: A. D. 1275.
   Ratification of the Donation of Charlemagne
   and the Capitulation of Otho IV. by Rodolph of Hapsburg.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1273-1308.

PAPACY: A. D. 1279.
   The English Statute of Mortmain.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1279.

PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348.
   The stormy pontificate of Boniface VIII.
   His conflict with Philip IV. of France.
   The "Babylonish Captivity."
   Purchase of Avignon, which becomes the Papal Seat.

   Boniface VIII., who came to the Papal throne in 1294, "was a
   man of so much learning that Petrarch extols him as the wonder
   of the world. His craft and cruelty, however, were shown in
   his treatment of Celestine V. [his predecessor], whom he first
   persuaded to resign the pontificate, five months after his
   election, on account of his inexperience in politics; and
   then, having succeeded to the chair, instead of letting the
   good man return to the cloister for which he panted, he kept
   him in confinement to the day of his death. His resentment of
   the opposition of the two cardinals Colonna to his election
   was so bitter, that not content with degrading them, he
   decreed the whole family—one of the most illustrious in
   Rome—to be for ever infamous, and incapable of ecclesiastical
   dignities. He pulled down their town of Præneste, and ordered
   the site to be sown with salt to extinguish it, like Carthage,
   for ever. This pontificate is famous for the institution of
   the Jubilee, though, according to some accounts, it was
   established a century before by Innocent III. By a bull dated
   22nd February 1300, Boniface granted a plenary remission of
   sins to all who, before Christmas, in that and every
   subsequent hundredth year, should visit the churches of St.
   Peter and St. Paul daily, for 30 days if inhabitants of Rome,
   and for half that time if strangers. His private enemies, the
   Colonnas, Frederic of Sicily, who had neglected to pay his
   tribute, and the abettors of the Saracens, were the only
   persons excluded. The city was crowded with strangers, who
   flocked to gain the indulgence; enormous sums were offered at
   the holy tombs; and the solemnity became so profitable that
   Clement VI. reduced the period for its observance from 100
   years to 50, and later popes have brought it down to 25.
   Boniface appeared at the jubilee with the spiritual and
   temporal swords carried before him, the bearers of which
   proclaimed the text,—'Behold, here are two swords.' … The pope
   had the pleasure of receiving a … respectful recognition from
   the barons of Scotland. Finding themselves hard pressed by the
   arms of Edward I., they resolved to accept a distant, in
   preference to a neighbouring, master; accordingly, they
   tendered the kingdom to the pope, pretending that, from the
   most ancient times, Scotland had been a fief of the holy Roman
   See. Boniface, eagerly embracing the offer, commanded the
   archbishop of Canterbury to require the king to withdraw his
   troops, and submit his pretensions to the apostolic tribunal.
   … Boniface got no other satisfaction than to be told that the
   laws of England did not permit the king to subject the rights
   of his crown to any foreign tribunal. His conflict with the
   king of France was still more unfortunate. Philip the Fair,
   like our own Edward I., thought fit to compel the clergy to
   contribute towards the expenses of his repeated campaigns. The
   pope thereupon issued a bull entitled 'Clericis laicos' (A. D.
   1296), charging the laity with inveterate hostility to the
   clergy, and prohibiting, under pain of excommunication, any
   payment out of ecclesiastical revenues without his consent.
   The king retorted by prohibiting the export of coin or
   treasure from his dominions, without license from the crown.
   This was cutting off the pope's revenue at a blow, and so
   modified his anger that he allowed the clergy to grant a 'free
   benevolence' to the king, when in urgent need. A few years
   after (1301), Philip imprisoned a bishop on charge of
   sedition, when Boniface thundered out his bulls 'Salvator
   mundi,' and 'Ausculta fili,' the first of which suspended all
   privileges accorded by the Holy See to the French king and
   people, and the second, asserting the papal power in the now
   familiar text from Jeremiah [Jeremiah i. 10], summoned the
   superior clergy to Rome. Philip burned the bull, and
   prohibited the clergy from obeying the summons.
{2435}
   The peers and people of France stood by the crown, treating
   the exhortations of the clergy with defiance. The pope,
   incensed at this resistance, published the Decretal called
   'Unam sanctam,' which affirms the unity of the Church, without
   which there is no salvation, and hence the unity of its head
   in the successor of St. Peter. Under the pope are two swords,
   the spiritual and the material—the one to be used by the
   church, the other for the church. … The temporal sword is …
   subject to the spiritual, and the spiritual to God only. The
   conclusion is, 'that it is absolutely essential to the
   salvation of every human being that he be subject unto the
   Roman pontiff.' The king, who showed great moderation,
   appealed to a general council, and forbad his subjects to obey
   any orders of Boniface till it should be assembled. The pope
   resorted to the usual weapons. He drew up a bull for the
   excommunication of the king; offered France to Albert of
   Austria, king of the Romans, and wrote to the king of England
   to incite him to prosecute his war. Meantime, Philip having
   sent William de Nogaret on an embassy to the pope, this daring
   envoy conceived the design of making him prisoner. Entering
   Anagni [the pope's native town and frequent residence, 40
   miles from Rome] at the head of a small force, privately
   raised in the neighbourhood, the conspirators, aided by some
   of the papal household, gained possession of the palace and
   burst into the pope's presence. Boniface, deeming himself a
   dead man, had put on his pontifical robes and crown, but these
   had little effect on the irreverent intruders. De Nogaret was
   one of the Albigenses; his companion, a Colonna, was so
   inflamed at the sight of his persecutor that he struck him on
   the face with his mailed hand, and would have killed him but
   for the intervention of the other. The captors unaccountably
   delaying to carry off their prize, the people of the place
   rose and rescued the Holy Father. He hastened back to Rome,
   but died of the shock a month after, leaving a dangerous feud
   between the Church and her eldest son."

      G. Trevor,
      Rome: from the Fall of the Western Empire,
      chapter 9.

   "Boniface has been consigned to infamy by contemporary poets
   and historians, for the exhibition of some of the most
   revolting features of the human character. Many of the
   charges, such as that he did not believe in eternal life; that
   he was guilty of monstrous heresy; that he was a wizard; and
   that he asserted that it is no sin to indulge in the most
   criminal pleasures—are certainly untrue. They are due chiefly
   to his cruelty to Celestine and the Celestinians, and his
   severity to the Colonnas, which led the two latter to go
   everywhere blackening his character. They have been
   exaggerated by Dante; and they may be ascribed generally to
   his pride and violence, and to the obstinate determination,
   formed by a man who 'was born an age too late,' to advance
   claims then generally becoming unpopular, far surpassing in
   arrogance those maintained by the most arbitrary of his
   predecessors. … This victory of Philip over Boniface was, in
   fact, the commencement of a wide-spread reaction on the part
   of the laity against ecclesiastical predominance. The Papacy
   had first shown its power by a great dramatic act, and its
   decline was shown in the same manner. The drama of Anagni is
   to be set against the drama of Canossa."

      A. R. Pennington.
      The Church in Italy,
      chapter 6.

   "The next pope, Benedict XI., endeavoured to heal the breach
   by annulling the decrees of Boniface against the French king,
   and reinstating the Colonnas; but he was cut off by death in
   ten months from his election [1304], and it was generally
   suspected that his removal was effected by poison. … On the
   death of Benedict, many of the cardinals were for closing the
   breach with France by electing a French pope; the others
   insisted that an Italian was essential to the independence of
   the Holy See. The difference was compromised by the election
   of the archbishop of Bordeaux, a Frenchman by birth, but owing
   his preferments to Boniface, and an active supporter of his
   quarrel against Philip. The archbishop, however, had secretly
   come to terms with the king, and his first act, as Clement V.,
   was to summon the cardinals to attend him at Lyons, where he
   resolved to celebrate his coronation. The Sacred College
   crossed the Alps with undissembled repugnance, and
   two-and-seventy years elapsed before the Papal court returned
   to Rome. This period of humiliation and corruption the Italian
   writers not inaptly stigmatise as the 'Babylonish captivity.'
   Clement began his pontificate by honourably fulfilling his
   engagements with the French. He absolved the king and his
   subjects. … If it be true that the king claimed … the
   condemnation of Boniface as a heretic, Clement had the
   manliness to refuse. He ventured to inflict a further
   disappointment by supporting the claim of Henry of Luxembourg
   to the empire in preference to the French king's brother. To
   escape the further importunities of his too powerful ally, the
   pope removed into the dominions of his own vicar, the king of
   Naples (A. D. 1309). The place selected was Avignon, belonging
   to Charles the Lame as count of Provence. … In the 9th
   century, it [Avignon] passed to the kings of Aries, or
   Burgundy, but afterwards became a free republic, governed by
   its own consuls, under the suzerainty of the count of
   Provence. … The Neapolitan dynasty, though of French origin,
   was independent of the French crown, when the pope took up his
   residence at Avignon. Charles the Lame was soon after
   succeeded by his third son Robert, who, dying in 1343, left
   his crown to his granddaughter Joanna, the young and beautiful
   wife of Andrew, prince of Hungary. … In one of her frequent
   exiles Clement took advantage of her necessities to purchase
   her rights in Avignon for 80,000 gold florins, but this
   inadequate price was never paid. The pope placed it to the
   account of the tribute due to himself from the Neapolitan
   crown, and having procured a renunciation of the paramount
   suzerainty of the emperor, he took possession of the city and
   territory as absolute sovereign (A. D. 1348)."

      G. Trevor,
      Rome: from the Fall of the Western Empire,
      chapters 9-10.

      ALSO IN:
      H. H. Milman,
      History of Latin Christianity,
      book 12 (volume 5).

      J. E. Darras.
      History of the Catholic Church,
      period 6, chapter 1 (volume 3).

PAPACY: A. D. 1305-1377.
   The Popes of "the Babylonish Captivity" at Avignon.

   The following is the succession of the Popes during the
   Avignon period:
   Boniface VIII., A. D. 1294-1303;
   Benedict XI., 1303-1304;
   Clement V., 1305-1314;
   John XXII., 1316-1334;
   Benedict XII., 1334-1342;
   Clement VI., 1342-1352;
   Innocent VI., 1352-1362;
   Urban V., 1362-1370;
   Gregory XI., 1371-1378.

{2436}

   "The Avignon Popes, without exception, were all more or less
   dependent upon France. Frenchmen themselves, and surrounded by
   a College of Cardinals in which the French element
   predominated, they gave a French character to the government
   of the Church. This character was at variance with the
   principle of universality inherent in it and in the Papacy. …
   The migration to France, the creation of a preponderance of
   French Cardinals, and the consequent election of seven French
   Popes in succession, necessarily compromised the position of
   the Papacy in the eyes of the world, creating a suspicion that
   the highest spiritual power had become the tool of France.
   This suspicion, though in many cases unfounded, weakened the
   general confidence in the Head of the Church, and awakened in
   the other nations a feeling of antagonism to the
   ecclesiastical authority which had become French. The bonds
   which united the States of the Church to the Apostolic See
   were gradually loosened. … The dark points of the Avignon
   period have certainly been greatly exaggerated. The assertion
   that the Government of the Avignon Popes was wholly ruled by
   the 'will and pleasure of the Kings of France,' is, in this
   general sense, unjust. The Popes of those days were not all so
   weak as Clement V., who submitted the draft of the Bull, by
   which he called on the Princes of Europe to imprison the
   Templars, to the French King. Moreover, even this Pope, the
   least independent of the 14th century Pontiffs, for many years
   offered a passive resistance to the wishes of France, and a
   writer [Wenck], who has thoroughly studied the period,
   emphatically asserts that only for a few years of the
   Pontificate of Clement V. was the idea so long associated with
   the 'Babylonian Captivity' of the Popes fully realized. The
   extension of this epithet to the whole of the Avignon sojourn
   is an unfair exaggeration."

      L. Pastor,
      History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages,
      volume 1, pages 58-60.

PAPACY: A. D. 1306-1393.
   Resistance to Papal encroachments in England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1306-1393.

PAPACY: A. D. 1314-1347.
   Pretension to settle the disputed election of Emperor.
   The long conflict with Louis of Bavaria in Germany and Italy.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1314-1347.

PAPACY: A. D. 1347-1354.
   Rienzi's revolution at Rome.

      See ROME: A. D. 1347-1354.

PAPACY: A. D. 1352-1378.
   Subjugation of the States of the Church
   and the return from Avignon to Rome.
   Revolt and war in the Papal States, supported by Florence.

   "Under the pontificate of Innocent VI. the advantages reaped
   by the Papal See from its sojourn at Avignon seemed to have
   come to an end. The disturbed condition of France no longer
   offered them security and repose. … Moreover, the state of
   affairs in Italy called loudly for the Pope's intervention. …
   The desperate condition of the States of the Church, which had
   fallen into the hands of small princes, called for energetic
   measures, unless the Popes were prepared to see them entirely
   lost to their authority. Innocent VI. sent into Italy a
   Spanish Cardinal, Gil Albornoz, who had already shown his
   military skill in fighting against the Moors. The fiery energy
   of Albornoz was crowned with success, and the smaller nobles
   were subdued in a series of hard fought battles. In 1367 Urban
   V. saw the States of the Church once more reduced into
   obedience to the Pope." Several motives, accordingly, combined
   "to urge Urban V., in 1367, to return to Rome amid the cries
   of his agonised Cardinals, who shuddered to leave the luxury
   of Avignon for a land which they held to be barbarous. A brief
   stay in Rome was sufficient to convince Urban V. that the
   fears of his Cardinals were not unfounded. … After a visit of
   three years Urban returned to Avignon; his death, which
   happened three months after his return, was regarded by many
   as a judgment of God upon his desertion of Rome. Urban V. had
   returned to Rome because the States of the Church were reduced
   to obedience; his successor, Gregory XI., was driven to return
   through dread of losing entirely all hold upon Italy. The
   French Popes awakened a strong feeling of natural antipathy
   among their Italian subjects, and their policy was not
   associated with any of the elements of state life existing in
   Italy. Their desire to bring the States of the Church
   immediately under their power involved the destruction of the
   small dynasties of princes, and the suppression of the
   democratic liberties of the people. Albornoz had been wise
   enough to leave the popular governments untouched, and to
   content himself with bringing the towns under the Papal
   obedience. But Urban V. and Gregory XI. set up French
   governors, whose rule was galling and oppressive; and a revolt
   against them was organised by Florence [1376], who, true to
   her old traditions, unfurled a banner inscribed only with the
   word 'Liberty.' The movement spread through all the towns in
   the Papal States, and in a few months the conquests of
   Albornoz had been lost. The temporal dominion of the Papacy
   might have been swept away if Florence could have brought
   about the Italian league which she desired. But Rome hung back
   from the alliance, and listened to Gregory XI., who promised
   to return if Rome would remain faithful. The Papal
   excommunication handed over the Florentines to be the slaves
   of their captors in every land, and the Kings of England and
   France did not scruple to use the opportunity offered to their
   cupidity. Gregory XI. felt that only the Pope's presence could
   save Rome for the Papacy. In spite of evil omens—for his horse
   refused to let him mount when he set out on his
   journey—Gregory XI. left Avignon; in spite of the entreaties
   of the Florentines Rome again joyfully welcomed the entry of
   its Pope in 1377. But the Pope found his position in Italy to
   be surrounded with difficulties. His troops met with some
   small successes, but he was practically powerless, and aimed
   only at settling terms of peace with the Florentines. A
   congress was called for this purpose, and Gregory XI. was
   anxiously awaiting its termination that he might return to
   Avignon, when death seized him, and his last hours were
   embittered by the thoughts of the crisis that was now
   inevitable."

      M. Creighton,
      History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation,
      introduction, chapter 2 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      H. E. Napier,
      Florentine History,
      book 1, chapter 26 (volume 2).

      See, also,
      FLORENCE; A. D. 1375-1378.

PAPACY: A. D. 1369-1378.
   Dealings with the Free Company of Sir John Hawkwood.
   Wars with Milan, Florence and other states.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.

{2437}

PAPACY: A. D. 1377-1417.
   Election of Urban VI. and Clement VII.
   The Great Western Schism.
   Battle in Rome and siege and partial
   destruction of Castle St. Angelo.
   The Council of Pisa.
   Forty years of Popes and Anti-Popes.

   "For 23 years after Rienzi's death, the seat of the Papal
   Court remained at Avignon; and during this period Rome and the
   States of the Church were harried to death by contending
   factions. … At last Gregory XI. returned, in January, 1377.
   The keys of the Castle St. Angelo were sent to him at Corneto;
   the papal Court was re-established in Rome; but he survived
   only about a year, and died in March, 1378. Then came the
   election of a new Pope, which was held in the Castle St.
   Angelo. While the conclave was sitting, a crowd gathered round
   the place, crying out, 'Romano lo volemo'—we will have a Roman
   for Pope. Yet, notwithstanding this clamour, Cardinal
   Prignani, Archbishop of Bari, and a Neapolitan by birth, was
   finally chosen, under the title of Urban VI.—[this being an
   intended compromise between the Italian party and the French
   party in the college of Cardinals]. When Cardinal Orsini
   presented himself at the window to announce that a new Pope
   had been elected, the mob below cried out, 'His name, his
   name!' 'Go to St. Peter's and you will learn,' answered the
   Cardinal. The people, misunderstanding his answer, supposed
   him to announce the election of Cardinal Tebaldeschi, who was
   arch-priest of St. Peter's, and a Roman by birth. This news
   was received with great joy and acclamation," which turned to
   rage when the fact was known. Then "the people … broke in to
   still fiercer cries, rushed to arms, and gathering round the
   conclave, threatened them with death unless a Roman was
   elected. But the conclave was strong in its position, and
   finally the people were pacified, and accepted Urban VI. Such,
   however, was the fear of the Cardinals, that they were with
   difficulty persuaded to proceed to the Vatican and perform the
   ceremonies necessary for the installation of the new Pope.
   This, however, finally was done, and the Castle was placed in
   the charge of Pietro Guntellino, a Frenchman, and garrisoned
   by a Gallic guard, the French Cardinals remaining also within
   its walls for safety. On the 20th of September they withdrew
   to Fondi, and in conjunction with other schismatics they
   afterwards [September 20, 1378] elected an anti-Pope [Robert
   of Geneva] under the title of Clement VII. Guntellino, who
   took part with them, on being summoned by Urban to surrender
   the Castle, refused to do so without the order of his
   compatriots, the French Cardinals at Avignon. Meantime the
   papal and anti-papal party assaulted each other, first with
   citations, censures, and angry words, and then with armed
   force. The anti-papal party, having with them the Breton and
   Gascon soldiery, and the Savoyards of the Count of Mountjoy,
   the anti-Pope's nephew, marched upon the city, overcame the
   undisciplined party of the Pope, reinforced the Castle St.
   Angelo, and fortified themselves in the Vatican, ravaging the
   Campagna on their way. The papal party now besieged the
   Castle, attacking it with machines and artillery, but for a
   year's space it held out. Finally, on the 28th of April, 1379,
   the anti-papal party were utterly routed by Alberico, Count of
   Palliano and Galeazzo, at the head of the papal, Italian, and
   imperial forces. Terrible was the bloodshed of this great
   battle, at which, according to Baronius, 5,000 of the
   anti-papal army fell. But the Castle still refused to
   surrender," until famine forced a capitulation. "The damage
   done to it during this siege must have been very great. In
   some parts it had been utterly demolished, and of all its
   marbles not a trace now remained. … After the surrender of the
   Castle to Urban, such was the rage of the people against it
   for the injury it had caused them during the siege, that they
   passed a public decree ordering it to be utterly destroyed and
   razed to the earth. … In consequence of this decree, an
   attempt was made to demolish it. It was stripped of everything
   by which it was adorned, and its outer casing was torn off;
   but the solid interior of peperino defied all their efforts,
   and the attempt was given up."

      W. W. Story,
      Castle St. Angelo,
      chapter 5.

   "Urban was a learned, pious, and austere man; but, in his zeal
   for the reformation of manners, the correction of abuses, and
   the retrenchment of extravagant expenditure, he appears to
   have been wanting in discretion; for immediately after his
   election he began to act with harshness to the members of the
   Sacred College, and he also offended several of the secular
   princes. Towards the end of June, 12 of the cardinals—11
   Frenchmen and one Spaniard—obtained permission to leave Rome,
   owing to the summer heats, and withdrew to Anagni. Here, in a
   written instrument, dated 9th August, 1378, they protested
   against the election, as not having been free, and they called
   on Urban to resign. A few days later, they removed to Fondi,
   in the kingdom of Naples, where they were joined by three of
   the Italians whom they had gained over to their views; and, on
   the 19th of September, the 15 elected an antipope, the French
   Cardinal Robert of Cevennes [more frequently called Robert of
   Geneva], who took the name of Clement VII. and reigned at
   Avignon 16 years, dying September 16, 1394. Thus there were
   two claimants of the Papal throne—Urban holding his court at
   Rome, and Clement residing with his followers at Avignon. The
   latter was strong in the support of the sovereigns of France,
   Scotland, Naples, Aragon, Castile, and Savoy; while the
   remainder of Christendom adhered to Urban. Clement was
   succeeded by Peter de Luna, the Cardinal of Aragon, who, on
   his election, assumed the name of Benedict XIII., and reigned
   at Avignon 23 years—A. D. 1394-1417. This lamentable state of
   affairs lasted altogether 40 years. Urban's successors at
   Rome, duly elected by the Italian cardinals and those of other
   nations acting with them, were:
   Boniface IX., a Neapolitan, A. D. 1389-1404;
   Innocent VII., a native of Sulmona, A. D. 1404-1406;
   Gregory XII., a Venetian, A. D. 1406-1409;
   Alexander V., a native of Candia,
   who reigned ten months, A. D. 1409-1410;
   and John XXIII., a Neapolitan, A. D. 1410-1417.
   …
   Although the Popes above enumerated, as having reigned at
   Rome, are now regarded as the legitimate pontiffs, and, as
   such, are inscribed in the Catalogues of Popes, while Clement
   and Benedict are classed as anti-popes, there prevailed at the
   time much uncertainty on the subject. … In February, 1395,
   Charles VI. of France convoked an assembly of the clergy of
   his dominions, under the presidency of Simon Cramandus,
   Patriarch of Alexandria, in order, if possible, to terminate
   the schism. The assembly advised that the rival Pontiffs,
   Boniface IX. and Benedict XIII., should abdicate.
{2438}
   The same view was taken by most of the universities of
   Europe," but the persons chiefly concerned would not accept
   it. Nor was it found possible in 1408 to bring about a
   conference of the two popes. The cardinals, then, of both
   parties, withdrew support from the factious pontiffs and held
   a general meeting at Leghorn. There they agreed that Gregory
   XII. and Benedict XIII. had equally lost all claim to
   obedience, and they resolved to convoke, on their own
   authority "a General Council, to meet at Pisa, on the 25th of
   March, 1409. Gregory and Benedict were duly informed thereof,
   and were requested to attend the council. … The Council of
   Pisa sat from March 25th to August 7th, 1409. There were
   present 24 cardinals of both 'obediences,' 4 patriarchs, 12
   archbishops, 80 bishops, 87 abbots; the procurators of 102
   absent archbishops and bishops, and of 200 absent abbots; the
   generals of 4 mendicant orders; the deputies of 13
   Universities …; the representatives of over 100 cathedral and
   collegiate chapters, 282 doctors and licentiates of canon and
   civil law; and the ambassadors of the Kings of England,
   France, Poland, Bohemia, Portugal, Sicily, and Cyprus." Both
   claimants of the Papacy were declared unworthy to preside over
   the Church, and forbidden to act as Pope. In June, the
   conclave of cardinals assembled and elected a third Pope—one
   Peter Filargo, a Friar Minor, who took the name of Alexander
   V., but who died ten months afterwards. The cardinals then
   elected as his successor Cardinal Cossa, "a politic worldly
   man, who assumed the name of John XXIII." But, meantime,
   Germany, Naples and some of the other Italian States still
   adhered to Gregory, and Benedict kept the support of Scotland,
   Spain and Portugal. The Church was as much divided as ever.
   "The Council of Pisa … only aggravated the evil which it
   laboured to cure. Instead of two, there were now three
   claimants of the Papal Chair. It was reserved for the General
   Council of Constance to restore union and peace to the
   Church."

      J. N. Murphy,
      The Chair of Peter,
      chapter 20.

   "The amount of evil wrought by the schism of 1378, the longest
   known in the history of the Papacy, can only be estimated,
   when we reflect that it occurred at a moment, when thorough
   reform in ecclesiastical affairs was a most urgent need. This
   was now utterly out of the question, and, indeed, all evils
   which had crept into ecclesiastical life were infinitely
   increased. Respect for the Holy See was also greatly impaired,
   and the Popes became more than ever dependent on the temporal
   power, for the schism allowed each Prince to choose which Pope
   he would acknowledge. In the eyes of the people, the simple
   fact of a double Papacy must have shaken the authority of the
   Holy See to its very foundations. It may truly be said that
   these fifty years of schism prepared the way for the great
   Apostacy of the 16th century."

      L. Pastor,
      History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages,
      volume 1, page 141.

      ALSO IN:
      A. Neander,
      General History of the Christian Religion and Church,
      volume 9, section 1.

      H. H. Milman,
      History of Latin Christianity,
      book 13, chapters 1-5 (volume 6).

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      sections 269-270 (volume 3).

      J. C. Robertson,
      History of the Christian Church,
      book 8, chapter 5 (volume 7).

      St. C. Baddeley,
      Charles III. of Naples and Urban VI.

      See, also, ITALY: A. D. 1343-1389.

PAPACY: A. D. 1378-1415.
   Rival Popes during the Great Schism.

   Urban VI., A. D. 1378-1389 (Rome);
   Clement VII., 1378-1394 (Avignon);
   Boniface IX., 1389-1404 (Rome);
   Benedict XIII., 1394-1423 (Avignon);
   Innocent VII., 1404-1406 (Rome);
   Gregory XII., 1406-1415 (Rome);
   Alexander V., 1409-1410 (elected by the Council of Pisa);
   John XXIII., 1410-1415.

PAPACY: A. D. 1386-1414.
   Struggle of the Italian Popes against Ladislas of Naples.

      See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1386-1414.

PAPACY: A. D. 1414-1418.
   The Council of Constance.
   Election of Martin V.
   Ending of the Great Schism and failure of Church Reform.

   "In April, A. D. 1412, the Pope [John XXIII.], to preserve
   appearances, opened at Rome the council which had been agreed
   upon at Pisa for the reformation of the Church in her Head and
   members. Quite a small number of bishops put in an appearance,
   who, after having condemned the antipopes, and some heretical
   propositions of Wycliffe and John Huss, hastily adjourned.
   John, who does not seem to have had any very earnest wish to
   correct his own life, and who, consequently, could not be
   expected to be over solicitous about the correction of those
   of others, was carefully provident to prevent the bishops
   coming to Rome in excessive numbers. He had come to a secret
   understanding with Ladislaus, his former enemy, that the
   latter should have all the roads well guarded. Ladislaus soon
   turned against the Pope, and forced him to quit Rome, and seek
   refuge, first at Florence, and next at Bologna (A. D. 1413).
   From this city John opened communications with the princes of
   Europe with the purpose of fixing a place for holding the
   council. … The Emperor Sigismund appointed the city of
   Constance, where the council did, in fact, convene, November
   1, A. D. 1414. … The abuses which prevailed generally
   throughout the Church, and which were considerably increased
   by the existence of three rival Popes, and by the various
   theories on Church government called forth by the controversy,
   greatly perplexed men's minds, and created much anxiety as to
   the direction affairs might eventually take. This unsettled
   state of feeling accounts for the unusually large number of
   ecclesiastics who attended the council. There were 18,000
   ecclesiastics of all ranks, of whom, when the number was
   largest, 3 were patriarchs, 24 cardinals, 33 archbishops,
   close upon 150 bishops, 124 abbots, 50 provosts, and 300
   doctors in the various degrees. Many princes attended in
   person. There were constantly 100,000 strangers in the city,
   and, on one occasion, as many as 150,000, among whom were many
   of a disreputable character. Feeling ran so high that, as
   might have been anticipated, every measure was extreme. Owing
   to the peculiar composition of the Council, at which only a
   limited number of bishops were present, and these chiefly in
   the interest of John XXIII., it was determined to decide all
   questions, not by a majority of episcopal suffrages, but by
   that of the representatives of the various nations, including
   doctors. The work about to engage the Council was of a
   threefold character, viz.,
   1. To terminate the papal schism;
   2. To condemn errors against faith, and particularly
   those of Huss; and
   3. To enact reformatory decrees.

   … It was with some difficulty that John could be induced to
   attend at Constance, and when he did finally consent, it was
   only because he was forced to take the step by the
   representations of others. …
{2439}
   Regarding the Council as a continuation of that of Pisa, he
   naturally thought that he would be recognized as the
   legitimate successor of the Pope chosen by the latter. … All
   questions were first discussed by the various nations, each
   member of which had the right to vote. Their decision was next
   brought before a general conference of nations, and this
   result again before the next session of the Council. This plan
   of organisation destroyed the hopes of John XXIII., who relied
   for success on the preponderance of Italian prelates and
   doctors. … To intimidate John, and subdue his resistance, a
   memorial, written probably by an Italian, was put in
   circulation, containing charges the most damaging to that
   pontiff's private character. … So timely and effective was
   this blow that John was thenceforth utterly destitute of the
   energy and consideration necessary to support his authority,
   or direct the affairs of the Council." In consequence, he sent
   a declaration to the Council that, in order to give peace to
   the Church, he would abdicate, provided his two rivals in the
   Papacy, Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII., would also resign.
   Later, in March, 1415, he repeated this promise under oath.
   The Emperor, Sigismund, was about to set out to Nizza to
   induce the other claimants to resign, when John's conduct gave
   rise to a suspicion that he did not intend to act in good
   faith. He was charged with an intention to escape from the
   Council, with the assistance of Frederic, Duke of Austria. He
   now gave his promise under oath not to depart from the city
   before the Council had dissolved. "But, notwithstanding these
   protestations, John escaped (March 21, 1415), disguised as a
   groom, during a great tournament arranged by the duke, and
   made his way to Schaffhausen, belonging to the latter, thence
   to Laufenburg and Freiburg, thence again to the fortress of
   Brisac, whence he had intended to pass to Burgundy, and on to
   Avignon. That the Council went on with its work after the
   departure of John, and amid the general perplexity and
   confusion, was entirely due to the resolution of the emperor,
   the eloquence of Gerson [of the University of Paris], and the
   indefatigable efforts of the venerable master, now cardinal,
   d'Ailly. The following memorable decrees were passed …: 'A
   Pope can neither transfer nor dissolve a general Council
   without the consent of the latter, and hence the present
   Council may validly continue its work even after the flight of
   the Pope. All persons, without distinction of rank, even the
   Pope himself, are bound by its decisions, in so far as these
   relate to matters of faith, to the closing of the present
   schism, and to the reformation of the Church of God in her
   Head and members. All Christians, not excepting the Pope, are
   under obligation to obey the Council.' … Pope John, after
   getting away safe to Schaffhausen, complained formally of the
   action of the Council towards himself, summoned all the
   cardinals to appear personally before him within six days, and
   sent memorials to the King of France [and others], …
   justifying his flight. Still the Council went on with its
   work; disposed, after a fashion, of the papal difficulty, and
   of the cases of Buss and Jerome of Prague [whom it condemned
   and delivered to the civil authorities, to be burned. …

      See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415].

   In the meantime, Frederic, Margrave of Brandenburg, acting
   under the joint order of Council and Emperor, arrested the
   fugitive Pope at Freiburg, and led him a prisoner to
   Radolfzell, near Constance, where 54 (originally 72) charges
   —some of them of a most disgraceful character—extracted from
   the testimony of a host of witnesses, were laid before him by
   a committee of the Council." He attempted no defense, and on
   May 29, 1415, John XXIII. was formally and solemnly deposed
   and was kept in confinement for the next three years. In July,
   Gregory XII. was persuaded to resign his papal claims and to
   accept the dignity of Cardinal Legate of Ancona. Benedict
   XIII., more obstinate, refused to give up his pretensions,
   though abandoned even by the Spaniards, and was deposed, on
   the 26th of July, 1417. "The three claimants to the papacy
   having been thus disposed of, it now remained to elect a
   legitimate successor to St. Peter. Previously to proceeding to
   an election, a decree was passed providing that, in this
   particular instance, but in no other, six deputies of each
   nation should be associated with the cardinals in making the
   choice." It fell upon Otho Colonna, "a cardinal distinguished
   for his great learning, his purity of life, and gentleness of
   disposition." In November, 1417, he was anointed and crowned
   under the name of Martin V. The Council was formally closed on
   the 16th of May following, without having accomplished the
   work of Church reformation which had been part of its intended
   mission. "Sigismund and the German nation, and for a time the
   English also, insisted that the question of the reformation of
   the Church, the chief points of which had been sketched in a
   schema of 18 articles, should be taken up and disposed of
   before proceeding to the election of a Pope." But in this they
   were baffled. "Martin, the newly elected Pope, did not fully
   carry out all the proposed reforms. It is true, he appointed a
   committee composed of six cardinals and deputies from each
   nation, and gave the work into their hands; but their councils
   were so conflicting that they could neither come to a definite
   agreement among themselves, nor would they consent to adopt
   the plan of reform submitted by the Pope."

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      sections 270-271 (volume 3).

   The election of Martin V. might have been a source of
   unalloyed happiness to Christendom, if he had at once taken
   the crucial question of Church Reform vigorously in hand; but
   the Regulations of the Chancery issued soon after his
   accession showed that little was to be expected from him in
   this respect. They perpetuated most of the practices in the
   Roman Court which the Synod had designated as abuses. Neither
   the isolated measures afterwards substituted for the universal
   reform so urgently required, nor the Concordats made with
   Germany, the three Latin nations, and England, sufficed to
   meet the exigencies of the case, although they produced a
   certain amount of good. The Pope was indeed placed in a most
   difficult position, in the face of the various and opposite
   demands made upon him, and the tenacious resistance offered by
   interests now long established to any attempt to bring things
   back to their former state. The situation was complicated to
   such a degree that any change might have brought about a
   revolution.
{2440}
   It must also be borne in mind that all the proposed reforms
   involved a diminution of the Papal revenues; the regular
   income of the Pope was small and the expenditure was very
   great. For centuries, complaints of Papal exactions had been
   made, but no one had thought of securing to the Popes the
   regular income they required. … The delay of the reform, which
   was dreaded by both clergy and laity, may be explained, though
   not justified, by the circumstances we have described. It was
   an unspeakable calamity that ecclesiastical affairs still
   retained the worldly aspect caused by the Schism, and that the
   much needed amendment was again deferred."

      L. Pastor,
      History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages,
      volume 1, pages 209-210.

      ALSO IN:
      H. H. Milman,
      History of Latin Christianity,
      book 13, chapters 8-10 (volume 6).

      J. C. Robertson,
      History of the Christian Church,
      book 8, chapter 8 (volume 7).

PAPACY: A. D. 1431.
   Election of Eugenius IV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1431-1448.
   The Council of Basle.
   Triumph of the Pope and defeat, once more, of Church Reform.

   "The Papacy had come forth so little scathed from the perils
   with which at one time these assemblies menaced it, that a
   Council was no longer that word of terror which a little
   before it had been. There was more than one motive for
   summoning another, if indeed any help was to be found in them.
   Bohemia, wrapt in the flames of the Hussite War, was scorching
   her neighbours with fiercer fires than those by which she
   herself was consumed. The healing of the Greek Schism was not
   yet confessed to be hopeless, and the time seemed to offer its
   favourable opportunities. No one could affirm that the
   restoration of sound discipline, the reformation of the Church
   in head and in members, had as yet more than begun. And thus,
   in compliance with the rule laid down at the Council of
   Constance,—for even at Rome they did not dare as yet openly to
   set at nought its authority,—Pope Eugenius IV. called a third
   Council together [1431], that namely of Basle. … Of those who
   sincerely mourned over the Church's ills, the most part, after
   the unhappy experience of the two preceding Councils, had so
   completely lost all faith in these assemblies that slight
   regard was at first yielded to the summons; and this Council
   seemed likely to expire in its cradle as so many had done
   before, as not a few should do after. The number of Bishops
   and high Church dignitaries who attended it was never great. A
   democratic element made itself felt throughout all its
   deliberations; a certain readiness to resort to measures of a
   revolutionary violence, such as leaves it impossible to say
   that it had not itself to blame for much of its ill-success.
   At the first indeed it displayed unlooked-for capacities for
   work, entering into important negotiations with the Hussites
   for their return to the bosom of the Church; till the Pope,
   alarmed at these tokens of independent activity, did not
   conceal his ill-will, making all means in his power to
   dissolve the Council. This, meanwhile, growing in strength and
   in self-confidence, re-affirmed all of strongest which had
   been affirmed already at Pisa and Constance, concerning the
   superiority of Councils over Popes; declared of itself that,
   as a lawfully assembled Council, it could neither be
   dissolved, nor the place of its meeting changed, unless by its
   own consent; and, having summoned Eugenius and his Cardinals
   to take their share in its labours, began the work of
   reformation in earnest. Eugenius yielded for the time;
   recalled the Bull which had hardly stopped short of
   anathematizing the Council; and sent his legates to Basle.
   Before long, however, he and the Council were again at strife;
   Eugenius complaining, apparently with some reason, that in
   these reforms one source after another of the income which had
   hitherto sustained the Papal Court was being dried up, while
   no other provision was made for the maintenance of its due
   dignity, or even for the defraying of its necessary expenses.
   As the quarrel deepened the Pope removed the seat of the
   Council to Ferrara (September 18, 1437), on the plea that
   negotiations with the envoys of the Greek Church would be more
   conveniently conducted in an Italian city; and afterwards to
   Florence. The Council refused to stir, first suspending
   (January 24, 1438), then deposing the Pope (July 7, 1439), and
   electing another, Felix V., in his stead; this Felix being a
   retired Duke of Savoy, who for some time past had been playing
   the hermit in a villa on the shores of the lake of Geneva.

      See SAVOY: 11-15th CENTURIES.

   The Council in this extreme step failed to carry public
   opinion with it. It was not merely that Eugenius denounced his
   competitor by the worst names he could think of, declaring him
   a hypocrite, a wolf in sheep's clothing, a Moloch, a Cerberus,
   a Golden Calf, a second Mahomet, an anti-christ; but the
   Church in general shrank back in alarm at the prospect of
   another Schism, to last, it might be, for well-nigh another
   half century. And thus the Council lost ground daily; its
   members fell away; its confidence in itself departed; and,
   though it took long in dying, it did in the end die a death of
   inanition (June 23, 1448). Again the Pope remained master of
   the situation, the last reforming Council,—for it was the
   last,—having failed in all which it undertook as completely
   and as ingloriously as had done the two which went before."

      R. C. Trench,
      Lectures on Medieval Church History,
      lecture 20.

   "In the year 1438 the Emperor John and the Greek Patriarch
   made their appearance at the council of Ferrara. In the
   following year the council was transferred to Florence, where,
   after long discussions, the Greek emperor, and all the members
   of the clergy who had attended the council, with the exception
   of the Bishop of Ephesus, adopted the doctrine of the Roman
   church concerning the possession of the Holy Ghost, the
   addition to the Nicene Creed, the nature of purgatory, the
   condition of the soul after its separation from the body until
   the day of judgment, the use of unleavened bread in the
   sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and the papal supremacy. The
   union of the two churches was solemnly ratified in the
   magnificent cathedral of Florence on the 6th of July 1439,
   when the Greeks abjured their ancient faith in a vaster
   edifice and under a loftier dome than that of their own
   much-vaunted temple of St. Sophia. The Emperor John derived
   none of the advantages he had expected from the simulated
   union of the churches. Pope Eugenius, it is true, supplied him
   liberally with money, and bore all the expenses both of the
   Greek court and clergy during their absence from
   Constantinople; he also presented the emperor with two
   galleys, and furnished him with a guard of 300 men, well
   equipped, and paid at the cost of the papal treasury; but his
   Holiness forgot his promise to send a fleet to defend
   Constantinople, and none of the Christian princes showed any
   disposition to fight the battles of the Greeks, though they
   took up the cross against the Turks.
{2441}
   On his return John found his subjects indignant at the manner
   in which the honour and doctrines of the Greek church had been
   sacrificed in an unsuccessful diplomatic speculation. The
   bishops who had obsequiously signed the articles of union at
   Florence, now sought popularity by deserting the emperor, and
   making a parade of their repentance, lamenting their
   wickedness in falling off for a time from the pure doctrine of
   the orthodox church. The only permanent result of this
   abortive attempt at Christian union was to increase the
   bigotry of the orthodox, and to furnish the Latins with just
   grounds for condemning the perfidious dealings and bad faith
   of the Greeks. In both ways it assisted the progress of the
   Othoman power. The Emperor John, seeing public affairs in this
   hopeless state, became indifferent to the future fate of the
   empire, and thought only of keeping on good terms with the
   sultan."

      G. Finlay,
      History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires,
      book 4, chapter 2, section 6 (volume 2).

   Pope "Eugenius died, February 23, 1447; … but his successors
   were able to secure the fruits of the victory [over the
   Council of Basel] for a long course of years. The victory was
   won at a heavy cost, both for the Popes and for Christendom;
   for the Papacy recovered its ascendancy far more as a
   political than as a religious power. The Pope became more than
   ever immersed in the international concerns of Europe, and his
   policy was a tortuous course of craft and intrigue, which in
   those days passed for the new art of diplomacy. … To revert to
   a basis of spiritual domination lay beyond the vision of the
   energetic princes, the refined dilettanti, the dexterous
   diplomatists, who sat upon the chair of St. Peter during the
   age succeeding the Council of Basle. Of signs of uneasiness
   abroad they could not be quite ignorant; but they sought to
   divert men's minds from the contemplation of so perplexing a
   problem as Church reform, by creating or fostering new
   atmospheres of excitement and interest; … or at best (if we
   may adopt the language of their apologists) they took
   advantage of the literary and artistic movement then active in
   Italy as a means to establish a higher standard of
   civilisation which might render organic reform needless."

      R. L. Poole,
      Wycliffe and Movements for Reform,
      chapter 12.

      ALSO IN:
      J. E. Darras,
      General History of the Catholic Church, 6th period,
      chapter 4 (volume 3).

      See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1438; and 1515-1518.

PAPACY: A. D. 1439.
   Election of Felix V. (by the Council of Basle).

PAPACY: A. D. 1447-1455.
   The pontificate of Nicolas V.
   Recovery of character and influence.
   Beginning of the Renaissance.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1447-1480.

PAPACY: A. D. 1455.
   Election of Callistus III.

PAPACY: A. D. 1458.
   Election of Pius II., known previously as the learned
   Cardinal Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, historian and diplomatist.

PAPACY: A. D. 1464.
   Election of Paul II.

PAPACY: A. D. 1471-1513.
   The darkest age of Papal crime and vice.
   Sixtus IV. and the Borgias.
   The warrior Pontiff, Julius II.

   "The impunity with which the Popes escaped the councils held
   in the early part of the 15th century was well fitted to
   inspire them with a reckless contempt for public opinion; and
   from that period down to the Reformation, it would be
   difficult to parallel among temporal princes the ambitious,
   wicked, and profligate lives of many of the Roman Pontiffs.
   Among these, Francesco della Rovere, who succeeded Paul II.
   with the title of Sixtus IV., was not the least notorious.
   Born at Savona, of an obscure family, Sixtus raised his
   nephews, and his sons who passed for nephews, to the highest
   dignities in Church and State, and sacrificed for their
   aggrandisement the peace of Italy and the cause of Christendom
   against the Turks. Of his two nephews, Julian, and Leonard
   della Rovere, the former, afterwards Pope Julius II., was
   raised to the purple in the second year of his uncle's
   pontificate." It was this pope—Sixtus IV.—who had a part in
   the infamous "Conspiracy of the Pazzi" to assassinate Lorenzo
   de' Medici and his brother.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1469-1492.

   "This successor of St. Peter took a pleasure in beholding the
   mortal duels of his guards, for which he himself sometimes
   gave the signal. He was succeeded [1484] by Cardinal Gian
   Batista Cibò, a Genoese, who assumed the title of Innocent
   VIII. Innocent was a weak man, without any decided principle.
   He had seven children, whom he formally acknowledged, but he
   did not seek to advance them so shamelessly as Sixtus had
   advanced his 'nephews.' … Pope Innocent VIII. [who died July
   25, 1492] was succeeded by the atrocious Cardinal Roderigo
   Borgia, a Spaniard of Valencia, where he had at one time
   exercised the profession of an advocate. After his election he
   assumed the name of Alexander VI. Of 20 cardinals who entered
   the conclave, he is said to have bought the suffrages of all
   but five; and Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, whom he feared as a
   rival, was propitiated with a present of silver that was a
   load for four mules. Alexander's election was the signal for
   flight to those cardinals who had opposed him. … Pope
   Alexander had by the celebrated Vanozza, the wife of a Roman
   citizen, three sons: John, whom he made Duke of Gandia, in
   Spain; Cæsar and Geoffrey; and one daughter, Lucretia."

      T. H. Dyer,
      History of Modern Europe,
      volume 1, pages 105, 108, 175, 177-178.

   Under the Borgias, "treasons, assassinations, tortures, open
   debauchery, the practice of poisoning, the worst and most
   shameless outrages, are unblushingly and publicly tolerated in
   the open light of heaven. In 1490, the Pope's vicar having
   forbidden clerics and laics to keep concubines, the Pope
   revoked the decree, 'saying that that was not forbidden,
   because the life of priests and ecclesiastics was such that
   hardly one was to be found who did not keep a concubine, or at
   least who had not a courtesan.' Cæsar Borgia at the capture of
   Capua 'chose forty of the most beautiful women, whom he kept
   for himself; and a pretty large number of captives were sold
   at a low price at Rome.' Under Alexander VI., 'all
   ecclesiastics, from the greatest to the least, have concubines
   in the place of wives, and that publicly. If God hinder it
   not,' adds this historian, 'this corruption will pass to the
   monks and religious orders, although, to confess the truth,
   almost all the monasteries of the town have become
   bawd–houses, without anyone to speak against it.' With respect
   to Alexander VI., who loved his daughter Lucretia, the reader
   may find in Burchard the description of the marvellous orgies
   in which he joined with Lucretia and Cæsar, and the
   enumeration of the prizes which he distributed.
{2442}
   Let the reader also read for himself the story of the
   bestiality of Pietro Luigi Farnese, the Pope's son, how the
   young and upright Bishop of Fano died from his outrage, and
   how the Pope, speaking of this crime as 'a youthful levity,'
   gave him in this secret bull 'the fullest absolution from all
   the pains which he might have incurred by human incontinence,
   in whatever shape or with whatever cause.' As to civil
   security, Bentivoglio caused all the Marescotti to be put to
   death; Hippolyto d' Este had his brother's eyes put out in his
   presence; Cæsar Borgia killed his brother; murder is consonant
   with their public manners, and excites no wonder. A fisherman
   was asked why he had not informed the governor of the town
   that he had seen a body thrown into the water; 'he replied
   that he had seen about a hundred bodies thrown into the water
   during his lifetime in the same place, and that no one had
   ever troubled about it.' 'In our town,' says an old historian,
   'much murder and pillage was done by day and night, and hardly
   a day passed but some one was killed.' Cæsar Borgia one day
   killed Peroso, the Pope's favourite, between his arms and
   under his cloak, so that the blood spurted up to the Pope's
   face. He caused his sister's husband to be stabbed and then
   strangled in open day, on the steps of the palace; count, if
   you can, his assassinations. Certainly he and his father, by
   their character, morals, open and systematic wickedness, have
   presented to Europe the two most successful images of the
   devil. … Despotism, the Inquisition, the Cicisbei, dense
   ignorance, and open knavery, the shamelessness and the
   smartness of harlequins and rascals, misery and vermin,—such
   is the issue of the Italian Renaissance."

      H. A. Taine,
      History of English Literature,
      volume 1, pages 354-355.

   "It is certain … that the profound horror with which the name
   of Alexander VI. strikes a modern ear, was not felt among the
   Italians at the time of his election. The sentiment of hatred
   with which he was afterwards regarded arose partly from the
   crimes by which his Pontificate was rendered infamous, partly
   from the fear which his son Cesare inspired, and partly from
   the mysteries of his private life which revolted even the
   corrupt conscience of the 16th century. This sentiment of
   hatred had grown to universal execration at the time of his
   death. In course of time, when the attention of the Northern
   nations had been directed to the iniquities of Rome, and when
   the glaring discrepancy between Alexander's pretension as a
   Pope and his conduct as a man had been apprehended, it
   inspired a legend, which, like all legends, distorts the facts
   which it reflects. Alexander was, in truth, a man eminently
   fitted to close an old age and to inaugurate a new, to
   demonstrate the paradoxical situation of the Popes by the
   inexorable logic of his practical impiety, and to fuse two
   conflicting world forces in the cynicism of supreme
   corruption. … Alexander was a stronger and a firmer man than
   his immediate predecessors. 'He combined,' says Guicciardini,
   'craft with singular sagacity, a sound judgment with
   extraordinary powers of persuasion; and to all the grave
   affairs of life he applied ability and pains beyond belief.'
   His first care was to reduce Rome to order. The old factions
   of Colonna and Orsini, which Sixtus had scotched, but which
   had raised their heads again during the dotage of Innocent,
   were destroyed in his pontificate. In this way, as Machiavelli
   observed, he laid the real basis for the temporal power of the
   Papacy. Alexander, indeed, as a sovereign, achieved for the
   Papal See what Louis XI. had done for the throne of France,
   and made Rome on its small scale follow the type of the large
   European monarchies. … Former Pontiffs had raised money by the
   sale of benefices and indulgences: this, of course, Alexander
   also practised—to such an extent, indeed, that an epigram
   gained currency; 'Alexander sells the keys, the altars,
   Christ. Well, he bought them; so he has a right to sell them.'
   But he went further and took lessons from Tiberius. Having
   sold the scarlet to the highest bidder, he used to feed his
   prelate with rich benefices. When he had fattened him
   sufficiently, he poisoned him, laid hands upon his hoards, and
   recommenced the game. … Former Popes had preached crusades
   against the Turk, languidly or energetically according as the
   coasts of Italy were threatened. Alexander frequently invited
   Bajazet to enter Europe and relieve him of the princes who
   opposed his intrigues in the favour of his children. The
   fraternal feeling which subsisted between the Pope and the
   Sultan was to some extent dependent on the fate of Prince
   Djem, a brother of Bajazet and son of the conqueror of
   Constantinople, who had fled for protection to the Christian
   powers, and whom the Pope kept prisoner, receiving 40,000
   ducats yearly from the Porte for his jail fee. … Lucrezia, the
   only daughter of Alexander by Vannozza, took three husbands in
   succession, after having been formally betrothed to two
   Spanish nobles. … History has at last done justice to the
   memory of this woman, whose long yellow hair was so beautiful,
   and whose character was so colourless. The legend which made
   her a poison-brewing Mænad, has been proved a lie—but only at
   the expense of the whole society in which she lived. … It
   seems now clear enough that not hers, but her father's and her
   brother's, were the atrocities which made her married life in
   Rome a byeword. She sat and smiled through all the tempests
   which tossed her to and fro, until she found at last a fair
   port in the Duchy of Ferrara. … [On the 12th of August, 1503],
   the two Borgias invited the Cardinal Carneto to dine with them
   in the Belvedere of Pope Innocent. Thither by the hands of
   Alexander's butler they previously conveyed some poisoned
   wine. By mistake they drank the death-cup mingled for their
   victim. Alexander died, a black and swollen mass, hideous to
   contemplate, after a sharp struggle with the poison."

      J. A. Symonds,
      Renaissance in Italy: The Age of the Despots,
      chapter 6.

   The long-accepted story of Pope Alexander's poisoning, as
   related above by Mr. Symonds, is now discredited. "The
   principal reason why this picturesque tale has of late been
   generally regarded as a fiction is the apparent impossibility
   of reconciling it with a fact in connexion with Pope
   Alexander's last illness which admits of no dispute, the date
   of its commencement. The historians who relate the poisoning
   unanimously assert that the effect was sudden and
   overpowering, that the pope was carried back to the Vatican in
   a dying state and expired shortly afterwards. The 18th of
   August has hitherto been accepted without dispute as the date
   of his death: it follows, therefore, that the fatal banquet
   must have been on the 17th at the earliest.
{2443}
   But a cloud of witnesses, including the despatches of
   ambassadors resident at the papal court, prove that the pope's
   illness commenced on the 12th, and that by the 17th his
   condition was desperate. The Venetian ambassador and a
   Florentine letter-writer, moreover, the only two contemporary
   authorities who assign a date for the entertainment, state
   that it was given on the 5th or 6th, … which would make it a
   week before the pope was taken ill. … It admits … of absolute
   demonstration that the banquet could not have been given on
   the 12th or even on the 11th, and of proof hardly less cogent
   that the pope did actually die on the 18th. All the evidence
   that any entertainment was ever given, or that any poisoning
   was ever attempted, connects the name of Cardinal Corneto with
   the transaction. He and no other, according to all respectable
   authorities (the statement of late writers that ten cardinals
   were to have been poisoned at once may be dismissed without
   ceremony as too ridiculous for discussion), was the cardinal
   whom Alexander on this occasion designed to remove. Now,
   Cardinal Corneto was not in a condition to partake of any banquet
   either on 11 August or 12 August Giustiniani, the Venetian
   ambassador, who attributes the pope's illness to a fever
   contracted at supper at the cardinal's villa on 5 August,
   says, writing on the 13th, 'All have felt the effects, and
   first of all Cardinal Adrian [Corneto], who attended mass in
   the papal chapel on Friday [11 August], and after supper was
   attacked by a violent paroxysm of fever, which endured until
   the following morning; yesterday [the 12th] he had it again,
   and it has returned to-day.' Evidently, then, the cardinal
   could not give or even be present at an entertainment on the
   12th, and nothing could have happened on that day to throw a
   doubt on the accuracy of Burcardus's statement that the pope
   was taken ill in the morning, which would put any banquet and
   any poisoning during the course of it out of the question. …
   There is, therefore, no reason for discrediting the evidence
   of the two witnesses, the only contemporary witnesses to date,
   who fix the supper to 5 August or 6 August at the latest. It
   is possible that poison may have been then administered which
   did not produce its effects until 12 August; but the
   picturesque statement of the suddenness of the pope's illness
   and the consternation thus occasioned are palpable fictions,
   which so gravely impair the credit of the historians relating
   them that the story of the poisoning cannot be accepted on
   their authority. … The story, then, that Alexander
   accidentally perished by poison which he had prepared for
   another—though not in itself impossible or even very
   improbable—must be dismissed as at present unsupported by
   direct proof or even incidental confirmation of any kind. It
   does not follow that he may not have been poisoned
   designedly."

      R. Garnett,
      The Alleged Poisoning of Alexander VI.
      (English Historical Review, April, 1894).

   "Of Pius III., who reigned for a few days after Alexander, no
   account need be taken. Giuliano della Rovere was made Pope in
   1503. Whatever opinion may be formed of him considered as the
   high-priest of the Christian faith, there can be no doubt that
   Julius II. was one of the greatest figures of the Renaissance,
   and that his name, instead of that of Leo X., should by right
   be given to the golden age of letters and of arts in Rome. He
   stamped the century with the impress of a powerful
   personality. It is to him we owe the most splendid of Michael
   Angelo's and Raphael's masterpieces. The Basilica of St.
   Peter's, that materialized idea, which remains to symbolize
   the transition from the Church of the Middle Ages to the
   modern semi-secular supremacy of Papal Rome, was his thought.
   No nepotism, no loathsome sensuality, no flagrant violation of
   ecclesiastical justice stain his pontificate. His one purpose
   was to secure and extend the temporal authority of the Popes;
   and this he achieved by curbing the ambition of the Venetians,
   who threatened to enslave Romagna, by reducing Perugia and
   Bologna to the Papal sway, by annexing Parma and Piacenza, and
   by entering on the heritage bequeathed to him by Cesare
   Borgia. At his death he transmitted to his successors the
   largest and most solid sovereignty in Italy. But restless,
   turbid, never happy unless fighting, Julius drowned the
   peninsula in blood. He has been called a patriot, because from
   time to time he raised the cry of driving the barbarians from
   Italy: it must, however, be remembered that it was he, while
   still Cardinal di San Pietro in Vincoli, who finally moved
   Charles VIII. from Lyons; it was he who stirred up the League
   of Cambray [see VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509] against Venice, and
   who invited the Swiss mercenaries into Lombardy [see ITALY: A.
   D. 1510-1513]; in each case adding the weight of the Papal
   authority to the forces which were enslaving his country. …
   Leo X. succeeded Julius in 1513, to the great relief of the
   Romans, wearied with the continual warfare of the old
   'Pontefice terribile.'"

      J. A. Symonds,
      Renaissance in Italy: The Age of the Despots,
      chapter 6.

      ALSO IN:
      J. C. Robertson,
      History of the Christian Church,
      book 9, chapter 5 (volume 8).

      M. Creighton,
      History of the Papacy,
      book 5, chapters 3-17.

      W. Gilbert,
      Lucrezia Borgia.

      P. Villari,
      Life and Times of Machiavelli,
      introduction, chapter 4 (volume 1);
      book 1, chapters 6-14 (volumes 2-3).

PAPACY: A. D. 1493.
   The Pope's assumption of authority
   to give the New World to Spain.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1493.

PAPACY: A. D. 1496-1498.
   The condemnation of Savonarola.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1490-1498.

PAPACY: A. D. 1503 (September).
   Election of Pius III.

PAPACY: A. D. 1503 (October).
   Election of Julius II.

PAPACY: A. D. 1508-1509.
   Pope Julius II. and the League of Cambrai against Venice.

      See VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509.

PAPACY: A. D. 1510-1513.
   The Holy League against France.
   The pseudo-council at Pisa.
   Conquests of Julius II.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

PAPACY: A. D. 1513.
   Election of Leo X.

PAPACY: A. D. 1515-1516.
   Treaty of Leo X. with Francis I. of France.
   Abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII.
   The Concordat of Bologna.
   Destruction of the liberties of the Gallican Church.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1515-1518.

{2444}

PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517.
   Monetary demands of the court and family of Pope Leo X.,
   and his financial expedients.
   The theory of Indulgences and their marketability.

   "The position which the pope [Leo X.], now absolute lord of
   Florence and master of Siena, occupied, the powerful alliances
   he had contracted with the other powers of Europe, and the views
   which his family entertained on the rest of Italy, rendered it
   absolutely indispensable for him, spite of the prodigality of
   a government that knew no restraint, to be well supplied with
   money. He seized every occasion of extracting extraordinary
   revenues from the church. The Lateran council was induced,
   immediately before its dissolution (15th of March, 1517), to
   grant the pope a tenth of all church property throughout
   Christendom. Three different commissions for the sale of
   indulgences traversed Germany and the northern states at the
   same moment. These expedients were, it is true, resorted to
   under various pretexts. The tenths were, it was said, to be
   expended in a Turkish war, which was soon to be declared; the
   produce of indulgences was for the building of St. Peter's
   Church, where the bones of the martyrs lay exposed to the
   inclemency of the elements. But people had ceased to believe
   in these pretences. … For there was no doubt on the mind of
   any reasonable man, that all these demands were mere financial
   speculations. There is no positive proof that the assertion
   then so generally made —that the proceeds of the sale of
   indulgences in Germany was destined in part for the pope's
   sister Maddelena—was true. But the main fact is indisputable,
   that the ecclesiastical aids were applied to the uses of the
   pope's family."

      L. Ranke,
      History of the Reformation in Germany,
      book 2, chapter 1 (volume 1).

   "Indulgences, in the earlier ages of the Church, had been a
   relaxation of penance, or of the discipline imposed by the
   Church on penitents who had been guilty of mortal sin. The
   doctrine of penance required that for such sin satisfaction
   should be superadded to contrition and confession. Then came
   the custom of commuting these appointed temporal penalties.
   When Christianity spread among the northern nations, the
   canonical penances were frequently found to be inapplicable to
   their condition. The practice of accepting offerings of money
   in the room of the ordinary forms of penance, harmonized with
   the penal codes in vogue among the barbarian peoples. At first
   the priest had only exercised the office of an intercessor.
   Gradually the simple function of declaring the divine
   forgiveness to the penitent transformed itself into that of a
   judge. By Aquinas, the priest is made the instrument of
   conveying the divine pardon, the vehicle through which the
   grace of God passes to the penitent. With the jubilees, or
   pilgrimages to Rome, ordained by the popes, came the plenary
   indulgences, or the complete remission of all temporal
   penalties—that is, the penalties still obligatory on the
   penitent—on the fulfillment of prescribed conditions. These
   penalties might extend into purgatory, but the indulgence
   obliterated them all. In the 13th century, Alexander of Hales
   and Thomas Aquinas set forth the theory of supererogatory
   merits, or the treasure of merit bestowed upon the Church
   through Christ and the saints, on which the rulers of the
   Church might draw for the benefit of the less worthy and more
   needy. This was something distinct from the power of the keys,
   the power to grant absolution, which inhered in the priesthood
   alone. The eternal punishment of mortal sin being remitted or
   commuted by the absolution of the priest, it was open to the
   Pope or his agents, by the grant of indulgences, to remit the
   temporal or terminable penalties that still rested on the head
   of the transgressor. Thus souls might be delivered forthwith
   from purgatorial fire. Pope Sixtus IV., in 1477, had
   officially declared that souls already in purgatory are
   emancipated 'per modum suffragii'; that is, the work done in
   behalf of them operates to effect their release in a way
   analogous to the efficacy of prayer. Nevertheless, the power
   that was claimed over the dead, was not practically diminished
   by this restriction. The business of selling indulgences had
   grown by the profitableness of it. 'Everywhere,' says Erasmus,
   'the remission of purgatorial torment is sold; nor is it sold
   only, but forced upon those who refuse it.' As managed by
   Tetzel and the other emissaries sent out to collect money for
   the building of St. Peter's Church, the indulgence was a
   simple bargain, according to which, on the payment of a
   stipulated sum, the individual received a full discharge from
   the penalties of sin or procured the release of a soul from
   the flames of purgatory. The forgiveness of sins was offered
   in the market for money."

      G. P. Fisher,
      The Reformation,
      chapter 4.

   The doctrine concerning indulgences which the Roman Catholic
   Church maintains at the present day is stated by one of its
   most eminent prelates as follows: "What then is an Indulgence?
   It is no more than a remission by the Church, in virtue of the
   keys, or the judicial authority committed to her, of a
   portion, or the entire, of the temporal punishment due to sin.
   The infinite merits of Christ form the fund whence this
   remission is derived: but besides, the Church holds that, by
   the communion of Saints, penitential works performed by the
   just, beyond what their own sins might exact, are available to
   other members of Christ's mystical body; that, for instance,
   the sufferings of the spotless Mother of God, afflictions such
   as probably no other human being ever felt in the soul, —the
   austerities and persecutions of the Baptist, the friend of the
   Bridegroom, who was sanctified in his mother's womb, and
   chosen to be an angel before the face of the Christ,—the
   tortures endured by numberless martyrs, whose lives had been
   pure from vice and sin,—the prolonged rigours of holy
   anchorites, who, flying from the temptations and dangers of
   the world, passed many years in penance and contemplation, all
   these made consecrated and valid through their union with the
   merits of Christ's passion,—were not thrown away, but formed a
   store of meritorious blessings, applicable to the satisfaction
   of other sinners. It is evident that, if the temporal
   punishment reserved to sin was anciently believed to be
   remitted through the penitential acts, which the sinner
   assumed, any other substitute for them, that the authority
   imposing or recommending them received as an equivalent, must
   have been considered by it truly of equal value, and as
   acceptable before God. And so it must be now. If the duty of
   exacting such satisfaction devolves upon the Church,—and it
   must be the same now as it formerly was,—she necessarily
   possesses at present the same power of substitution, with the
   same efficacy, and, consequently, with the same effects. And
   such a substitution is what constitutes all that Catholics
   understand by the name of an Indulgence. … Do I then mean to
   say, that during the middle ages, and later, no abuse took
   place in the practise of indulgences? Most certainly not.
{2445}
   Flagrant and too frequent abuses, doubtless, occurred through
   the avarice, and rapacity, and impiety of men; especially when
   indulgence was granted to the contributors towards charitable
   or religious foundations, in the erection of which private
   motives too often mingle. But this I say, that the Church felt
   and ever tried to remedy the evil. … The Council of Trent, by
   an ample decree, completely reformed the abuses which had
   subsequently crept in, and had been unfortunately used as a
   ground for Luther's separation from the Church."

      N. Wiseman,
      Lectures on the Principal Doctrines and
      Practices of the Catholic Church,
      lecture 12.

PAPACY: A. D. 1517.
   Tetzel and the hawking of Indulgences through Germany.

   "In Germany the people were full of excitement. The Church had
   opened a vast market on earth. The crowd of customers, and the
   cries and jests of the sellers, were like a fair—and that, a
   fair held by monks. The article which they puffed off and
   offered at the lowest price, was, they said, the salvation of
   souls. These dealers travelled through the country in a
   handsome carriage, with three outriders, made a great show,
   and spent a great deal of money. … When the cavalcade was
   approaching a town, a deputy was dispatched to the magistrate:
   'The grace of God and St. Peter is before your gates,' said
   the envoy; and immediately all the place was in commotion. The
   clergy, the priests, the nuns, the council, the schoolmasters,
   the schoolboys, the trade corporations with their banners, men
   and women, young and old, went to meet the merchants, bearing
   lighted torches in their hands, advancing to the sound of
   music and of all the bells, 'so that,' says a historian, 'they
   could not have received God Himself in greater state.' The
   salutations ended, the whole cortege moved towards the church,
   the Pope's bull of grace being carried in advance on a velvet
   cushion, or on a cloth of gold. The chief indulgence-merchant
   followed next, holding in his hand a red wooden cross. In this
   order the whole procession moved along, with singing, prayers,
   and incense. The organ pealed, and loud music greeted the
   hawker monk and those who accompanied him, as they entered the
   temple. The cross he bore was placed in front of the altar;
   the Pope's arms were suspended from it. … One person
   especially attracted attention at these sales. It was he who
   carried the great red cross and played the principal part. He
   wore the garb of the Dominicans. He had an arrogant bearing
   and a thundering voice, and he was in full vigour, though he
   had reached his sixty-third year. This man, the son of a
   goldsmith of Leipsic, named Dietz, was called John Dietzel, or
   Tetzel. He had received numerous ecclesiastical honours. He
   was Bachelor in Theology, prior of the Dominicans, apostolic
   commissioner and inquisitor, and since the year 1502 he had
   filled the office of vendor of indulgences. The skill he had
   acquired soon caused him to be named commissioner-in-chief. …
   The cross having been elevated and the Pope's arms hung upon
   it, Tetzel ascended the pulpit, and with a confident air began
   to extol the worth of indulgences, in presence of the crowd
   whom the ceremony had attracted to the sacred spot. The people
   listened with open mouths. Here is a specimen of one of his
   harangues:—'Indulgences,' he said, 'are the most precious and
   sublime gifts of God. This cross (pointing to the red cross)
   has as much efficacy as the cross of Jesus Christ itself.
   Come, and I will give you letters furnished with seals, by
   which, even the sins that you may have a wish to commit
   hereafter, shall be all forgiven you. I would not exchange my
   privileges for those of St. Peter in heaven; for I have saved
   more souls by my indulgences than the Apostle by his
   discourses. There is no sin so great, that an indulgence
   cannot remit it. Repentance is not necessary. But, more than
   that; indulgences not only save the living, they save the dead
   also. Priest! noble! merchant! woman! young girl! young
   man!—harken to your parents and your friends who are dead, and
   who cry to you from the depths of the abyss: "We are enduring
   horrible tortures! A small alms would deliver us. You can give
   it, and you will not!"' The hearers shuddered at these words,
   pronounced in the formidable voice of the charlatan monk. 'The
   very instant,' continued Tetzel, 'the piece of money chinks at
   the bottom of the strong box, the soul is freed from
   purgatory, and flies to heaven.' … Such were the discourses
   heard by astonished Germany in the days when God was raising
   up Luther. The sermon ended, the indulgence was considered as
   'having solemnly established its throne' in that place.
   Confessionals were arranged, adorned with the Pope's arms; and
   the people flocked in crowds to the confessors. They were
   told, that, in order to obtain the full pardon of all their
   sins, and to deliver the souls of others from purgatory, it
   was not necessary for them to have contrition of heart, or to
   make confession by mouth; only, let them be quick and bring
   money to the box. Women and children, poor people, and those
   who lived on alms, all of them soon found the needful to
   satisfy the confessor's demands. The confession being over—and
   it did not require much time—the faithful hurried to the sale,
   which was conducted by a single monk. His counter stood near
   the cross. He fixed his sharp eyes upon all who approached
   him, scrutinized their manners, their bearing, their dress,
   and demanded a sum proportioned to the appearance of each.
   Kings, queens, princes, archbishops, bishops, had to pay,
   according to regulation, twenty-five ducats; abbots, counts,
   and barons, ten; and so on, or according to the discretion of
   the commissioner. For particular sins, too, both Tetzel in
   Germany, and Samson in Switzerland, had a special scale of
   prices."

      J. N. Merle D'Aubigne,
      The Story of the! Reformation,
      part 1, chapter 6
      (or History of the Reformation, book 3, chapter 1).

      ALSO IN:
      M. J. Spalding,
      History of the Protestant Reformation,
      part 2, chapter 3.

PAPACY: A. D. 1517.
   Luther's attack upon the Indulgences.
   His 95 Theses nailed to the Wittenberg Church.
   The silent support of Elector Frederick of Saxony.
   The satisfaction of awakened Germany.

   "Wittenberg was an old-fashioned town in Saxony, on the Elbe.
   Its main street was parallel with the broad river, and within
   its walls, at one end of it, near the Elster gate, lay the
   University, founded by the good Elector—Frederic of Saxony—of
   which Luther was a professor; while at the other end of it was
   the palace of the Elector and the palace church of All Saints.
   The great parish church lifted its two towers from the centre
   of the town, a little back from the main street.
{2446}
   This was the town in which Luther had been preaching for
   years, and towards which Tetzel, the seller of indulgences,
   now came, just as he did to other towns, vending his 'false
   pardons'—granting indulgences for sins to those who could pay
   for them, and offering to release from purgatory the souls of
   the dead, if any of their friends would pay for their release.
   As soon as the money chinked in his money-box, the souls of
   their dead friends would be let out of purgatory. This was the
   gospel of Tetzel. It made Luther's blood boil. He knew that
   what the Pope wanted was people's money, and that the whole
   thing was a cheat. This his Augustinian theology had taught
   him, and he was not a man to hold back when he saw what ought
   to be done. He did see it. On the day [October 31] before the
   festival of All Saints, on which the relics of the Church were
   displayed to the crowds of country people who flocked into the
   town, Luther passed down the long street with a copy of
   ninety-five theses or Statements [see text below] against
   indulgences in his hand, and nailed them upon the door of the
   palace church ready for the festival on the morrow. Also on
   All Saints' day he read them to the people in the great parish
   church. It would not have mattered much to Tetzel or the Pope
   that the monk of Wittenberg had nailed up his papers on the
   palace church, had it not been that he was backed by the
   Elector of Saxony."

      F. Seebohm,
      The Era of the Protestant Revolution,
      part 2, chapter 3 (c).

   "As the abuse complained of had a double character, religious
   and political, or financial, so also political events came in
   aid of the opposition emanating from religious ideas.
   Frederick of Saxony [on the occasion of an indulgence
   proclaimed in 1501] … had kept the money accruing from it in
   his own dominions in his possession, with the determination
   not to part with it, till an expedition against the infidels,
   which was then contemplated, should be actually undertaken;
   the pope and, on the pope's concession, the emperor, had
   demanded it of him in vain: he held it for what it really
   was—a tax levied on his subjects; and after all the projects
   of a war against the Turks had come to nothing, he had at
   length applied the money to his university. Nor was he now
   inclined to consent to a similar scheme of taxation. … The
   sale of indulgences at Jüterbock and the resort of his
   subjects thither, was not less offensive to him on financial
   grounds than to Luther on spiritual. Not that the latter were
   in any degree excited by the former; this it would be
   impossible to maintain after a careful examination of the
   facts; on the contrary, the spiritual motives were more
   original, powerful, and independent than the temporal, though
   these were important, as having their proper source in the
   general condition of Germany. The point whence the great
   events arose which were soon to agitate the world, was the
   coincidence of the two. There was … no one who represented the
   interests of Germany in the matter. There were innumerable
   persons who saw through the abuse of religion, but no one who
   dared to call it by its right name and openly to denounce and
   resist it. But the alliance between the monk of Wittenberg and
   the sovereign of Saxony was formed; no treaty was negotiated;
   they had never seen each other; yet they were bound together
   by an instinctive mutual understanding. The intrepid monk
   attacked the enemy; the prince did not promise him his aid—he
   did not even encourage him; he let things take their course. …
   Luther's daring assault was the shock which awakened Germany
   from her slumber. That a man should arise who had the courage
   to undertake the perilous struggle, was a source of universal
   satisfaction, and as it were tranquillised the public
   conscience. The most powerful interests were involved in
   it;—that of sincere and profound piety, against the most
   purely external means of obtaining pardon of sins; that of
   literature, against fanatical persecutors, of whom Tetzel was
   one; the renovated theology against the dogmatic learning of
   the schools, which lent itself to all these abuses; the
   temporal power against the spiritual, whose usurpations it
   sought to curb; lastly, the nation against the rapacity of
   Rome."

      L. Ranke,
      History of the Reformation in Germany,
      book 2, chapter 1 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      J. Köstlin,
      Life of Luther,
      part 3, chapter 1.

      C. Beard,
      Martin Luther and the Reformation,
      chapter 5.

      See, also, GERMANY: A. D. 1517-1523.

PAPACY: A. D. 1517.
   The Ninety-five Theses of Luther.

   The following is a translation of the ninety-five theses:

   "In the desire and with the purpose of elucidating the truth,
   a disputation will be held on the underwritten propositions at
   Wittemberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin
   Luther, Monk of the Order of St. Augustine, Master of Arts and
   of Sacred Theology, and ordinary Reader of the same in that
   place. He therefore asks those who cannot be present and
   discuss the subject with us orally, to do so by letter in
   their absence. In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.

   1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ in saying: 'Repent ye,'
   etc., intended that the whole life of believers should be
   penitence.

   2. This word cannot be understood of sacramental penance, that
   is, of the confession and satisfaction which are performed
   under the ministry of priests.

   3. It does not, however, refer solely to inward penitence; nay
   such inward penitence is naught, unless it outwardly produces
   various mortifications of the flesh.

   4. The penalty thus continues as long as the hatred of
   self—that is, true inward penitence—continues; namely, till
   our entrance into the kingdom of heaven.

   5. The Pope has neither the will nor the power to remit any
   penalties, except those which he has imposed by his own
   authority, or by that of the canons.

   6. The Pope has no power to remit any guilt, except by
   declaring and warranting it to have been remitted by God; or
   at most by remitting cases reserved for himself; in which
   eases, if his power were despised, guilt would certainly
   remain.

   7. God never remits any man's guilt, without at the same time
   subjecting him, humbled in all things, to the authority of his
   representative the priest.

   8. The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and
   no burden ought to be imposed on the dying, according to them.

   9. Hence the Holy Spirit acting in the Pope does well for us,
   in that, in his decrees, he always makes exception of the
   article of death and of necessity.

   10. Those priests act wrongly and unlearnedly, who, in the
   case of the dying, reserve the canonical penances for
   purgatory.

   11. Those tares about changing of the canonical penalty into
   the penalty of purgatory seem surely to have been sown while
   the bishops were asleep.

   12. Formerly the canonical penalties were imposed not after,
   but before absolution, as tests of true contrition.

{2447}

   13. The dying pay all penalties by death, and are already dead
   to the canon laws, and are by right relieved from them.

   14. The imperfect soundness or charity of a dying person
   necessarily brings with it great fear, and the less it is, the
   greater the fear it brings.

   15. This fear and horror is sufficient by itself, to say
   nothing of other things, to constitute the pains of purgatory,
   since it is very near to the horror of despair.

   16. Hell, purgatory, and heaven appear to differ as despair,
   almost despair, and peace of mind differ.

   17. With souls in purgatory it seems that it must needs be
   that, as horror diminishes, so charity increases.

   18. Nor does it seem to be proved by any reasoning or any
   scriptures, that they are outside of the state of merit or of
   the increase of charity.

   19. Nor does this appear to be proved, that they are sure and
   confident of their own blessedness, at least all of them,
   though we may be very sure of it.

   20. Therefore the Pope, when he speaks of the plenary
   remission of all penalties, does not mean simply of all, but
   only of those imposed by himself.

   21. Thus those preachers of indulgences are in error who say
   that, by the indulgences of the Pope, a man is loosed and
   saved from all punishment.

   22. For in fact he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty
   which they would have had to pay in this life according to the
   canons.

   23. If any entire remission of all penalties can be granted to
   anyone, it is certain that it is granted to none but the most
   perfect, that is, to very few.

   24. Hence the greater part of the people must needs be
   deceived by this indiscriminate and high-sounding promise of
   release from penalties.

   25. Such power as the Pope has over purgatory in general, such
   has every bishop in his own diocese, and every curate in his
   own parish, in particular.

   26. The Pope acts most rightly in granting remission to souls,
   not by the power of the keys (which is of no avail in this
   case) but by the way of suffrage.

   27. They preach man, who say that the soul flies out of
   purgatory as soon as the money thrown into the chest rattles.

   28. It is certain that, when the money rattles in the chest,
   avarice and gain may be increased, but the suffrage of the
   Church depends on the will of God alone.

   29. Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory desire to be
   redeemed from it, according to the story told of Saints
   Severinus and Paschal.

   30. No man is sure of the reality of his own contrition, much
   less of the attainment of plenary remission.

   31. Rare as is a true penitent, so rare is one who truly buys
   indulgences—that is to say, most rare.

   32. Those who believe that, through letters of pardon, they
   are made sure of their own salvation, will be eternally damned
   along with their teachers.

   33. We must especially beware of those who say that these
   pardons from the Pope are that inestimable gift of God by
   which man is reconciled to God.

   34. For the grace conveyed by these pardons has respect only
   to the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, which are of
   human appointment.

   35. They preach no Christian doctrine, who teach that
   contrition is not necessary for those who buy souls out of
   purgatory or buy confessional licences.

   36. Every Christian who feels true compunction has of right
   plenary remission of pain and guilt, even without letters of
   pardon.

   37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has a share
   in all the benefits of Christ and of the Church, given him by
   God, even without letters of pardon.

   38. The remission, however, imparted by the Pope is by no
   means to be despised, since it is, as I have said, a
   declaration of the Divine remission.

   39. It is a most difficult thing, even for the most learned
   theologians, to exalt at the same time in the eyes of the
   people the ample effect of pardons and the necessity of true
   contrition.

   40. True contrition seeks and loves punishment; while the
   ampleness of pardons relaxes it, and causes men to hate it, or
   at least gives occasion for them to do so.

   41. Apostolic pardons ought to be proclaimed with caution,
   lest the people should falsely suppose that they are placed
   before other good works of charity.

   42. Christians should be taught that it is not the mind of the
   Pope that the buying of pardons is to be in any way compared
   to works of mercy.

   43. Christians should be taught that he who gives to a poor
   man, or lends to a needy man, does better than if he bought
   pardons.

   44. Because, by a work of charity, charity increases, and the
   man becomes better; while, by means of pardons, he does not
   become better, but only freer from punishment.

   45. Christians should be taught that he who sees anyone in
   need, and, passing him by, gives money for pardons, is not
   purchasing for himself the indulgences of the Pope, but the
   anger of God.

   46. Christians should be taught that, unless they have
   superfluous wealth, they are bound to keep what is necessary
   for the use of their own households, and by no means to lavish
   it on pardons.

   47. Christians should be taught that, while they are free to
   buy pardons, they are not commanded to do so.

   48. Christians should be taught that the Pope, in granting
   pardons, has both more need and more desire that devout prayer
   should be made for him, than that money should be readily
   paid.

   49. Christians should be taught that the Pope's pardons are
   useful, if they do not put their trust in them, but most
   hurtful, if through them they lose the fear of God.

   50. Christians should be taught that, if the Pope were
   acquainted with the exactions of the preachers of pardons, he
   would prefer that the Basilica of St. Peter should be burnt to
   ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh,
   and bones of his sheep.

   51. Christians should be taught that, as it would be the duty,
   so it would be the wish of the Pope, even to sell, if
   necessary, the Basilica of St. Peter, and to give of his own
   money to very many of those from whom the preachers of pardons
   extract money.

   52. Vain is the hope of salvation through letters of pardon,
   even if a commissary—nay the Pope himself—were to pledge his
   own soul for them.

   53. They are enemies of Christ and of the Pope, who, in order
   that pardons may be preached, condemn the word of God to utter
   silence in other churches.

   54. Wrong is done to the word of God when, in the same sermon,
   an equal or longer time is spent on pardons that [than] on it.

   55. The mind of the Pope necessarily is that, if pardons,
   which are a very small matter, are celebrated with single
   bells, single processions, and single ceremonies, the Gospel,
   which is a very great matter, should be preached with a
   hundred bells, a hundred processions, and a hundred
   ceremonies.

   56. The treasures of the Church, whence the Pope grants
   indulgences, are neither sufficiently named nor known among
   the people of Christ.

{2448}

   57. It is clear that they are at least not temporal treasures,
   for these are not so readily lavished, but only accumulated,
   by many of the preachers.

   58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and of the saints, for
   these, independently of the Pope, are always working grace to
   the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell to the outer
   man.

   59. St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church are the
   poor of the Church, but he spoke according to the use of the
   word in his time.

   60. We are not speaking rashly when we say that the keys of
   the Church, bestowed through the merits of Christ, are that
   treasure.

   61. For it is clear that the power of the Pope is alone
   sufficient for the remission of penalties and of reserved
   cases.

   62. The true treasure of the Church is the Holy Gospel of the
   glory and grace of God.

   63. This treasure, however, is deservedly most hateful,
   because it makes the first to be last.

   64. While the treasure of indulgences is deservedly most
   acceptable, because it makes the last to be first.

   65. Hence the treasures of the Gospel are nets, wherewith of
   old they fished for the men of riches.

   66. The treasures of indulgences are nets, wherewith they now
   fish for the riches of men.

   67. Those indulgences, which the preachers loudly proclaim to
   be the greatest graces, are seen to be truly such as regards
   the promotion of gain.

   68. Yet they are in reality in no degree to be compared to the
   grace of God and the piety of the cross.

   69. Bishops and curates are bound to receive the commissaries
   of apostolic pardons with all reverence.

   70. But they are still more bound to see to it with all their
   eyes, and take heed with all their ears, that these men do not
   preach their own dreams in place of the Pope's commission.

   71. He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let
   him be anathema and accursed.

   72. But he, on the other hand, who exerts himself against the
   wantonness and licence of speech of the preachers of pardons,
   let him be blessed.

   73. As the Pope justly thunders against those who use any kind
   of contrivance to the injury of the traffic in pardons.

   74. Much more is it his intention to thunder against those
   who, under the pretext of pardons, use contrivances to the
   injury of holy charity and of truth.

   75. To think that Papal pardons have such power that they
   could absolve a man even if—by an impossibility—he had
   violated the Mother of God, is madness.

   76. We affirm on the contrary that Papal] pardons cannot take
   away even the least of venial sins, as regards its guilt.

   77. The saying that, even if St. Peter were now Pope, he could
   grant no greater graces, is blasphemy against St. Peter and
   the Pope.

   78. We affirm on the contrary that both he and any other Pope
   has greater graces to grant, namely, the Gospel, powers, gifts
   of healing, etc. (1 Corinthians xii. 9).

   79. To say that the cross set up among the insignia of the
   Papal arms is of equal power with the cross of Christ, is
   blasphemy.

   80. Those bishops, curates, and theologians who allow such
   discourses to have currency among the people, will have to
   render an account.

   81. This licence in the preaching of pardons makes it no easy
   thing, even for learned men, to protect the reverence due to
   the Pope against the calumnies, or, at all events, the keen
   questionings of the laity.

   82. As for instance:—Why does not the Pope empty purgatory for
   the sake of most holy charity and of the supreme necessity of
   souls—this being the most just of all reasons—if he redeems
   an infinite number of souls for the sake of that most fatal
   thing money, to be spent on building a basilica—this being a
   very slight reason?

   83. Again; why do funeral masses and anniversary masses for
   the deceased continue, and why does not the Pope return, or
   permit the withdrawal of the funds bequeathed for this
   purpose, since it is a wrong to pay for those who are already
   redeemed?

   84. Again; what is this new kindness of God and the Pope, in
   that for money's sake, they permit an impious man and an enemy
   of God to redeem a pious soul which loves God, and yet do not
   redeem that same pious and beloved soul, out of free charity,
   on account of its own need?

   85. Again; why is it that the penitential canons, long since
   abrogated and dead in themselves in very fact and not only by
   usage, are yet still redeemed with money, through the granting
   of indulgences, as if they were full of life?

   86. Again; why does not the Pope, whose riches are at this day
   more ample than those of the wealthiest of the wealthy, build
   the one basilica of St. Peter with his own money, rather than
   with that of poor believers?

   87. Again; what does the Pope remit or impart to those who,
   through perfect contrition, have a right to plenary remission
   and participation?

   88. Again; what greater good would the Church receive if the
   Pope, instead of once, as he does now, were to bestow these
   remissions and participations a hundred times a day on any one
   of the faithful?

   89. Since it is the salvation of souls, rather than money,
   that the Pope seeks by his pardons, why does he suspend the
   letters and pardons granted long ago, since they are equally
   efficacious.

   90. To repress these scruples and arguments of the laity by
   force alone, and not to solve them by giving reasons, is to
   expose the Church and the Pope to the ridicule of their
   enemies, and to make Christian men unhappy.

   91. If then pardons were preached according to the spirit and
   mind of the Pope, all these questions would be resolved with
   ease; nay, would not exist.

   92. Away then with all those prophets who say to the people of
   Christ: 'Peace, peace,' and there is no peace.

   93. Blessed be all those prophets, who say to the people of
   Christ: 'The cross, the cross,' and there is no cross.

   94. Christians should be exhorted to strive to follow Christ
   their head through pains, deaths, and hells.

   95. And thus trust to enter heaven through many tribulations,
   rather than in the security of peace."

      H. Wace and C. A. Buchheim,
      First Principles of the Reformation,
      page 6-13.

PAPACY: A. D. 1517-1521.
   Favoring circumstances under which the Reformation in Germany
   gained ground.
   The Bull "Exurge Domine."
   Excommunication of Luther.
   The imperial summons from Worms.

   "It was fortunate for Luther's cause that he lived under a
   prince like the Elector of Saxony. Frederick, indeed, was a
   devout catholic; he had made a pilgrimage to Palestine, and
   had filled All Saints' Church at Wittenberg with relics for
   which he had given large sums of money. His attention,
   however, was now entirely engrossed by his new university, and
   he was unwilling to offer up to men like Tetzel so great an
   ornament of it as Dr. Martin Luther, since whose appointment
   at Wittenberg the number of students had so wonderfully
   increased as to throw the universities of Erfurt and Leipsic
   quite into the shade. …
{2449}
   As one of the principal Electors he was completely master in
   his own dominions, and indeed throughout Germany he was as
   much respected as the Emperor; and Maximilian, besides his
   limited power, was deterred by his political views from taking
   any notice of the quarrel. Luther had thus full liberty to
   prepare the great movement that was to ensue. … The contempt
   entertained by Pope Leo X. for the whole affair was also
   favourable to Luther; for Frederick might not at first have
   been inclined to defend him against the Court of Rome. … The
   Court of Rome at length became more sensible of the importance
   of Luther's innovations and in August 1518, he was commanded
   either to recant, or to appear and answer for his opinions at
   Rome, where Silvester Prierias and the bishop Ghenucci di
   Arcoli had been appointed his judges. Luther had not as yet
   dreamt of throwing off his allegiance to the Roman See. In the
   preceding May he had addressed a letter to the Pope himself,
   stating his views in a firm but modest and respectful tone,
   and declaring that he could not retract them. The Elector
   Frederick, at the instance of the university of Wittenberg,
   which trembled for the life of its bold and distinguished
   professor, prohibited Luther's journey to Rome, and expressed
   his opinion that the question should be decided in Germany by
   impartial judges. Leo consented to send a legate to Augsburg
   to determine the cause, and selected for that purpose Cardinal
   Thomas di Vio, better known by the name of Cajetanus, derived
   from his native city of Gaeta. … Luther set out for Augsburg
   on foot provided with several letters of recommendation from
   the Elector, and a safe conduct from the Emperor Maximilian. …
   Luther appeared before the cardinal for the first time,
   October 12th, at whose feet he fell; but it was soon apparent
   that no agreement could be expected. … Cajetanus, who had at
   first behaved with great moderation and politeness, grew warm,
   demanded an unconditional retraction, forbade Luther again to
   appear before him till he was prepared to make it, and
   threatened him with the censures of the Church. The fate of
   Huss stared Luther in the face, and he determined to fly. His
   patron Staupitz procured him a horse, and on the 20th of
   October, Langemantel, a magistrate of Augsburg, caused a
   postern in the walls to be opened for him before day had well
   dawned. … Cajetanus now wrote to the Elector Frederick
   complaining of Luther's refractory departure from Augsburg,
   and requiring either that he should be sent to Rome or at
   least be banished from Saxony. … So uncertain were Luther's
   prospects that he made preparations for his departure. … At
   length, just on the eve of his departure, he received an
   intimation from Frederick that he might remain at Wittenberg.
   Before the close of the year he gained a fresh accession of
   strength by the arrival of Melanchthon, a pupil of Reuchlin,
   who had obtained the appointment of Professor of Greek in the
   university. Frederick offered a fresh disputation at
   Wittenberg; but Leo X. adopted a course more consonant with
   the pretensions of an infallible Church by issuing a Bull
   dated November 9th 1518, which, without adverting to Luther or
   his opinions, explained and enforced the received doctrine of
   indulgences. It failed, however, to produce the desired
   effect. … Leo now tried the effects of seduction. Carl Von
   Miltitz, a Saxon nobleman, canon of Mentz, Treves, and
   Meissen, … was despatched to the Elector Frederick with the
   present of a golden rose, and with instructions to put an end,
   as best he might, to the Lutheran schism. On his way through
   Germany, Miltitz soon perceived that three fourths of the
   people were in Luther's favour; nor was his reception at the
   Saxon Court of a nature to afford much encouragement. …
   Miltitz saw the necessity for conciliation. Having obtained an
   interview with Luther at Altenburg, Miltitz persuaded him to
   promise that he would be silent, provided a like restraint
   were placed upon his adversaries. … Luther was even induced to
   address a letter to the Pope, dated from Altenburg, March 3rd
   1510, in which, in humble terms, he expressed his regret that
   his motives should have been misinterpreted, and solemnly
   declared that he did not mean to dispute the power and
   authority of the Pope and the Church of Rome, which he
   considered superior to everything except Jesus Christ alone. …
   The truce effected by Miltitz lasted only a few months. It was
   broken by a disputation to which Dr. Eck challenged
   Bodenstein, a Leipsic professor, better known by the name of
   Carlstadt. … The Leipsic disputation was preceded and followed
   by a host of controversies. The whole mind of Germany was in
   motion, and it was no longer with Luther alone that Rome had
   to contend. All the celebrated names in art and literature
   sided with the Reformation; Erasmus, Ulrich von Hutten,
   Melanchthon, Lucas Cranach, Albert Durer, and others. Hans
   Sachs, the Meistersänger of Nuremberg, composed in his honour
   the pretty song called 'the Wittenberg Nightingale.' Silvester
   von Schaumburg and Franz von Sickingen invited Luther to their
   castles, in case he were driven from Saxony; and Schaumburg
   declared that 100 more Franconian knights were ready to
   protect him. … The Elector Frederick became daily more
   convinced that his doctrines were founded in Scripture. …
   Meanwhile, Luther had made great strides in his opinions since
   the publication of his Theses. … He had begun to impugn many
   of the principles of the Romish church; and so far from any
   longer recognising the paramount authority of the Pope, or
   even of a general council, he was now disposed to submit to no
   rule but the Bible. The more timid spirits were alarmed at his
   boldness, and even Frederick himself exhorted him to
   moderation. It must be acknowledged, indeed, that Luther
   sometimes damaged his cause by the intemperance of his
   language; an instance of which is afforded by the remarkable
   letter he addressed to Leo X., April 6th 1520, as a dedication
   to his treatise 'De Libertate Christiana.' … The letter just
   alluded to was, perhaps, the immediate cause of the famous
   Bull, 'Exurge Domine,' which Leo fulminated against Luther,
   June 15th 1520. The Bull, which is conceived in mild terms,
   condemned forty-one propositions extracted from Luther's
   works, allowed him sixty days to recant, invited him to Rome,
   if he pleased to come, under a safe conduct, and required him
   to cease from preaching and writing, and to burn his published
   treatises. If he did not conform within the above period, he
   was condemned as a notorious and irreclaimable heretic; all
   princes and magistrates were required to seize him and his
   adherents, and to send them to Rome; and all places that gave
   them shelter were threatened with an interdict.
{2450}
   The Bull was forwarded to Archbishop Albert of Mentz; but in
   North Germany great difficulty was found in publishing it. …
   On December 10th Luther consummated his rebellion by taking
   that final step which rendered it impossible for him to
   recede. On the banks of the Elbe before the Elster Gate of
   Wittenberg, … Luther, in the presence of a large body of
   professors and students, solemnly committed with his own hands
   to the flames the Bull by which he had been condemned,
   together with the code of the canon law, and the writings of
   Eck and Emser, his opponents. … On January 3rd 1521, Luther
   and his followers were solemnly excommunicated by Leo with
   bell, book, and candle, and an image of him, together with his
   writings, was committed to the flames. … At the Diet of Worms
   which was held soon after, the Emperor [Charles V., who
   succeeded Maximilian in 1519] having ordered that Luther's
   books should be delivered up to the magistrates to be burnt,
   the States represented to him the uselessness and impolicy of
   such a step, pointing out that the doctrines of Luther had
   already sunk deep into the hearts of the people; and they
   recommended that he should be summoned to Worms and
   interrogated whether he would recant without any disputation.
   … In compliance with the advice of the States, the Emperor
   issued a mandate, dated March 6th 1521, summoning Luther to
   appear at Worms within twenty-one days. It was accompanied
   with a safe conduct."

      T. H. Dyer,
      History of Modern Europe,
      book 2, chapter 3 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      L. von Ranke,
      History of the Reformation in Germany,
      book 2 (volume 1).

      P. Bayne,
      Martin Luther: his Life and Work,
      book 5, chapter 3;
      book 8, chapter 6 (volumes 1-2).

      J. E. Darras,
      History of the Church,
      7th period, chapter 1 (volume 4).

      P. Schaff,
      History of the Christian Church,
      volume 6, chapter 4.

PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524.
   The sale of Indulgences in Switzerland.
   Beginning of the Reformation under Zwingli.

   Near the close of the year 1518, Ulric Zwingle, or Zwingli, or
   Zuinglius, already much respected for his zealous piety and
   his learning, "was appointed preacher in the collegiate church
   at Zurich. The crisis of his appearance on this scene was so
   extraordinary as to indicate to every devout mind a
   providential dispensation, designed to raise up a second
   instrument in the work of reformation, and that, almost by the
   same means which had been employed to produce the first. One
   Bernhard Samson, or Sanson, a native of Milan, and a
   Franciscan monk, selected this moment to open a sale of
   indulgences at Zurich. He was the Tetzel of Switzerland. He
   preached through many of its provinces, exercising the same
   trade, with the same blasphemous pretensions and the same
   clamorous effrontery; and in a land of greater political
   freedom his impostures excited even a deeper and more general
   disgust. … He encountered no opposition till he arrived at
   Zurich. But here appears a circumstance which throws a shade
   of distinction between the almost parallel histories of Samson
   and Tetzel. The latter observed in his ministration all the
   necessary ecclesiastical forms; the former omitted to present
   his credentials to the bishop of the diocese, and acted solely
   on the authority of the pontifical bulls: Hugo, Bishop of
   Constance, was offended at this disrespectful temerity, and
   immediately directed Zwingle and the other pastors to exclude
   the stranger from their churches. The first who had occasion
   to show obedience to this mandate was John Frey, minister of
   Staufberg. Bullinger, Dean of Bremgarten, was the second. From
   Bremgarten, after a severe altercation which ended by the
   excommunication of that dignitary, Samson proceeded to Zurich.
   Meanwhile Zwingle had been engaged for about two months in
   rousing the indignation of the people against the same object;
   and so successfully did he support the instruction of the
   Bishop, and such efficacy was added to his eloquence by the
   personal unpopularity of Samson, that the senate determined
   not so much as to admit him within the gates of the city. A
   deputation of honour was appointed to welcome the pontifical
   legate without the walls. He was then commanded to absolve the
   Dean from the sentence launched against him, and to depart
   from the canton. He obeyed, and presently turned his steps
   towards Italy and repassed the mountains. This took place at
   the end of February, 1519. The Zurichers immediately addressed
   a strong remonstrance to the Pope, in which they denounced the
   misconduct of his agent. Leo replied, on the last of April,
   with characteristic mildness; for though he maintained, as
   might be expected, the Pope's authority to grant those
   indulgences, … yet he accorded the prayer of the petition so
   far as to recall the preacher, and to promise his punishment,
   should he be convicted of having exceeded his commission. …
   But Zwingle's views were not such as long to be approved by an
   episcopal reformer in that [the Roman] church. … He began to
   invite the Bishop, both by public and private solicitations,
   with perfect respect but great earnestness, to give his
   adhesion to the evangelical truth … and to permit the free
   preaching of the gospel throughout his diocese. … From the
   beginning of his preaching at Zurich it was his twofold object
   to instruct the people in the meaning, design, and character
   of the scriptural writings; and at the same time to teach them
   to seek their religion only there. His very first proceeding
   was to substitute the gospel of St. Matthew, as the text-book
   of his discourses, for the scraps of Scripture exclusively
   treated by the papal preachers; and he pursued this purpose by
   next illustrating the Acts of the Apostles, and the epistles
   of Paul and Peter. He considered the doctrine of justification
   by faith as the corner-stone of Christianity, and he strove to
   draw away his hearers from the gross observances of a
   pharasaical church to a more spiritual conception of the
   covenant of their redemption. … His success was so
   considerable, that at the end of 1519 he numbered as many as
   2,000 disciples; and his influence so powerful among the
   chiefs of the commonwealth, that he procured, in the following
   year, an official decree to the effect: That all pastors and
   ministers should thenceforward reject the unfaithful devices
   and ordinances of men, and teach with freedom such doctrines
   only as rested on the authority of the prophecies, gospels,
   and apostolical epistles."

      G. Waddington,
      History of the Reformation,
      chapter 27 (volume 2).

{2451}

   "With unflagging zeal and courage Zwingli followed his ideal
   in politics, viz., to rear a republic on the type of the Greek
   free states of old, with perfect national independence. Thanks
   to his influence Zurich in 1521 abolished 'Reislaufen,' and
   the system of foreign pay [mercenary military service]. This
   step, however, brought down on the head of Zurich the wrath of
   the twelve sister republics, which had just signed a military
   contract with Francis I. … It was only in 1522 that he began
   to launch pamphlets against the abuses in the Church-fasting,
   celibacy of the clergy and the like. On the 29th of January,
   1523, Zwingli obtained from the Council of Zurich the opening
   of a public religious discussion in presence of the whole of
   the clergy of the canton, and representatives of the Bishop of
   Constance, whose assistance in the debate the Council had
   invited. In 67 theses, remarkable for their penetration and
   clearness, he sketched out his confession of faith and plan of
   reform. … On the 25th of October, 1523, a second discussion
   initiated the practical consequences of the reformed
   doctrine—the abrogation of the mass and image worship.
   Zwingli's system was virtually that of Calvin, but was
   conceived in a broader spirit, and carried out later on in a
   far milder manner by Bullinger. … The Council gave the fullest
   approval to the Reformation. In 1524 Zwingli married Anne
   Reinhard, the widow of a Zurich nobleman (Meyer von Knonau),
   and so discarded the practice of celibacy obtaining amongst
   priests. … In 1524 Zwingli began to effect the most sweeping
   changes with the view of overthrowing the whole fabric of
   mediæval superstition. In the direction of reform he went far
   beyond Luther, who had retained oral confession, altar
   pictures, &c. The introduction of his reforms in Zurich called
   forth but little opposition. True, there were the risings of
   the Anabaptists, but these were the same everywhere. …
   Pictures and images were removed from the churches, under
   government direction. … At the Landgemeinden [parish
   gatherings] called for the purpose, the people gave an
   enthusiastic assent to his doctrines, and declared themselves
   ready 'to die for the gospel truth.' Thus a national Church
   was established, severed from the diocese of Constance, and
   placed under the control of the Council of Zurich and a
   clerical synod. The convents were turned into schools,
   hospitals, and poorhouses."

      Mrs. L. Hug and R. Stead,
      Switzerland,
      chapter 22.

      ALSO IN:
      H. Stebbing,
      History of the Reformation,
      chapter 7 (volume l).

      C. Beard,
      The Reformation
      (Hibbert Lectures, 1883).
      lecture 7.

      J. H. Merle D'Aubigné.
      History of the Reformation,
      books 8 and 11 (volumes 2-3).

      M. J. Spalding.
      History of the Protestant Reformation,
      part 2, chapter 5.

      P. Schaff,
      History of the Christian Church,
      volume 7, chapters 1-3.

PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1522.
   Luther before the Diet at Worms.
   His friendly abduction and concealment at Wartburg.
   His translation of the Bible.

   "On the 2nd of April [1521], the Tuesday after Easter, Luther
   set out on his momentous journey. He travelled in a cart with
   three of his friends, the herald riding in front in his coat
   of arms. … The Emperor had not waited for his appearance to
   order his books to be burnt. When he reached Erfurt on the way
   the sentence had just been proclaimed. The herald asked him if
   he still meant to go on. 'I will go,' he said, 'if there are
   as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the
   house-tops. Though they burnt Huss, they could not burn the
   truth.' The Erfurt students, in retaliation, had thrown the
   Bull into the water. The Rector and the heads of the
   university gave Luther a formal reception as an old and
   honoured member; he preached at his old convent, and he
   preached again at Gotha and at Eisenach. Caietan had
   protested against the appearance in the Diet of an
   excommunicated heretic. The Pope himself had desired that the
   safe–conduct should not be respected, and the bishops had said
   that it was unnecessary. Manœvres were used to delay him on
   the road till the time allowed had expired. But there was a
   fierce sense of fairness in the lay members of the Diet, which
   it was dangerous to outrage. Franz von Sickingen hinted that
   if there was foul play it might go hard with Cardinal
   Caietan—and Von Sickingen was a man of his word in such
   matters. On the 16th of April, at ten in the morning, the cart
   entered Worms, bringing Luther in his monk's dress, followed
   and attended by a crowd of cavaliers. The town's people were
   all out to see the person with whose name Germany was ringing.
   As the cart passed through the gales the warder on the walls
   blew a blast upon his trumpet. … Luther needed God to stand by
   him, for in all that great gathering he could count on few
   assured friends. The princes of the empire were resolved that
   he should have fair play, but they were little inclined to
   favour further a disturber of the public peace. The Diet sate
   in the Bishop's palace, and the next evening Luther appeared.
   The presence in which he found himself would have tried the
   nerves of the bravest of men: the Emperor, sternly hostile,
   with his retinue of Spanish priests and nobles; the
   archbishops and bishops, all of opinion that the stake was the
   only fitting place for so insolent a heretic; the dukes and
   barons, whose stern eyes were little likely to reveal their
   sympathy, if sympathy any of them felt. One of them only,
   George of Frundsberg, had touched Luther on the shoulder as he
   passed through the ante–room. 'Little monk, little monk,' he
   said, 'thou hast work before thee, that I, and many a man
   whose trade is war, never faced the like of. If thy heart is
   right, and thy cause good, go on in God's name. He will not
   forsake thee. A pile of books stood on a table when he was
   brought forward. An officer of the court read the titles,
   asked if he acknowledged them, and whether he was ready to
   retract them. Luther was nervous, not without cause. He
   answered in a low voice that the books were his. To the other
   question he could not reply at once. He demanded time. His
   first appearance had not left a favourable impression; he was
   allowed a night to consider. The next morning, April 18, he
   had recovered himself; he came in fresh, courageous, and
   collected. His old enemy, Eck, was this time the spokesman
   against him, and asked what he was prepared to do. He said
   firmly that his writings were of three kinds: some on simple
   Gospel truth, which all admitted, and which of course he could
   not retract; some against Papal laws and customs, which had
   tried the consciences of Christians and had been used as
   excuses to oppress and spoil the German people. If he
   retracted these he would cover himself with shame. In a third
   sort he had attacked particular persons, and perhaps had been
   too violent. Even here he declined to retract simply, but
   would admit his fault if fault could be proved. He gave his
   answers in a clear strong voice, in Latin first, and then in
   German.
{2452}
   There was a pause, and then Eck said that he had spoken
   disrespectfully; his heresies had been already condemned at
   the Council at Constance; let him retract on these special
   points, and he should have consideration for the rest. He
   required a plain Yes or No from him, 'without horns.' The
   taunt roused Luther's blood. His full brave self was in his
   reply. 'I will give you an answer,' he said, 'which has
   neither horns nor teeth. Popes have erred and councils have
   erred. Prove to me out of Scripture that I am wrong, and I
   submit. Till then my conscience binds me. Here I stand. I can
   do no more. God help me. Amen.' All day long the storm raged.
   Night had fallen, and torches were lighted in the hall before
   the sitting closed. Luther was dismissed at last; it was
   supposed, and perhaps intended, that he was to be taken to a
   dungeon. But the hearts of the lay members of the Diet had
   been touched by the courage which he had shown. They would not
   permit a hand to be laid on him. … When he had reached his
   lodging again, he flung up his hands. 'I am through!' he
   cried. 'I am through! If I had a thousand heads they should be
   struck off one by one before I would retract.' The same
   evening the Elector Frederick sent for him, and told him he
   had done well and bravely. But though he had escaped so far,
   he was not acquitted. Charles conceived that he could be now
   dealt with as an obstinate heretic. At the next session (the
   day following), he informed the Diet that he would send Luther
   home to Wittenberg, there to be punished as the Church
   required. The utmost that his friends could obtain was that
   further efforts should be made. The Archbishop of Treves was
   allowed to tell him that if he would acknowledge the
   infallibility of councils, he might be permitted to doubt the
   infallibility of the Pope. But Luther stood simply upon
   Scripture. There, and there only, was infallibility. The
   Elector ordered him home at once, till the Diet should decide
   upon his fate. … A majority in the Diet, it was now clear,
   would pronounce for his death. If he was sentenced by the
   Great Council of the Empire, the Elector would be no longer
   able openly to protect him. It was decided that he should
   disappear, and disappear so completely that no trace of him
   should be discernible. On his way back through the Thuringian
   Forest, three or four miles from Altenstein, a party of armed
   men started out of the wood, set upon his carriage, seized and
   carried him off to Wartburg Castle. There he remained, passing
   by the name of the Ritter George, and supposed to be some
   captive knight. The secret was so well kept, that even the
   Elector's brother was ignorant of his hiding place. Luther was
   as completely lost as if the earth had swallowed him. … On the
   8th of May the Edict of Worms was issued, placing him under
   the ban of the empire; but he had become 'as the air
   invulnerable,' and the face of the world had changed before he
   came back to it: … Luther's abduction and residence at
   Wartburg is the most picturesque incident in his life. He
   dropped his monk's gown, and was dressed like a gentleman; he
   let his beard grow and wore a sword. … The revolution,
   deprived of its leader, ran wild meanwhile. An account of the
   scene at Worms, with Luther's speeches, and wood cut
   illustrations, was printed on broadsheets and circulated in
   hundreds of thousands of copies. The people were like
   schoolboys left without a master. Convents and monasteries
   dissolved by themselves; monks and nuns began to marry; there
   was nothing else for the nuns to do, turned as they were
   adrift without provision. The Mass in most of the churches in
   Saxony was changed into a Communion. But without Luther it was
   all chaos, and no order could be taken. So great was the need
   of him, that in December he went to Wittenberg in disguise;
   but it was not yet safe for him to remain there. He had to
   retreat to his castle again, and in that compelled retreat he
   bestowed on Germany the greatest of all the gifts which he was
   able to offer. He began to translate the Bible into clear
   vernacular German. … He had probably commenced the work at the
   beginning of his stay at the castle. In the spring of 1522 the
   New Testament was completed. In the middle of March, the
   Emperor's hands now being fully occupied, the Elector sent him
   word that he need not conceal himself any longer; and he
   returned finally to his home and his friends. The New
   Testament was printed in November of that year, and became at
   once a household book in Germany. … The Old Testament was
   taken in hand at once, and in two years half of it was roughly
   finished."

      J. A. Froude,
      Luther: a Short Biography,
      pages 28-35.

      ALSO IN:
      G. Waddington,
      History of the Reformation,
      chapters 13-14 (volume 1).

      W. Robertson,
      History of the Reign of Charles V.,
      book 2 (volume 1).

      C. Beard,
      Martin Luther and the Reformation,
      chapter 9.

      J. Köstlin,
      Life of Luther,
      part 3, chapter 9.

PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1535.
   Beginning of the Protestant Reform movement in France.
   Hesitation of Francis I.
   His final persecution of the Reformers.

   "The long contest for Gallican rights had lowered the prestige
   of the popes in France, but it had not weakened the Catholic
   Church, which was older than the monarchy itself, and, in the
   feeling of the people, was indissolubly associated with it.
   The College of the Sorbonne, or the Theological Faculty at
   Paris, and the Parliament, which had together maintained
   Gallican liberty, were united in stern hostility to all
   doctrinal innovations. … In Southern France a remnant of the
   Waldenses had survived, and the recollection of the
   Catharists was still preserved in popular songs and legends.
   But the first movements towards reform emanated from the
   Humanist culture. A literary and scientific spirit was
   awakened in France through the lively intercourse with Italy
   which subsisted under Louis XII. and Francis I. By Francis
   especially, Italian scholars and artists were induced in large
   numbers to take up their abode in France. Frenchmen likewise
   visited Italy and brought home the classical culture which
   they acquired there. Among the scholars who cultivated Greek
   was Budæus, the foremost of them, whom Erasmus styled the
   'wonder of France.' After the 'Peace of the Dames' was
   concluded at Cambray, in 1529, when Francis surrendered Italy
   to Charles V., a throng of patriotic Italians who feared or
   hated the Spanish rule, streamed over the Alps and gave a new
   impulse to literature and art. Poets, artists, and scholars
   found in the king a liberal and enthusiastic patron. The new
   studies, especially Hebrew and Greek, were opposed by all the
   might of the Sorbonne, the leader of which was the Syndic,
   Beda. He and his associates were on the watch for heresy, and
   every author who was suspected of overstepping the bounds of
   orthodoxy was immediately accused and subjected to
   persecution.
{2453}
   Thus two parties were formed, the one favorable to the new
   learning, and the other inimical to it and rigidly wedded to
   the traditional theology. The Father of the French
   Reformation, or the one more entitled to this distinction than
   any other, is Jacques Lefèvre. … Lefèvre was honored among the
   Humanists as the restorer of philosophy and science in the
   University. Deeply imbued with a religious spirit, in 1509 he
   put forth a commentary on the Psalms, and in 1512 a commentary
   on the Epistles of Paul. As early as about 1512, he said to
   his pupil Farel: 'God will renovate the world, and you will be
   a witness of it'; and in the last named work; he says that the
   signs of the times betoken that a renovation of the Church is
   near at hand. He teaches the doctrine of gratuitous
   justification, and deals with the Scriptures as the supreme
   and sufficient authority. But a mystical, rather than a
   polemical vein characterizes him; and while this prevented him
   from breaking with the Church, it also blunted the sharpness
   of the opposition which his opinions were adapted to produce.
   One of his pupils was Briçonnet, Bishop of Meaux, who held the
   same view of justification with Lefèvre, and fostered the
   evangelical doctrine in his diocese. The enmity of the
   Sorbonne to Lefèvre and his school took a more aggressive form
   when the writings of Luther began to be read in the University
   and elsewhere. … The Sorbonne [1521] formally condemned a
   dissertation of Lefèvre on a point of evangelical history, in
   which he had controverted the traditional opinion. He, with
   Farel, Gérard Roussel, and other preachers, found an asylum
   with Briçonnet. Lefèvre translated the New Testament from the
   Vulgate, and, in a commentary on the Gospels, explicitly
   pronounced the Bible the sole rule of faith, which the
   individual might interpret for himself, and declared
   justification to be through faith alone, without human works
   or merit. It seemed as if Meaux aspired to become another
   Wittenberg. At length a commission of parliament was appointed
   to take cognizance of heretics in that district. Briçonnet,
   either intimidated, as Beza asserts, or recoiling at the sight
   of an actual secession from the Church, joined in the
   condemnation of Luther and of his opinions, and even
   acquiesced in the persecution which fell upon Protestantism
   within his diocese. Lefèvre fled to Strasburg, was afterwards
   recalled by Francis I., but ultimately took up his abode in
   the court of the King's sister, Margaret, the Queen of
   Navarre. Margaret, from the first, was favorably inclined to
   the new doctrines. There were two parties at the court. The
   mother of the King, Louisa of Savoy, and the Chancellor
   Duprat, were allies of the Sorbonne. … Margaret, on the
   contrary, a versatile and accomplished princess, cherished a
   mystical devotion which carried her beyond Briçonnet in her
   acceptance of the teaching of the Reformers. … Before the
   death of her first husband, the Duke of Alençon, and while she
   was a widow, she exerted her influence to the full extent in
   behalf of the persecuted Protestants, and in opposition to the
   Sorbonne. After her marriage to Henry d'Albret, the King of
   Navarre, she continued, in her own little court and
   principality, to favor the reformed doctrine and its
   professors. …

      See NAVARRE: A. D. 1528-1563].

   The drift of her influence appears in the character of her
   daughter, the heroic Jeanne d'Albret, the mother of Henry IV.,
   and in the readiness of the people over whom Margaret
   immediately ruled to receive the Protestant faith. … Francis
   I., whose generous patronage of artists and men of letters
   gave him the title of 'Father of Science,' had no love for the
   Sorbonne, for the Parliament, or for the monks. He entertained
   the plan of bringing Erasmus to Paris, and placing him at the
   head of an institution of learning. He read the Bible with his
   mother and sister, and felt no superstitious aversion to the
   leaders of reform. … The revolt of the Constable Bourbon [see
   FRANCE: A. D. 1520-1523] made it necessary for Francis to
   conciliate the clergy; and the battle of Pavia, followed by
   the captivity of the King, and the regency of his mother, gave
   a free rein to the persecutors. An inquisitorial court,
   composed partly of laymen, was ordained by Parliament.
   Heretics were burned at Paris and in the provinces. Louis de
   Berquin, who combined a culture which won the admiration of
   Erasmus, with the religious earnestness of Luther, was thrown
   into prison." Three times the King interposed and rescued him
   from the persecutors; but at last, in November, 1529, Berquin
   was hanged and burned.

      G. P. Fisher,
      The Reformation,
      chapter 8.

   "Such scenes [as the execution of Berquin], added to the
   preaching and dissemination of the Scriptures and religious
   tracts, caused the desire for reform to spread far and wide.
   In the autumn of 1534, a violent placard against the mass was
   posted about Paris, and one was even fixed on the king's own
   chamber. The cry was soon raised, 'Death! death to the
   heretics!' Francis had long dallied with the Reformation. …
   Now … he develops into what was quite contrary to his
   disposition, a cruel persecutor. A certain bourgeois of Paris,
   unaffected by any heretical notions, kept in those days a
   diary of what was going on in Paris, and from this precious
   document … we learn that between the 13th of November, 1534,
   and the 13th of March, 1535, twenty so-called Lutherans were
   put to death in Paris. … The panic caused by the Anabaptist
   outbreak at Munster may perhaps account for the extreme
   cruelty, … as the siege was in actual progress at the time. It
   was to defend the memories of the martyrs of the 29th of
   January, 1535, and of others who had suffered elsewhere, and
   to save, if possible, those menaced with a similar fate, that
   Calvin wrote his 'Institution of the Christian Religion.' A
   timid, feeble-bodied young student, he had fled from France
   [1535], in the hope of finding some retreat where he might
   lose himself in the studies he loved. Passing through Geneva
   [1536] with the intention of staying there only for a night,
   he met the indefatigable, ubiquitous, enterprising, courageous
   Farel, who, taking him by the hand, adjured him to stop and
   carry on the work in that city. Calvin shrank instinctively,
   but … was forced to yield. … Calvin once settled at Geneva had
   no more doubt about his calling than if he had been Moses
   himself."

      R. Heath,
      The Reformation in France,
      book 1, chapters 2-3.

      ALSO IN:
      H. M. Baird,
      History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France,
      chapters 2-4 (volume 1).

      R. T. Smith,
      The Church in France,
      chapter 12.

PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1555.
   Beginnings of the Reformation in the Netherlands.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1521-1555.

{2454}

PAPACY: A. D. 1522.
   Election of Adrian VI.

PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.
   The deepening and strengthening of the Lutheran Reformation
   and its systematic organization.
   The two diets of Nuremberg.
   The Catholic League of Ratisbon.
   The formal adoption of the Reformed Religion in Northern Germany.

   "Fortunately for the reformation, the emperor was prevented
   from executing the edict of Worms by his absence from Germany,
   by the civil commotions in Spain, and still more by the war
   with Francis I., which extended into Spain, the Low Countries,
   and Italy, and for above eight years involved him in a
   continued series of contests and negotiations at a distance
   from Germany. His brother, Ferdinand, on whom, as joint
   president of the council of regency, the administration of
   affairs devolved, was occupied in quelling the discontents in
   the Austrian territories, and defending his right to the
   crowns of Hungary and Bohemia; and thus the government of the
   empire was left to the council of regency, of which several
   members were inclined to favour innovation, In consequence of
   these circumstances, the Lutherans were enabled to overcome
   the difficulties to which innovators of every kind are
   exposed; and they were no less favoured by the changes at the
   court of Rome. Leo dying in 1521, Adrian, his successor, who,
   by the influence of Charles, was raised to the pontifical
   chair, on the 9th of January, 1522, saw and lamented the
   corruptions of the church, and his ingenuous, but impolitic
   confessions, that the whole church, both in its head and
   members, required a thorough reformation, strengthened the
   arguments of his opponents. … Nothing, perhaps, proved more
   the surprising change of opinion in Germany, the rapid
   increase of those whom we shall now distinguish by the name of
   Lutherans, and the commencement of a systematic opposition to
   the church of Rome, than the transactions of the two diets of
   Nuremberg, which were summoned by the archduke Ferdinand,
   principally for the purpose of enforcing the execution of the
   edict of Worms. In a brief dated in November, 1522, and
   addressed to the first diet, pope Adrian, after severely
   censuring the princes of the empire for not carrying into
   execution the edict of Worms, exhorted them, if mild and
   moderate measures failed, to cut off Luther from the body of
   the church, as a gangrened and incurable member. … At the same
   time, with singular inconsistency, he acknowledged the
   corruptions of the Roman court as the source of the evils
   which overspread the church, [and] promised as speedy a
   reformation as the nature of the abuses would admit. … The
   members of the diet, availing themselves of his avowal,
   advised him to assemble a council in Germany for the
   reformation of abuses, and drew up a list of a hundred
   grievances which they declared they would no longer tolerate,
   and, if not speedily delivered from such burdens, would
   procure relief by the authority with which God had intrusted
   them. … The recess of the diet, published in March, 1523, was
   framed with the same spirit; instead of threats of
   persecution, it only enjoined all persons to wait with
   patience the determination of a free council, forbade the
   diffusion of doctrines likely to create disturbances, and
   subjected all publications to the approbation of men of
   learning and probity appointed by the magistrate. Finally, it
   declared, that as priests who had married, or monks who had
   quitted their convents, were not guilty of a civil crime, they
   were only amenable to an ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and
   liable at the discretion of the ordinary to be deprived of
   their ecclesiastical privileges and benefices. The Lutherans
   derived their greatest advantages from these proceedings, as
   the gross corruptions of the church of Rome were now proved by
   the acknowledgment of the pontiff himself. … From this period
   they confidently appealed to the confession of the pontiff,
   and as frequently quoted the hundred grievances which were
   enumerated in a public and authentic act of the Germanic body.
   They not only regarded the recess as a suspension of the edict
   of Worms, but construed the articles in their own favour. …
   Hitherto the innovators had only preached against the
   doctrines and ceremonies of the Roman church, without
   exhibiting a regular system of their own." But now "Luther was
   persuaded, at the instances of the Saxon clergy, to form a
   regular system of faith and discipline; he translated the
   service into the German tongue, modified the form of the mass,
   and omitted many superstitious ceremonies; but he made as few
   innovations as possible, consistently with his own principles.
   To prevent also the total alienation or misuse of the
   ecclesiastical revenues, he digested a project for their
   administration, by means of an annual committee, and by his
   writings and influence effected its introduction. Under this
   judicious system the revenues of the church, after a provision
   for the clergy, were appropriated for the support of schools;
   for the relief of the poor, sick, and aged, of orphans and
   widows; for the reparation of churches and sacred buildings;
   and for the erection of magazines and the purchase of corn
   against periods of scarcity. These regulations and ordinances,
   though not established with the public approbation of the
   elector, were yet made with his tacit acquiescence, and may be
   considered as the first institution of a reformed system of
   worship and ecclesiastical polity; and in this institution the
   example of the churches of Saxony was followed by all the
   Lutheran communities in Germany. The effects of these changes
   were soon visible, and particularly at the meeting of the
   second diet of Nuremberg, on the 10th of January, 1524. Faber,
   canon of Strasburgh, who had been enjoined to make a progress
   through Germany for the purpose of preaching against the
   Lutheran doctrines, durst not execute his commission, although
   under the sanction of a safe conduct from the council of
   regency. Even the legate Campegio could not venture to make
   his public entry into Nuremberg with the insignia of his
   dignity, … for fear of being insulted by the populace. …
   Instead, therefore, of annulling the acts of the preceding
   diet, the new assembly pursued the same line of conduct. … The
   recess was, if possible, still more galling to the court of
   Rome, and more hostile to its prerogatives than that of the
   former diet. … The Catholics, thus failing in their efforts to
   obtain the support of the diet, on the 6th of July, 1524,
   entered into an association at Ratisbon, under the auspices of
   Campegio, in which the archduke Ferdinand, the duke of
   Bavaria, and most of the German bishops concurred, for
   enforcing the edict of Worms.
{2455}
   At the same time, to conciliate the Germans, the legate
   published 29 articles for, the amendment of some abuses; but
   these being confined to points of minor importance, and
   regarding only the inferior clergy, produced no satisfaction,
   and were attended with no effect. Notwithstanding this
   formidable union of the Catholic princes, the proceedings of
   the diet of Nuremberg were but the prelude to more decisive
   innovations, which followed each other with wonderful
   rapidity. Frederic the Wise, elector of Saxony, dying in 1525,
   was succeeded by his brother, John the Constant, who publicly
   espoused and professed the Lutheran doctrines. The system
   recently digested by Luther, with many additional alterations,
   was introduced by his authority, and declared the established
   religion; and by his order the celebrated Melanchthon drew up
   an apology in defence of the reformed tenets for the princes
   who adopted them. Luther himself, who had in the preceding
   year thrown off the monastic habit, soon after the accession
   of the new sovereign ventured to give the last proof of his
   emancipation from the fetters of the church of Rome, by
   espousing, on the 13th of July, 1525, Catherine Bora, a noble
   lady, who had escaped from the nunnery at Nimptschen, and
   taken up her residence at Wittemberg. The example of the
   elector of Saxony was followed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse
   Cassel, a prince of great influence and distinguished civil
   and military talents; by the dukes of Mecklenburgh, Pomerania,
   and Zell; and by the imperial cities of Nuremberg, Strasburgh,
   Frankfort, Nordhausen, Magdeburgh, Brunswick, Bremen, and
   others of less importance. … Albert, margrave of Brandenburgh,
   grand-master of the Teutonic order, … in 1525, renounced his
   vow of celibacy, made a public profession of the Lutheran
   tenets, and, with the consent of Sigismond, king of Poland,
   secularised Eastern Prussia."

      W. Coxe,
      History of the House of Austria,
      chapter 28 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      L. von Ranke,
      History of the Reformation in Germany,
      book 3, chapters 2-5 (volume 2).

      P. Bayne,
      Martin Luther: his Life and Work,
      books 10-13 (volume 2).

      L. Häusser,
      The Period of the Reformation,
      chapters 5-6.

PAPACY: A. D. 1523.
   Election of Clement VII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1523-1527.
   The double-dealings of Pope Clement VII. with the emperor
   and the king of France.
   Imperial revenge.
   The sack of Rome.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527, and 1527.

PAPACY: A. D. 1524.
   Institution of the Order of the Theatines.

      See THEATINES.

PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.
   The League of Torgau.
   Contradictory action of the Diets at Spires.
   The Protest of Lutheran princes which gave
   rise to the name "Protestants."

   "At the Diet of Nuremberg it had been determined to hold an
   assembly shortly after at Spires for the regulation of
   ecclesiastical affairs. The princes were to procure beforehand
   from their councillors and scholars a statement of the points
   in dispute. The grievances of the nation were to be set forth,
   and remedies were to be sought for them. The nation was to
   deliberate and act on the great matter of religious reform.
   The prospect was that the evangelical party would be in the
   majority. The papal court saw the danger that was involved in
   an assembly gathered for such a purpose, and determined to
   prevent the meeting. At this moment war was breaking out
   between Charles and Francis. Charles had no inclination to
   offend the Pope. He forbade the assembly at Spires, and, by
   letters addressed to the princes individually, endeavored to
   drive them into the execution of the edict of Worms. In
   consequence of these threatening movements, the Elector of
   Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse entered into the defensive
   league of Torgau, in which they were joined by several
   Protestant communities. The battle of Pavia and the capture of
   Francis I. [see FRANCE: A. D. 1523-1525] were events that
   appeared to be fraught with peril to the Protestant cause. In
   the Peace of Madrid (January 14, 1526) both sovereigns avowed
   the determination to suppress heresy. But the dangerous
   preponderance obtained by the Emperor created an alarm
   throughout Europe; and the release of Francis was followed by
   the organization of a confederacy against Charles, of which
   Clement was the leading promoter.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527.

   This changed the imperial policy in reference to the
   Lutherans. The Diet of Spires in 1526 unanimously resolved
   that, until the meeting of a general council, every state
   should act in regard to the edict of Worms as it might answer
   to God and his imperial majesty. Once more Germany refused to
   stifle the Reformation, and adopted the principle that each of
   the component parts of the Empire should be left free to act
   according to its own will. It was a measure of the highest
   importance to the cause of Protestantism. It is a great
   landmark in the history of the German Reformation. The war of
   the Emperor and the Pope involved the necessity of tolerating
   the Lutherans. In 1527, an imperial army, composed largely of
   Lutheran infantry, captured and sacked the city of Rome. For
   several months the Pope was held a prisoner. For a number of
   years the position of Charles with respect to France and the
   Pope, and the fear of Turkish invasion, had operated to
   embolden and greatly strengthen the cause of Luther. But now
   that the Emperor had gained a complete victory in Italy, the
   Catholic party revived its policy of repression."

      G. P. Fisher,
      The Reformation,
      chapter 4.

   "While Charles and Clement were arranging matters in 1529, a
   new Diet was held at Spires, and the reactionists exerted
   themselves to obtain a reversal of that ordinance of the Diet
   of 1526 which had given to the reformed doctrines a legal
   position in Germany. Had it heen possible, the Papist leaders
   would have forced back the Diet on the old Edict of Worms, but
   in this they were baffled. Then they took up another line of
   defence and aggression. Where the Worms Edict had been
   enforced, it was, they urged, to be maintained; but all
   further propagation of the reformed doctrines, all religious
   innovation whatever, was to be forbidden, pending the
   assemblage of a General Council. … This doom of arrest and
   paralysis —this imperious mandate, 'Hitherto shall ye come,
   but no further,'—could not be brooked by the followers of
   Luther. They possessed the advantage of being admirably led.
   Philip of Hesse supplied some elements of sound counsel that
   were wanting in Luther himself. … Luther regarded with favour
   … the doctrine of passive obedience. It was too much his
   notion that devout Germans, if their Emperor commanded them to
   renounce the truth, should simply die at the stake without a
   murmur. …
{2456}
   The most ripe and recent inquiries seem to prove that it was
   about this very time, when the Evangelical Princes and Free
   Cities of Germany were beginning to put shoulder to shoulder
   and organise resistance, in arms if necessary, to the Emperor
   and the Pope, that Luther composed 'Ein' feste Burg ist unser
   Gott,' a psalm of trust in God, and in God only, as the
   protector of Christians. He took no fervent interest, however,
   in the Diet; and Philip and his intrepid associates derived
   little active support from him. These were inflexibly
   determined that the decree of the majority should not be
   assented to. Philip of Hesse, John of Saxony, Markgraf George
   the Pious of Brandenburg-Anspach, the Dukes of Lunenburg and
   Brunswick, the Prince of Anhalt, and the representatives of
   Strasburg, Nürnberg, and twelve other free cities [Ulm,
   Constance, Reutlingen, Windsheim, Memmingen, Lindau, Kempten,
   Heilbron, Isna, Weissemburgh, Nordlingen, and St. Gallen],
   entered a solemn protest against the Popish resolution. They
   were called Protestants. The name, as is customary with names
   that felicitously express and embody facts, was caught up in
   Germany and passed into every country in Europe and the
   world."

      P. Bayne,
      Martin Luther, his Life and Work,
      book 14, chapter 4 (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      L. von Ranke,
      History of the Reformation in Germany,
      books 4-5 (volumes 2-3).

      J. H. Merle D'Aubigne,
      History of the Reformation,
      book 10, chapter 14,
      and book 13, chapter 1-6 (volumes 3-4).

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      section 311 (volume 3).

PAPACY: A. D. 1527-1533.
   The rupture with England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1527-1534.

PAPACY: A. D. 1530-1531.
   The Diet at Augsburg.
   Presentation and condemnation of the
   Protestant Confession of Faith.
   The breach with the Reformation complete.

   "In the year 1530, Charles V., seeing France prostrate, Italy
   quelled, and Solyman driven within his own boundaries,
   determined upon undertaking the decision of the great question
   of the Reformation. The two conflicting parties were summoned,
   and met at Augsburg. The sectaries of Luther, known by the
   general name of protestants, were desirous to be distinguished
   from the other enemies of Rome, the excesses committed by whom
   would have thrown odium upon their cause; to be distinguished
   from the Zwinglian republicans of Switzerland, odious to the
   princes and to the nobles; above all, they desired not to be
   confounded with the anabaptists, proscribed by all as the
   enemies of society and of social order. Luther, over whom
   there was still suspended the sentence pronounced against him
   at Worms, whereby he was declared a heretic, could not appear
   at Augsburg; his place was supplied by the learned and pacific
   Melancthon, a man timid and gentle as Erasmus, whose friend he
   continued to be, despite of Luther. The elector, however,
   conveyed the great reformer as near to the place of
   convocation as regard to his friend's personal safety rendered
   advisable. He had him stationed in the strong fortress of
   Coburg. From this place, Luther was enabled to maintain with
   ease and expedition a constant intercourse with the protestant
   ministers. … Melancthon believed in the possibility of
   effecting a reconciliation between the two parties. Luther, at
   a very early period of the schism, saw that they were utterly
   irreconcilable. In the commencement of the Reformation, he had
   frequently had recourse to conferences and to public
   disputations. It was then of moment to him to resort to every
   effort, to try, by all the means in his power, to preserve the
   bond of Christianity, before he abandoned all hope of so
   doing. But towards the close of his life, dating from the
   period of the Diet of Augsburg, he openly discouraged and
   disclaimed these wordy contests, in which the vanquished would
   never avow his defeat. On the 26th of August, 1530, he writes:
   'I am utterly opposed to any effort being made to reconcile
   the two doctrines; for it is an impossibility, unless, indeed,
   the pope will consent to abjure papacy. Let it suffice us that
   we have established our belief upon the basis of reason, and
   that we have asked for peace. Why hope to convert them to the
   truth?' And on the same day (26th August), he tells Spalatin:
   'I understand you have undertaken a notable mission—that of
   reconciling Luther and the pope. But the pope will not be
   reconciled and Luther refuses. Be mindful how you sacrifice
   both time and trouble.' … These prophecies were, however,
   unheeded: the conferences took place, and the protestants were
   required to furnish their profession of faith. This was drawn
   up by Melancthon." The Confession, as drawn up by Melancthon,
   was adopted and signed by five electors, 30 ecclesiastical
   princes, 23 secular princes, 22 abbots, 32 counts and barons,
   and 39 free and imperial cities, and has since been known as
   the Augsburg Confession.

      J. Michelet,
      Life of Luther,
      (translated by W. Hazlitt),
      book 3, chapter 1.

   "A difficulty now arose as to the public reading of the
   Confession in the Diet. The Protestant princes, who had
   severally signed it, contended against the Catholic princes,
   that, in fairness, it should be read; and, against the
   emperor, that, if read at all, it should be read in German,
   and not in Latin. They were successful in both instances, and
   the Confession was publicly read in German by Bayer, one of
   the two chancellors of the Elector of Saxony, during the
   afternoon session of June 25, held in the chapel of the
   imperial palace. Campeggio, the Papal Legate, was absent. The
   reading occupied two hours, and the powerful effect it
   produced was, in a large measure, due to the rich, sonorous
   voice of Bayer, and to his distinct articulation and the
   musical cadence of his periods. Having finished, he handed the
   Confession to the Emperor, who submitted it for examination to
   Eck, Conrad Wimpina, Cochlæus, John Faber, and others of the
   Catholic theologians present in the Diet." These prepared a
   "Confutation" which was "finally agreed upon and read in a
   public session of the Diet, held August 3rd, and with which
   the Emperor and the Catholic princes expressed themselves
   fully satisfied. The Protestant princes were commanded to
   disclaim their errors, and return to the allegiance of the
   ancient faith, and 'should you refuse,' the Emperor added, 'we
   shall regard it a conscientious duty to proceed as our
   coronation oath and our office of protector of Holy Church
   require.' This declaration roused the indignant displeasure of
   the Protestant princes. Philip of Hesse … excited general
   alarm by abruptly breaking off the transactions, lately
   entered upon between the princes and the bishops, and suddenly
   quitting Augsburg. Charles V. now ordered the controverted
   points to be discussed in his presence, and appointed seven
   Protestants and an equal number of Catholics to put forward
   and defend the views of their respective parties."
{2457}
   Subsequently Melancthon "prepared and published his 'Apology
   for the Augsburg Confession,' which was intended to be an
   answer to the 'Confutation' of the Catholic theologians. The
   Protestant princes laid a copy of the 'Apology' before the
   emperor, who rejected both it and the Confession. … After many
   more fruitless attempts to bring about a reconciliation, the
   emperor, on the 22nd of September, the day previous to that
   fixed for the departure of the Elector of Saxony, published an
   edict, in which he stated, among other things, that 'the
   Protestants have been refuted by sound and irrefragable
   arguments drawn from Holy Scripture.' 'To deny free-will,' he
   went on to say, 'and to affirm that faith without works avails
   for man's salvation, is to assert what is absurdly erroneous;
   for, as we very well know from past experience, were such
   doctrines to prevail, all true morality would perish from the
   earth. But that the Protestants may have sufficient time to
   consider their future course of action, we grant them from
   this to the 15th of April of next year for consideration.' On
   the following day, Joachim, Elector of Brandenburg, speaking
   in the emperor's name, addressed the evangelic princes and
   deputies of the Protestant cities as follows: 'His majesty is
   extremely amazed at your persisting in the assertion that your
   doctrines are based on Holy Scripture. Were your assertion
   true, then would it follow that his Majesty's ancestors,
   including so many kings and emperors, as well as the ancestors
   of the Elector of Saxony, were heretics!' … The Protestant
   princes forthwith took their leave of the emperor. On the 13th
   of October, the 'Recess,' or decree of the Diet, was read to
   the Catholic States, which on the same day entered into a
   Catholic League. On the 17th of the same month, sixteen of the
   more important German cities refused to aid the emperor in
   repelling the Turks, on the ground that peace had not yet been
   secured to Germany. The Zwinglian and Lutheran cities were
   daily becoming more sympathetic and cordial in their relations
   to each other. Charles V. informed the Holy See, October 23,
   of his intention of drawing the sword in defence of the faith.
   The 'Recess' was read to the Protestant princes November 11,
   and rejected by them on the day following, and the deputies of
   Hesse and Saxony took their departure immediately after. … The
   decree was rather more severe than the Protestants had
   anticipated, inasmuch as the emperor declared that he felt it
   to be his conscientious duty to defend the ancient faith, and
   that 'the Catholic princes had promised to aid him to the full
   extent of their power.' … The appointment of the emperor's
   brother, Ferdinand, as King of the Romans (1531), gave deep
   offence to the Protestant princes, who now expressed their
   determination of withholding all assistance from the emperor
   until the 'Recess' of Augsburg should have been revoked.
   Assembling at Smalkald, … they entered into an alliance
   offensive and defensive, known as the League of Smalkald, on
   March 29, 1531, to which they severally bound themselves to
   remain faithful for a period of six years."

      J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      section 312 (volume 3).

      ALSO IN:
      H. Worsley,
      Life of Luther,
      chapter 7 (volume 2).

      F. A. Cox,
      Life of Melancthon,
      chapter 8 (giving the text of the "Augsburg Confession").

      See, also,
      GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

PAPACY: A. D. 1530-1532.
   Protestant League of Smalkalde and
   alliance with the king of France.
   The Pacification of Nuremberg.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

PAPACY: A. D. 1533.
   Treaty of Pope Clement VII. with Francis I. of France,
   for the marriage of Catherine d'Medici.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

PAPACY: A. D. 1533-1546.
   Mercenary aspects of the Reformation in Germany.
   The Catholic Holy League.
   Preparations for war.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1533-1546.

PAPACY: A. D. 1534.
   Election of Paul III.

PAPACY: A. D. 1534-1540.
   Beginnings of the Counter-Reformation.

   "A well-known sentence in Macaulay's Essay on Ranke's 'History
   of the Popes' asserts, correctly enough, that in a particular
   epoch of history 'the Church of Rome, having lost a large part
   of Europe, not only ceased to lose, but actually regained
   nearly half of what she had lost.' Any fairly correct use of
   the familiar phrase 'the Counter-Reformation' must imply that
   this remarkable result was due to a movement pursuing two
   objects, originally distinct, though afterwards largely
   blended, viz., the regeneration of the Church of Rome, and the
   recovery of the losses inflicted upon her by the early
   successes of Protestantism. … The earliest continuous
   endeavour to regenerate the Church of Rome without impairing
   her cohesion dates from the Papacy of Paul III. [1534-1549],
   within which also falls the outbreak of the first religious
   war of the century.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1546-1552.

   Thus the two impulses which it was the special task of the
   Counter-Reformation to fuse were brought into immediate
   contact. The onset of the combat is marked by the formal
   establishment of the Jesuit Order [1540] as a militant agency
   devoted alike to both the purposes of the Counter-Reformation,
   and by the meeting of the Council of Trent [1545] under
   conditions excluding from its programme the task of
   conciliation."

      A. W. Ward,
      The Counter Reformation,
      pages vii-viii.

   "I intend to use this term Counter-Reformation to denote the
   reform of the Catholic Church, which was stimulated by the
   German Reformation, and which, when the Council of Trent had
   fixed the dogmas and discipline of Latin Christianity, enabled
   the Papacy to assume a militant policy in Europe, whereby it
   regained a large portion of the provinces that had previously
   lapsed to Lutheran and Calvinistic dissent. … The centre of
   the world-wide movement which is termed the
   Counter-Reformation was naturally Rome. Events had brought the
   Holy See once more into a position of prominence. It was more
   powerful as an Italian State now, through the support of Spain
   and the extinction of national independence, than at any
   previous period of history. In Catholic Christendom its
   prestige was immensely augmented by the Council of Trent. At
   the same epoch, the foreigners who dominated Italy, threw
   themselves with the enthusiasm of fanaticism into this
   Revival. Spain furnished Rome with the militia of the Jesuits
   and with the engines of the Inquisition. The Papacy was thus
   able to secure successes in Italy which were elsewhere only
   partially achieved. … In order to understand the transition of
   Italy from the Renaissance to the Counter-Reformation manner,
   it will be well to concentrate attention on the history of the
   Papacy during the eight reigns [1534-1605] of Paul III., Julius
   III., Paul IV., Pius IV., Pius V., Gregory XIII., Sixtus V.,
   and Clement VIII. In the first of these reigns we hardly
   notice that the Renaissance has passed away. In the last we
   are aware of a completely altered Italy."

      J. A. Symonds,
      Renaissance in Italy: The Catholic Reaction,
      chapter 2, with foot-note (volume 1).

{2458}

PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563.
   Popular weakness of the Reformation movement in Italy.
   Momentary inclination towards the Reform at Rome.
   Beginning of the Catholic Reaction.
   The Council of Trent and its consolidating work.

   "The conflict with the hierarchy did not take the same form in
   Italy as elsewhere. … There is no doubt that the masses saw no
   cause for discontent under it. We have proof that the
   hierarchy was popular—that among the people, down to the
   lowest grades, the undiminished splendour of the Papacy was
   looked upon as a pledge of the power of Italy. But this did
   not prevent reform movements from taking place. The Humanistic
   school had its home here; its opposition tendencies had not
   spared the Church any more than Scholasticism; it had
   everywhere been the precursor and ally of the intellectual
   revolt, and not the least in Italy. There were from the first
   eminent individuals at Venice, Modena, Ferrara, Florence, even
   in the States of the Church themselves, who were more or less
   followers of Luther. The cardinals Contarini and Morone, Bembo
   and Sadolet, distinguished preachers like Peter Martyr, Johann
   Valdez, and Bernardino Occhino, and from among the princely
   families an intellectual lady, Renata of Ferrara, were
   inclined to the new doctrines. But they were leaders without
   followers; the number of their adherents among the masses was
   surprisingly small. The Roman Curia, under the Pontificate of
   Paul III., 1534-49, vacillated in its policy for a time;
   between 1537-41, the prevailing sentiments were friendly and
   conciliatory towards Reform. … They were, in fact, gravely
   entertaining the question at Rome, whether it would not be
   better to come to terms with Reform, to adopt the practicable
   part of its programme, and so put an end to the schism which
   was spreading so fast in the Church. … An honest desire then
   still prevailed to effect a reconciliation. Contarini was in
   favour of it with his whole soul. But it proceeded no further
   than the attempt; for once the differences seemed likely to be
   adjusted, so far as this was possible; but in 1542, the
   revulsion took place, which was never again reversed. Only one
   result remained. The Pope could no longer refuse to summon a
   council. The Emperor had been urging it year after year; the
   Pope had acceded to it further than any of his predecessors
   had done; and, considering the retreat which now took place,
   this concession was the least that could be demanded. At
   length, therefore, three years after it was convened, in May,
   1542, the council assembled at Trent in December, 1545. It was
   the Emperor's great desire that a council should be held in
   Germany, that thus the confidence of the Germans in the
   supreme tribunal in the great controversy might be gained; but
   the selection of Trent, which nominally belonged to Germany,
   was the utmost concession that could be obtained. The
   intentions of the Emperor and the Pope with regard to the
   council were entirely opposed to each other. The Pope was
   determined to stifle all opposition in the bud, while the
   Emperor was very desirous of having a counterpoise to the
   Pope's supremacy in council, provided always that it concurred
   in the imperial programme. … The assembly consisted of Spanish
   and Italian monks in overwhelming majority, and this was
   decisive as to its character. When consulted as to the course
   of business, the Emperor had expressed a wish that those
   questions on which agreement between the parties was possible
   should first be discussed. There were a number of questions on
   which they were agreed, as, for example, Greek Christianity.
   Even now there are a number of points on which Protestants and
   Catholics are agreed, and differ from the Eastern Church. If
   these questions were considered first, the attendance of the
   Protestants would be rendered very much easier; it would open
   the door as widely as possible, they would probably come in
   considerable numbers, and might in time take a part which at
   least might not be distasteful to the Emperor, and might
   influence his ideas on Church reform. The thought that they
   were heretics was half concealed. But Rome was determined to
   pursue the opposite course, and at once to agitate those
   questions on which there was the most essential disagreement,
   and to declare all who would not submit to be incorrigible
   heretics. … The first subjects of discussion were, the
   authority of the Scriptures in the text of the Vulgate,
   ecclesiastical tradition, the right of interpretation, the
   doctrine of justification. These were the questions on which
   the old and new doctrines were irreconcilably at variance; all
   other differences were insignificant in comparison. And these
   questions were decided in the old Roman Catholic sense; not
   precisely as they had been officially treated in 1517—for the
   stream of time had produced some little effect—but in the main
   the old statutes were adhered to, and everything rejected
   which departed from them. This conduct was decisive. …
   Nevertheless some reforms were carried out. Between the time
   of meeting and adjournment, December, 1545, to the spring of
   1547, the following were the main points decided on:

   1. The bishops were to provide better teachers and better
   schools.

   2. The bishops should themselves expound the word of God.

   3. Penalties were to be enforced for the neglect of their
   duties, and various rules were laid down as to the necessary
   qualifications for the office of a bishop.

   Dispensations, licenses, and privileges were abolished. The
   Church was therefore to be subjected to a reform which
   abolished sundry abuses, without conceding any change in her
   teaching. The course the council was taking excited the
   Emperor's extreme displeasure. … He organized a sort of
   opposition to Rome; his commissaries kept up a good
   understanding with the Protestants, and it was evident that he
   meant to make use of them for an attack on the Pope. This made
   Rome eager to withdraw the assembly from the influence of
   German bishops and imperial agents as soon as possible. A
   fever which had broken out at Trent, but had soon disappeared,
   was made a pretext for transferring the council to Bologna, in
   the spring of 1547. The imperial commissioners protested that
   the decrees of such a hole-and-corner council would be null
   and void. The contest remained undecided for years. Paul III.
   died in the midst of it, in November, 1549, and was succeeded
   by Cardinal del Monte, one of the papal legates at the
   council, as Pope Julius III.
{2459}
   The Emperor at length came to an understanding with him, and
   in May, 1551, the council was again opened at Trent. … The
   assembly remained Catholic; the Protestant elements, which
   were represented at first, all disappeared after the turn of
   affairs in 1552.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1546-1552; and 1552-1561.

   After that there was no further thought of an understanding
   with the heretics. The results for reform were very small
   indeed. The proceedings were dragging wearily on when a fresh
   adjournment was announced in 1552. Pope Julius III. died in
   March, 1555. His successor, the noble Cardinal Cervin, elected
   as Marcellus II., died after only twenty-two days, and was
   succeeded by Cardinal Caraffa as Paul IV., 1555-9. … He was
   the Pope of the restoration. The warm Neapolitan blood flowed
   in his veins, and he was a fiery, energetic character. He was
   not in favour of any concessions or abatement, but for a
   complete breach with the new doctrines, and a thorough
   exclusiveness for the ancient Church. He was one of the ablest
   men of the time. As early as in 1542, he had advised that no
   further concessions should be made, but that the Inquisition,
   of which indeed he was the creator, should be restored. It was
   he who decidedly initiated the great Catholic reaction. He
   established the Spanish Inquisition in Italy, instituted the
   first Index, and gave the Jesuits his powerful support in the
   interests of the restoration. This turn of affairs was the
   answer to the German religious Peace. Since the Protestants no
   longer concerned themselves about Rome, Rome was about to set
   her house in order without them, and as a matter of course the
   council stood still." But in answer to demands from several
   Catholic princes, "the council was convened afresh by the next
   Pope, Pius IV. (1559-65), in November, 1560, and so the
   Council of Trent was opened for the third time in January,
   1562. Then began the important period of the council, during
   which the legislation to which it has given a name was
   enacted. … The Curia reigned supreme, and, in spite of the
   remonstrances of the Emperor and of France, decided that the
   council should be considered a continuation of the previous
   ones, which meant—'All the decrees aimed against the
   Protestants are in full force; we have no further idea of
   coming to terms with them.' The next proceeding was to
   interdict books and arrange an Index. …

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1559-1595.

   The restoration of the indisputable authority of the Pope was
   the ruling principle of all the decrees. … The great
   achievement of the council for the unity of the Catholic
   Church was this: it formed into a code of laws, on one
   consistent principle, that which in ancient times had been
   variable and uncertain, and which had been almost lost sight
   of in the last great revolution. Controverted questions were
   replaced by dogmas, doubtful traditions by definite doctrines;
   a uniformity was established in matters of faith and
   discipline which had never existed before, and an impregnable
   bulwark was thus erected against the sectarian spirit and the
   tendency to innovation. Still when this unity was established
   upon a solid basis, the universal Church of former times was
   torn asunder." The Council of Trent was closed December 4,
   1563, 18 years after its opening.

      L. Häusser,
      Period of the Reformation,
      chapters 19 and 16.

      ALSO IN:
      J. A. Symonds,
      Renaissance in Italy: The Catholic Reaction,
      chapters 2-3 (volume l).

      L. von Ranke,
      History of the Popes,
      books 2-3 (volume l).

      L. F. Bungener,
      History of the Council of Trent.

      T. R. Evans,
      The Council of Trent.

      A. de Reumont,
      The Carafas of Maddaloni,
      book 1, chapter 3.

   MAP OF CENTRAL EUROPE
   AT THE ABDICATION OF CHARLES V (1556).
   AUSTRIAN HAPSBURGS.
   SPANISH HAPSBURGS.
   VENETIAN POSSESSIONS.
   GENOESE POSSESSIONS.
   ECCLESIASTICAL STATES OF THE EMPIRE.
   STATES OF THE CHURCH.

   CENTRAL EUROPE
   SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIONS ABOUT 1618.
   LUTHERAN.
   ZWINGLIAN.
   CALVINIST.
   UNITED BRETHREN.
   CATHOLIC.
   LANDS RECLAIMED BY THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
   DURING THE COUNTER REFORMATION SHOWN THUS.
   GREEK.
   MOHAMMEDAN.

PAPACY: A. D. 1540.
   The founding of the Order of the Jesuits.

      See JESUITS: A. D. 1540-1556.

PAPACY: A. D. 1545-1550.
   Separation of Parma and Placentia from the States
   of the Church to form a duchy for the Pope's family.
   The Farnese.

      See PARMA: A. D. 1545-1592.

PAPACY: A. D. 1550.
   Election of Julius III.

PAPACY: A. D. 1555 (April).
   Election of Marcellus II.

PAPACY: A. D. 1555 (May).
   Election of Paul IV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1555-1603.
   The aggressive age of the reinvigorated Church.
   Attachment and subserviency to Spain.

   Giovanni Piero Caraffa, founder of the Order of the Theatines,
   was raised to the papal chair in 1555, assuming the title of
   Paul IV. He "entered on his station with the haughty notions
   of its prerogatives which were natural to his austere and
   impetuous spirit. Hence his efforts in concert with France,
   unsuccessful as they proved, to overthrow the Spanish
   greatness, that he might extricate the popedom from the
   galling state of dependence to which the absolute ascendancy
   of that power in Italy had reduced it. Paul IV. is remarkable
   as the last pontiff who embarked in a contest which had now
   become hopeless, and as the first who, giving a new direction
   to the policy of the holy see, employed all the influence, the
   arts, and the resources of the Roman church against the
   protestant cause. He had, during the pontificate of Paul III.
   [1534-1549], already made himself conspicuous for his
   persecuting zeal. He had been the principal agent in the
   establishment of the inquisition at Rome, and had himself
   filled the office of grand inquisitor. He seated himself in
   the chair of St. Peter with the detestable spirit of that
   vocation; and the character of his pontificate responded to
   the violence of his temper. His mantle descended upon a long
   series of his successors. Pius IV., who replaced him on his
   death in 1559; Pius V., who received the tiara in the
   following year; Gregory XIII., who was elected in 1572, and
   died in 1585; Sixtus V., who next reigned until 1590; Urban
   VII., Gregory XIV., and Innocent IX., who each filled the
   papal chair only a few months; and Clement VIII., whose
   pontificate commenced in 1592 and extended beyond the close of
   the century [1603]: all pursued the same political and
   religious system. Resigning the hope, and perhaps the desire,
   of re-establishing the independence of their see, they
   maintained an intimate and obsequious alliance with the royal
   bigot of Spain; they seconded his furious persecution of the
   protestant faith; they fed the civil wars of the Low
   Countries, of France, and of Germany."

      G. Procter,
      History of Italy,
      chapter 9.

   "The Papacy and Catholicism had long maintained themselves
   against these advances of their enemy [the Protestant
   Reformation], in an attitude of defence it is true, but
   passive only; upon the whole they were compelled to endure
   them. Affairs now assumed a different aspect. … It may be
   affirmed generally that a vital and active force was again
   manifested, that the church had regenerated her creed in the
   spirit of the age, and had established reforms in accordance
   with the demands of the times.
{2460}
   The religious tendencies which had appeared in southern Europe
   were not suffered to become hostile to herself, she adopted
   them, and gained the mastery of their movements; thus she
   renewed her powers, and infused fresh vigour into her system.
   … The influence of the restored Catholic system was first
   established in the two southern peninsulas, but this was not
   accomplished without extreme severities. The Spanish
   Inquisition received the aid of that lately revived in Rome;
   every movement of Protestantism was violently suppressed. But
   at the same time those tendencies of the inward life which
   renovated Catholicism claimed and enchained as her own, were
   peculiarly powerful in those countries. "The sovereigns also
   attached themselves to the interests of the church. It was of
   the highest importance that Philip II., the most powerful of
   all, adhered so decidedly to the popedom; with the pride of a
   Spaniard, by whom unimpeachable Catholicism was regarded as a
   sign of a purer blood and more noble descent, he rejected
   every adverse opinion: the character of his policy was however
   not wholly governed by mere personal feeling. From remote
   times, and more especially since the regulations established
   by Isabella, the kingly dignity of Spain had assumed an
   ecclesiastical character; in every province the royal
   authority was strengthened by the addition of spiritual power;
   deprived of the Inquisition, it would not have sufficed to
   govern the kingdom. Even in his American possessions, the king
   appeared above all in the light of a disseminator of the
   Christian and Catholic faith. This was the bond by which all
   his territories were united in obedience to his rule; he could
   not have abandoned it, without incurring real danger. The
   extension of Huguenot opinions in the south of France caused
   the utmost alarm in Spain; the Inquisition believed itself
   bound to redoubled vigilance. … The power possessed by Philip
   in the Netherlands secured to the southern system an immediate
   influence over the whole of Europe; but besides this, all was
   far from being lost in other countries. The emperor, the kings
   of France and Poland, with the duke of Bavaria, still adhered
   to the Catholic church. On all sides there were spiritual
   princes whose expiring zeal might be reanimated; there were
   also many places where Protestant opinions had not yet made
   their way among the mass of the people. The majority of the
   peasantry throughout France, Poland, and even Hungary, still
   remained Catholic. Paris, which even in those days exercised a
   powerful influence over the other French towns, had not yet
   been affected by the new doctrines. In England a great part of
   the nobility and commons were still Catholic; and in Ireland
   the whole of the ancient native population remained in the old
   faith. Protestantism had gained no admission into the Tyrolese
   or Swiss Alps, nor had it made any great progress among the
   peasantry of Bavaria. Canisius compared the Tyrolese and
   Bavarians with the two tribes of Israel, 'who alone remained
   faithful to the Lord.' The internal causes on which this
   pertinacity, this immovable attachment to tradition, among
   nations so dissimilar, was founded, might well repay a more
   minute examination. A similar constancy was exhibited in the
   Walloon provinces of the Netherlands. And now the papacy
   resumed a position in which it could once more gain the
   mastery of all these inclinations, and bind them indissolubly
   to itself. Although it had experienced great changes, it still
   possessed the inestimable advantage of having all the
   externals of the past and the habit of obedience on its side.
   In the council so prosperously concluded, the popes had even
   gained an accession of that authority which it had been the
   purpose of the temporal powers to restrict; and had
   strengthened their influence over the national churches; they
   had moreover abandoned that temporal policy by which they had
   formerly involved Italy and all Europe in confusion. They
   attached themselves to Spain with perfect confidence and
   without any reservations, fully returning the devotion evinced
   by that kingdom to the Roman church. The Italian principality,
   the enlarged dominions of the pontiff, contributed eminently
   to the success of his ecclesiastical enterprises; while the
   interests of the universal Catholic church were for some time
   essentially promoted by the overplus of its revenues. Thus
   strengthened internally, thus supported by powerful adherents,
   and by the idea of which they were the representatives, the
   popes exchanged the defensive position, with which they had
   hitherto been forced to content themselves, for that of
   assailants."

      L. von Ranke,
      History of the Popes,
      book 5, section 2 (volume 1).

PAPACY: A. D. 1559.
   Election of Pius IV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1559-1595.
   The institution of the Index.

   "The first 'Index' of prohibited books published by Papal
   authority, and therefore, unlike the 'catalogi' previously
   issued by royal, princely, or ecclesiastical authorities,
   valid for the whole Church, was that authorised by a bull of
   Paul IV. in 1559. In 1564 followed the Index published by Pius
   IV., as drawn up in harmony with the decrees of the Council of
   Trent, which, after all, appears to be a merely superficial
   revision of its predecessor. Other Indices followed, for which
   various authorities were responsible, the most important among
   them being the Index Expurgatorius, sanctioned by a bull of
   Clement VIII. in 1595, which proved so disastrous to the great
   printing trade of Venice."

      A. W. Ward,
      The Counter-Reformation,
      chapter 2.

PAPACY: A. D. 1566.
   Election of Pius V.

PAPACY: A. D. 1570-1571.
   Holy League with Venice and Spain against the Turks.
   Great battle and victory of Lepanto.

      See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

PAPACY: A. D. 1572 (May).
   Election of Gregory XIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1572.
   Reception of the news of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1572 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).

PAPACY: A. D. 1585.
   Election of Sixtus V.

PAPACY: A. D. 1585.
   The Bull against Henry of Navarre, called "Brutum Fulmen."

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.

PAPACY: A. D. 1590 (September).
   Election of Urban VII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1590 (December).
   Election of Gregory XIV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1591.
   Election of Innocent IX.

PAPACY: A. D. 1591.
   Election of Clement VIII.

{2461}

PAPACY: A. D. 1597.
   Annexation of Ferrara to the States of the Church.

   "The loss which the papal states sustained by the alienation
   of Parma and Placentia was repaired, before the end of the
   16th century, by the acquisition of a duchy little inferior in
   extent to those territories:—that of Ferrara." With the death,
   in 1597, of Alfonso II., the persecutor of Tasso, "terminated
   the legitimate Italian branch of the ancient and illustrious
   line of Este. But there remained an illegitimate
   representative of his house, whom he designed for his
   successor; don Cesare da Este, the grandson of Alfonso I. by a
   natural son of that duke. The inheritance of Ferrara and
   Modena had passed in the preceding century to bastards,
   without opposition from the popes, the feudal superiors of the
   former duchy. But the imbecile character of don Cesare now
   encouraged the reigning pontiff, Clement VIII., to declare
   that all the ecclesiastical fiefs of the house of Este
   reverted, of right, to the holy see on the extinction of the
   legitimate line. The papal troops, on the death of Alfonso
   II., invaded the Ferrarese state; and Cesare suffered himself
   to be terrified by their approach into an ignominious and
   formal surrender of that duchy to the holy see. By the
   indifference of the Emperor Rodolph II., he was permitted to
   retain the investiture of the remaining possessions of his
   ancestors: the duchies of Modena and Reggio, over which, as
   imperial and not papal fiefs, the pope could not decently
   assert any right. In passing beneath the papal yoke, the duchy
   of Ferrara, which, under the government of the house of Este,
   had been one of the most fertile provinces of Italy, soon
   became a desert and marshy waste. The capital itself lost its
   industrious population and commercial riches; its
   architectural magnificence crumbled into ruins, and its modern
   aspect retains no trace of that splendid court in which
   literature and art repaid the fostering protection of its
   sovereigns, by reflecting lustre on their heads."

      G. Procter,
      History of Italy,
      chapter 9.

PAPACY: A. D. 1605 (April).
   Election of Leo XI.

PAPACY: A. D. 1605 (May).
   Election of Paul V.

PAPACY: A. D. 1605-1700.
   The conflict with Venice.
   Opposition of Urban VIII. to the Emperor.
   Annexation of Urbino to the States of the Church.
   Half a century of unimportant history.

   "Paul V. (1605-1621) was imbued with mediæval ideas as to the
   papal authority and the validity of the canon-law. These
   speedily brought him into collision with the secular power,
   especially in Venice, which had always maintained an attitude
   of independence towards the papacy. Ecclesiastical disputes
   [growing out of a Venetian decree forbidding alienations of
   secular property in favor of the churches] were aggravated by
   the fact that the acquisition of Ferrara had extended the
   papal states to the frontiers of Venice, and that frequent
   differences arose as to the boundary line between them. The
   defence of the republic and of the secular authority in church
   affairs was undertaken with great zeal and ability by Fra
   Paoli Sarpi, the famous historian of the Council of Trent.
   Paul V. did not hesitate to excommunicate the Venetians
   [1606], but the government compelled the clergy to disregard
   the pope's edict. The Jesuits, Theatines, and Capuchins were
   the only orders that adhered to the papacy, and they had to
   leave the city. If Spain had not been under the rule of the
   pacific Lerma, it would probably have seized the opportunity
   to punish Venice for its French alliance. But France and Spain
   were both averse to war, and Paul V. had to learn that the
   papacy was powerless without secular support. By the mediation
   of the two great powers, a compromise was arranged in 1607.
   The Jesuits, however, remained excluded from Venetian
   territory for another half-century. This was the first serious
   reverse encountered by the Catholic reaction. …

      See VENICE: A. D. 1606-1607.

   The attention of the Catholic world was now absorbed in the
   Austrian schemes for the repression of Protestantism in
   Germany, which received the unhesitating support both of Paul
   and of his successor, Gregory XV. [1621-1623]. The latter was
   a great patron of the Jesuits. Under him the Propaganda was
   first set on foot. … The pontificate of Urban VIII.
   (1623-1644) was a period of great importance. He regarded
   himself rather as a temporal prince than as head of the
   Church. He fortified Rome and filled his states with troops.
   The example of Julius II. seemed to find an imitator. Urban
   was imbued with the old Italian jealousy of the imperial
   power, and allied himself closely with France. … At the moment
   when Ferdinand II. had gained his greatest success in Germany
   he was confronted with the hostility of the pope. Gustavus
   Adolphus landed in Germany, and by a strange coincidence
   Protestantism found support in the temporal interests of the
   papacy. The Catholics were astounded and dismayed by Urban's
   attitude. … Urban VIII. succeeded in making an important
   addition to the papal states by the annexation of Urbino, in
   1631, on the death of Francesco Maria, the last duke of the
   Della Rovere family. But in the government of the states he
   met with great difficulties. … Urban VIII.'s relatives, the
   Barberini, quarreled with the Farnesi, who had held Parma and
   Piacenza since the pontificate of Paul III. The pope was
   induced to claim the district of Castro, and this claim
   aroused a civil war (1641-1644) in which the papacy was
   completely worsted. Urban was forced to conclude a humiliating
   treaty and directly afterwards died. His successors [Innocent
   X., 1644-1655; Alexander VII., 1655-1667; Clement IX.,
   1667-1669; Clement X., 1670-1676; Innocent XI., 1676-1689;
   Alexander VIII., 1689-1691; Innocent XII., 1691-1700] are of
   very slight importance to the history of Europe. … The only
   important questions in which the papacy was involved in the
   latter half of the century were the schism of the Jansenists
   and the relations with Louis XIV."

      R. Lodge,
      History of Modern Europe,
      chapter 12.

      ALSO IN:
      J. E. Darras,
      General History of the Catholic Church,
      period 7, chapter 7;
      period 8, chapters 1-3 (volume 4).

      T. A. Trollope,
      Paul the Pope and Paul the Friar.

      A. Robertson,
      Fra Paolo Sarpi.

PAPACY: A. D. 1621.
   Election of Gregory XV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1622.
   Founding of the College of the Propaganda.
   [Transcriber's note:
   2022: "Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples."]

   Cardinal Alexander Ludovisio, elected pope on the 9th of
   February, 1621, taking the name of Gregory XV., "had always
   shown the greatest zeal for the conversion of infidels and
   heretics; this zeal inspired the design of founding the
   College of the Propaganda (1622). The origin of the Propaganda
   is properly to be traced to an edict of Gregory XIII., in
   virtue of which a certain number of cardinals were charged
   with the direction of missions to the East, and catechisms
   were ordered to be printed in the less-known languages. But
   the institution was neither firmly established nor provided
   with the requisite funds. Gregory XV. gave it a constitution,
   contributed the necessary funds from his private purse, and as
   it met a want the existence of which was really felt and
   acknowledged, its success was daily more and more brilliant.
{2462} 
   Who does not know what the Propaganda has done for 
   philological learning? But it chiefly labored, with admirable 
   grandeur of conception and energy, to fulfil its great 
   mission—the propagation of the Catholic faith—with the most 
   splendid results. Urban VIII., the immediate successor of 
   Gregory XV., completed the work by the addition of the 
   'Collegium de Propaganda Fide,' where youth are trained in the 
   study of all the foreign languages, to bear the name of Christ 
   to every nation on the globe."

      J. E. Darras,
      General History of the Catholic Church,
      period 7, chapter 7, section. 10 (volume 4).

PAPACY: A. D. 1623.
   Election of Urban VIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1623-1626.
   The Valtelline War.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1624-1626.

PAPACY: A. D. 1644-1667.
   Pontificates of Innocent X. and Alexander VII.
   Growth of Nepotism.

   Sixtus V. had "invented a system of nepotism which was so
   actively followed up by his successors, that even a short
   reign provided the means of accumulating a brilliant fortune.
   That pontiff raised one nephew to the rank of cardinal, with a
   share of the public business and an ecclesiastical income of a
   hundred thousand crowns. Another he created a marquess, with
   large estates in the Neapolitan territory. The house of
   Ferretti thus founded, long maintained a high position, and
   was frequently represented in the College of Cardinals. The
   Aldobrandini, founded in like manner by Clement VIII., the
   Borghesi by Paul V., the Ludovisi by Gregory XV., and the
   Barberini by Urban VIII., now vied in rank and opulence with
   the ancient Roman houses of Colonna and Orsini, who boasted
   that for centuries no peace had been concluded in Christendom
   in which they were not expressly included. On the death of
   Urban VIII. (29th July 1644) the Barberini commanded the votes
   of eight-and-forty cardinals, the most powerful faction ever
   seen in the conclave. Still, the other papal families were
   able to resist their dictation, and the struggle terminated in
   the election of Cardinal Pamfili, who took the name of
   Innocent X. During the interval of three months, the city was
   abandoned to complete lawlessness; assassinations in the
   streets were frequent; no private house was safe without a
   military guard, and a whole army of soldiers found occupation
   in protecting the property of their employers. This was then
   the usual state of things during an interregnum. Innocent X.,
   though seventy-two years of age at his election, was full of
   energy. He restrained the disorders in the city. … Innocent
   brought the Barberini to strict account for malpractices under
   his predecessor, and wrested from them large portions of their
   ill-gotten gain. So far, however, from reforming the system
   out of which these abuses sprung, his nepotism exhibited
   itself in a form which scandalised even the Roman courtiers.
   The pope brought his sister-in-law, Donna Olimpia Maidalchina,
   from Viterbo to Rome, and established her in a palace, where
   she received the first visits of foreign ambassadors on their
   arrival, gave magnificent entertainments, and dispensed for
   her own benefit the public offices of the government. … Her
   daughters were married into the noblest families. Her son,
   having first been appointed the cardinal-nephew, soon after
   renounced his orders, married, and became the secular-nephew.
   The struggle for power between his mother and his wife divided
   Rome into new factions, and the feud was enlarged by the
   ambition of a more distant kinsman, whom Innocent appointed to
   the vacant post of cardinal-nephew. The pontiff sank under a
   deep cloud from the disorders in his family and the palace,
   and when he died (5th January, 1655) the corpse laid three
   days uncared for, till an old canon, who had been long
   dismissed from his household, expended half-a-crown on its
   interment. … Fabio Chigi, who came next as Alexander VIII.
   [VII.] brought to the tottering chair a spotless reputation,
   and abilities long proved in the service of the church. His
   first act was to banish the scandalous widow; her son was
   allowed to retain her palace and fortune. Beginning with the
   loudest protestations against nepotism, now the best
   established institution at Rome, in the phrase of the time,
   the pope soon 'became a man.' The courtiers remonstrated on
   his leaving his family to live a plain citizen's life at
   Siena: it might involve the Holy See in a misunderstanding
   with Tuscany. … The question was gravely proposed in
   consistory, and the flood-gates being there authoritatively
   unclosed, the waters of preferment flowed abundantly on all
   who had the merit to be allied with Fabio Chigi. After
   discharging this arduous duty, the pope relieved himself of
   further attention to business, and spent his days in literary
   leisure. His nephews, however, had less power than formerly,
   from the growth of the constitutional principle. The
   cardinals, in their different congregations, with the official
   secretaries, aspired to the functions of responsible
   advisers."

      G. Trevor,
      Rome, from the Fall of the Western Empire,
      pages 416-418.

PAPACY: A. D. 1646.
   The Hostility of Mazarin and France.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1646-1654.

PAPACY: A. D. 1653.
   The first condemnation of Jansenism.

      See PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS: A. D. 1602-1660.

PAPACY: A. D. 1667.
   Election of Clement IX.

PAPACY: A. D. 1670.
   Election of Clement X.

PAPACY: A. D. 1676.
   Election of Innocent XI.

PAPACY: A. D. 1682-1693.
   Successful contest with Louis XIV. and the Gallican Church.

   "It has always been the maxim of the French court, that the
   papal power is to be restricted by means of the French clergy,
   and that the clergy, on the other hand, are to be kept in due
   limits by means of the papal power. But never did a prince
   hold his clergy in more absolute command than Louis XIV. … The
   prince of Condé declared it to be his opinion, that if it
   pleased the king to go over to the Protestant church, the
   clergy would be the first to follow him. And certainly the
   clergy of France did support their king without scruple
   against the pope. The declarations they published were from
   year to year increasingly decisive in favour of the royal
   authority. At length there assembled the convocation of 1682.
   'It was summoned and dissolved,' remarks a Venetian
   ambassador, 'at the convenience of the king's ministers, and
   was guided by their suggestions.' The four articles drawn up
   by this assembly have from that time been regarded as the
   manifesto of the Gallican immunities. The first three repeat
   assertions of principles laid down in earlier times; as, for
   example, the independence of the secular power, as regarded
   the spiritual authority; the superiority of councils over the
   pope; and the inviolable character of the Gallican usages.
{2463}
   But the fourth is more particularly remarkable, since it
   imposes new limits even to the spiritual authority of the
   pontiff. 'Even in questions of faith, the decision of the pope
   is not incapable of amendment, so long as it is without the
   assent of the church.' We see that the temporal power of the
   kingdom received support from the spiritual authority, which
   was in its turn upheld by the secular arm. The king is
   declared free from the interference of the pope's temporal
   authority; the clergy are exempted from submission to the
   unlimited exercise of his spiritual power. It was the opinion
   of contemporaries, that although France might remain within
   the pale of the Catholic church, it yet stood on the
   threshold, in readiness for stepping beyond it. The king
   exalted the propositions above named into a kind of 'Articles
   of Faith,' a symbolical book. All schools were to be regulated
   in conformity with these precepts; and no man could attain to
   a degree, either in the juridical or theological faculties,
   who did not swear to maintain them. But the pope also was
   still possessed of a weapon. The authors of this
   declaration—the members of this assembly—were promoted and
   preferred by the king before all other candidates for
   episcopal offices; but Innocent refused to grant them
   spiritual institution. They might enjoy the revenues of those
   sees, but ordination they did not receive; nor could they
   venture to exercise one spiritual act of the episcopate. These
   complications were still further perplexed by the fact that
   Louis XIV. at that moment resolved on that relentless
   extirpation of the Huguenots, but too well known, and to which
   he proceeded chiefly for the purpose of proving his own
   perfect orthodoxy. He believed himself to be rendering a great
   service to the church. It has indeed been also affirmed that
   Innocent XI. was aware of his purpose and had approved it, but
   this was not the fact. The Roman court would not now hear of
   conversions effected by armed apostles. 'It was not of such
   methods that Christ availed himself: men must be led to the
   temple, not dragged into it.' New dissensions continually
   arose. In the year 1687, the French ambassador entered Rome
   with so imposing a retinue, certain squadrons of cavalry
   forming part of it, that the right of asylum, which the
   ambassadors claimed at that time, not only for their palace,
   but also for the adjacent streets, could by no means have been
   easily disputed with him, although the popes had solemnly
   abolished the usage. With an armed force the ambassador braved
   the pontiff in his own capital. 'They come with horses and
   chariots,' said Innocent, 'but we will walk in the name of the
   Lord.' He pronounced the censures of the church on the
   ambassador; and the church of St. Louis, in which the latter
   had attended a solemn high mass, was laid under interdict. The
   king also then proceeded to extreme measures. He appealed to a
   general council, took possession of Avignon, and caused the
   nuncio to be shut up in St. Olon: it was even believed that he
   had formed the design of creating for Harlai, archbishop of
   Paris, who, if he had not suggested these proceedings, had
   approved them, the appointment of patriarch of France. So far
   had matters proceeded: the French ambassador in Rome
   excommunicated; the papal nuncio in France detained by force;
   thirty-five French bishops deprived of canonical institution;
   a territory of the Holy See occupied by the king: it was, in
   fact, the actual breaking out of schism; yet did Pope Innocent
   refuse to yield a single step. If we ask to what he trusted
   for support on this occasion, we perceive that it was not to
   the effect of the ecclesiastical censures in France, nor to
   the influence of his apostolic dignity, but rather, and above
   all, to that universal resistance which had been aroused in
   Europe against those enterprises of Louis XIV. that were
   menacing the existence of its liberties. To this general
   opposition the pope now also attached himself. … If the pope
   had promoted the interests of Protestantism by his policy, the
   Protestants on their side, by maintaining the balance of
   Europe against the 'exorbitant Power,' also contributed to
   compel the latter into compliance with the spiritual claims of
   the papacy. It is true that when this result ensued, Innocent
   XI. was no longer in existence; but the first French
   ambassador who appeared in Rome after his death (10th of
   August, 1689) renounced the right of asylum: the deportment of
   the king was altered; he restored Avignon, and entered into
   negotiations. … After the early death of Alexander VIII., the
   French made all possible efforts to secure the choice of a
   pontiff disposed to measures of peace and conciliation; a
   purpose that was indeed effected by the elevation of Antonio
   Pignatelli, who assumed the tiara with the name of Innocent
   XII., on the 12th of July, 1691. … The negotiations continued
   for two years. Innocent more than once rejected the formulas
   proposed to him by the clergy of France, and they were, in
   fact, compelled at length to declare that all measures
   discussed and resolved on in the assembly of 1682 should be
   considered as not having been discussed or resolved on:
   'casting ourselves at the feet of your holiness, we profess
   our unspeakable grief for what has been done.' It was not
   until they had made this unreserved recantation that Innocent
   accorded them canonical institution. Under these conditions
   only was peace restored. Louis XIV. wrote to the pope that he
   retracted his edict relating to the four articles. Thus we
   perceive that the Roman see once more maintained its
   prerogatives, even though opposed by the most powerful of
   monarchs."

      L. Ranke,
      History of the Popes,
      book 8, section 16 (volume 2).

PAPACY:A. D. 1689.
   Election of Alexander VIII.

PAPACY:A. D. 1691.
   Election of Innocent XII.

PAPACY:A. D. 1700.
   Election of Clement XI.

PAPACY:A. D. 1700-1790.
   Effects of the War of the Spanish Succession.
   Declining Powers.

   The issue of the War of the Spanish Succession "will serve to
   show us that when the Pope was not, as in his contest with
   Louis XIV., favoured by political events, he could no longer
   laugh to scorn the edicts of European potentates. Charles II.
   of Spain, that wretched specimen of humanity, weak in body,
   and still weaker in mind, haunted by superstitious terrors
   which almost unsettled his reason, was now, in the year 1700,
   about to descend to a premature grave. He was without male
   issue, and was uncertain to whom he should bequeath the
   splendid inheritance transmitted to him by his ancestors. The
   Pope, Innocent XII., who was wholly in the interests of
   France, urged him to bequeath Spain, with its dependencies, to
   Philip, Duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., who claimed
   through his grandmother, the eldest sister of Charles.
{2464}
   He would thus prevent the execution of the partition treaty
   concluded between France, England, and Holland, according to
   which the Archduke Charles … was to have Spain, the Indies,
   and the Netherlands, while France took the Milanese, or the
   Province of Lorraine. The Archbishop of Toledo seconded the
   exhortation of the Pope, and so worked on the superstitious
   terrors of the dying monarch that he signed a will in favour
   of the Duke of Anjou, which was the cause of lamentation, and
   mourning, and woe, for twelve years, throughout Europe, from
   the Vistula to the Atlantic Ocean. …

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1701-1702;
      and ENGLAND: A. D. 1701-1702.

   The Duke of Marlborough's splendid victories of Blenheim and
   Ramillies … placed the Emperor Joseph (1705-11), the brother
   of the Archduke Charles, in possession of Germany and the
   Spanish Netherlands and the victory of Prince Eugene before
   Turin made him supreme in the north of Italy and the kingdom
   of Naples

      See
      GERMANY: A. D. 1704;
      NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707;
      ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713.

   The Pope, Clement XI., was now reduced to a most humiliating
   position. Political events had occurred … which served to show
   very plainly that the Pope, without a protector, could not, as
   in former days, bid defiance to the monarchs of Europe. His
   undutiful son, the Emperor, compelled him to resign part of
   his territories as a security for his peaceful demeanour, and
   to acknowledge the Archduke Charles, the Austrian claimant to
   the Spanish throne. The peace of Utrecht, concluded in 1713
   [see UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714], which produced the
   dismemberment of the monarchy, but left Philip in the peaceful
   occupation of the throne of Spain, did indeed release him from
   that obligation; but it did not restore him to the 'high and
   palmy state' which he occupied before he was obliged to submit
   to the Imperial arms. It inflicted a degradation upon him, for
   it transferred to other sovereigns, without his consent, his
   fiefs of Sicily and Sardinia. Now, also, it became manifest
   that the Pope could no longer assert an indirect sovereignty
   over the Italian States; for, notwithstanding his opposition,
   it conferred a large extent of territory on the Duke of Savoy,
   which has, in our day, been expanded into a kingdom under the
   sceptre of Victor Emmanuel and his successor. We have a
   further evidence of the decline of the Papacy in the change in
   the relative position of the States of Europe as Papal and
   anti-Papal during the eighteenth century, after the death of
   Louis XIV. The Papal powers of Spain in the sixteenth century,
   and of France, Spain, and Austria, in the latter half of the
   seventeenth century, determined the policy of Europe. … On the
   other hand, England, Prussia, and Russia became, in the
   eighteenth century, the great leading powers in the world. …
   The Pope, then, no longer stood at the head of those powers
   which swayed the destinies of Europe. … The Papacy, from the
   death of Louis XIV. till the time of the French Revolution,
   led a very quiet and obscure life. It had no part in any of
   the great events which during the eighteenth century were
   agitating Europe, and gained no spiritual or political
   victories."

      A. R. Pennington,
      Epochs of the Papacy,
      chapter 10.

PAPACY: A. D. 1713.
   The Bull Unigenitus and the Christian doctrines it condemned.

      See PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS: A. D. 1702-1715.

PAPACY: A. D. 1721.
   Election of Innocent XIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1724.
   Election of Benedict XIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1730.
   Election of Clement XII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1740.
   Election of Benedict XIV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1758.
   Election of Clement XIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1765-1769.
   Defense of the Jesuits, on their expulsion from France,
   Spain, Parma, Venice, Modena and Bavaria.

      See JESUITS: A. D. 1761-1769.

PAPACY: A. D. 1769.
   Election of Clement XIV.

PAPACY: A. D. 1773.
   Suppression of the Jesuits.

      See JESUITS: A. D. 1769-1871.

PAPACY: A. D. 1775.
   Election of Pius VI.

PAPACY: A. D. 1789-1810.
   Founding of the Roman Episcopate
   in the United States of America.

   In 1789, the first episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church
   in the United States was founded, at Baltimore, by a bull of
   Pope Pius VI., which appointed Father John Carroll to be its
   bishop. In 1810, Bishop Carroll "was raised to the dignity of
   Archbishop, and four suffragan dioceses were created, with
   their respective sees at Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and
   Bardstown, in Kentucky."

      J. A. Russell,
      The Catholic Church in the United States
      (History of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore,
      pages 16-18).

PAPACY: A. D. 1790-1791.
   Revolution at Avignon.
   Reunion of the Province with France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1790-1791.

PAPACY: A. D. 1796.
   First extortions of Bonaparte from the Pope.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

PAPACY: A. D. 1797.
   Treaty of Tolentino.
   Papal territory taken by Bonaparte to add to the
   Cispadane and Cisalpine Republics.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

PAPACY: A. D. 1797-1798.
   French occupation of Rome.
   Formation of the Roman Republic.
   Removal of the Pope.

   See FRANCE: A. D. 1797-1798 (DECEMBER-MAY).

PAPACY: A. D. 1800.
   Election of Pius VII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1802.
   The Concordat with Napoleon.
   Its Ultramontane influence.

      See FRANCE A. D. 1801-1804.

PAPACY: A. D. 1804.
   Journey of the Pope to Paris for the coronation of Napoleon.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.

PAPACY: A. D. 1808-1814.
   Conflict of Pius VII. with Napoleon.
   French seizure of Rome and the Papal States.
   Captivity of the Pope at Savona and Fontainebleau.
   The Concordat of 1813 and its retraction.

   Napoleon "had long been quarrelling with Pius VII., to make a
   tool of whom he had imposed the concordat on France. The Pope
   resisted, as the Emperor might have expected, and, not
   obtaining the price of his compliance, hindered the latter's
   plans in every way that he could. He resisted as head of the
   Church and as temporal sovereign of Rome, refusing to close
   his dominions either to the English or to Neapolitan refugees
   of the Bourbon party. Napoleon would not allow the Pope to act
   as a monarch independent of the Empire, but insisted that he
   was amenable to the Emperor, as temporal prince, just as his
   predecessors were amenable to Charlemagne. They could not
   agree, and Napoleon, losing patience, took military possession
   of Rome and the Roman State."

      H. Martin,
      Popular History of France, since 1789,
      volume 2, chapter 12.

{2465}

   In February, 1808, "the French troops, who had already taken
   possession of the whole of Tuscany, in virtue of the
   resignation forced upon the Queen of Etruria, invaded the
   Roman territories, and made themselves masters of the ancient
   capital of the world. They immediately occupied the castle of
   St. Angelo, and the gates of the city, and entirely
   dispossessed the papal troops. Two months afterwards, an
   imperial decree of Napoleon severed the provinces of Ancona,
   Urbino, Macerata, and Camerino, which had formed part of the
   ecclesiastical estates, under the gift of Charlemagne, for
   nearly a thousand years, and annexed them to the kingdom of
   Italy. The reason assigned for this spoliation was, 'That the
   actual sovereign of Rome has constantly declined to declare
   war against the English, and to coalesce with the Kings of
   Italy and Naples for the defence of the Italian peninsula. The
   interests of these two kingdoms, as well as of the armies of
   Naples and Italy, require that their communications should not
   be interrupted by a hostile power.'"

      Sir A. Alison,
      History of Europe, 1789-1815,
      chapter 51 (volume 11).

   "The pope protested in vain against such violence. Napoleon
   paid no attention. … He confiscated the wealth of the
   cardinals who did not return to the place of their birth. He
   disarmed nearly all the guards of the Holy Father—the nobles
   of this guard were imprisoned. Finally, Miollis [the French
   commander] had Cardinal Gabrielle, pro-Secretary of State,
   carried off, and put seals upon his papers. On May 17, 1809, a
   decree was issued by Napoleon, dated from Vienna, proclaiming
   the union (in his quality of successor to Charlemagne) of the
   States of the pope with the French Empire, ordaining that the
   city of Rome should be a free and imperial city; that the pope
   should continue to have his seat there, and that he should
   enjoy a revenue of 2,000,000 francs. On June 10, he had this
   decree promulgated at Rome. On this same June 10, the pope
   protested against all these spoliations, refused all pensions,
   and recapitulating all the outrages of which he had cause to
   complain, issued the famous and imprudent bull of
   excommunication against the authors, favourers, and executors
   of the acts of violence against him and the Holy See, but
   without naming anyone. Napoleon was incensed at it, and on the
   first impulse he wrote to the bishops of France a letter in
   which he spoke in almost revolutionary terms 'of him who
   wished,' said he, 'to make dependent upon a perishable
   temporal power the eternal interest of consciences, and that
   of all spiritual affairs.' On the 6th of July, 1809, Pius
   VII., taken from Rome, after he had been asked if he would
   renounce the temporal sovereignty of Rome and of the States of
   the Church, was conducted by General Radet as far as Savone,
   where he arrived alone, August 10, the cardinals having all
   been previously transported to Paris. And to complete the
   spoliation of the pope, Napoleon issued on the 17th of
   February, 1810, a senatus-consultum which bestowed upon the
   eldest son of the emperor the title of King of Rome, and even
   ordained that the emperor should be consecrated a second time
   at Rome, in the first ten years of his reign. It was while
   oppressed, captive and deprived of all council, that the pope
   refused the bulls to all the bishops named by the emperor, and
   then it was that all the discussions relative to the proper
   measures to put an end to the viduity of the churches were
   commenced. … The year 1810, far from bringing any alleviation
   to the situation of the pope and giving him, according to the
   wishes and prayers of the ecclesiastic commission, a little
   more liberty, aggravated, on the contrary, this situation, and
   rendered his captivity harder. In effect, on February 17, 1810,
   appeared the senatus-consultum pronouncing the union of the
   Roman States with the French Empire; the independence of the
   imperial throne of all authority on earth, and annulling the
   temporal existence of the popes. This senatus-consultum
   assured a pension to the pope, but it ordained also that the
   pope should take oath to do nothing in opposition to the four
   articles of 1682. … The pope must have consoled himself, …
   even to rejoicing, that they made the insulting pension they
   offered him depend upon the taking of such an oath, and it is
   that which furnished him with a reply so nobly apostolic: that
   he had no need of this pension, and that he would live on the
   charity of the faithful. … The rigorous treatment to which the
   Holy Father was subjected at Savona was continued during the
   winter of 1811-1812, and in the following spring. At this
   time, it seems there was some fear, on the appearance of an
   English squadron, that it might carry off the pope; and the
   emperor gave the order to transfer him to Fontainebleau. This
   unhappy old man left Savona, June 10, and was forced to travel
   day and night. He fell quite ill at the hospice of Mont Cenis;
   but they forced him none the less to continue his journey.
   They had compelled him to wear such clothes … as not to betray
   who he was on the way they had to follow. They took great care
   also to conceal his journey from the public, and the secret
   was so profoundly kept, that on arriving at Fontainebleau,
   June 19, the concierge, who had not been, advised of his
   arrival, and who had made no preparation, was obliged to
   receive him in his own lodgings. The Holy Father was a long
   time before recovering from the fatigue of this painful
   journey, and from the needlessly rigorous treatment to which
   they had subjected him. The cardinals not disgraced by
   Napoleon, who were in Paris, as well as the Archbishop of
   Tours, the Bishop of Nantes, the Bishop of Evreux, and the
   Bishop of Treves, were ordered to go and see the pope. … The
   Russian campaign, marked by so many disasters, was getting to
   a close. The emperor on his return to Paris, December 18,
   1812, still cherished chimerical hopes, and was meditating
   without doubt, more gigantic projects. Before carrying them
   out, he wished to take up again the affairs of the Church,
   either because he repented not having finished with them at
   Savona, or because he had the fancy to prove that he could do
   more in a two hours' tête-à–tête with the pope, than had been
   done by the council, its commissions, and its most able
   negotiators. He had beforehand, however, taken measures which
   were to facilitate his personal negotiation. The Holy Father
   had been surrounded for several months by cardinals and
   prelates, who, either from conviction or from submission to
   the emperor, depicted the Church as having arrived at a state
   of anarchy which put its existence in peril. They repeated
   incessantly to the pope, that if he did not get reconciled
   with the emperor and secure the aid of his power to arrest the
   evil, schism would be inevitable. Finally, the Sovereign
   pontiff overwhelmed by age, by infirmities, by the anxiety and
   cares with which his mind was worried, found himself well
   prepared for the scene Napoleon had planned to play, and which
   was to assure him what he believed to be a success.
{2466}
   On January 19, 1813, the emperor, accompanied by the Empress
   Marie Louise, entered the apartment of the Holy Father
   unexpectedly, rushed to him and embraced him with effusion.
   Pius VII., surprised and affected, allowed himself to be
   induced, after a few explanations, to give his approbation to
   the propositions that were imposed, rather than submitted to
   him. They were drawn up in eleven articles, which were not yet
   a compact, but which were to serve as the basis of a new act.
   On January 24, the emperor and the pope affixed their
   signatures to this strange paper, which was lacking in the
   usual diplomatic forms, since they were two sovereigns who had
   treated directly together. It was said in these articles, that
   the pope would exercise the pontificate in France, and in
   Italy;—that his ambassadors and those in authority near him,
   should enjoy all diplomatic privileges;—that such of his
   domains which were not disposed of should be free from taxes,
   and that those which were transferred should be replaced by an
   income of 2,000,000 francs;—that the pope should nominate,
   whether in France or in Italy, to episcopal sees which should
   be subsequently fixed; that the suburban sees should be
   re-established, and depend on the nomination of the pope, and
   that the unsold lands of these sees should be restored; that
   the pope should give bishoprics 'in partibus' to the Roman
   bishops absent from their diocese by force of circumstances,
   and that he should serve them a pension equal to their former
   revenue, until such time as they should be appointed to vacant
   sees; that the emperor and the pope should agree in opportune
   time as to the reduction to be made if it took place, in the
   bishoprics of Tuscany and of the country about Geneva, as well
   as to the institution of bishoprics in Holland, and in the
   Hanseatic departments; that the propaganda, the confessional,
   and the archives should be established in the place of sojourn
   of the Holy Father; finally, that His Imperial Majesty
   bestowed his good graces upon the cardinals, bishops, priests,
   and laymen, who had incurred his displeasure in connection
   with actual events. … The news of the signing of the treaty
   occasioned great joy among the people, but it appears that
   that of the pope was of short duration. The sacrifices he had
   been led to make were hardly consummated, than he experienced
   bitter grief; this could but be increased in proportion as the
   exiled and imprisoned cardinals, Consalvi, Pacca, di Pietro,
   on obtaining their liberty, received also the authorization to
   repair to Fontainebleau. What passed then between the Holy
   Father and these cardinals I do not pretend to know; but it
   must be that Napoleon had been warned by some symptoms of what
   was about to happen; for, in spite of the agreement he had
   made with the pope to consider the eleven articles only as
   preliminaries which were not to be published, he decided
   nevertheless to make them the object of a message that the
   arch-chancellor was charged to submit to the senate. This
   premature publicity given to an act which the pope so strongly
   regretted having signed must have hastened his retractation
   which he addressed to the emperor by a brief, on March 24,
   1813. … This time, the emperor, although greatly irritated by
   the retractation, believed it was to his interest not to make
   any noise about it, and decided to take outwardly no notice of
   it. He had two decrees published: one of February 13, and the
   other of March 25, 1813. By the first, the new Concordat of
   January 25 was declared state law; by the second, he declared
   it obligatory upon archbishops, bishops, and chapters, and
   ordered, according to Article IV. of this Concordat that the
   archbishops should confirm the nominated bishops, and in case
   of refusal, ordained that they should be summoned before the
   tribunals. He restricted anew the liberty that had been given
   momentarily to the Holy Father, and Cardinal di Pietro
   returned to exile. Thereupon, Napoleon started, soon after,
   for that campaign of 1813 in Germany, the prelude to that
   which was to lead to his downfall. The decrees issued 'ab
   irato' were not executed, and during the vicissitudes of the
   campaign of 1813, the imperial government attempted several
   times to renew with the pope negotiations which failed.
   Matters dragged along thus, and no one could foresee any issue
   when, on January 23, 1814, it was suddenly learned that the
   pope had left Fontainebleau that very day, and returned to
   Rome. … Murat, who had abandoned the cause of the emperor, and
   who … had treated with the coalition, was then occupying the
   States of the Church, and it is evident that Napoleon in his
   indignation against Murat, preferred to allow the pope to
   re-enter his States, to seeing them in the hands of his
   brother-in-law. While Pius VII. was en route and the emperor
   was fighting in Champagne, a decree of March 10, 1814,
   announced that the pope was taking possession again of the
   part of his States which formed the departments of Rome and
   Trasmania. The lion, although vanquished, would not yet let go
   all the prey he hoped surely to retake. … The pope arrived on
   April 30, at Cesena, on May 12, at Ancona, and made his solemn
   entry into Rome on May 24, 1814."

      Talleyrand,
      Memoirs,
      part 6 (volume 2).

      ALSO IN:
      D. Silvagni,
      Rome: its Princes, Priests and People,
      chapters 35-39 (volume 2).

      C. Botta,
      Italy during the Consulate and Empire of Napoleon,
      chapters 5-8.

      M. de Bourrienne,
      Private Memoirs of Napoleon,
      volume 4, chapters 6 and 11-12.

      Selections from the Letters and Despatches of Napoleon,
      Captain Bingham,
      volumes 2-3.

      Memoirs of Napoleon dictated at St. Helena,
      volume 5 (History Miscellany, volume l).

      P. Lanfrey,
      History of Napoleon,
      volume 3, chapters 13 and 16.

PAPACY: A. D. 1814.
   Restoration of the Jesuits.

         See JESUITS: A. D. 1761)-1871.

PAPACY: A. D. 1815.
   Restoration of the Papal States.

      See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.

PAPACY: A. D. 1823.
   Election of Leo XII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1829.
   Election of Pius VIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1831.
   Election of Gregory XVI.

PAPACY: A. D. 1831-1832.
   Revolt of the Papal States, suppressed by Austrian troops.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1830-1832.

PAPACY: A. D. 1846-1849.
   Election of Pius IX.
   His liberal reforms.
   Revolution at Rome.
   The Pope's flight.
   His restoration by the French.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

{2467}

PAPACY: A. D. 1850.
   Restoration of the Roman Episcopate in England.

   "The Reformation had deprived the Church of Rome of an
   official home on English soil. … But a few people had remained
   faithful to the Church of their forefathers, and a handful of
   priests had braved the risks attendant on the discharge of
   their duties to it. Rome, moreover, succeeded in maintaining
   some sort of organisation in England. In the first instance
   her Church was placed under an arch-priest. From 1623 to 1688
   it was placed under a Vicar Apostolic, that is a Bishop,
   nominally appointed to some foreign see, with a brief enabling
   him to discharge episcopal duties in Great Britain. This
   policy was not very successful. Smith, the second Vicar
   Apostolic, was banished in 1629, and, though he lived till
   1655, never returned to England. The Pope did not venture on
   appointing a successor to him for thirty years. … On the eve
   of the Revolution [in 1688] he divided England into four
   Vicariates. This arrangement endured till 1840. In that year
   Gregory XVI. doubled the vicariates, and appointed eight
   Vicars Apostolic. The Roman Church is a cautious but
   persistent suitor. She had made a fresh advance; she was
   awaiting a fresh opportunity. The eight Vicars Apostolic asked
   the Pope to promote the efficiency of their Church by
   restoring the hierarchy. The time seemed ripe for the change.
   … The Pope prepared Apostolic letters, distributing the eight
   vicariates into eight bishoprics. … The Revolution, occurring
   immediately afterwards, gave the Pope other things to think
   about than the re-establishment of the English hierarchy. For
   two years nothing more was heard of the conversion of
   vicariates into bishoprics. But the scheme had not been
   abandoned; and, in the autumn of 1850, the Pope, restored to
   the Vatican by French bayonets, issued a brief for
   re–establishing and extending the Catholic faith in England.'
   England and Wales were divided into twelve sees. One of them,
   Westminster, was made into an archbishopric; and Wiseman, an
   Irishman by extraction, who had been Vicar Apostolic of the
   London District, and Bishop of Melipotamus, was promoted to
   it. Shortly afterwards a new distinction was conferred upon
   him, and the new archbishop was made a cardinal. The
   publication of the brief created a ferment in England. The
   effect of the Pope's language was increased by a pastoral from
   the new archbishop, in which he talked of governing, and
   continuing to govern, his see with episcopal jurisdiction; and
   by the declaration of an eminent convert that the people of
   England, who for so many years have been separated from the
   see of Rome, are about of their own free will to be added to
   the Holy Church. For the moment, High Churchmen and Low
   Churchmen forgot their differences in their eagerness to
   punish a usurpation of what was called the Queen's
   prerogative. The Prime Minister, instead of attempting to
   moderate the tempest, added violence to the storm by
   denouncing, in a letter to the Bishop of Durham, the late
   aggression of the Pope as 'insolent and insidious, …
   inconsistent with the Queen's supremacy, with the rights of
   our bishops and clergy, and with the spiritual independence of
   the nation.' … Amidst the excitement which was thus
   occasioned, Parliament met. The Speech from the Throne alluded
   to the strong feelings excited by 'the recent assumption of
   ecclesiastical titles conferred by a foreign Power.' … It
   declared that a measure would be introduced into Parliament to
   maintain 'under God's blessing, the religious liberty which is
   so justly prized by the people.' It hardly required such words
   as these to fan the spreading flame. In the debate on the
   Address, hardly any notice was taken of any subject except the
   'triple tyrant's insolent pretension.' On the first Friday in
   the session, Russell introduced a measure forbidding the
   assumption of territorial titles by the priests and prelates
   of the Roman Catholic Church; declaring all gifts made to
   them, and all acts done by them, under those titles null and
   void; and forfeiting to the Crown all property bequeathed to
   them." Action on the Bill was interrupted in the House by a
   Ministerial crisis, which ended, however, in the return of
   Lord John Russell and his colleagues to the administration;
   but the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, when it was again brought
   forward, was greatly changed. In its amended shape the bill
   merely made it illegal for Roman Catholic prelates to assume
   territorial titles. According to the criticism of one of the
   Conservatives, "the original bill … was milk and water; by
   some chemical process the Government had extracted all the
   milk." After much debate the emasculated bill became a law,
   but it was never put into execution.

      S. Walpole,
      History of England from 1815,
      chapter 23 (volume 5).

      ALSO IN.:
      J. McCarthy,
      History of Our Own Times,
      chapter 20 (volume 2).

      J. Stoughton,
      Religion in England, 1800-1850,
      volume 2, chapter 13.

PAPACY: A. D. 1854.
   Promulgation of the Dogma of the
   Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary.

   "The thought of defining dogmatically the belief of all ages
   and all Catholic nations in the Immaculate Conception of the
   Blessed Virgin dated back to the beginning of his [Pius IX.'s]
   pontificate. By an encyclical letter dated from his exile at
   Gaeta, he had asked the opinion of all the patriarchs,
   primates, archbishops and bishops of the universe as to the
   seasonableness of this definition. The holding of a general
   council is attended with many embarrassments, and cannot be
   freed from the intrigues and intervention of the so-called
   Catholic powers. Pius IX. has initiated a new course. All,
   even the most Gallican in ideas, acknowledge that a definition
   in matters of faith by the pope, sustained by the episcopate,
   is infallible. The rapid means of communication and
   correspondence in modern times, the more direct intercourse of
   the bishops with Rome, makes it easy now for the pope to hear
   the well-considered, deliberate opinion of a great majority of
   the bishops throughout the world. In this case the replies of
   the bishops coming from all parts of the world show that the
   universal Church, which has one God, one baptism, has also one
   faith. As to the dogma there was no dissension, a few doubted
   the expediency of making it an article of faith. These replies
   determined the Holy Father to proceed to the great act, so
   long demanded by [the] Catholic heart. … A number of bishops
   were convoked to Rome for the 8th of December, 1854; a still
   greater number hastened to the Eternal City. … That day the
   bishops assembled in the Vatican to the number of 170, and
   robed in white cape and mitre proceeded to the Sixtine Chapel,
   where the Holy Father soon appeared in their midst." There,
   after befitting ceremonies, the pontiff made formal
   proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of
   Mary, in the following words: "By the authority of Jesus
   Christ our Lord, of the blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, and
   our own, we declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine
   which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary, at the first instant
   of her conception, by a singular privilege and grace of the
   Omnipotent God, in virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, the
   Saviour of mankind, was preserved immaculate from all stain of
   original sin, has been revealed by God, and therefore should
   firmly and constantly be believed by all the faithful.
{2468}
   Wherefore, if any shall dare—which God avert—to think
   otherwise than as it has been defined by us, let them know and
   understand that they are condemned by their own judgment, that
   they have suffered shipwreck of the faith, and have revolted
   from the unity of the Church; and besides, by their own act,
   they subject themselves to the penalties justly established,
   if what they think they should dare to signify by word,
   writing, or any other outward means.' … The next day the
   sovereign pontiff assembled the sacred college and the bishops
   in the great consistorial hall of the Vatican, and pronounced
   the allocution which, subsequently published by all the
   bishops, announced to the Catholic world the act of December
   8th."

      A. de Montor,
      The Lives and Times of the Roman Pontiffs,
      volume 2, pages 924-926.

PAPACY: A. D. 1860-1861.
   First consequences of the Austro-Italian war.
   Absorption of Papal States in the new Kingdom of Italy.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

PAPACY: A. D. 1864.
   The Encyclical and the Syllabus.

   "On the 8th of December 1864, Pius IX. issued his Encyclical
   [a circular letter addressed by the Pope to all the
   Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops and Bishops of the Church
   throughout the world] 'Quanta cura', accompanied by the
   Syllabus, or systematically arranged collection of errors,
   condemned from time to time, by himself and his predecessors.
   The Syllabus comprises 80 erroneous propositions. These are
   set forth under 10 distinct heads: viz.
   1. Pantheism, Naturalism, and Absolute Rationalism;
   2. Moderated Rationalism;
   3. Indifferentism, Latitudinarianism;
   4. Socialism, Communism, Secret Societies,
      Biblical Societies, Clerico-Liberal Societies;
   5. Errors concerning the Church and her rights;
   6. Errors concerning Civil Society, as well in itself
   as in its relations with the Church;
   7. Errors concerning Natural and Christian Ethics;
   8. Errors concerning Christian marriage;
   9. Errors concerning the Civil Princedom of the Roman Pontiff;
   10. Errors in relation with Modern Liberalism.

   Immediately under each, error are given the two initial words,
   and the date, of the particular Papal Allocution, Encyclical,
   Letter Apostolic, or Epistle, in which it is condemned.
   Whilst, on the one hand, the publication of the Encyclical and
   Syllabus was hailed by many as the greatest act of the
   pontificate of Pius IX., on the other hand, their appearance
   excited the angry feelings, and intensified the hostility, of
   the enemies of the Church."

      J. N. Murphy,
      The Chair of Peter,
      chapter 33.

   The following is a translation of the text of the Encyclical,
   followed by that of the Syllabus or Catalogue of Errors:

   To our venerable brethren all the Patriarchs, Primates,
   Archbishops, and Bishops in communion with the Apostolic See,
   we, Pius IX., Pope, send greeting, and our apostolic
   blessing:

   You know, venerable brethren, with what care and what pastoral
   vigilance the Roman Pontiffs, our predecessors—fulfilling the
   charge intrusted to them by our Lord Jesus Christ himself in
   the person of the blessed Peter, chief of the apostles —have
   unfailingly observed their duty in providing food for the
   sheep and the lambs, in assiduously nourishing the flock of
   the Lord with the words of faith, in imbuing them with
   salutary doctrine, and in turning them away from poisoned
   pastures; all this is known to you, and you have appreciated
   it. And certainly our predecessors, in affirming and in
   vindicating the august Catholic faith, truth, and justice,
   were never animated in their care for the salvation of souls
   by a more earnest desire than that of extinguishing and
   condemning by their letters and their constitutions all the
   heresies and errors which, as enemies of our divine faith, of
   the doctrines of the Catholic Church, of the purity of morals,
   and of the eternal salvation of man, have frequently excited
   serious storms, and precipitated civil and Christian society
   into the most deplorable misfortunes. For this reason our
   predecessors have opposed themselves with vigorous energy to
   the criminal enterprise of those wicked men, who, spreading
   their disturbing opinions like the waves of a raging sea, and
   promising liberty when they are slaves to corruption, endeavor
   by their pernicious writings to overturn the foundations of
   the Christian Catholic religion and of civil society; to
   destroy all virtue and justice; to deprave all minds and
   hearts; to turn away simple minds, and especially those of
   inexperienced youth, from the healthy discipline of morals; to
   corrupt it miserably, to draw it into the meshes of error, and
   finally to draw it from the bosom of the Catholic Church. But
   as you are aware, venerable brethren, we had scarcely been
   raised to the chair of St. Peter above our merits, by the
   mysterious designs of Divine Providence, than seeing with the
   most profound grief of our soul the horrible storm excited by
   evil doctrines, and the very grave and deplorable injury
   caused specially by so many errors to Christian people, in
   accordance with the duty of our apostolic ministry, and
   following in the glorious footsteps of our predecessors, we
   raised our voice, and by the publication of several
   encyclicals, consistorial letters, allocutions, and other
   apostolic letters, we have condemned the principal errors of
   our sad age, re-animated your utmost episcopal vigilance,
   warned and exhorted upon various occasions all our dear
   children in the Catholic Church to repel and absolutely avoid
   the contagion of so horrible a plague. More especially in our
   first encyclical of the 9th November, 1846, addressed to you,
   and in our two allocutions of the 9th December, 1854, and the
   9th June, 1862, to the consistories, we condemned the
   monstrous opinions which particularly predominated in the
   present day, to the great prejudice of souls and to the
   detriment of civil society—doctrines which not only attack the
   Catholic Church, her salutary instruction, and her venerable
   rights, but also the natural, unalterable law inscribed by God
   upon the heart of man—that of sound reason. But although we
   have not hitherto omitted to proscribe and reprove the
   principal errors of this kind, yet the cause of the Catholic
   Church, the safety of the souls which have been confided to
   us, and the well-being of human society itself, absolutely
   demand that we should again exercise our pastoral solicitude
   to destroy new opinions which spring out of these same errors
   as from so many sources.
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   These false and perverse opinions are the more detestable as
   they especially tend to shackle and turn aside the salutary
   force that the Catholic Church, by the example of her Divine
   author and his order, ought freely to exercise until the end
   of time, not only with regard to each individual man, but with
   regard to nations, peoples, and their rulers, and to destroy
   that agreement and concord between the priesthood and the
   government which have always existed for the happiness and
   security of religious and civil society, For as you are well
   aware, venerable brethren, there are a great number of men in
   the present day who, applying to civil society the impious and
   absurd principle of naturalism, as it is called, dare to teach
   that the perfect right of public society and civil progress
   absolutely require a condition of human society constituted
   and governed without regard to all considerations of religion,
   as if it had no existence, or, at least, without making any
   distinction between true religion and heresy. And, contrary to
   the teaching of the Holy Scriptures, of the church, and of the
   fathers, they do not hesitate to affirm that the best
   condition of society is that in which the power of the laity
   is not compelled to inflict the penalties of law upon
   violators of the Catholic religion unless required by
   considerations of public safety. Actuated by an idea of social
   government so absolutely false, they do not hesitate further
   to propagate the erroneous opinion, very hurtful to the safety
   of the Catholic Church and of souls, and termed "delirium" by
   our predecessor, Gregory XVI., of excellent memory, namely:
   "Liberty of conscience and of worship is the right of every
   man—a right which ought to be proclaimed and established by
   law in every well-constituted State, and that citizens are
   entitled to make known and declare, with a liberty which
   neither the ecclesiastical nor the civil authority can limit,
   their convictions of whatever kind, either by word of mouth,
   or through the press, or by other means." But in making these
   rash assertions they do not reflect, they do not consider,
   that they preach the liberty of perdition (St. Augustine,
   Epistle 105, Al. 166), and that "if it is always free to human
   conviction to discuss, men will never be wanting who dare to
   struggle against the truth and to rely upon the loquacity of
   human wisdom, when we know by the example of our Lord Jesus
   Christ how faith and Christian sagacity ought to avoid this
   culpable vanity." (St. Leon, Epistle 164, Al. 133, sec. 2,
   Boll. Ed.) Since also religion has been banished from civil
   government, since the doctrine and authority of divine
   revelation have been repudiated, the idea intimately connected
   therewith of justice and human right is obscured by darkness
   and lost sight of, and in place of true justice and legitimate
   right brute force is substituted, which has permitted some,
   entirely oblivious of the plainest principles of sound reason,
   to dare to proclaim "that the will of the people, manifested
   by what is called public opinion or by other means,
   constitutes a supreme law superior to all divine and human
   right, and that accomplished facts in political affairs, by
   the mere fact of their having been accomplished, have the
   force of law." But who does not perfectly see and understand
   that human society, released from the ties of religion and
   true justice, can have no further object than to amass riches,
   and can follow no other law in its actions than the
   indomitable wickedness of a heart given up to pleasure and
   interest? For this reason, also, these same men persecute with
   so relentless a hatred the religious orders, who have deserved
   so well of religion, civil society, and letters. They loudly
   declare that the orders have no right to exist, and in so
   doing make common cause with the falsehoods of the heretics.
   For, as taught by our predecessor of illustrious memory, Pius
   VI., "the abolition of religious houses injures the state of
   public profession, and is contrary to the counsels of the
   Gospel, injures a mode of life recommended by the church and
   in conformity with the Apostolic doctrine, does wrong to the
   celebrated founders whom we venerate upon the altar, and who
   constituted these societies under the inspiration of God."
   (Epistle to Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld, March 10, 1791.) In
   their impiety these same persons pretend that citizens and the
   church should be deprived of the opportunity of openly
   "receiving alms from Christian charity," and that the law
   forbidding "servile labor on account of divine worship" upon
   certain fixed days should be abrogated, upon the fallacious
   pretext that this opportunity and this law are contrary to the
   principles of political economy. Not content with eradicating
   religion from public society, they desire further to banish it
   from families and private life. Teaching and professing these
   most fatal errors of Socialism and Communism, they declare
   that "domestic society, or the entire family, derives its
   right of existence solely from civil law, whence it is to be
   concluded that from civil law descend all the rights of
   parents over their children, and, above all, the right of
   instructing and educating them." By such impious opinions and
   machinations do these false spirits endeavor to eliminate the
   salutary teaching and influences of the Catholic Church from
   the instruction and education of youth, and to infect and
   miserably deprave by their pernicious errors and their vices
   the pliant minds of youth. All those who endeavor to trouble
   sacred and public things, to destroy the good order of
   society, and to annihilate all divine and human rights, have
   always concentrated their criminal schemes, attention, and
   efforts upon the manner in which they might above all deprave
   and delude unthinking youth, as we have already shown. It is
   upon the corruption of youth that they p]ace all their hopes.
   Thus they never cease to attack the clergy, from whom have
   descended to us in so authentic manner the most certain
   records of history, and by whom such desirable benefit has
   been bestowed in abundance upon Christian and civil society
   and upon letters. They assail them in every shape, going so
   far as to say of the clergy in general—"that being the enemies
   of the useful sciences, of progress, and of civilization, they
   ought to be deprived of the charge of, instructing and
   educating youth." Others, taking up wicked errors many times
   condemned, presume with notorious impudence to submit the
   authority of the church and of this Apostolic See, conferred
   upon it by God himself, to the judgment of civil authority,
   and to deny all the rights of this same church and this see
   with regard to exterior order.
{2470}
   They do not blush to affirm that the laws of the church do not
   bind the conscience if they are not promulgated by the civil
   power; that the acts and decrees of the Roman Pontiffs
   concerning religion and the church require the sanction and
   approbation, or, at least, the assent, of the civil power; and
   that the Apostolic constitutions condemning secret societies,
   whether these exact, or do not exact, an oath of secrecy, and
   branding with anathema their secretaries and promoters, have
   no force in those regions of the world where these
   associations are tolerated by the civil government. It is
   likewise affirmed that the excommunications launched by the
   Council of Trent and the Roman Pontiffs against those who
   invade the possessions of the church and usurp its rights,
   seek, in confounding the spiritual and temporal powers, to
   attain solely a terrestrial object; that the church can decide
   nothing which may bind the consciences of the faithful in a
   temporal order of things; that the law of the church does not
   demand that violations of sacred laws should be punished by
   temporal penalties; and that it is in accordance with sacred
   theology and the principles of public law to claim for the
   civil government the property possessed by the churches, the
   religious orders, and other pious establishments. And they
   have no shame in avowing openly and publicly the thesis, the
   principle of heretics from whom emanate so many errors and
   perverse opinions. They say: "That the ecclesiastical power is
   not of right divine, distinct and independent from the civil
   power; and that no distinction, no independence of this kind
   can be maintained without the church invading and usurping the
   essential rights of the civil power." Neither can we pass over
   in silence the audacity of those who, insulting sound
   doctrines, assert that "the judgments and decrees of the Holy
   See, whose object is declared to concern the general welfare
   of the church, its rights, and its discipline, do not claim
   the acquaintance and obedience under pain of sin and loss of
   the Catholic profession, if they do not treat of the dogmas of
   faith and manners." How contrary is this doctrine to the
   Catholic dogma of the full power divinely given to the
   sovereign Pontiff by our Lord Jesus Christ, to guide, to
   supervise, and govern the universal church, no one can fail to
   see and understand clearly and evidently. Amid so great a
   diversity of depraved opinions, we, remembering our apostolic
   duty, and solicitous before all things for our most holy
   religion, for sound doctrine, for the salvation of the souls
   confided to us, and for the welfare of human society itself,
   have considered the moment opportune to raise anew our
   apostolic voice. And therefore do we condemn and proscribe
   generally and particularly all the evil opinions and doctrines
   specially mentioned in this letter, and we wish that they may
   be held as rebuked, proscribed, and condemned by all the
   children of the Catholic Church. But you know further,
   venerable brothers, that in our time insulters of every truth
   and of all justice, and violent enemies of our religion, have
   spread abroad other impious doctrines by means of pestilent
   books, pamphlets, and journals which, distributed over the
   surface of the earth, deceive the people and wickedly lie. You
   are not ignorant that in our day men are found who, animated
   and excited by the spirit of Satan, have arrived at that
   excess of impiety as not to fear to deny our Lord and Master
   Jesus Christ, and to attack his divinity with scandalous
   persistence. We cannot abstain from awarding you well-merited
   eulogies, venerable brothers, for all the care and zeal with
   which you have raised your episcopal voice against so great an
   impiety.

      Catalogue of the Principal Errors of Our Time Pointed
      Out in the Consistorial Allocutions, Encyclical and other
      Apostolical Letters of Pope Pius IX.

I.–PANTHEISM, NATURALISM, AND ABSOLUTE RATIONALISM.

   1. There is no divine power, supreme being, wisdom, and
   providence distinct from the universality of things, and God
   is none other than the nature of things, and therefore
   immutable. In effect, God is in man, and in the world, and all
   things are God, and have the very substance of God. God is,
   therefore, one and the same thing with the world, and thence
   mind is confounded with matter, necessity with liberty of
   action, true with false, good with evil, just with unjust.

      (See Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1802.)

   2. All action of God upon man and the world should be denied.

      (See Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1802.)

   3. Human reason, without any regard to God, is the sole
   arbiter of true and false, good and evil; it is its own law in
   itself, and suffices by its natural force for the care of the
   welfare of men and nations.

      (See Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1802.)

   4. All the truths of religion are derived from the native
   strength of human reason, whence reason is the principal rule
   by which man can and must arrive at the knowledge of all
   truths of every kind.

      (See Encyclicals, "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1840,
      and "Singulari quidem," March 17, 1850,
      and Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   5. Divine revelation is imperfect, and therefore subject to
   the continual and indefinite progress corresponding to the
   progress of human reason.

      (See Encyclical, "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846,
      and Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   6. Christian faith is in opposition to human reason, and
   divine revelation is not only useless but even injurious to
   the perfection of man.

      (See Encyclical "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846,
      and Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   7. The prophecies and miracles told and narrated in the sacred
   books are the fables of poets, and the mysteries of the
   Christian faith the sum of philosophical investigations. The
   books of the two Testaments contain fabulous fictions, and
   Jesus Christ is himself a myth.

      (Encyclical, "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846;
      Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

II. MODERATE RATIONALISM.

   8. As human reason is rendered equal to religion itself,
   theological matters must be treated as philosophical matters.

      (Allocution, "Singulari quidem perfusi.")

   9. All the dogmas of the Christian religion are indistinctly
   the object of natural science or philosophy, and human reason,
   instructed solely by history, is able by its natural strength
   and principles to arrive at a comprehension of even the most
   abstract dogmas from the moment when they have been proposed
   as objective.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising, "Gravissimus,"
      December 4, 1862.
      Letter to Archbishop Frising, "Tuas libenter,"
      December 21, 1863.)

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   10. As the philosopher is one thing and philosophy is another,
   it is the right and duty of the former to submit himself to
   the authority of which he shall have recognized the truth; but
   philosophy neither can nor ought to submit to authority.

      (Letters to Archbishop Frising, "Gravissimus,"
      December 11, 1862;
      and, "Tuas libenter," December 21, 1863.)

   11. The church not only ought in no way to concern herself
   with philosophy, but ought further herself to tolerate the
   errors of philosophy, leaving to it the care of their
   correction.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising, December 11, 1862.)

   12. The decrees of the Apostolic See and of the Roman
   congregation fetter the free progress of science.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising, December 11, 1862.)

   13. The methods and principles by which the old scholastic
   doctors cultivated theology are no longer suitable to the
   demands of the age and the progress of science.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising,
      "Tuas libenter,"
      December 21, 1863.)

   14. Philosophy must be studied without taking any account of
   supernatural revelation.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising,
      "Tuas libenter,"
      December 21, 1863.)

   N. B.—To the rationalistic system are due in great part the
   errors of Antony Gunther, condemned in the letter to the
   Cardinal Archbishop of Cologne "Eximiam tuam," June 15, 1847,
   and in that to the Bishop of Breslau, "Dolore haud mediocri,"
   April 30, 1860.


III.—INDIFFERENTISM, TOLERATION.

   15. Every man is free to embrace and profess the religion he
   shall believe true, guided by the light of reason.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851;
      Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   16. Men who have embraced any religion may find and obtain
   eternal salvation.

      (Encyclical, '"Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846;
      Allocution, "Ubi primum," December 17, 1847;
      Encyclical, "Singulari quidem," March 17, 1856.)

   17. At least the eternal salvation may be hoped for of all who
   have never been in the true church of Christ.

      (Allocution, "Singulari quidem," December 9, 1865;
      Encyclical, "Quanto conficiamur mœrore," August 17, 1863.)

   18. Protestantism is nothing more than another form of the
   same true religion in which it is possible to be equally
   pleasing to God, as in the Catholic church.

      (Encyclical, "Nescitis et vobiscum," December 8, 1849.)


IV.—SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, CLANDESTINE SOCIETIES,
BIBLICAL SOCIETIES, CLERICO-LIBERAL SOCIETIES.

   Pests of this description have been frequently
   rebuked in the severest terms in the
   Encyclical, "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846;
   Allocution, "Quibus, quantisque," August 20, 1849;
   Encyclical, "Nescitis et vobiscum," December 8, 1849;
   Allocution, "Singulari quidem," December 9, 1854;
   Encyclical, "Quanto conficiamur mœrore," August 10, 1863.


V.-ERRORS RESPECTING THE CHURCH AND HER RIGHTS.

   19. The church is not a true and perfect entirely free
   association; she does not rest upon the peculiar and perpetual
   rights conferred upon her by her divine founder; but it
   appertains to the civil power to define what are the rights
   and limits within which the church may exercise authority.

      (Allocutions, "Singulari quidem," December 9, 1854;
      "Multis gravibus," December 17, 1860;
      "Maxima quidem," June, 1862.)

   20. The ecclesiastical power must not exercise its authority
   without the toleration and assent of the civil government.

      (Allocution, "Meminit unusquisque," September 30, 1851.)

   21. The church has not the power of disputing dogmatically
   that the religion of the Catholic church is the only true
   religion.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851.)

   22. The obligation which binds Catholic masters and writers
   does not apply to matters proposed for universal belief as
   articles of faith by the infallible judgment of the church.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising, "Tuas libenter,"
      December 21, 1863.)

   23. The church has not the power of availing herself of force,
   or any direct or indirect temporal power.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Ad apostolicas," August 22, 1851.)

   24. The Roman pontiffs and œcumenical councils have exceeded
   the limits of their power, have usurped the rights of princes,
   and have even committed errors in defining matter relating to
   dogma and morals.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851.)

   25. In addition to the authority inherent in the episcopate,
   further temporal power is granted to it by the civil power,
   either expressly or tacitly, but on that account also
   revocable by the civil power whenever it pleases.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Ad Apostolicas," August 22, 1851.)

   26. The church has not the natural and legitimate right of
   acquisition and possession.

      ("Nunquam," December 18, 1856;
      Encyclical, "Incredibili," September 17, 1862.)

   27. The ministers of the church and the Roman pontiff ought to
   be absolutely excluded from all charge and dominion over
   temporal affairs.

      (Allocution, "Maximum quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   28. Bishops have not the right of promulgating their
   apostolical letters without the sanction of the government.

      (Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   29. Spiritual graces granted by the Roman pontiff must be
   considered null unless they have been requested by the civil
   government.

      (Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   30. The immunity of the church and of ecclesiastical persons
   derives its origin from civil law.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851.)

   31. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction for temporal lawsuits, whether
   civil or criminal, of the clergy, should be abolished, even
   without the consent and against the desire of the Holy See.

      (Allocution, "Acerbissimum," September 27, 1852;
      Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   32. The personal immunity exonerating the clergy from military
   law may be abrogated without violation either of natural right
   or of equity. This abrogation is called for by civil progress,
   especially in a society modelled upon principles of liberal
   government.

      (Letter to Bishop Montisregal,
      "Singularis nobilisque," September 29, 1864.)

   33. It does not appertain to ecclesiastical jurisdiction, by
   any right, and inherent to its essence, to direct doctrine in
   matters of theology.

      (Letter to Archbishop Frising,
      "Tuas libenter," December 21, 1863.)

   34. The doctrine of those who compare the sovereign pontiff to
   a free sovereign acting in the universal church is a doctrine
   which prevailed in the middle ages.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Ad Apostolicas," August 22, 1851.)

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   35. There is no obstacle to the sentence of a general council,
   or the act of all the nation transferring the pontifical
   sovereign from the bishopric and city of Rome to some other
   bishopric in another city.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Ad Apostolicas," August 22, 1851.)

   36. The definition of a national council does not admit of
   subsequent discussion, and the civil power can require that
   matters shall remain as they are.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Ad Apostolicas," August 22, 1851.)

   37. National churches can be established without, and
   separated from, the Roman pontiff.

      (Allocution, "Multis gravibus," December 17, 1860;
      "Jamdudum cernimus," March 18, 1861.)

   38. Many Roman pontiffs have lent themselves to the division
   of the church in Eastern and Western churches.

   (Apostolic Letter, " Ad Apostolicas," August 22, 1851.)


VI.—ERRORS OF CIVIL SOCIETY, AS MUCH IN THEMSELVES
AS CONSIDERED IN THEIR RELATIONS TO THE CHURCH.

   39. The state of a republic, as being the origin and source of
   all rights, imposes itself by its rights, which is not
   circumscribed by any limit.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   40. The doctrine of the Catholic church is opposed to the laws
   and interests of society.

   (Encyclical, "Qui pluribus," Nov. 9, 1846;
   Allocution, "Quibus quantisque," April 20, 1849.)

   41. The civil government, even when exercised by a heretic
   sovereign, possesses an indirect and negative power over
   religious affairs.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.)

   42. In a legal conflict between the two powers, civil law
   ought to prevail.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.)

   43. The lay power has the authority to destroy, declare, and
   render null solemn conventions or concordats relating to the
   use of rights appertaining to ecclesiastical immunity, without
   the consent of the priesthood, and even against its will.

      (Allocution, "In consistoriali," November 1, 1850;
      "Multis gravibusque," December 17, 1860.)

   44. The civil authority may interfere in matters regarding
   religion, morality, and spiritual government, whence it has
   control over the instructions for the guidance of consciences
   issued, conformably with their mission, by the pastors of the
   church. Further, it possesses full power in the matter of
   administering the divine sacraments and the necessary
   arrangements for their reception.

      ("In consistoriali," November 1, 1858;
      Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   45. The entire direction of public schools in which the youth
   of Christian States are educated, save an exception in the
   case of Episcopal seminaries, may and must appertain to the
   civil power, and belong to it so far that no other authority
   shall be recognized as having any right to interfere in the
   discipline of the schools, the arrangement of the studies, the
   taking of degrees, or the choice and approval of teachers.

      (Allocution, "In consistoriali," Nov. 1, 1850;
      "Quibus luctuosissimis," September 5, 1861.)

   46. Further, even in clerical seminaries the mode of study
   must be submitted to the civil authority.

      (Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   47. The most advantageous conditions of civil society require
   that popular schools open without distinction to all children
   of the people, and public establishments destined to teach
   young people letters and good discipline, and to impart to
   them education, should be freed from all ecclesiastical
   authority and interference, and should be fully subjected to
   the civil and political power for the teaching of masters and
   opinions common to the times.

      (Letter to Archbishop of Friburg,
      "Quum none sine," July 14, 1864.)

   48. This manner of instructing youth, which consists in
   separating it from the Catholic faith and from the power of
   the church, and in teaching it above all a knowledge of
   natural things and the objects of social life, may be
   perfectly approved by Catholics.

      (Letter to Archbishop of Friburg,
      "Quum none sine," July 14, 1864.)

   49. The civil power is entitled to prevent ministers of
   religion and the faithful from communicating freely and
   mutually with the Roman Pontiff.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   50. The lay authority possesses of itself the right of
   presenting bishops, and may require of them that they take
   possession of their diocese before having received canonical
   institution and the Apostolical letter of the Holy See.

      (Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   51. Further, the lay authority has the right of deposing
   bishops from their pastoral functions, and is not forced to
   obey the Roman Pontiff in matters affecting the filling of
   sees and the institution of bishops.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851;
      Allocution, "Acerbissimum.")

   52. The government has a right to alter a period fixed by the
   church for the accomplishment of the religious duties of both
   sexes, and may enjoin upon all religious establishments to
   admit nobody to take solemn vows without permission.

      (Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   53. Laws respecting the protection, rights, and functions of
   religious establishments must be abrogated; further, the civil
   government may lend its assistance to all who desire to quit a
   religious life, and break their vows. The government may also
   deprive religious establishments of the right of patronage to
   collegiate churches and simple benefices, and submit their
   goods to civil competence and administration.

      (Allocution, "Acerbissimum," September 27, 1862;
      "Probe memineritis, " January 22, 1885;
      and "Quum sæpe, " July 26, 1858.)

   54. Kings and princes are not only free from the jurisdiction
   of the church, but are superior to the church even in
   litigious questions of jurisdiction

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851.)

   55. The church must be separated from the State and the State
   from the church.

      (Allocution, "Acerbissimum," September 27, 1862.)


VII.—ERRORS IN NATURAL AND CHRISTIAN MORALS.

   56. Moral laws do not stand in need of the Divine sanction,
   and there is no necessity that human laws should be
   conformable to the laws of nature and receive their sanction
   from God.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   57. Knowledge of philosophical and moral things and civil laws
   may and must be free from Divine and ecclesiastical authority.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   58. No other forces are recognized than those which reside in
   matter, and which, contrary to all discipline and all decency
   of morals, are summed up in the accumulation and increase of
   riches by every possible means and in the satisfaction of
   every pleasure.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.
      Encyclical, "Quanto conficiamur," August 10, 1863.)

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   59. Right consists in material fact. All human duties are vain
   words, and all human facts have the force of right.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   60. Authority is nothing but the sum of numbers and material
   force.

      (Allocution, "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.)

   61. The happy injustice of a fact inflicts no injury upon the
   sanctity of right.

      (Allocution, "Jamdudum cernimus," March 18, 1861.)

   62. The principle of non-intervention must be proclaimed and
   observed.

      (Allocution, "Novos et ante," September 27, 1860.)

   63. It is allowable to withdraw from obedience to legitimate
   princes and to rise in insurrection against them.

      (Encyclical, "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846;
      Allocution, "Quisque vestrum," October 4, 1847;
      Encyclical., "Noscitis et nobiscum," December 8, 1849;
      Apostolic Letter, "Cum Catholica," March 25, 1860.)

   64. The violation of a solemn oath, even every guilty and
   shameful action repugnant to the eternal law, is not only
   undeserving rebuke, but is even allowable and worthy of the
   highest praise when done for the love of country.

   (Allocution, "Quibus quantisque," April 20, 1849.)


VIII.—ERRORS AS TO CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

   65. It is not admissible, rationally, that Christ has raised
   marriage to the dignity of a sacrament.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1852.)

   66. The sacrament of marriage is only an adjunct of the
   contract, from which it is separable, and the sacrament itself
   only consists in the nuptial benediction.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1852.)

   67. By the law of nature the marriage tie is not indissoluble,
   and in many cases divorce, properly so called, may be
   pronounced by the civil authority.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1852;
      Allocution, "Acerbissimum," September 27, 1852.)

   68. The church has not the power of pronouncing upon the
   impediments to marriage. This belongs to civil society, which
   can remove the existing hindrances.

      (Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851.)

   69. It is only more recently that the church has begun to
   pronounce upon invalidating obstacles, availing herself, not
   of her own right, but of a right borrowed from the civil
   power.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.)

   70. The canons of the Council of Trent, which invoke anathema
   against those who deny the church the right of pronouncing
   upon invalidating obstacles, are not dogmatic, and must be
   considered as emanating from borrowed power.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.)

   71. The form of the said council, under the penalty of
   nullity, does not bind in cases where the civil law has
   appointed another form, and desires that this new form is to
   be used in marriage.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.)

   72. Boniface VIII. is the first who declared that the vow of
   chastity pronounced at ordination annuls nuptials.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.)

   73. A civil contract may very well, among Christians, take the
   place of true marriage, and it is false, either that the
   marriage contract between Christians must always be a
   sacrament, or that the contract is null if the sacrament does
   not exist.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851.;
      Letter to King of Sardinia, September 9, 1852;
      Allocutions, "Acerbissimum," September 27, 1852;
      "Multis gravibusque," December 17, 1860.)

   74. Matrimonial or nuptial causes belong by their nature to
   civil jurisdiction.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1851;
      Allocution, " Acerbissimum," September 27, 1852.)

   N. B.—Two other errors are still current upon the abolition of
   the celibacy of priests and the preference due to the state of
   marriage over that of virginity. These have been refuted—the
   first in Encyclical, "Qui pluribus," November 9, 1846; the
   second in Apostolic Letter, "Multiplices inter," June 10,
   1851.


IX.—ERRORS REGARDING THE CIVIL POWER OF THE SOVEREIGN PONTIFF.

   75. The children of the Christian and Catholic Church are not
   agreed upon the compatibility of the temporal with the
   spiritual power.

      (Apostolic Letter, August 22, 1852.)

   76. The cessation of the temporal power, upon which the
   Apostolic See is based, would contribute to the happiness and
   liberty of the church.

      (Allocution, "Quibus quantisque," April 20, 1849.)

   N. B.—Besides these errors explicitly pointed out, still more,
   and those numerous, are rebuked by the certain doctrine which
   all Catholics are bound to respect touching the civil
   government of the Sovereign Pontiff. These doctrines are
   abundantly explained in Allocutions,
      "Quantis quantumque," April 20, 1859,
      and "Si semper antea," May 20, 1850;
      Apostolic Letter, "Quum Catholica Ecclesia," March 26, 1860;
      Allocutions, "Novos" September 28 1860;
      "Jamdudum" March 18, 1861;
      and "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862.

X.—ERRORS REFERRING TO MODERN LIBERALISM.

   77. In the present day it is no longer necessary that the
   Catholic religion shall be held as the only religion of the
   State, to the exclusion of all other modes of worship.

      (Allocution, "Nemo vestrum," July 26, 1855.)

   78. Whence it has been wisely provided by law, in some
   countries called Catholic, that emigrants shall enjoy the free
   exercise of their own worship.

      (Allocution, "Acerbissimum," September 27, 1852.)

   79. But it is false that the civil liberty of every mode of
   worship and the full power given to all of overtly and
   publicly displaying their opinions and their thoughts conduce
   more easily to corrupt the morals and minds of the people and
   to the propagation of the evil of indifference.

      (Allocution, "Nunquam fore," December 15, 1856.)

   80. The Roman pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to
   and agree with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization.

      (Allocution, "Jamdudum cernimus," March 18, 1861.)

   ----------Syllabus: End--------

PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.
   The Œcumenical Council of the Vatican.
   Adoption and Promulgation of the Dogma of Papal Infallibility.

   "More than 300 years after the close of the Council of Trent,
   Pope Pius IX., … resolved to convoke a new œcumenical Council.
   … He first intimated his intention, June 26, 1867, in an
   Allocution to 500 Bishops who were assembled at the 18th
   centenary of the martyrdom of St. Peter in Rome. … The call
   was issued by an Encyclical, commencing 'Æterni Patris
   Unigenitus Filius,' in the 23rd year of his Pontificate, on
   the feast of St. Peter and Paul, June 29, 1868. It created at
   once a universal commotion in the Christian world, and called
   forth a multitude of books and pamphlets even before the
   Council convened. …
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   It was even hoped that the Council might become a general 
   feast of reconciliation of divided Christendom; and hence the 
   Greek schismatics, and the Protestant heretics and other 
   non-Catholics, were invited by two special letters of the Pope 
   (September 8, and September 13, 1868) to return on this 
   auspicious occasion to 'the only sheepfold of Christ.' … But 
   the Eastern Patriarchs spurned the invitation. … The 
   Protestant communions either ignored or respectfully declined 
   it. Thus the Vatican Council, like that of Trent, turned out 
   to be simply a general Roman Council, and apparently put the 
   prospect of a reunion of Christendom farther off than ever 
   before. While these sanguine expectations of Pius IX., were 
   doomed to disappointment, the chief object of the Council was 
   attained in spite of the strong opposition of the minority of 
   liberal Catholics. This object … was nothing less than the 
   proclamation of the personal Infallibility of the Pope, as a 
   binding article of the Roman Catholic faith for all time to 
   come. Herein lies the whole importance of the Council; all the 
   rest dwindles into insignificance, and could never have 
   justified its convocation. After extensive and careful 
   preparations, the first (and perhaps the last) Vatican Council 
   was solemnly opened amid the sound of innumerable bells and 
   the cannon of St. Angelo, but under frowning skies and a 
   pouring rain, on the festival of the Immaculate Conception of 
   the Virgin Mary, December 8, 1869, in the Basilica of the 
   Vatican. It reached its height at the fourth public session, 
   July 18, 1870, when the decree of Papal Infallibility was 
   proclaimed. After this it dragged on a sickly existence till 
   October 20, 1870, when it was adjourned till November 11, 
   1870, but indefinitely postponed on account of the 
   extraordinary change in the political situation of Europe. For 
   on the second of September the French Empire, which had been 
   the main support of the temporal power of the Pope, collapsed 
   with the surrender of Napoleon III., at the old Huguenot 
   stronghold of Sedan, to the Protestant King William of 
   Prussia, and on the 20th of September the Italian troops, in 
   the name of King Victor Emmanuel, took possession of Rome, as 
   the future capital of United Italy. Whether the Council will 
   ever be convened again to complete its vast labors, like the 
   twice interrupted Council of Trent, remains to be seen. But, 
   in proclaiming the personal Infallibility of the Pope, it made 
   all future œcumenical Councils unnecessary for the definition 
   of dogmas and the regulation of discipline. … The acts of the 
   Vatican Council, as far as they go, are irrevocable. The 
   attendance was larger than at any of its eighteen 
   predecessors. … The whole number of prelates of the Roman 
   Catholic Church, who are entitled to a seat in an œcumenical 
   Council, is 1,037. Of these there were present at the opening 
   of the Council 719, viz., 49 Cardinals, 9 Patriarchs, 4 
   Primates, 121 Archbishops, 479 Bishops, 57 Abbots and Generals 
   of monastic orders. This number afterwards increased to 764, 
   viz., 49 Cardinals, 10 Patriarchs, 4 Primates, 105 diocesan 
   Archbishops, 22 Archbishops in partibus infidelium, 424 
   diocesan Bishops, 98 Bishops in partibus, and 52 Abbots, and 
   Generals of monastic orders. Distributed according to 
   continents, 541 of these belonged to Europe, 83 to Asia, 14 to 
   Africa, 113 to America, 13 to Oceanica. At the proclamation of 
   the decree of Papal Infallibility, July 18, 1870, the number 
   was reduced to 535, and afterwards it dwindled down to 200 or 
   180. Among the many nations represented, the Italians had a 
   vast majority of 276, of whom 143 belonged to the former Papal 
   States alone. France with a much larger Catholic population, 
   had only 84, Austria and Hungary 48, Spain 41, Great Britain 
   35, Germany 19, the United States 48, Mexico 10, Switzerland 
   8, Belgium 6, Holland 4, Portugal 2, Russia 1. The 
   disproportion between the representatives of the different 
   nations and the number of their constituents was 
   overwhelmingly in favor of the Papal influence."

      P. Schaff,
      History of the Vatican Council
      (appendix to Gladstone's 'Vatican Decrees'
      American edition).

   The vote taken in the Council on the affirmation of the dogma
   "showed 400 'placet,' 88 'non placet,' and 60 'placet juxta
   modum.' Fifty bishops absented themselves from the
   congregation, preferring that mode of intimating their
   dissent. … After the votes the Archbishop of Paris proposed
   that the dissentients should leave Rome in a body, so as not
   to be present at the public services of the 18th, when the
   dogma was formally to be promulgated. Cardinal Rauscher, on
   the other hand, advised that they should all attend, and have
   the courage to vote 'non placet' in the presence of the Pope.
   This bold counsel, however, was rejected. … The recalcitrant
   bishops stayed away to the number of 110. The Pope's partisans
   mustered 533. When the dogmatic constitution 'De Ecclesia
   Christi' was put in its entirety to the vote, two prelates
   alone exclaimed 'non placet.' These were Riccio, Bishop of
   Casazzo, and Fitzgerald, Bishop of Peticola, or Little Rock,
   in the United States. A violent thunderstorm burst over St.
   Peter's at the commencement of the proceedings, and lasted
   till the close. The Pope proclaimed himself infallible amidst
   its tumult. … The Bishops in opposition, after renewing their
   negative vote in writing, quitted Rome almost to a man. …
   Several of the German bishops who had taken part in the
   opposition thought that at this juncture it behoved them, for
   the peace of the Church, and the respect due to the Dogma once
   declared, to give way at the end of August. They assembled
   again at Fulda, and pronounced the acceptance of the decree. …
   Seventeen names were appended to the declaration. Among them
   was not that of Hefele [Bishop of Rottenburg] who, it was soon
   made known, was determined under no circumstances to submit to
   the decision of the Council. His chapter and the theological
   faculty of Tübingen, declared that they would unanimously
   support him. A meeting of the Catholic professors of theology,
   held at Nuremberg, also agreed upon a decided protest against
   the absolute power and personal infallibility of the Pope. The
   German opposition, evidently, was far from being quelled. And
   the Austrian opposition, led by Schwarzenberg, Rauscher and
   Strossmayer, remained unbroken. By the end of August the
   members of the Council remaining at Rome were reduced to 80.
   They continued, however, to sit on through that month and the
   month of September, discussing various 'Schemes' relative to
   the internal affairs of the Church."

      Annual Register, 1870,
      part 1, foreign History, chapter 5.

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   But on the 20th of October, after the Italian troops had taken
   possession of Rome, the Pope, by a Bull, suspended the sittings
   of the Œcumenical Council. Most of the German bishops who had
   opposed the dogma of infallibility surrendered to it in the
   end; but Dr. Döllinger, the Bavarian theologian, held his
   ground. "He had now become the acknowledged leader of all
   those who, within the pale of the Romish Church, were
   disaffected towards the Holy See; but he was to pay for this
   position of eminence. The Old Catholic movement soon drew upon
   itself the hostility of the ecclesiastical authorities. On the
   19th of April 1871 Dr. Döllinger was formally excommunicated
   by the Archbishop of Munich, on account of his refusal to
   retract his opposition to the dogma of infallibility. … A
   paper war of great magnitude followed the excommunication.
   Most of the doctor's colleagues in his own divinity school,
   together with not a few canons of his cathedral, a vast number
   of the Bavarian lower clergy, and nearly all the laity,
   testified their agreement with him. The young King of Bavaria,
   moreover, lent the support of his personal sympathies to Dr.
   Döllinger's movement. … A Congress of Old Catholics was held
   at Munich in September, when an Anti-Infallibility League was
   formed; and the cause soon afterwards experienced a triumph in
   the election of Dr. Döllinger to the Rectorship of the
   University of Munich by a majority of fifty-four votes against
   six. At Cologne in the following year an Old Catholic Congress
   assembled, and delegates attended from various foreign States.
   … Dr. Döllinger … was always glad to give the Old Catholic
   body the benefit of his advice, and he presided over the
   Congress, mainly of Old Catholics, which was held at Bonn in
   1874 to promote the reunion of Christendom; but we believe he
   never formally joined the Communion, and, at the outset, at
   any rate, he strongly opposed its constitution as a distinct
   Church. From the day of his excommunication by the Archbishop
   of Munich he abstained from performing any ecclesiastical
   function. He always continued a strict observer of the
   disciplinary rules and commandments of the Roman Catholic
   Church. … The Old Catholic movement did not generally make
   that headway upon the Continent which its sanguine promoters
   had hoped speedily to witness, though it was helped in Germany
   by the passing of a Bill for transferring ecclesiastical
   property to a committee of the ratepayers and communicants in
   each parish of the empire. When the third synod of the Old
   Catholics was held at Bonn in June 1876 it was stated by Dr.
   van Schulte that there were then 35 communities in Prussia, 44
   in Baden, 5 in Hesse, 2 in Birkenfeld, 31 in Bavaria, and 1 in
   Würtemberg. The whole number of persons belonging to the body
   of Old Catholics was—in Prussia, 17,203; Bavaria, 10,110;
   Hesse, 1,042; Oldenburg, 249; and Würtemberg, 223. The number
   of Old Catholic priests in Germany was sixty. Subsequently
   some advance was recorded over these numbers."

      Eminent Persons: Biographies reprinted from the Times,
      volume 4, pages 213-216.

      ALSO IN:
      Quirinus (Dr. J. I. von Döllinger),
      Letters from Rome on the Council.

      Janus (Dr. J. I. von Döllinger),
      The Pope and the Council.

      J. I. von Döllinger,
      Declarations and Letters on the Vatican Decrees.

      H. E. Manning,
      The Vatican Council.

      Pomponio Leto (Marchese F. Vitelleschi),
      The Vatican Council.

      E. de Pressense,
      Rome and Italy at the opening of the Œcumenical Council.

      W. E. Gladstone,
      The Vatican Decrees.

   The following is a translation of the text of the Constitution
   "Pastor æternus" in which the Dogma of Infallibility was
   subsequently promulgated by the Pope:

   "Pius Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God, with the
   approval of the Sacred Council, for an everlasting
   remembrance. The eternal Pastor and Bishop of our souls,
   in order to continue for all time the life-giving work of His
   Redemption, determined to build up the Holy Church, wherein,
   as in the House of the living God, all faithful men might be
   united in the bond of one faith and one charity. Wherefore,
   before he entered into His glory, He prayed unto the Father,
   not for the Apostles only, but for those also who through
   their preaching should come to believe in Him, that all might
   be one even as He the Son and the Father are one. As then the
   Apostles whom He had chosen to Himself from the world were
   sent by Him, not otherwise than He Himself had been sent by
   the Father; so did He will that there should ever be pastors
   and teachers in His Church to the end of the world. And in
   order that the Episcopate also might be one and undivided, and
   that by means of a closely united priesthood the body of the
   faithful might be kept secure in the oneness of faith and
   communion, He set Blessed Peter over the rest of the Apostles,
   and fixed in him the abiding principle of this twofold unity,
   and its visible foundation, in the strength of which the
   everlasting temple should arise, and the Church in the
   firmness of that faith should lift her majestic front to
   Heaven. And seeing that the gates of hell with daily increase
   of hatred are gathering their strength on every side to
   upheave the foundation laid by God's own hand, and so, if that
   might be, to overthrow the Church; We, therefore, for the
   preservation, safe–keeping, and increase of the Catholic
   flock, with the approval of the Sacred Council, do judge it to
   be necessary to propose to the belief and acceptance of all
   the faithful, in accordance with the ancient and constant
   faith of the universal Church, the doctrine touching the
   institution, perpetuity, and nature of the sacred Apostolic
   Primacy, in which is found the strength and sureness of the
   entire Church, and at the same time to inhibit and condemn the
   contrary errors, so hurtful to the flock of Christ.

   CHAPTER 1. Of the institution of the apostolic primacy in
   Blessed Peter.

   We, therefore, teach and declare that, according to the
   testimony of the Gospel, the primacy of jurisdiction was
   immediately and directly promised to Blessed Peter the
   Apostle, and on him conferred by Christ the Lord. For it had
   been said before to Simon; Thou shalt be called Cephas, and
   afterwards on occasion of the confession made by him; Thou art
   the Christ, the Son of the living God, it was to Simon alone
   that the Lord addressed the words: Blessed art thou, Simon
   Bar-Jona, because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to
   thee, but my Father who is in Heaven. And I say to thee that
   thou art Peter; and upon this rock I will build my Church, and
   the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will
   give to thee the keys of the kingdom of Heaven. And whatsoever
   thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven,
   and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth it shall be loosed
   also in heaven.
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   And it was upon Simon alone that Jesus after His resurrection
   bestowed the jurisdiction of Chief Pastor and Ruler over all
   His fold in the words: Feed my lambs: feed my sheep. At open
   variance with this clear doctrine of Holy Scripture as it has
   been ever understood by the Catholic Church are the perverse
   opinions of those who, while they distort the form of
   government established by Christ the Lord in His Church, deny
   that Peter in his single person, preferably to all the other
   Apostles, whether taken separately or together, was endowed by
   Christ with a true and proper primacy of jurisdiction; or of
   those who assert that the same primacy was not bestowed
   immediately and directly upon Blessed Peter himself, but upon
   the Church, and through the Church on Peter as her Minister.
   If anyone, therefore, shall say that Blessed Peter the Apostle
   was not appointed the Prince of all the Apostles and the
   visible Head of the whole Church Militant; or that the same
   directly and immediately received from the same Our Lord Jesus
   Christ a Primacy of honour only, and not of true and proper
   jurisdiction; let him be anathema.

   CHAPTER II. On the perpetuation of the primacy of Peter in
   the Roman Pontiffs.

   That which the Prince of Shepherds and great Shepherd of the
   sheep, Jesus Christ our Lord, established in the person of the
   Blessed Apostle Peter to secure the perpetual welfare and
   lasting good of the Church, must, by the same institution,
   necessarily remain unceasingly in the Church; which, being
   founded upon the Rock, will stand firm to the end of the
   world. For none can doubt, and it is known to all ages, that
   the holy and Blessed Peter, the Prince and Chief of the
   Apostles, the pillar of the faith and foundation of the
   Catholic Church, who received the keys of the kingdom from Our
   Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour and Redeemer of the race of
   man, continues up to the present time, and ever continues, in
   his successors the Bishops of the Holy See of Rome, which was
   founded by Him, and consecrated by His blood, to live and
   preside and judge. Whence, whosoever succeeds to Peter in this
   See, does by the institution of Christ Himself obtain the
   Primacy of Peter over the whole Church. The disposition made
   by Incarnate Truth therefore remains, and Blessed Peter,
   abiding through the strength of the Rock in the power that he
   received, has not abandoned the direction of the Church.
   Wherefore it has at all times been necessary that every
   particular Church—that is to say, the faithful throughout the
   world—should agree with the Roman Church, on account of the
   greater authority of the princedom which this has received;
   that all being associated in the unity of that See whence the
   rights of communion spread to all, as members in the unity of
   the Head, might combine to form one "connected body. If, then,
   any should deny that it is by the institution of Christ the
   Lord, or by divine right, that Blessed Peter should have a
   perpetual line of successors in the Primacy over the Universal
   Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is the successor of Blessed
   Peter in this Primacy; let him be anathema.

   CHAPTER III. On the force and character of the Primacy of
   the Roman Pontiff.

   Wherefore, resting on plain testimonies of the Sacred
   Writings, and in agreement with both the plain and express
   decrees of our predecessors, the Roman Pontiffs, and of the
   General Councils, We renew the definition of the Œcumenical
   Council of Florence, in virtue of which all the faithful of
   Christ must believe that the Holy Apostolic See and the Roman
   Pontiff possesses the Primacy over the whole world, and that
   the Roman Pontiff is the successor of Blessed Peter, Prince of
   the Apostles, and is true Vicar of Christ, and Head of the
   whole Church, and Father and teacher of all Christians; and
   that full power was given to him in Blessed Peter to rule,
   feed, and govern the Universal Church by Jesus Christ our
   Lord: as is also contained in the acts of the General Councils
   and in the Sacred Canons. Further we teach and declare that by
   the appointment of our Lord the Roman Church possesses the
   chief ordinary jurisdiction over all other Churches, and that
   this power of jurisdiction possessed by the Roman Pontiff
   being truly episcopal is immediate; which all, both pastors
   and faithful, both individually and collectively, are bound,
   by their duty of hierarchical submission and true obedience,
   to obey, not merely in matters which belong to faith and
   morals, but also in those that appertain to the discipline and
   government of the Church throughout the world, so that the
   Church of Christ may be one flock under one supreme pastor
   through the preservation of unity both of communion and of
   profession of the same faith with the Roman Pontiff. This is
   the teaching of Catholic truth, from which no one can deviate
   without loss of faith and of salvation. But so far is this
   power of the Supreme Pontiff from being any prejudice to the
   ordinary power of episcopal jurisdiction, by which the Bishops
   who have been set by the Holy Spirit to succeed and hold the
   place of the Apostles feed and govern, each his own flock, as
   true Pastors, that this episcopal authority is really
   asserted, strengthened, and protected by the supreme and
   universal Pastor; in accordance with the words of S. Gregory
   the Great: My honour is the honour of the whole Church. My
   honour is the firm strength of my Brethren, I am then truly
   honoured, when due honour is not denied to each of their
   number. Further, from this supreme power possessed by the
   Roman Pontiff of governing the Universal Church, it follows
   that he has the right of free communication with the Pastors
   of the whole Church, and with their flocks, that these may be
   taught and directed by him in the way of salvation. Wherefore
   we condemn and reject the opinions of those who hold that the
   communication between this supreme Head and the Pastors and
   their flocks can lawfully be impeded; or who represent this
   communication as subject to the will of the secular power, so
   as to maintain that whatever is done by the Apostolic See, or
   by its authority, cannot have force or value, unless it be
   confirmed by the assent of the secular power. And since by the
   divine right of Apostolic primacy, the Roman Pontiff is placed
   over the Universal Church, we further teach and declare that
   he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all
   causes, the decision of which belongs to the Church, recourse
   may be had to his tribunal: and that none may meddle with the
   judgment of the Apostolic See, the authority of which is
   greater than all other, nor can any lawfully depart from its
   judgment. Wherefore they depart from the right course who
   assert that it is lawful to appeal from the judgments of the
   Roman Pontiffs and an Œcumenical Council, as to an authority
   higher than that of the Roman Pontiff.
{2477}
   If then any shall say that the Roman Pontiff has the office
   merely of inspection or direction, and not full and supreme
   power of jurisdiction over the Universal Church, not alone in
   things which belong to faith and morals, but in those which
   relate to the discipline and government of the Church spread
   throughout the world; or who assert that he possesses merely
   the principal part, and not all the fulness of this supreme
   power; or that this power which he enjoys is not ordinary and
   immediate, both over each and all the Churches and over each
   and all the Pastors and the faithful; let him be anathema.

   CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman
   Pontiff:

   Moreover that the supreme power of teaching is also included
   in the Apostolic Primacy, which the Roman Pontiff, as
   successor of Peter, Prince of the Apostles, enjoys over the
   whole Church, this Holy See has always held, the perpetual
   practice of the Church attests, and Œcumenical Councils
   themselves have declared, especially those in which the East
   with the West met in the union of faith and charity. For the
   Fathers of the Fourth Council of Constantinople, following in
   the footsteps of their predecessors, gave forth this solemn
   profession: The first condition of salvation is to keep the
   rule of the true faith. And because the sentence of our Lord
   Jesus Christ cannot be passed by, who said: Thou art Peter,
   and upon this Rock I will build my Church, these things which
   have been said are approved by events, because in the
   Apostolic See the Catholic Religion and her holy solemn
   doctrine has always been kept immaculate. Desiring, therefore,
   not to be in the least degree separated from the faith and
   doctrine of that See, we hope that we may deserve to be in the
   one communion, which the Apostolic See preaches, in which is
   the entire and true solidity of the Christian religion. And,
   with the approval of the Second Council of Lyons, the Greeks
   professed that the Holy Roman Church enjoy supreme and full
   Primacy and preeminence over the whole Catholic Church, which
   it truly and humbly acknowledges that it has received with the
   plenitude of power from our Lord Himself in the person of
   blessed Peter, Prince or Head of the Apostles, whose successor
   the Roman Pontiff is; and as the Apostolic See is bound before
   all others to defend the truth of faith, so also if any
   questions regarding faith shall arise, they must be defined by
   its judgment. Finally, the Council of Florence defined: That
   the Roman Pontiff is the true Vicar of Christ, and the Head of
   the whole Church, and the Father and Teacher of all
   Christians; and that to him in blessed Peter was delivered by
   our Lord Jesus Christ the full power of feeding, ruling, and
   governing the whole Church. To satisfy this pastoral duty our
   predecessors ever made unwearied efforts that the salutary
   doctrine of Christ might be propagated among all the nations
   of the earth, and with equal care watched that it might be
   preserved sincere and pure where it had been received.
   Therefore the Bishops of the whole world, now singly, now
   assembled in synod, following the long-established custom of
   Churches, and the form of the ancient rule, sent word to this
   Apostolic See of those dangers which sprang up in matters of
   faith, that there especially the losses of faith might be
   repaired where faith cannot feel any defect. And the Roman
   Pontiffs, according to the exigencies of times and
   circumstances, sometimes assembling Œcumenical Councils, or
   asking for the mind of the Church scattered throughout the
   world, sometimes by particular Synods, sometimes using other
   helps which Divine Providence supplied, defined as to be held
   those things which with the help of God they had recognised as
   conformable with the Sacred Scriptures and Apostolic
   Traditions. For the Holy Spirit was not promised to the
   successors of Peter that under His revelation they might make
   known new doctrine, but that under His assistance they might
   scrupulously keep and faithfully expound the revelation or
   deposit of faith delivered through the Apostles. And, indeed,
   all the venerable Fathers have embraced, and the holy orthodox
   Doctors have venerated and followed, their Apostolic doctrine;
   knowing most fully that this See of holy Peter remains ever
   free from all blemish of error, according to the divine
   promise of the Lord our Saviour made to the Prince of His
   disciples: I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not, and
   thou, at length converted, confirm thy brethren. This gift,
   then, of truth and never-failing faith was conferred by Heaven
   upon Peter and his successors in this Chair, that they might
   perform their high office for the salvation of all; that the
   whole flock of Christ, kept away by them from the poisonous
   food of error, might be nourished with the pasture of heavenly
   doctrine; that the occasion of schism being removed the whole
   Church might be kept one, and, resting on its foundation,
   might stand firm against the gates of hell. But since in this
   very age, in which the salutary efficacy of the Apostolic
   office is even most of all required, not a few are found who
   take away from its authority, We judge it altogether necessary
   solemnly to assert the prerogative which the only-begotten Son
   of God vouchsafed to join with the supreme pastoral office.
   Therefore We, faithfully adhering to the tradition received
   from the beginning of the Christian faith, for the glory of
   God our Saviour, the exaltation of the Roman Catholic
   Religion, and the salvation of Christian people, with the
   approbation of the Sacred Council, teach and define that it is
   a dogma divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he
   speaks ex cathedrâ, that is, when in discharge of the office
   of Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, by virtue of his
   supreme Apostolic authority he defines a doctrine regarding
   faith or morals to be held by the Universal Church, by the
   divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, enjoys
   that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that
   His Church be provided for defining doctrine regarding faith
   or morals; and that therefore such definitions of the Roman
   Pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not from the
   consent of the Church. But if anyone—which may God avert
   —presume to contradict this Our definition; let him be
   anathema."

PAPACY: A. D. 1870.
   End of the Temporal Sovereignty.
   Rome made the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
   The Law of the Papal Guarantees.

   The events which extinguished the temporal sovereignty of the
   Pope and made Rome the capital of the Kingdom of Italy will be
   found narrated under ITALY: A. D. 1870. "The entry of the
   Italian troops into Rome, and its union to Italy … was
   acquiesced in by all the powers of Europe, both Protestant and
   Roman Catholic.
{2478}
   The French Government of National Defence,
   which had succeeded to power after the fall of the Second
   Empire, expressed through M. Jules Favre, the Minister of
   Foreign Affairs, its desire that the Italians should do what
   they liked, and avowed its sympathy with them. … The
   Austro-Hungarian Cabinet was asked by the Papal Court to
   protest against the occupation of Rome. To this the Imperial
   and Royal Government gave a direct refusal, alleging among
   other reasons that 'its excellent relations' with Italy, upon
   which it had 'cause to congratulate itself ever since
   reconciliation had been effected' prevented its acceding to
   the desire of the Vatican. … The Spanish Government of the
   Regency, which succeeded to that of Queen Isabella, adopted
   much the same line of conduct; it praised Signor
   Visconti-Venosta's circular, and spoke of the 'wise and
   prudent' measures it proposed to adopt with regard to the
   Pope. … Baron d'Anethan, at that time Prime Minister of
   Belgium, who was the leader of the conservative or clerical
   party in the country, admitted to the Italian Minister at
   Brussels: 'that speaking strictly, the temporal power was not,
   in truth, an indispensable necessity to the Holy See for the
   fulfilment of its mission in the world.' As to the course
   Belgium would take the Baron said —'If Italy has a territorial
   difficulty to discuss with the Holy See, that is a matter with
   which Belgium has nothing to do, and it would be to disown the
   principles on which our existence reposes if we expressed an
   opinion one way or the other on the subject.' … The Italian
   Chamber elected in March, 1867, was dissolved, and on the 5th
   December, 1870, the newly elected Parliament met in Florence
   for the last time. Among its members now sat those who
   represented Rome and the province, in which it is situated.
   The session of 1871 was occupied with the necessary
   arrangements for the transfer of the capital to Rome, and by
   the discussion of an act defining the position of the Pope in
   relation to the kingdom of Italy. The labours of Parliament
   resulted in the Law of the Papal Guarantees, which, after long
   and full debate in both Houses, received the royal assent on
   the 13th of May, 1871. Its provisions ran as follows:

   Article I.—The person of the Sovereign Pontiff is sacred and
   inviolable.

   Article II.—An attack (attentato) directed against the person
   of the Sovereign Pontiff, and any instigation to commit such
   attack, is punishable by the same penalties as those
   established in the case of an attack directed against the
   person of the king, or any instigation to commit such an
   attack. Offences and public insults committed directly against
   the person of the Pontiff by discourses, acts, or by the means
   indicated in the 1st article of the law on the press, are
   punishable by the penalties established by the 19th article of
   the same law. These crimes are liable to public action, and
   are within the jurisdiction of the court of assizes. The
   discussion of religious subjects is completely free.

   Article III.—The Italian Government renders throughout the
   territory of the kingdom royal honours to the Sovereign
   Pontiff, and maintains that pre-eminence of honour recognised
   as belonging to him by Catholic princes. The Sovereign Pontiff
   has power to keep up the usual number of guards attached to
   his person, and to the custody of the palaces, without
   prejudice to the obligations and duties resulting to such
   guards from the actual laws of the kingdom.

   Article IV.—The endowment of 3,225,000 francs (lire italiane)
   of yearly rental is retained in favour of the Holy See. With
   this sum, which is equal to that inscribed in the Roman
   balance-sheet under the title, 'Sacred Apostolic Palaces,
   Sacred College, Ecclesiastical Congregations, Secretary of
   State, and Foreign Diplomatic Office,' it is intended to
   provide for the maintenance of the Sovereign Pontiff, and for
   the various ecclesiastical wants of the Holy See for ordinary
   and extraordinary maintenance, and for the keeping of the
   apostolic palaces and their dependencies; for the pay,
   gratifications, and pensions of the guards of whom mention is
   made in the preceding article, and for those attached to the
   Pontifical Court, and for eventual expenses; also for the
   ordinary maintenance and care of the annexed museums and
   library, and for the pay, stipends, and pensions of those
   employed for that purpose. The endowment mentioned above shall
   be inscribed in the Great Book of the public debt, in form of
   perpetual and inalienable revenue, in the name of the Holy
   See; and during the time that the See is vacant, it shall
   continue to be paid, in order to meet all the needs of the
   Roman Church during that interval of time. The endowment shall
   remain exempt from any species of government, communal, or
   provincial tax; and it cannot be diminished in future, even in
   the case of the Italian Government resolving ultimately itself
   to assume the expenses of the museums and library.

   Article V.—The Sovereign Pontiff, besides the endowment
   established in the preceding article, will continue to have
   the use of the apostolic palaces of the Vatican and Lateran
   with all the edifices, gardens, and grounds annexed to and
   dependent on them, as well as the Villa of Castel Gondolfo
   with all its belongings and dependencies. The said palaces,
   villa, and annexes, like the museums, the library, and the art
   and archæological collections there existing, are inalienable,
   are exempt from every tax or impost, and from all
   expropriation on the ground of public utility.

   Article VI.—During the time in which the Holy See is vacant,
   no judiciary or political authority shall be able for any
   reason whatever to place any impediment or limit to the
   personal liberty of the cardinals. The Government provides
   that the meetings of the Conclave and of the Œcumenical
   Councils shall not be disturbed by any external violence.

   Article VII.—No official of the public authority, nor agent of
   the public forces, can in the exercise of his peculiar office
   enter into the palaces or localities of habitual residence or
   temporary stay of the Sovereign Pontiff, or in those in which
   are assembled a Conclave or Œcumenical Council, unless
   authorised by the Sovereign Pontiff, by the Conclave, or by
   the Council.

   Article VIII.—It is forbidden to proceed with visits,
   perquisitions, or seizures of papers, documents, books, or
   registers in the offices and pontifical congregations invested
   with purely spiritual functions.

   Article IX.—The Sovereign Pontiff is completely free to fulfil
   all the functions of his spiritual ministry, and to have
   affixed to the doors of the basilicas and churches of Rome all
   the acts of the said ministry.

{2479}

   Article X.—The ecclesiastics who, by reason of their office,
   participate in Rome in the sending forth of the acts of the
   spiritual ministry of the Holy See, are not subject on account
   of those acts to any molestation, investigation, or act of
   magistracy, on the part of the public authorities. Every
   stranger invested with ecclesiastical office in Rome enjoys
   the personal guarantees belonging to Italian citizens in
   virtue of the laws of the kingdom.

   Article XI.—The envoys of foreign governments to the Holy See
   enjoy in the kingdom all the prerogatives and immunities which
   belong to diplomatic agents, according to international right.
   To offences against them are extended the penalties inflicted
   for offences against the envoys of foreign powers accredited
   to the Italian Government. To the envoys of the Holy See to
   foreign Governments are assured throughout the territory of
   the kingdom the accustomed prerogatives and immunities,
   according to the same (international) right, in going to and
   from the place of their mission.

   Article XII.—The Supreme Pontiff corresponds freely with the
   Episcopate and with all the Catholic world without any
   interference whatever on the part of the Italian Government.
   To such end he has the faculty of establishing in the Vatican,
   or any other of his residences, postal and telegraphic offices
   worked by clerks of his own appointment. The Pontifical
   post-office will be able to correspond directly, by means of
   sealed packets, with the post-offices of foreign
   administrations, or remit its own correspondence to the
   Italian post-offices. In both cases the transport of
   despatches or correspondence furnished with the official
   Pontifical stamp will be exempt from every tax or expense as
   regards Italian territory. The couriers sent out in the name
   of the Supreme Pontiff are placed on the same footing in the
   kingdom, as the cabinet couriers or those of foreign
   government. The Pontifical telegraphic office will be placed
   in communication with the network of telegraphic lines of the
   kingdom, at the expense of the State. Telegrams transmitted by
   the said office with the authorised designation of
   'Pontifical' will be received and transmitted with the
   privileges established for telegrams of State, and with the
   exemption in the kingdom from every tax. The same advantages
   will be enjoyed by the telegrams of the Sovereign Pontiff or
   those which, signed by his order and furnished with the stamp
   of the Holy See, shall be presented to any telegraphic office
   in the kingdom. Telegrams directed to the Sovereign Pontiff
   shall be exempt from charges upon those who send them.

   Article XIII.—In the city of Rome and in the six suburban sees
   the seminaries, academies, colleges, and other Catholic
   institutions founded for the education and culture of
   ecclesiastics, shall continue to depend only on the Holy See,
   without any interference of the scholastic authorities of the
   kingdom.

   Article XIV.—Every special restriction of the exercise of the
   right of meeting on the part of the members of the Catholic
   clergy is abolished.

   Article XV.—The Government renounces its right of apostolic
   legateship (legazia apostolica) in Sicily, and also its right,
   throughout the kingdom, of nomination or presentation in the
   collation of the greater benefices. The bishops shall not be
   required to make oath of allegiance to the king. The greater
   and lesser benefices cannot be conferred except on citizens of
   the kingdom, save in the case of the city of Rome, and of the
   suburban sees. No innovation is made touching the presentation
   to benefices under royal patronage.

   Article XVI.—The royal 'exequatur' and 'placet,' and every
   other form of Government assent for the publication and
   execution of acts of ecclesiastical authority, are abolished.
   However, until such time as may be otherwise provided in the
   special law of which Art. XVIII. speaks, the acts of these
   (ecclesiastical) authorities which concern the destination of
   ecclesiastical property and the provisions of the major and
   minor benefices, excepting those of the city of Rome and the
   suburban sees, remain subject to the royal 'exequatur' and
   'placet.' The enactments of the civil law with regard to the
   creation and to the modes of existence of ecclesiastical
   institutions and of their property remain unaltered.

   Article XVII.—In matters spiritual and of spiritual
   discipline, no appeal is admitted against acts of the
   ecclesiastical authorities, nor is any aid on the part of the
   civil authority recognised as due to such acts, nor is it
   accorded to them. The recognising of the judicial effects, in
   these as in every other act of these (ecclesiastical)
   authorities, rests with the civil jurisdiction. However, such
   acts are without effect if contrary to the laws of the State,
   or to public order, or if damaging to private rights, and are
   subjected to the penal laws if they constitute a crime.

   Article XVIII.—An ulterior law will provide for the
   reorganisation, the preservation, and the administration of
   the ecclesiastical property of the kingdom.

   Article XIX.—As regards all matters which form part of the
   present law, everything now existing, in so far as it may be
   contrary to this law, ceases to have effect.

   The object of this law was to carry out still further than had
   yet been done the principle of a 'free Church in a free
   State,' by giving the Church unfettered power in all spiritual
   matters, while placing all temporal power in the hands of the
   State. … The Pope and his advisers simply protested against
   all that was done. Pius IX. shut himself up in the Vatican and
   declared himself a prisoner. In the meanwhile the practical
   transfer of the capital from Florence was effected."

      J. W. Probyn,
      Italy, 1815 to 1878,
      chapter 11.

   The attitude towards the Italian Government assumed by the
   Papal Court in 1870, and since maintained, is indicated by the
   following, quoted from a work written in sympathy with it:
   "Pius IX. had refused to treat with or in any way recognize
   the new masters of Rome. The Law of Guarantees adopted by the
   Italian Parliament granted him a revenue in compensation for
   the broad territories of which he had been despoiled. He
   refused to touch a single lira of it, and preferred to rely
   upon the generosity of his children in every land, rather than
   to become the pensioner of those who had stripped him of his
   civil sovereignty. His last years were spent within the
   boundaries of the Vatican palace. He could not have ventured
   to appear publicly in the city without exposing himself to the
   insults of the mob on the one hand, or on the other calling
   forth demonstrations of loyalty, which would have been made
   the pretext for stern military repression.
{2480}
   Nor could he have accepted in the streets of Rome the
   protection of the agents of that very power against whose
   presence in the city he had never ceased to protest. Thus it
   was that Pius IX. became, practically, a prisoner in his own
   palace of the Vatican. He had not long to wait for evidence of
   the utter hollowness of the so-called Law of Guarantees. The
   extension to Rome of the law suppressing the religious orders,
   the seizure of the Roman College, the project for the
   expropriation of the property of the Propaganda itself, were
   so many proofs of the spirit in which the new rulers of Rome
   interpreted their pledges, that the change of government
   should not in any way prejudice the Church or the Holy See in
   its administration of the Church. … The very misfortunes and
   difficulties of the Holy See drew closer the bonds that united
   the Catholic world to its centre. The Vatican became a centre
   of pilgrimage to an extent that it had never been before in
   all its long history, and this movement begun under Pius IX.
   has continued and gathered strength under Leo XIII., until at
   length it has provoked the actively hostile opposition of the
   intruded government. Twice during his last years Pius IX.
   found himself the centre of a world-wide demonstration of
   loyalty and affection, first on June 16th, 1871, when he
   celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his coronation, the
   first of all the Popes who had ever reigned beyond the 'years
   of Peter;' and again on June 3rd, 1877, when, surrounded by
   the bishops and pilgrims of all nations, he kept the jubilee
   of his episcopal consecration. … Pius IX. was destined to
   outlive Victor Emmanuel, as he had outlived Napoleon III. …
   Victor Emmanuel died on January 9th, Pius IX. on February 6th
   [1879]. … It had been the hope of the Revolution that, however
   stubbornly Pius IX. might refuse truce or compromise with the
   new order of things, his successor would prove to be a man of
   more yielding disposition. The death of the Pope had occurred
   somewhat unexpectedly. Though he had been ill in the autumn of
   1877, at the New Year he seemed to have recovered, and there
   was every expectation that his life would be prolonged for at
   least some months. The news of his death came at a moment when
   the Italian Government was fully occupied with the changes
   that followed the accession of a new king, and when the
   diplomatists of Europe were more interested in the settlement
   of the conditions of peace between France and Germany than in
   schemes for influencing the conclave. Before the enemies of
   the Church had time to concert any hostile plans of action,
   the cardinals had assembled at the Vatican and had chosen as
   Supreme Pontiff, Cardinal Pecci, the Archbishop of Perugia. He
   assumed the name of Leo XIII., a name now honoured not only
   within the Catholic Church, but throughout the whole civilized
   world. … The first public utterances of the new Pope shattered
   the hopes of the usurpers. He had taken up the standard of the
   Church's rights from the hands of his predecessor, and he
   showed himself as uncompromising as ever Pius IX. had been on
   the question of the independence of the Holy See, and its
   effective guarantee in the Civil Sovereignty of the Supreme
   Pontiff. The hope that the Roman Question would be solved by a
   surrender on the part of Leo XIII. of all that Pius IX. had
   contended for, has been long since abandoned by even the most
   optimist of the Italian party."

      Chevalier O'Clery,
      The Making of Italy,
      chapter 26.

PAPACY: A. D. 1873-1887.
   The Culturkampf in Germany.
   The "May Laws" and their repeal.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1873-1887.

PAPACY: A. D. 1878.
   Election of Leo XIII.

PAPACY: A. D. 1891.
   Disestablishment of the Church in Brazil.

      See BRAZIL: A. D. 1889-1891.

PAPACY: A. D. 1892.
   Mission of an Apostolic Delegate to
   the United States of America.

   In October, 1892, Monsignor Francisco Satolli arrived in the
   United States, commissioned by the Pope as "Apostolic
   Delegate," with powers described in the following terms: "'We
   command all whom it concerns,' says the Head of the Church,
   'to recognize in you, as Apostolic Delegate, the supreme power
   of the delegating Pontiff; we command that they give you aid,
   concurrence and obedience in all things; that they receive
   with reverence your salutary admonitions and orders.'"

      Forum,
      May, 1893 (volume 15, page 278).

   ----------PAPACY:End--------

PAPAGOS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PIMAN FAMILY, and PUEBLOS.

PAPAL GUARANTEES, Law of the.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1870.

PAPAL STATES.

      See
      STATES OF THE CHURCH;
      also PAPACY.

PAPER BLOCKADE.

      See BLOCKADE, PAPER.

PAPER MONEY.

      See MONEY AND BANKING.

PAPHLAGONIANS, The.

   A people who anciently inhabited the southern coast of the
   Euxine, from the mouth of the Kizil-Irmak to Cape Baba.

      G. Rawlinson,
      Five Great Monarchies: Persia,
      chapter 1.

   Paphlagonia formed part, in succession, of the dominions of
   Lydia, Persia, Pontus, Bithynia, and Rome, but was often
   governed by local princes.

PAPIN, Inventions of.

      See STEAM ENGINE: THE BEGINNINGS.

PAPINEAU REBELLION, The.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1837-1838.

PAPUANS, The.

   "In contrast to the Polynesians, both in color of skin and
   shape of skull, are the crispy-haired black dolichocephalic
   Papuans, whose centre is in the large and little-known island
   of New Guinea, from whence they spread over the neighboring
   islands to the southeast, the Louisades, New Caledonia, New
   Britain, Solomon Islands, Queen Charlotte Islands, New
   Hebrides, Loyalty, and Fiji Islands. Turning now to the
   northward, a similar black race is found in the Eta or Ita of
   the Philippenes (Negritos of the Spanish), whom Meyer, Semper,
   Peschel, and Hellwald believe to be closely allied to the true
   Papuan type; and in the interiors of Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes,
   and Gilolo, and in the mountains of Malacca, and at last in
   the Andaman Islands, we find peoples closely related; and
   following Peschel, we may divide the whole of the eastern
   blacks (excepting of course the Australians) into Asiatic and
   Australasian Papuans; the latter inhabiting New Guinea and the
   islands mentioned to the south and east. In other of the
   islands of the South Seas traces of a black race are to be
   found, but so mingled with Polynesian and Malay as to render
   them fit subjects for treatment under the chapters on those
   races.
{2481}
   The name Papua comes from the Malay word papuwah,
   crispy-haired, and is the name which the Malays apply to their
   black neighbors. In New Guinea, the centre of the Papuans, the
   name is not known, nor have the different tribes any common
   name for themselves. In body, conformation of skull, and in
   genera] appearance the Papuans present a very close
   resemblance to the African negroes, and afford a strong
   contrast to the neighboring Polynesians."

      J. S. Kingsley, editor,
      The Standard [now called The Riverside], Natural History,
      volume 6, page 42.

      ALSO IN:
      A. R. Wallace,
      The Malay Archipelago,
      chapter 40.

PARABOLANI OF ALEXANDRIA, The.

   "The 'parabolani' of Alexandria were a charitable corporation,
   instituted during the plague of Gallienus, to visit the sick
   and to bury the dead. They gradually enlarged, abused, and
   sold the privileges of their order. Their outrageous conduct
   under the reign of Cyril [as patriarch of Alexandria] provoked
   the emperor to deprive the patriarch of their nomination and
   to restrain their number to five or six hundred. But these
   restraints were transient and ineffectual."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 47, foot-note.

      ALSO IN:
      J. Bingham,
      Antiquities of the Christian Church,
      book 3, chapter 9.

PARACELSUS.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 16TH CENTURY.

   ----------PARAGUAY: Start--------

PARAGUAY:
   The name.

   "De Azara tells us that the river Paraguay derives its name
   from the Payaguas tribe of Indians, who were the earliest
   navigators on its waters. Some writers deduce the origin of
   its title from an Indian cacique, called Paraguaio, but Azara
   says, this latter word has no signification in any known idiom
   of the Indians, and moreover there is no record of a cacique
   ever having borne that name."

      T. J. Hutchinson,
      The Parana,
      page 44.

PARAGUAY:
   The aboriginal inhabitants.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES, and TUPI.

PARAGUAY: A. D. 1515-1557.
   Discovery and exploration of La Plata.
   Settlement and early years of the peculiar colony.

   The Rio de la Plata, or River of Silver, was discovered in
   1515 by the Spanish explorer, Juan de Solis, who landed
   incautiously and was killed by the natives. In 1519 this
   "Sweet Sea," as Solis called it, was visited again by
   Magellan, in the course of the voyage which made known the
   great strait which bears his name. The first, however, to
   ascend the important river for any distance, and to attempt
   the establishing of Spanish settlements upon it, was Sebastian
   Cabot, in 1526, after he had become chief pilot to the king of
   Spain. He sailed up the majestic stream to the junction of the
   Paraguay and the Parana, and then explored both channels, in
   turn, for long distances beyond. "Cabot passed the following
   two years in friendly relations with the Guaranis, in whose
   silver ornaments originated the name of La Plata, and thence
   of the Argentine Republic, the name having been applied by
   Cabot to the stream now called the Paraguay. That able and
   sagacious man now sent to Spain two of his most trusted
   followers with an account of Paraguay and its resources, and
   to seek the authority and reinforcements requisite for their
   acquisition. Their request was favourably received, but so
   tardily acted on that in despair the distinguished navigator
   quitted the region of his discoveries after a delay of five
   years." In 1534, the enterprise abandoned by Cabot was taken
   up by a wealthy Spanish courtier, Don Pedro de Mendoza, who
   received large powers, and who fitted out an expedition of
   2,000 men, with 100 horses, taking with him eight priests.
   Proceeding but a hundred miles up the Plata, Mendoza founded a
   town on its southwestern shore, which, in compliment to the
   fine climate of the region, he named Buenos Ayres. As long as
   they kept at peace with the natives, these adventurers fared
   well; but when war broke out, as it did ere long, they were
   reduced to great straits for food. Mendoza, broken down with
   disappointments and hardships, resigned his powers to his
   lieutenant, Ayolas, and sailed for home, but died on the way.
   Ayolas, with part of his followers, ascended to a point on the
   Paraguay some distance above its junction with the Parana,
   where he founded a new city, calling it Asuncion. This was in
   1537; and Ayolas perished that same year in an attempt to make
   his way overland to Peru. The survivors of the colony were
   left in command of an officer named Irala, who proved to be a
   most capable man. The settlement at Buenos Ayres was abandoned
   and all concentrated at Asuncion, where they numbered 600
   souls. In 1542 they were joined by a new party of 400
   adventurers from Spain, who came out with Cabeza de Vaca—a
   hero of strange adventures in Florida—now appointed Adelantado
   of La Plata. Cabeza de Vaca had landed with part of his forces
   on the Brazilian coast, at a point eastward from Asuncion, and
   boldly marched across country, making an important exploration
   and establishing friendly relations with the Guaranis. But he
   was not successful in his government, and the discontented
   colonists summarily deposed him, shipping him off to Spain,
   with charges against him, and restoring Irala to the command
   of their affairs. This irregularity seems to have been winked
   at by the home authorities, and Irala was scarcely interfered
   with for a number of years. "The favourable reports which had
   reached Spain of the climate and capabilities of Paraguay were
   such as to divert thither many emigrants who would otherwise
   have turned their faces toward Mexico or Peru. It was the
   constant endeavour of Irala to level the distinctions which
   separated the Spaniards from the natives and to encourage
   intermarriages between them. This policy, in the course of
   time, led to a marked result,—namely, to that singular
   combination of outward civilization and of primitive
   simplicity which was to be found in the modern Paraguayan race
   until it was annihilated under the younger Lopez. … Irala, in
   fact, created a nation. The colony under his administration
   became numerous and wealthy. … He was the life and soul of the
   colony, and his death, which occurred in 1557 at the village
   of Ita, near Asuncion, when he had attained the age of 70
   years, was lamented alike by Spaniards and Guaranis. … The
   Spaniards brought with them few if any women, and if a certain
   proportion of Spanish ladies arrived later they were not in
   sufficient numbers to affect the general rule, which was that
   the Spanish settlers were allied to Guarani wives. Thus was
   formed the modern mixed Paraguayan race. In a very short time,
   therefore, by means of the ties of relationship, a strong
   sympathy grew up between the Spaniards and the Guaranis, or
   those of Guarani blood, and a recognition of this fact formed
   the basis of the plan of government founded by the great
   Irala.
{2482}
   The lot of the natives of Paraguay, as compared with the
   natives of the other Spanish dominions in the New World, was
   far from being a hard one. There were no mines to work. The
   Spaniards came there to settle, rather than to amass fortunes
   with which to return to Europe. The country was abundantly
   fertile, and such wealth as the Spaniards might amass
   consisted in the produce of their fields or the increase of
   their herds, which were amply sufficient to support them.
   Consequently, all they required of the natives, for the most
   part, was a moderate amount of service as labourers or as
   herdsmen."

      R. G. Watson,
      Spanish and Portuguese South America,
      volume 1, chapters 5 and 16.

      ALSO IN:
      R. Southey,
      History of Brazil,
      volume 1, chapters 2-3, 5-7, and 11.

      R. Biddle,
      Memoir of Sebastian Cabot,
      chapters 16-23.

      Father Charlevoix,
      History of Paraguay,
      books 1-3.

PARAGUAY: A. D. 1608-1873.
   The rule of the Jesuits.
   The Dictatorship of Dr. Francia and of Lopez I. and Lopez II.
   Disastrous War with Brazil.

   "Under Spanish rule, from the early part of the 16th century
   as a remote dependency of Peru, and subsequently of Buenos
   Ayres, Paraguay had been almost entirely abandoned to the
   Jesuits [see JESUITS: A. D, 1542-1649] as a virgin ground on
   which to try the experiment of their idea of a theocratic
   government. The Loyola Brethren, first brought in in 1608,
   baptized the Indian tribes, built towns, founded missions [and
   communities of converts called Reductions, meaning that they
   had been reduced into the Christian faith], gave the tamed
   savages pacific, industrious, and passively obedient habits,
   married them by wholesale, bidding the youth of the two sexes
   stand up in opposite rows, and saving them the trouble of a
   choice by pointing out to every Jack his Jenny; drilled and
   marshalled them to their daily tasks in processions and at the
   sound of the church bells, headed by holy images; and in their
   leisure hours amused them with Church ceremonies and any
   amount of music and dancing and merry-making. They allowed
   each family a patch of ground and a grove of banana and other
   fruit trees for their sustenance, while they claimed the whole
   bulk of the land for themselves as 'God's patrimony,' bidding
   those well-disciplined devotees save their souls by slaving
   with their bodies in behalf of their ghostly masters and
   instructors. With the whole labouring population under
   control, these holy men soon waxed so strong as to awe into
   subjection the few white settlers whose estates dated from the
   conquest; and by degrees, extending their sway from the
   country into the towns, and even into the capital, Asuncion,
   they set themselves above all civil and ecclesiastical
   authority, snubbing the intendente of the province and
   worrying the bishop of the diocese. Driven away by a fresh
   outburst of popular passions in 1731, and brought back four
   years later by the strong hand of the Spanish Government, they
   made common cause with it, truckled to the lay powers whom
   they had set at naught, and shared with them the good things
   which they had at first enjoyed undivided. All this till the
   time of the general crusade of the European powers against
   their order, when they had to depart from Paraguay as well as
   from all other Spanish dominions in 1767. In the early part of
   the present century, when the domestic calamities of Spain
   determined a general collapse of her power in the American
   colonies, Paraguay raised its cry for independence, and
   constituted itself into a separate Republic in 1811. But,
   although the party of emancipation was the strongest and
   seized the reins of government, there were still many among
   the citizens who clung to their connection with the mother
   country, and these were known as Peninsulares; and there were
   many more who favoured the scheme of a federal union of
   Paraguay with the Republics of the Plate, and these went by
   the name of Porteños, owing to the importance they attached to
   the dependence of their country on Buenos Ayres (the puerto or
   harbour), the only outlet as well as the natural head of the
   projected confederation.

      See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

   All these dissenters were soon disposed of by the ruthless
   energy of one man, Juan Gaspar Rodriguez, known under the name
   of Dr. Francia. This man, the son of a Mamaluco, or Brazilian
   half-caste, with Indian blood in his veins, a man of stern,
   gloomy and truculent character, with a mixture of scepticism
   and stoicism, was one of those grim, yet grotesque, heroes
   according to Mr. Carlyle's heart whom it is now the fashion to
   call 'Saviours of society.' A Doctor of Divinity, issuing from
   the Jesuit seminary at Cordova, but practising law at
   Asuncion, he made his way from the Municipal Council to the
   Consular dignity of the New Republic, and assumed a
   Dictatorship, which laid the country at his discretion …
   (1814-1840), wielding the most unbounded power till his death,
   at the advanced age of 83. With a view, or under pretext of
   stifling discontent and baffling conspiracy within and warding
   off intrigue or aggression from without, he rid himself of his
   colleagues, rivals, and opponents, by wholesale executions,
   imprisonments, proscriptions, and confiscations, and raised a
   kind of Chinese wall all round the Paraguayan territory,
   depriving it of all trade or intercourse, and allowing no man
   to enter or quit his dominions without an express permission
   from himself. Francia's absolutism was a monomania, though
   there was something like method in his madness. There were
   faction and civil strife and military rule in Paraguay for
   about a twelvemonth after his death. In the end, a new
   Constitution, new Consuls—one of whom, Carlos Antonio Lopez, a
   lawyer, took upon himself to modify the Charter in a strictly
   despotic sense, had himself elected President, first for ten
   years, then for three, and again for ten more, managing thus
   to reign alone and supreme for 21 years (1841-1862). On his
   demise he bequeathed the Vice-Presidency to his son, Francisco
   Solano Lopez, whom he had already trusted with the command of
   all the forces, and who had no difficulty in having himself
   appointed President for life in an Assembly where there was
   only one negative vote. The rule of Francia in his later
   years, and that of the first Lopez throughout his reign,
   though tyrannical and economically improvident, had not been
   altogether unfavourable to the development of public
   prosperity. The population, which was only 97,480 in 1796 and
   400,000 in 1825, had risen to 1,337,431 at the census of 1857.
   Paraguay had then a revenue of 12,441,323f., no debt, no paper
   money, and the treasury was so full as to enable Lopez II. to
   muster an army of 62,000 men, with 200 pieces of artillery, in
   the field and in his fortresses.
{2483}
   Armed with this two-edged weapon, the new despot, whose
   perverse and violent temper bordered on insanity, corrupted by
   several years' dissipation in Paris, and swayed by the
   influence of a strong and evil-minded woman, flattered also by
   the skill he fancied he had shown when he played at soldiers
   as his father's general in early youth, had come to look upon
   himself as a second Napoleon, and allowed himself no rest till
   he had picked a quarrel with all his neighbours and engaged in
   a war with Brazil and with the Republics of the Plate, which
   lasted five years (1865-1870).

      See BRAZIL: A. D. 1825-1865.

   At the end of it nearly the whole of the male population had
   been led like sheep to the slaughter; and the tyrant himself
   died 'in the last ditch,' not indeed fighting like a man, but
   killed like a dog when his flight was cut off, and not before
   he had sacrificed 100,000 of his combatants, doomed to
   starvation, sickness, and unutterable hardship a great many of
   the scattered and houseless population (400,000, as it is
   calculated), and so ruined the country that the census of 1873
   only gave 221,079 souls, of whom the females far more than
   doubled the males."

      A. Gallenga,
      South America,
      chapter 16.

      ALSO IN:
      Father Charlevoix,
      History of Paraguay.

      J. R. Rengger and Longchamps,
      The Reign of Dr. Francia.

      T. Carlyle,
      Dr. Francia
      (Essays, volume 6).

      C. A. Washburn,
      History of Paraguay.

      R. F. Burton,
      Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay.

      T. J. Page,
      La Plata, the Argentine Confederation and Paraguay,
      chapters 27-30.

      T. Griesinger,
      The Jesuits,
      book 2, chapter 1 (volume 1).

      J. E. Darras,
      General History of the Catholic Church,
      period 7, chapter 7 (volume 4).

PARAGUAY: A. D. 1870-1894.
   The Republic under a new Constitution.

   Since the death of Lopez, the republic of Paraguay has enjoyed
   a peaceful, uneventful history and has made fair progress in
   recovery from its prostration. The Brazilian army of
   occupation was withdrawn in 1876. Under a new constitution,
   the executive authority is entrusted to a president, elected
   for four years, and the legislative to a congress of two
   houses, senate and deputies. Don Juan G. Gonzales entered, in
   1890, upon a presidential term which expires in 1894.

   ----------PARAGUAY: End--------

PARALI, The.

      See ATHENS: B. C. 594.

PARALUS, The.

   The official vessel of the ancient Athenian government, for
   the conveyance of despatches and other official service.

PARASANG, The.

   The parasang was an ancient Persian measure of distance, about
   which there is no certain knowledge. Xenophon and Herodotus
   represented it as equivalent to 30 Greek stadia; but Strabo
   regarded it as being of variable length. Modern opinion seems
   to incline toward agreement with Strabo, and to conclude that
   the parasang was a merely rough estimate of distance,
   averaging, according to computations by Colonel Chesney and
   others, something less than three geographical miles. The
   modern farsang or farsakh of Persia is likewise an estimated
   distance, which generally, however, overruns three
   geographical miles.

      E. H. Bunbury,
      History of Ancient Geography,
      chapter 10, note B (volume 1).

PARAWIANAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

PARICANIANS, The.

   The name given by Herodotus to a people who anciently occupied
   the territory of modern Baluchistan.

      G. Rawlinson,
      Five Great Monarchies, Persia,
      chapter 1.

PARILIA,
PULILIA, The.

   The anniversary of the foundation of Rome, originally a
   shepherds' festival. It was celebrated on the 21st of April.

      C. Merivale,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 21, with foot-note.

   ----------PARIS: Start--------

PARIS:
   The beginning.

   A small island in the Seine, which now forms an almost
   insignificant part of the great French capital, was the site
   of a rude town called Lutetia, or Luketia, or Lucotecia, when
   Cæsar extended the dominion of Rome over that part of Gaul. It
   was the chief town or stronghold of the Parisii, one of the
   minor tribes of the Gallic people, who were under the
   protection of the more powerful Senones and who occupied but a
   small territory. They were engaged in river traffic on the
   Seine and seem to have been prosperous, then and afterwards.
   "Strabo calls this p]ace Lucototia; Ptolemy, Lucotecia;
   Julian, Luketia; Ammianus calls it at first Lutetia, and
   afterward Parisii, from the name of the people. It is not
   known when nor why the designation was changed, but it is
   supposed to have been changed during the reign of Julian.
   Three laws in the Theodosian Code, referred to Valentinian and
   Valens, for the year 365, bear date at Parisii, and since then
   this name has been preserved in all the histories and public
   records."

      P. Godwin,
      History of France: Ancient Gaul,
      book 2, chapter 7, note.

      See GAUL: B. C. 58-51.

PARIS:
   Julian's residence.

   Before Julian ("the Apostate") became emperor, while, as Cæsar
   (355-361), he governed Gaul, his favorite residence, when not
   in camp or in the field, was at the city of the Parisii, which
   he called his "dear Luketia." The change of name to Parisii
   (whence resulted the modern name of Paris) is supposed to have
   taken place during his subsequent reign. "Commanding the
   fruitful valleys of the Seine, the Marne, and the Oise, the
   earliest occupants were merchants and boatmen, who conducted
   the trade of the rivers, and as early as the reign of Tiberius
   had formed a powerful corporation. During the revolts of the
   Bagauds in the third century, it acquired an unhappy celebrity
   as the stronghold from which they harassed the peace of the
   surrounding region. Subsequently, when the advances of the
   Germans drove the government from Trèves, the emperors
   selected the town of the Parisii as a more secure position.
   They built a palace there, and an entrenched camp for the
   soldiers; and very soon afterward several of those aqueducts
   and amphitheatres which were inseparable accompaniments of
   Roman life. It was in that palace, which the traveller still
   regards with curiosity in those mouldering remains of it known
   as the 'Palais des Thermes,' that Julian found his favorite
   residence."

      P. Godwin,
      History of France: Ancient Gaul,
      book 2, chapter 7.

PARIS:
   The capital of Clovis.

   Clovis, the Frank conqueror—founder of the kingdom of the
   united Frank tribes in Gaul—fixed his residence first at
   Soissons [486], after he had overthrown Syagrius. "He
   afterwards chose Paris for his abode, where he built a church
   dedicated to the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul. But the
   epoch at which that town passed into his power is uncertain."

      J. C. L. de Sismondi,
      The French under the Merovingians,
      chapter 5.

{2484}

PARIS: A. D. 511-752.
   Under the Merovingians.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 511-752.

PARIS: A. D. 845.
   Sacked by the Normans.

   "France was heavily afflicted: a fearfully cold year was
   followed by another still colder and more inclement. The North
   wind blew incessantly all through the Winter, all through the
   pale and leafless Spring. The roots of the vines were perished
   by the frost—the wolves starved out of their forests, even in
   Aquitaine. … Meanwhile the Danish hosts were in bright
   activity. Regner Lodbrok and his fellows fitted out their
   fleet, ten times twelve dragons of the sea. Early in the bleak
   Spring they sailed, and the stout-built vessels ploughed
   cheerily through the crashing ice on the heaving Seine. …
   Rouen dared not offer any opposition. The Northmen quietly
   occupied the City: we apprehend that some knots or bands of
   the Northmen began even now to domicile themselves there, it
   being scarcely possible to account for the condition of
   Normandy under Rollo otherwise than by the supposition, that
   the country had long previously received a considerable Danish
   population. Paris, the point to which the Northmen were
   advancing by land and water, was the key of France, properly
   so–called. Paris taken, the Seine would become a Danish river:
   Paris defended, the Danes might be restrained, perhaps
   expelled. The Capetian 'Duchy of France,' not yet created by
   any act of State, was beginning to be formed through the
   increasing influence of the future Capital. … Fierce as the
   Northmen generally were, they exceeded their usual ferocity. …
   With such panic were the Franks stricken, that they gave
   themselves up for lost. Paris island, Paris river, Paris
   bridges, Paris towers, were singularly defensible: the
   Palaisdes-Thermes, the monasteries, were as so many castles.
   Had the inhabitants, for their own sakes, co-operated with
   Charles-le-Chauve [who had stationed himself with a small army
   at Saint-Denis], the retreat of the Danes would have been
   entirely cut off; but they were palsied in mind and body;
   neither thought of resistance nor attempted resistance, and
   abandoned themselves to despair. On Easter Eve [March 28, 845]
   the Danes entered Paris. … The priests and clerks deserted
   their churches: the monks fled, bearing with them their
   shrines: soldiers, citizens and sailors abandoned their
   fortresses, dwellings and vessels: the great gate was left
   open, Paris emptied of her inhabitants, the city a solitude.
   The Danes hied at once to the untenanted monasteries: all
   valuable objects had been removed or concealed, but the
   Northmen employed themselves after their fashion. In the
   church of Saint-Germain-des-pres, they swarmed up the pillars
   and galleries, and pulled the roof to pieces: the larchen
   beams being sought as excellent ship-timber. In the city,
   generally, they did not commit much devastation. They lodged
   themselves in the empty houses, and plundered all the
   moveables. … The Franks did not make any attempt to attack or
   dislodge the enemy, but a more efficient power compelled the
   Danes to retire from the city; disease raged among them,
   dysentery—a complaint frequently noticed, probably occasioned
   by their inordinate potations of the country-wine." Under
   these circumstances, Regner Lodbrok consented to quit Paris on
   receiving 7,000 pounds of silver,—a sum reckoned to be
   equivalent to 520,000 livres. "This was the first Danegeld
   paid by France, an unhappy precedent, and yet unavoidable: the
   pusillanimity of his subjects compelled Charles to adopt this
   disgraceful compromise."

      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      C. F. Keary,
      The Vikings in Western Christendom,
      chapter 9.

PARIS: A. D. 857.-861.
   Twice ravaged by the Northmen.

   "The Seine as well as the future Duchy of France being laid
   open to the Northmen [A. D. 857], Paris, partially recovered
   from Regner Lodbrok's invasion, was assailed with more fell
   intent. The surrounding districts were ravaged, and the great
   monasteries, heretofore sacked, were now destroyed. Only three
   churches were found standing—Saint-Denis,
   Saint-Germain-des-près, and Saint-Etienne or Notre-Dame —these
   having redeemed themselves by contributions to the enemy; but
   Saint-Denis made a bad bargain. The Northmen did not hold to
   their contract, or another company of pirates did not consider
   it as binding: the monastery was burnt to a shell, and a most
   heavy ransom paid for the liberation of Abbot Louis,
   Charlemagne's grandson by his daughter Rothaida.
   Sainte-Genevieve suffered most severely amongst all; and the
   pristine beauty of the structure rendered the calamity more
   conspicuous and the distress more poignant. During three
   centuries the desolated grandeur of the shattered ruins
   continued to excite sorrow and dread. … Amongst the calamities
   of the times, the destruction of the Parisian monasteries
   seems to have worked peculiarly on the imagination." After
   this destructive visitation, the city had rest for only three
   years. In 861 a fresh horde of Danish pirates, first harrying
   the English coast and burning Winchester, swept then across
   the channel and swarmed over the country from Scheldt to
   Seine. Amiens, Nimeguen, Bayeux and Terouenne were all taken,
   on the way, and once more on Easter Day (April 6, 861) the
   ruthless savages of the North entered Paris.
   Saint-Germain-des-près, spared formerly, was now set on fire,
   and the city was stripped of its movable goods. King Charles
   the Bald met the enemy on this occasion, as before, with
   bribes, gave a fief to Jarl Welland, the Danish leader, and
   presently got him settled in the country as a baptized
   Christian and a vassal.

      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

PARIS: A. D. 885-886.
   The great siege by the Northmen.

   "In November, 885, under the reign of Charles the Fat, after
   having, for more than forty years, irregularly ravaged France,
   they [the Northmen] resolved to unite their forces in order at
   length to obtain possession of Paris, whose outskirts they had
   so often pillaged without having been able to enter the heart
   of the place, in the Ile de la Cité, which had originally been
   and still was the real Paris. Two bodies of troops were set in
   motion; one, under the command of Rollo, who was already
   famous amongst his comrades, marched on Rouen; the other went
   right up the course of the Seine, under the orders of
   Siegfried, whom the Northmen called their king. Rollo took
   Rouen, and pushed on at once for Paris. …
{2485}
   On the 25th of November, 885, all the forces of the Northmen
   formed a junction before Paris; 700 huge barks covered two
   leagues of the Seine, bringing, it is said, more than 30,000
   men. The chieftains were astonished at sight of the new
   fortifications of the city, a double wall of circumvallation,
   the bridges crowned with towers, and in the environs the
   ramparts of the abbeys of St. Denis and St. Germain solidly
   rebuilt. … Paris had for defenders two heroes, one of the
   Church and the other of the Empire [Bishop Gozlin, and Eudes,
   lately made Count of Paris]. … The siege lasted thirteen
   months, whiles pushed vigorously forward, with eight several
   assaults; whiles maintained by close investment. … The bishop,
   Gozlin, died during the siege. Count Eudes quitted Paris for a
   time to go and beg aid of the emperor; but the Parisians soon
   saw him reappear on the heights of Montmartre with three
   battalions of troops, and he re-entered the town, spurring on
   his horse and striking right and left with his battle-axe
   through the ranks of the dumfounded besiegers. The struggle
   was prolonged throughout the summer, and when, in November,
   886, Charles the Fat at last appeared before Paris, 'with a
   large army of all nations,' it was to purchase the retreat of
   the Northmen at the cost of a heavy ransom, and by allowing
   them to go and winter in Burgundy, 'whereof the inhabitants
   obeyed not the emperor.'"

      F. P. Guizot,
      Popular History of France,
      chapter 12 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      book 1, chapter 5.

      C. F. Keary,
      The Vikings in Western Christendom,
      chapter 15.

PARIS: A. D. 987.
   First becomes the capital of France.

   "Nothing is more certain than that Paris never became the
   capital of France until after the accession of the third
   dynasty. Paris made the Capets, the Capets made Paris."

      Sir F. Palgrave,
      History of Normandy and England,
      volume 1, page 280.

PARIS: A. D. 1180-1199.
   Improvement of the city by Philip Augustus.

   "During the few short intervals of peace which had occurred in
   the hitherto troubled reign of Philip [A. D. 1180-1199], he
   had not been unmindful of the civil improvement of his people;
   and the inhabitants of his capital are indebted to his
   activity for the first attempts to rescue its foul, narrow,
   and mud-embedded streets from the reproach which its Latin
   name 'Lutetia' very justly implied. Philip expended much of
   the treasure, hitherto devoted solely to the revels of the
   court, in works of public utility, in the construction of
   paved causeways and aqueducts, in founding colleges and
   hospitals, in commencing a new city wall, and in the erection
   of the Cathedral of Nôtre-Dame."

      E. Smedley,
      History of France,
      part 1, chapter 4.

PARIS: A. D. 1328.
   The splendor and gaiety of the Court.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1328.

PARIS: A. D. 1356-1383.
   The building of the Bastille.

      See BASTILLE.

PARIS: A. D. 1357-1358.
   The popular movement under Stephen Marcel.

      See STATES GENERAL OF FRANCE IN THE 14TH CENTURY.

PARIS: A. D. 1381.
   The Insurrection of the Maillotins.

   At the beginning of the reign of Charles VI. a tumult broke
   out in Paris, caused by the imposition of a general tax on
   merchandise of all kinds. "The Parisians ran to the arsenal,
   where they found mallets of lead intended for the defence of
   the town, and under the blows from which the greater part of
   the collectors of the new tax perished. From the weapons used
   the insurgents took the name of Maillotins. Reims, Châlons,
   Orleans, Blois, and Rouen rose at the example of the capital.
   The States-General of the Langue d' Oil were then convoked at
   Compiegne, and separated without having granted anything. The
   Parisians were always in arms, and the dukes [regents during
   the minority of the young king], powerless to make them
   submit, treated with them, and contented themselves with the
   offer of 100,000 livres. The chastisement was put off for a
   time." The chastisement of Paris and of the other rebellious
   towns was inflicted in 1382 (see FLANDERS: A. D. 1382) after
   the king and his uncles had subdued the Flemings at
   Rosebecque.

      E. de Bonnechose,
      History of France,
      epoch 2, book 2, chapter 5.

PARIS: A. D. 1410-1415.
   The reign of the Cabochiens.
   The civil war of Armagnacs and Burgundians.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1380-1415.

PARIS: A. D. 1418.
   The massacre of Armagnacs.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1415-1419.

PARIS: A. D. 1420-1422.
   King Henry V. of England and his court in the city.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1417-1422.

PARIS: A. D. 1429.
   The repulse of the Maid of Orleans.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431.

PARIS: A. D. 1436.
   Recovery from the English.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1431-1453.

PARIS: A. D. 1465.
   Siege by the League of the Public Weal.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1461-1468.

PARIS: A. D. 1496.
   Founding of the press of Henry Estienne.

      See PRINTING: A. D. 1496-1598.

PARIS: A. D. 1567.
   The Battle of St. Denis.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.

PARIS: A. D. 1572.
   The massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1572 (AUGUST).

PARIS: A. D. 1588-1589.
   Insurrection of the Catholic League.
   The Day of Barricades.
   Siege of the city by the king and Henry of Navarre.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.

PARIS: A. D. 1590.
   The siege by Henry IV.
   Horrors of famine and disease.
   Relief by the Duke of Parma.

   See FRANCE: A. D. 1590.

PARIS: A. D. 1594.
   Henry IV.'s entry.
   Expulsion of Jesuits.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1593-1598.

PARIS: A. D. 1636.
   Threatening invasion of Spaniards from the Netherlands.
   The capital in peril.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

PARIS: A. D. 1648-1652.
   In the wars of the Fronde.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1647-1648; 1649; 1650-1651;
      and 1651-1653.

PARIS: A. D. 1652.
   The Battle of Porte St. Antoine
   and the massacre of the Hotel de Ville.

      See FRANCE: .A. D. 1651-1653.

PARIS: A. D. 1789-1799.
   Scenes of the Revolution.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1789 (JUNE), and after.

PARIS: A. D. 1814.
   Surrender to the Allied armies.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH), and MARCH-APRIL).

PARIS: A. D. 1815.
   The English and Prussian armies in the city.
   Restoration of the art-spoils of Napoleon.

   See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

PARIS: A. D. 1848 (February).
   Revolution.
   Abdication and flight of Louis Philippe.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1841-1848.

PARIS: A. D. 1848 (March-June).
   Creation of the Ateliers Nationaux.
   Insurrection consequent on closing them.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1848 (FEBRUARY-MAY), and (APRIL-DECEMBER).

PARIS: A. D. 1851.
   The Coup d'Etat.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1851; and 1851-1852.

{2486}

PARIS: A. D. 1870-1871.
   Siege by the Germans.
   Capitulation.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER),
      to 1871 (JANUARY-MAY).

PARIS: A. D. 1871 (March-May).
   The insurgent Commune.
   Its Reign of Terror.
   Second Siege of the city.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1871 (MARCH-MAY).

   ----------PARIS: End--------

PARIS, Congress of (1856).

      See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856;
      and DECLARATION OF PARIS.

PARIS, Declaration of.

      See DECLARATION OF PARIS.

PARIS, The Parliament of.

      See PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.

PARIS, Treaty of (1763).

      See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

PARIS, Treaty of (1783).

    See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1783 (SEPTEMBER).

PARIS, Treaty of (1814).

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (APRIL-JUNE).

PARIS, Treaty of (1815).

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

PARIS, University of.

      See EDUCATION: MEDIÆVAL.

PARISII, The.

      See PARIS: THE BEGINNING;
      and BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

   ----------Subject: Start--------

PARLIAMENT, The English:
   Early stages of its evolution.

   "There is no doubt that in the earliest Teutonic assemblies
   every freeman had his place. … But how as to the great
   assembly of all, the Assembly of the Wise, the Witenagemót of
   the whole realm [of early England]? No ancient record gives us
   any clear or formal account of the constitution of that body.
   It is commonly spoken of in a vague way as a gathering of the
   wise, the noble, the great men. But alongside of passages like
   these, we find other passages which speak of it in a way which
   implies a far more popular constitution. … It was in fact a
   body, democratic in ancient theory, aristocratic in ordinary
   practice, but to which any strong popular impulse could at any
   time restore its ancient democratic character. … Out of this
   body, whose constitution, by the time of the Norman Conquest,
   had become not a little anomalous, and not a little
   fluctuating, our Parliament directly grew. Of one House of
   that Parliament we may say more; we may say, not that it grew
   out of the ancient Assembly, but that it is absolutely the
   same by personal identity. The House of Lords not only springs
   out of, it actually is, the ancient Witenagemót. I can see no
   break between the two. … An assembly in which at first every
   freeman had a right to appear has, by the force of
   circumstances, step by step, without any one moment of sudden
   change, shrunk up into an Assembly wholly hereditary and
   official, an Assembly to which the Crown may summon any man,
   but to which, it is now strangely held, the Crown cannot
   refuse to summon the representatives of any man whom it has
   once summoned. As in most other things, the tendency to shrink
   up into a body of this kind began to show itself before the
   Norman Conquest, and was finally confirmed and established
   through the results of the Norman Conquest. But the special
   function of the body into which the old national Assembly has
   changed, the function of 'another House,' an Upper House, a
   House of Lords as opposed to a House of Commons, could not
   show itself till a second House of a more popular constitution
   had arisen by its side. Like everything else in our English
   polity, both Houses in some sort came of themselves. Neither
   of them was the creation of any ingenious theorist. … Our
   Constitution has no founder; but there is one man to whom we
   may give all but honours of a founder, one man to whose wisdom
   and self-devotion we owe that English history has taken the
   course which it has taken for the last 600 years. … That man,
   the man who finally gave to English freedom its second and
   more lasting shape, the hero and martyr of England in the
   greatest of her constitutional struggles, was Simon of
   Montfort, Earl of Leicester. If we may not call him the
   founder of the English Constitution, we may at least call him
   the founder of the House of Commons. … When we reach the 13th
   century, we may look on the old Teutonic constitution as
   having utterly passed away. Some faint traces of it indeed we
   may find here and there in the course of the 12th century; …
   but the regular Great Council, the lineal representatives of
   the ancient Mycel Gemót or Witenagemót, was shrinking up into
   a body not very unlike our House of Lords. … The Great Charter
   secures the rights of the nation and of the national Assembly
   as against arbitrary legislation and arbitrary taxation on the
   part of the Crown. But it makes no change in the constitution
   of the Assembly itself. … The Great Charter in short is a Bill
   of Rights; it is not what, in modern phrase, we understand by
   a Reform Bill. But, during the reigns of John and Henry III.,
   a popular element was fast making its way into the national
   Councils in a more practical form. The right of the ordinary
   freeman to attend in person had long been a shadow; that of
   the ordinary tenant-in-chief was becoming hardly more
   practical; it now begins to be exchanged for what had by this
   time become the more practical right of choosing
   representatives to act in his name. Like all other things in
   England, this right has grown up by degrees and as the result
   of what we might almost call a series of happy accidents. Both
   in the reign of John and in the former part of the reign of
   Henry, we find several instances of knights from each county
   being summoned. Here we have the beginning of our county
   members and of the title which they still bear, of knights of
   the Shire. Here is the beginning of popular representation, as
   distinct from the gathering of the people in their own
   persons; but we need not think that those who first summoned
   them had any conscious theories of popular representation. The
   earliest object for which they were called together was
   probably a fiscal one; it was a safe and convenient way of
   getting money. The notion of summoning a small number of men
   to act on behalf of the whole was doubtless borrowed from the
   practice in judicial proceedings and in inquests and
   commissions of various kinds, in which it was usual for
   certain select men to swear on behalf of the whole shire or
   hundred. We must not forget … that our judicial and our
   parliamentary institutions are closely connected. … But now we
   come to that great change, that great measure of Parliamentary
   Reform, which has left to all later reformers nothing to do
   but to improve in detail. We come to that great act of the
   patriot Earl which made our popular Chamber really a popular
   Chamber. …
{2487}
   When, after the fight of Lewes, Earl Simon, then master of the
   kingdom with the King in his safe keeping, summoned his famous
   Parliament [A. D. 1264-5], he summoned, not only two knights
   from every county, but also two citizens from every city and
   two burgesses from every borough. … Thus was formed that newly
   developed Estate of the Realm which was, step by step, to grow
   into the most powerful of all, the Commons' House of
   Parliament."

      E. A. Freeman,
      Growth of the English Constitution,
      chapter 2.

      ALSO IN:
      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapters 6, 13-14.

      R. Gneist,
      The English Parliament.

      T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
      English Constitutional History,
      chapter 7.

      A. Bissett,
      Short History of English Parliament,
      chapters 2-3.

      See, also,
      WITENAGEMOT; ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274;
      and KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1244.
   Earliest use of the name.

   In 1244, "as had happened just one hundred years previously in
   France, the name 'parliamentum' occurs for the first time [in
   England] (Chron. Dunst., 1244; Matth. Paris, 1246), and
   curiously enough, Henry III. himself, in a writ addressed to
   the Sheriff of Northampton, designates with this term the
   assembly which originated the Magna Charta: 'Parliamentum
   Runemede, quod fuit inter Dom. Joh., Regem patrem nostrum et
   barones suos Angliæ' (Rot. Claus., 28 Hen. III.). The name
   'parliament' now occurs more frequently, but does not supplant
   the more indefinite terms 'concilium,' 'colloquium,' etc."

      H. Gneist,
      History of the English Constitution,
      chapter 19, and foot-note, 2a (volume 1).

   "The name given to these sessions of Council [the national
   councils of the 12th century] was often expressed by the Latin
   'colloquium': and it is by no means unlikely that the name of
   Parliament, which is used as early as 1175 by Jordan Fantosme,
   may have been in common use. But of this we have no distinct
   instance in the Latin Chroniclers for some years further,
   although when the term comes into use it is applied
   retrospectively."

      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 13, section 159.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1258.
   The Mad Parliament.

   An English Parliament, or Great Council, assembled at Oxford
   A. D. 1258, so-called by the party of King Henry III. from
   whom it extorted an important reorganization of the
   government, with much curtailment of the royal power.

      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 14, section 176 (volume 2).

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1264.
   Simon de Montfort's Parliament.
   See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274;
   and PARLIAMENT, THE ENGLISH: EARLY STAGES IN ITS EVOLUTION.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1275-1295.
   Development under Edward I.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1275-1295.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1376.
   The Good Parliament.

   The English parliament of 1376 was called the Good Parliament;
   although most of the good work it undertook to do was undone
   by its successor.

      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 16 (volume 2).

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1388.
   The Wonderful Parliament.

   In 1387, King Richard II. was compelled by a great armed
   demonstration, headed by five powerful nobles, to discard his
   obnoxious favorites and advisers, and to summon a Parliament
   for dealing with the offenses alleged against them. "The
   doings of this Parliament [which came together in February,
   1388] are without a parallel in English history,—so much so
   that the name 'Wonderful Parliament' came afterwards to be
   applied to it. With equal truth it was also called 'the
   Merciless Parliament.'" It was occupied for four months in the
   impeachment and trial of ministers, judges, officers of the
   courts, and other persons, bringing a large number to the
   block.

      J. Gairdner,
      Houses of Lancaster and York,
      chapter 2, section 5.

      ALSO IN:
      C. H. Pearson,
      English History in the 14th Century,
      chapter 11.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1404.
   The Unlearned Parliament.

   "This assembly [A. D. 1404, reign of Edward IV.] acquired its
   ominous name from the fact that in the writ of summons the
   king, acting upon the ordinance issued by Edward III in 1372,
   directed that no lawyers should be returned as members. He had
   complained more than once that the members of the House of
   Commons spent more time on private suits than on public
   business."

      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 18, section 634 (volume 3).

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1413-1422.
   First acquisition of Privilege.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1413-1422.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1425.
   The Parliament of Bats.

   The English Parliament of 1425-1426 was so-called because of
   the quarrels in it between the parties of Duke Humfrey, of
   Gloucester, and of his uncle, Bishop Beaufort.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1471-1485.
   Depression under the Yorkist kings.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1471-1485.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1558-1603.
   Under Queen Elizabeth.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1558-1603.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1614.
   The Addled Parliament.

   In 1614, James I. called a Parliament which certain obsequious
   members promised to manage for him and make docile to his
   royal will and pleasure. "They were spoken of at Court as the
   Undertakers. Both the fact and the title became known, and the
   attempt at indirect influence was not calculated to improve
   the temper of the Commons. They at once proceeded to their old
   grievances, especially discussing the legality of the
   impositions (as the additions to the customs were called) and
   of monopolies. In anger at the total failure of his scheme,
   James hurriedly dissolved the Parliament before it had
   completed a single piece of business. The humour of the time
   christened this futile Parliament 'the Addled Parliament.'"

      J. F. Bright,
      History of England,
      period 2, page 599.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1640.
   The Short Parliament.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1640.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1640.
   The Long Parliament.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1641.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1648.
   The Rump.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1648 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1649.
   Temporary abolition of the House of Peers.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1649 (FEBRUARY).

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1653.
   The Barebones or Little Parliament.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1653 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1659.
   The Rump restored.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1658-1660.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1660-1740.
   Rise and development of the Cabinet
   as an organ of Parliamentary government.

      See CABINET, THE ENGLISH.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1693.
   The Triennial Bill.

   In 1693, a bill which passed both Houses, despite the
   opposition of King William, provided that the Parliament then
   sitting should cease to exist on the next Lady Day, and that
   no future Parliament should last longer than three years. The
   king refused his assent to the enactment; but when a similar
   bill was passed the next year he suffered it to become a law.

      H. Hallam,
      Constitutional History of England,
      chapter 15 (volume 3).

{2488}

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1703.
   The Aylesbury election case.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1703.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1707.
   Becomes the Parliament of Great Britain.
   Representation of Scotland.

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1707.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1716.
   The Septennial Act.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1716.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1771.
   Last struggle against the Press.
   Freedom of reporting secured.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1771.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1727.
   Defeat of the first Reform measure.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1797.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1830.
   State of the unreformed representation.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1830.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1832.
   The first Reform of the Representation.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1867.
   The second Reform Bill.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1865-1868.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1883.
   Act to prevent Corrupt and Illegal Practices at Elections.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1883.

PARLIAMENT: A. D. 1884-1885.
   The third Reform Bill (text and comment).

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885.

   ----------PARLIAMENT: End--------

PARLIAMENT, New Houses of.

      See WESTMINSTER PALACE.

PARLIAMENT, The Scottish.

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1326-1603.

PARLIAMENT, The Drunken.

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1660-1666.

PARLIAMENT OF FLORENCE.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1250-1293.

PARLIAMENT OF ITALIAN FREE CITIES.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1056-1152.

PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.

   "When the Carlovingian Monarchy had given place, first to
   Anarchy and then to Feudalism, the mallums, and the Champs de
   Mai, and (except in some southern cities) the municipal curiæ
   also disappeared. But in their stead there came into existence
   the feudal courts. Each tenant in capite of the crown held
   within his fief a Parliament of his own free vassals. … There
   was administered the seigneur's 'justice,' whether haute,
   moyenne, or basse. There were discussed all questions
   immediately affecting the seigneurie or the tenants of it.
   There especially were adopted all general regulations which
   the exigencies of the lordship were supposed to dictate, and
   especially all such as related to the raising tailles or other
   imposts. What was thus done on a small scale in a minor fief,
   was also done, though on a larger scale, in each of the feudal
   provinces, and on a scale yet more extensive in the court or
   Parliament holden by the king as a seigneur of the royal
   domain. … This royal court or Parliament was, however, not a
   Legislature in our modern sense of that word. It was rather a
   convention, in which, by a voluntary compact between the king
   as supreme suzerain and the greater seigneurs as his
   feudatories, an ordonnance or an impost was established,
   either throughout the entire kingdom, or in some seigneuries
   apart from the rest. From any such compact any seigneur might
   dissent on behalf of himself and his immediate vassals or, by
   simply absenting himself, might render the extension of it to
   his own fief impossible. … Subject to the many corrections
   which would be requisite to reduce to perfect accuracy this
   slight sketch of the origin of the great council or Parliament
   of the kings of France, such was, in substance, the
   constitution of it at the time of the accession of Louis IX.
   [A. D. 1226]. Before the close of his eventful reign, that
   monarch had acquired the character and was in full exercise of
   the powers of a law-giver, and was habitually making laws, not
   with the advice and consent of his council or Parliament, but
   in the exercise of the inherent prerogative which even now
   they began to ascribe to the French crown. … With our English
   prepossessions, it is impossible to repress the wonder, and
   even the incredulity, with which we at first listen to the
   statement that the supreme judicial tribunal of the kingdom
   could be otherwise than the zealous and effectual antagonist
   of so momentous an encroachment." The explanation is found in
   a change which had taken place in the character of the
   Parliament, through which its function and authority became
   distinctly judicial and quite apart from those of a council or
   a legislature. When Philip Augustus went to the Holy Land, he
   provided for the decision of complaints against officers of
   the crown by directing the queen-mother and the archbishop of
   Rheims, who acted as regents, to hold an annual assembly of
   the greater barons. "This practice had become habitual by the
   time of Louis IX. For the confirmation and improvement of it,
   that monarch ordered that, before the day of any such
   assemblage, citations should be issued, commanding the
   attendance, not, as before, of the greater barons exclusively,
   but of twenty-four members of the royal council or Parliament.
   Of those twenty-four, three only were to be great barons,
   three were to be bishops, and the remaining eighteen were to
   be knights. But as these members of the royal council did not
   appear to St. Louis to possess all the qualifications
   requisite for the right discharge of the judicial office, he
   directed that thirty-seven other persons should be associated
   to them. Of those associates, seventeen were to be clerks in
   holy orders, and twenty légistes, that is, men bred to the
   study of the law. The function assigned to the légistes was
   that of drawing up in proper form the decrees and other
   written acts of the collective body. To this body, when thus
   constituted, was given the distinctive title of the Parliament
   of Paris." By virtue of their superior education and training,
   the légistes soon gathered the business of the Parliament into
   their own hands; the knights and barons found attendance a
   bore and an absurdity. "Ennui and ridicule … proved in the
   Parliament of Paris a purge quite as effectual as that which
   Colonel Pride administered to the English House of Commons.
   The conseiller clercs were soon left to themselves, in due
   time to found, and to enjoy, what began to be called 'La
   Noblesse de la Robe.' Having thus assumed the government of
   the court, the légistes next proceeded to enlarge its
   jurisdiction. … By … astute constructions of the law, the
   Parliament had, in the beginning of the 14th century, become
   the supreme legal tribunal within the whole of that part of
   France which was at that time attached to the crown." In the
   reign of Philip the Long (1316-1322) the Parliament and the
   royal council became practically distinct bodies; the former
   became sedentary at Paris, meeting nowhere else, and its
   members were required to be constantly resident in Paris.
{2489}
   By 1345 the parliamentary counselors, as they were now called,
   had acquired life appointments, and in the reign of Charles
   VI. (1380-1422) the seats in the Parliament of Paris became
   hereditary. "At the period when the Parliament of Paris was
   acquiring its peculiar character as a court of justice, the
   meetings of the great vassals of the crown, to co-operate with
   the king in legislation, were falling into disuse. The king …
   had begun to originate laws without their sanction; and the
   Parliament, not without some show of reason, assumed that the
   right of remonstrance, formerly enjoyed by the great vassals,
   had now passed to themselves. … If their remonstrance was
   disregarded, their next step was to request that the projected
   law might be withdrawn. If that request was unheeded, they at
   length formally declined to register it among their records.
   Such refusals were sometimes but were not usually successful.
   In most instances they provoked from the king a peremptory
   order for the immediate registration of his ordinance. To such
   orders the Parliament generally submitted."

      Sir J. Stephen,
      Lectures on the History of France,
      lecture 8.

   "It appears that the opinion is unfounded which ascribes to
   the States [the 'States-General'] and the Parliaments a
   different origin. Both arose out of the National Assemblies
   held at stated periods in the earliest times of the monarchy
   [the 'Champs de Mars' and 'Champs de Mai']. … Certainly in the
   earliest part of [the 13th] century there existed no longer
   two bodies, but only one, which had then acquired the name of
   Parliament. The stated meetings under the First race were
   called by the name of Mallum or Mallus, sometimes Placitum
   [also Plaid], sometimes Synod. Under the Second race they were
   called Colloquium also. The translation of this term (and it
   is said also of Mallum) into Parliament occurs not before the
   time of Louis VI. (le Gros); but in that of Louis VIII., at
   the beginning of the 13th century, it became the usual
   appellation. There were then eleven Parliaments, besides that
   of Paris, and all those bodies had become merely judicial,
   that of Paris exercising a superintending power over the other
   tribunals. … After [1334] … the Parliament was only called
   upon to register the Ordinances. This gave a considerable
   influence to the Parliament of Paris, which had a right of
   remonstrance before registry; the Provincial Parliaments only
   could remonstrate after registry. … The Parliament of Paris,
   besides remonstrating, might refuse to register; and though
   compellable by the King holding a Bed of Justice, which was a
   more solemn meeting of the Parliament attended by the King's
   Court in great state [see BED OF JUSTICE), yet it cannot be
   doubted that many Ordinances were prevented and many modified
   in consequence of this power of refusal."

      Lord Brougham,
      History of England and France under the House of Lancaster,
      note 66.

   For an account of the conflict between the Parliament of Paris
   and the crown which immediately preceded the French
   Revolution.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1787-1789.

      ALSO IN: M. de la Rocheterie,
      Marie Antoinette,
      chapters 6-11.

PARMA, Alexander Farnese, Duke of, in the Netherlands.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581, to 1588-1593.

   ----------PARMA: Start--------

PARMA:
   Founding of.

      See MUTINA.

PARMA: A. D. 1077-1115.
   In the Dominions of the Countess Matilda.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 1077-1102.

PARMA: A. D. 1339-1349.
   Bought by the Visconti, of Milan.

      See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

PARMA: A. D. 1513.
   Conquest by Pope Julius II.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

PARMA: A. D. 1515.
   Reannexed to Milanese and acquired by France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1515-1518.

PARMA: A. D. 1521.
   Retaken by the Pope.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1520-1523.

PARMA: A. D. 1545-1592.
   Alienation from the Holy See and erection, with Placentia,
   into a duchy, for the House of Farnese.

   "Paul III. was the last of those ambitious popes who rendered
   the interests of the holy see subordinate to the
   aggrandizement of their families. The designs of Paul, himself
   the representative of the noble Roman house of Farnese, were
   ultimately successful; since, although partially defeated
   during his life, they led to the establishment of his
   descendants on the throne of Parma and Placentia for nearly
   200 years. … He gained the consent of the sacred college to
   alienate those states from the holy see in 1545, that he might
   erect them into a duchy for his natural son, Pietro Luigi
   Farnese; and the Emperor Charles V. had already, some years
   before, to secure the support of the papacy against France,
   bestowed the hand of his natural daughter, Margaret, widow of
   Alessandro de' Medici, upon Ottavio, son of Pietro Luigi, and
   grandson of Paul III. Notwithstanding this measure, Charles V.
   was not subsequently, however, the more disposed to confirm to
   the house of Farnese the investiture of their new possessions,
   which he claimed as part of the Milanese duchy; and he soon
   evinced no friendly disposition towards his own son-in-law,
   Ottavio. Pietro Luigi, the first duke of Parma, proved
   himself, by his extortions, his cruelties, and his
   debaucheries, scarcely less detestable than any of the ancient
   tyrants of Lombardy. He thus provoked a conspiracy and
   insurrection of the nobles of Placentia, where he resided; and
   he was assassinated by them at that place in 1547, after a
   reign of only two years. The city was immediately seized in
   the imperial name by Gonzaga, governor of Milan. … To deter
   the emperor from appropriating Parma also to himself, [Paul
   III.] could devise no other expedient than altogether to
   retract his grant from his family, and to reoccupy that city
   for the holy see, whose rights he conceived that the emperor
   would not venture to invade." But after the death of Paul
   III., the Farnese party, commanding a majority in the
   conclave. "by raising Julius III. to the tiara [1550],
   obtained the restitution of Parma to Ottavio from the
   gratitude of the new pope. The prosperity of the ducal house
   of Farnese was not yet securely established. The emperor still
   retained Placentia, and Julius III. soon forgot the services
   of that family. In 1551, the pope leagued with Charles V. to
   deprive the duke Ottavio of the fief which he had restored to
   him. Farnese was thus reduced … to place himself under the
   protection of the French; and this measure, and the indecisive
   war which followed, became his salvation. He still preserved
   his throne when Charles V. terminated his reign; and one of
   the first acts of Philip II., when Italy was menaced by the
   invasion of the duke de Guise [1556], was to win him over from
   the French alliance, and to secure his gratitude, by yielding
   Placentia again to him.
{2490}
   But a Spanish garrison was still left in the citadel of that
   place; and it was only the brilliant military career of
   Alessandro Faroese, the celebrated prince of Parma, son of
   duke Ottavio, which finally consummated the greatness of his
   family. Entering the service of Philip II., Alessandro
   gradually won the respect and favour of that gloomy monarch;
   and at length, in 1585, as a reward for his achievements, the
   Spanish troops were withdrawn from his father's territories.
   The duke Ottavio closed his life in the following year; but
   Alessandro never took possession of his throne. He died at the
   head of the Spanish armies in the Low Countries in 1592; and
   his son Ranuccio quietly commenced his reign over the duchy of
   Parma and Placentia under the double protection of the holy
   see and the monarchy of Spain."

      G. Procter,
      History of Italy,
      chapter 9.

PARMA: A. D. 1635.
   Alliance with France against Spain.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

PARMA: A. D. 1635-1637.
   Desolation of the duchy by the Spaniards.
   The French alliance renounced.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1635-1659.

PARMA: A. D. 1725.
   Reversion of the duchy pledged to the Infant of Spain.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725.

PARMA: A. D. 1731.
   Possession given to Don Carlos, the Infant of Spain.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1726-1731;
      and ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

PARMA: A. D. 1735.
   Restored to Austria.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735;
      and ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

PARMA: A. D. 1745-1748.
   Changes of masters.

   In the War of the Austrian Succession, Parma was taken by
   Spain in 1745; recovered by Austria in the following year (see
   ITALY: A. D. 1746-1747); but surrendered by Maria Theresa to
   the infant of Spain in 1748.

PARMA: A. D. 1767.
   Expulsion of the Jesuits.
   Papal excommunication of the Duke.

      See JESUITS: A. D. 1761-1769.

PARMA: A. D. 1801.
   The Duke's son made King of Etruria.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

PARMA: A. D. 1802.
   The duchy declared a dependency of France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1802 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

PARMA: A. D. 1814.
   Duchy conferred on Marie Louise, the ex-empress of Napoleon.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (MARCH-APRIL).

PARMA: A. D. 1831.
   Revolt and expulsion of Marie Louise.
   Her restoration by Austria.

   See ITALY: A. D. 1830-1832.

PARMA: A. D. 1848-1849.
   Abortive revolution.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

PARMA: A. D. 1859-1861.
   End of the duchy.
   Absorption in the new kingdom of Italy.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859; and 1859-1861.

   ----------PARMA: End--------

PARMA, Battle of (1734).

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.

PARNASSUS.

      See THESSALY; and DORIANS AND IONIANS.

PARNELL MOVEMENT, The.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879, to 1889-1891.

PARRIS, Samuel, and Salem Witchcraft.

      See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692.

PARSEES, The.

   "On the western coast of India, from the Gulf of Cambay to
   Bombay, we find from one hundred to one hundred and fifty
   thousand families whose ancestors migrated thither from Iran.
   The tradition among them is, that at the time when the Arabs,
   after conquering Iran and becoming sovereigns there,
   persecuted and eradicated the old religion [of the Avesta],
   faithful adherents of the creed fled to the mountains of
   Kerman. Driven from these by the Arabs (in Kerman and Yezd a
   few hundred families are still found who maintain the ancient
   faith), they retired to the island of Hormuz (a small island
   close by the southern coast, at the entrance to the Persian
   Gulf). From hence they migrated to Din (on the coast of
   Guzerat), and then passed over to the opposite shore. In the
   neighbourhood of Bombay and in the south of India inscriptions
   have been found which prove that these settlers reached the
   coast in the tenth century of our era. At the present time
   their descendants form a considerable part of the population
   of Surat, Bombay, and Ahmadabad; they call themselves, after
   their ancient home, Parsees, and speak the later Middle
   Persian."

      M. Duncker,
      History of Antiquity,
      book 7, chapter 2 (volume 5).

      See, also, ZOROASTRIANS.

PARSONS' CAUSE, The.

      See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1763.

PARTHENII, The.

   This name was given among the Spartans to a class of young
   men, sons of Spartan women who had married outside the
   exclusive circle of the Spartiatæ. The latter refused, even
   when Sparta was most pressingly in need of soldiers, to admit
   these "sons of maidens," as they stigmatized them, to the
   military body. The Parthenii, becoming numerous, were finally
   driven to emigrate, and found a home at Tarentum, Italy.

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 2, chapter 1.

      See TARENTUM.

   ----------PARTHENON: Start--------

PARTHENON AT ATHENS, The.

   "Pericles had occasion to erect on the highest point of the
   Acropolis, in place of the ancient Hecatompedon, a new festive
   edifice and treasure-house, which, by blending intimately
   together the fulfilment of political and religious ends, was
   to serve to represent the piety and artistic culture, the
   wealth and the festive splendour—in fine, all the glories
   which Athens had achieved by her valour and her wisdom. …

      See ATHENS: B. C. 445-431.

   The architect from whose design, sanctioned by Pericles and
   Phidias, the new Hecatompedon was erected, was Ictinus, who
   was seconded by Callicrates, the experienced architect of the
   double line of walls. It was not intended to build an edifice
   which should attract attention by the colossal nature of its
   proportions or the novelty of its style. The traditions of the
   earlier building were followed, and its dimensions were not
   exceeded by more than 50 feet. In a breadth of 100 feet the
   edifice extended in the form of a temple, 226 feet from east
   to west; and the height, from the lowest stair to the apex of
   the pediment, amounted only to 65 feet. … The Hecatompedon, or
   Parthenon (for it went by this name also as the house of
   Athene Parthenos), was very closely connected with the
   festival of the Panathenæa, whose splendour and dignity had
   gradually risen by degrees together with those of the state. …
   The festival commenced with the performances in the Odeum,
   where the masters of song and recitation, and the either and
   flute-players, exhibited their skill, the choral songs being
   produced in the theatre. Hereupon followed the gymnastic
   games, which, besides the usual contests in the stadium,
   foot-race, wrestling-matches, &c., also included the
   torch-race, which was held in the Ceramicus outside the
   Dipylum, when no moon shone in the heavens; and which formed
   one of the chief attractions of the whole festival."

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 3, chapter 3.

      See, also, ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS.

{2491}

PARTHENON: A. D. 1687.
   Destructive explosion during the siege of Athens
   by the Venetians.

      See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

   ----------PARTHENON: End--------

PARTHENOPÉ.

      See NEAPOLIS AND PALÆPOLIS.

PARTHENOPEIAN REPUBLIC, The.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1708-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

PARTHIA, AND THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE.

   "The mountain chain, which running southward of the Caspian,
   skirts the great plateau of Iran, or Persia, on the north,
   broadens out after it passes the south-eastern corner of the
   sea, into a valuable and productive mountain-region. Four or
   five' distinct ranges here run parallel to one another, having
   between them latitudinal valleys, with glens transverse to
   their courses. The sides of the valleys are often well wooded;
   the flat ground at the foot of the hills is fertile; water
   abounds; and the streams gradually collect into rivers of a
   considerable size. The fertile territory in this quarter is
   further increased by the extension of cultivation to a
   considerable distance from the base of the most southern of
   the ranges, in the direction of the Great Iranic desert. … It
   was undoubtedly in the region which has been thus briefly
   described that the ancient home of the Parthians lay. …
   Parthia Proper, however, was at no time coextensive with the
   region described. A portion of that region formed the district
   called Hyrcania; and it is not altogether easy to determine
   what were the limits between the two. The evidence goes, on
   the whole, to show that while Hyrcania lay towards the west
   and north, the Parthian country was that towards the south and
   east, the valleys of the Ettrek and Gurghan constituting the
   main portions of the former, while the tracts east and south
   of those valleys, as far as the sixty-first degree of E.
   longitude, constituted the latter. If the limits of Parthia
   Proper be thus defined, it will have nearly corresponded to
   the modern Persian province of Khorasan. … The Turanian
   character of the Parthians, though not absolutely proved,
   appears to be in the highest degree probable. If it be
   accepted, we must regard them as in race closely allied to the
   vast hordes which from a remote antiquity have roamed over the
   steppe region of Upper Asia, from time to time bursting upon
   the south and harassing or subjugating the comparatively
   unwarlike inhabitants of the warmer countries. We must view
   them as the congeners of the Huns, Bulgarians and Comans of
   the ancient world; of the Kalmucks, Ouigurs, Usbegs, Eleuts,
   &c., of the present day. … The Parthians probably maintained
   their independence from the time of their settlement in the
   district called after their name until the sudden arrival in
   their country of the great Persian conqueror, Cyrus, [about
   554 B. C.]. … When the Persian empire was organised by Darius
   Hystaspis into satrapies, Parthia was at first united in the
   same government with Chorasmia, Sogdiana and Aria.
   Subsequently, however, when satrapies were made more numerous,
   it was detached from these extensive countries, and made to
   form a distinct government, with the mere addition of the
   comparatively small district of Hyrcania." The conquests of
   Alexander included Parthia within their range, and, under the
   new political arrangements which followed Alexander's death,
   that country became for a time part of the wide empire of the
   Seleucidæ, founded by Seleueus Nicator,—the kingdom of Syria
   as it was called. But about 250 B. C. a successful revolt
   occurred in Parthia, led by one Arsaces, who founded an
   independent kingdom and a dynasty called the Arsacid.

      See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 281-224, and 224-187.

   Under succeeding kings, especially under the sixth of the
   line, Mithridates I. (not to be confused with the Mithridatic
   dynasty in Pontus), the kingdom of Parthia was swollen by
   conquest to a great empire, covering almost the whole
   territory of the earlier Persian empire, excepting in Asia
   Minor and Syria. On the rise of the Roman power, the Parthians
   successfully disputed with it the domination of the east, in
   several wars (see ROME: B. C. 57-52), none of which were
   advantageous to the Romans, until the time of Trajan.

      G. Rawlinson,
      Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy: Parthia.

   Trajan (A. D. 115-117—see ROME: A. D. 96-138) "undertook an
   expedition against the nations of the East. … The success of
   Trajan, however transient, was rapid and specious. The
   degenerate Parthians, broken by intestine discord, fled before
   his arms. He descended the river Tigris in triumph, from the
   mountains of Armenia to the Persian gulf. He enjoyed the
   honour of being the first, as he was the last, of the Roman
   generals who ever navigated that remote sea. His fleets
   ravaged the coasts of Arabia. … Every day the astonished
   senate received the intelligence of new names and new nations
   that acknowledged his sway. … But the death of Trajan soon
   clouded the splendid prospect. … The resignation of all the
   eastern conquests of Trajan was the first measure of his
   [successor Hadrian's] reign. He [Hadrian] restored to the
   Parthians the election of an independent sovereign, withdrew
   the Roman garrisons from the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia
   and Assyria; and, in compliance with the precept of Augustus,
   once more established the Euphrates as the frontier of the
   empire."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 1.

   In the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus at Rome, the
   Parthian king Vologeses III. (or Arsaces XXVII.) provoked the
   Roman power anew by invading Armenia and Syria. In the war
   which followed, the Parthians were driven from Syria and
   Armenia; Mesopotamia was occupied; Seleucia, Ctesiphon and
   Babylon taken; and the royal palace at Ctesiphon burned (A. D.
   165). Parthia then sued for peace, and obtained it by ceding
   Mesopotamia, and allowing Armenia to return to the position of
   a Roman dependency. Half a century later the final conflict of
   Rome and Parthia occurred. "The battle of Nisibis [A. D. 217],
   which terminated the long contest between Rome and Parthia,
   was the fiercest and best contested which was ever fought
   between the rival powers. It lasted for the space of three
   days. … Macrinus [the Roman emperor, who commanded] took to
   flight among the first; and his hasty retreat discouraged his
   troops, who soon afterwards acknowledged themselves beaten and
   retired within the lines of their camp.
{2492}
   Both armies had suffered severely. Herodian describes the
   heaps of dead as piled to such a height that the manœuvres of
   the troops were impeded by them, and at last the two
   contending hosts could scarcely see one another. Both armies,
   therefore, desired peace." But the peace was purchased by Rome
   at a heavy price. After this, the Parthian monarchy was
   rapidly undermined by internal dissensions and corruptions,
   and in A. D. 226 it was overthrown by a revolt of the
   Persians, who claimed and secured again, after five centuries
   and a half of subjugation, their ancient leadership among the
   races of the East. The new Persian Empire, or Sassanian
   monarchy, was founded by Artaxerxes I. on the ruins of the
   Parthian throne.

      G. Rawlinson,
      The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy,
      chapters 3-21.

      ALSO IN:
      G. Rawlinson,
      Story of Parthia.

PARTHIAN HORSE.
PARTHIAN ARROWS.

   "Fleet and active coursers, with scarcely any caparison but a
   headstall and a single rein, were mounted by riders clad only
   in a tunic and trousers, and armed with nothing but a strong
   bow and a quiver full of arrows. A training begun in early
   boyhood made the rider almost one with his steed; and he could
   use his weapons with equal ease and effect whether his horse
   was stationary or at full gallop, and whether he was advancing
   towards or hurriedly retreating from his enemy. … It was his
   ordinary plan to keep constantly in motion when in the
   presence of an enemy, to gallop backwards and forwards, or
   round and round his square or column, never charging it, but
   at a moderate interval plying it with his keen and barbed
   shafts."

      G. Rawlinson,
      Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy,
      chapter 11.

   ----------PARTIES AND FACTIONS: Start--------

PARTIES AND FACTIONS, POLITICAL AND POLITICO-RELIGIOUS.
   Abolitionists.

      See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1828-1832; and 1840-1847.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Adullamites.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1865-1868.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Aggraviados.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   American.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1852.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Ammoniti.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1358.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anarchists.

      See ANARCHISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anilleros.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anti-Corn-Law League.

      See TARIFF LEGISLATION (ENGLAND): A. D. 1836-1839; and 1845-1846.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anti-Federalists.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anti-Masonic.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1826-1832;
      and MEXICO: A. D. 1822-1828.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anti-Renters.

      See LIVINGSTON MANOR.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Anti-Slavery.

      See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1688-1780; 1776-1808;
      1828-1832; 1840-1847.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Armagnacs.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1380-1415; and 1415-1419.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Arrabiati.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1490-1498.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Assideans.

      See CHASIDIM.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Barnburners.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845-1846.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Beggars.

      See PARTIES AND FACTIONS: GUEUX.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Bianchi.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300; and 1301-1313.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Bigi, or Greys.

      See BIGI.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Blacks, or Black Guelfs.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300; and 1301-1313.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Blue-Light Federalists.

      See BLUE-LIGHT FEDERALISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Blues.

      See CIRCUS, FACTIONS OF THE ROMAN;
      and VENEZUELA: 1829-1886.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Border Ruffians.

      See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Boys in Blue.

      See BOYS IN BLUE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Bucktails.

      See NEW YORK A. D. 1817-1819.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Bundschuh.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1492-1514.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Burgundians.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1385-1415;
      and 1415-1419.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Burschenschaft.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1817-1820.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Butternuts.

      See Boys IN BLUE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Cabochiens.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1380-1415.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Calixtines, or Utraquists.

      See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434; and 1434-1457.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Camisards.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1702-1710.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Caps and Hats.

      See PARTIES AND FACTIONS: HATS AND CAPS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Carbonari.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1808-1809.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Carlists.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846; and 1873-1885.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Carpet-baggers.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Cavaliers and Roundheads.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1641 (OCTOBER);
      also, ROUNDHEADS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Center.

      See RIGHT, LEFT, AND CENTER.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Charcoals.

      See CLAYBANKS AND CHARCOALS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Chartists.

      See ENGLAND: A.D. 1838-1842; and 1848.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Chasidim.

      See CHASIDIM.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Chouans.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1796.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Christinos.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846; and 1873-1885.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Claybanks and Charcoals.

      See CLAYBANKS AND CHARCOALS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Clear Grits.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1840-1867.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Clichyans.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (SEPTEMBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Clintonians.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1817-1819.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Cods.

      See PARTIES AND FACTIONS: HOOKS AND CODS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Communeros.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Communists.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1871 (MARCH-MAY).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Conservative (English).

      See CONSERVATIVE PARTY.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Constitutional Union.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Copperheads.

      See COPPERHEADS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Cordeliers.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1790.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Country Party.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1672-1673.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Covenanters.

      See COVENANTERS;
      also SCOTLAND: A. D. 1557, 1581, 1638, 1644-1645,
      and 1660-1661, to 1681-1689.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Crêtois.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (APRIL).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Decamisados.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Democrats.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792;
      1825-1828; 1845-1846.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Doughfaces.

      See DOUGHFACES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Douglas Democrats.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Equal Rights Party.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1835-1837.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Escocés.

      See MEXICO: A. D. 1822-1828.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Essex Junto.

      See ESSEX JUNTO.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Farmers' Alliance.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1877-1891.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Federalists.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792; 1812;
      and 1814 (DECEMBER) THE HARTFORD CONVENTION.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Feds.

      See BOYS IN BLUE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Fenians.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1858-1867;
      and CANADA: A. D. 1866-1871.

      Feuillants. See FRANCE: A. D. 1790.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Free Soilers.

      UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1848.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Free Traders.

      See TARIFF LEGISLATION.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   The Fronde.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1649, to 1651-1653.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Gachupines.

      See GACHUPINES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Girondists.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER),
      to 1793-1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Gomerists.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1603-1619.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Grangers.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1877-1891.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Graybacks.

      See Boys IN BLUE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Greenbackers.

      UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1880.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Greens.

      See CIRCUS, FACTIONS OF THE ROMAN.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Greys.

      See BIGI.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Guadalupes.

      See GACHUPINES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Guelfs and Ghibellines.

      See GUELFS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Gueux, or Beggars.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Half-breeds.

         See STALWARTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Hard-Shell Democrats.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845-1846.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Hats and Caps.

      See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1720-1792.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Home Rulers or Nationalists.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879;
      also ENGLAND: A. D. 1885-1886, and 1892-1893.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Hooks and Cods, or Kabeljauws.

      See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1345-1354;
      and 1482-1493.

{2493}

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Huguenots.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561, to 1598-1599;
      1620-1622, to 1627-1628;
      1661-1680; 1681-1698; 1702-1710.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Hunkers.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845-1846.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Iconoclasts of the 8th century.

      See ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Iconoclasts of the 16th century.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Importants.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1642-1643.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Independent Republicans.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1884.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Independents, or Separatists.

      See INDEPENDENTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Intransigentists.

      See INTRANSIGENTISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Irredentists.

      See IRREDENTISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Jacobins.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1790, to 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Jacobites.

      See JACOBITES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Jacquerie.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1358.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Jingoes.

      See TURKS: A. D. 1878.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Kabeljauws.

      See PARTIES AND FACTIONS: HOOKS AND CODS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Kharejites.

      See KHAREJITES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Know Nothing.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1852.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Ku Klux Klan.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Land Leaguers.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Left.
   Left Center.

      See RIGHT, LEFT, AND CENTER.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Legitimists.

      See LEGITIMISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Leliaerds.

      See LELIAERDS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Levellers.

      See LEVELLERS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Liberal Republicans.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1872.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Liberal Unionists.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1885-1886.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Libertines.

      See LIBERTINES OF GENEVA.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Liberty Boys.

      See PARTIES AND FACTIONS: SONS OF LIBERTY.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Liberty Party.

      See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D.1840-1847.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Locofocos.

      See LOCOFOCOS;
      and NEW YORK: A.D. 1835-1837.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Lollards.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1360-1414.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Malignants.

      See MALIGNANTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   The Marais, or Plain.

      See FRANCE A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Marians.

      See ROME: B. C. 88-78.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Martling Men.

      See MARTLING MEN.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Melchites.

      See MELCHITES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   The Mountain.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER);
      1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER);
      and after, to 1794-1705 (JULY-APRIL).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Mugwumps.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1884.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Muscadins.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Nationalists, Irish.

      See ENGLAND: A.D. 1885-1886.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Neri.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300; and 1301-1313.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Nihilists.

      See NIHILISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Oak Boys.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1708.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Opportunists.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1893.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Orangemen.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1705-1706.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Orleanists.

      See LEGITIMISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   The Ormée.

      See BORDEAUX: A. D. 1652-1653.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Orphans.

      See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Ottimati.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Palleschi.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Patrons of Husbandry.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1877-1801.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Peep-o'-Day Boys.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798, and 1784.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Pelucones.

      See PELUCONES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Petits Maîtres.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1650-1651.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Piagnoni.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1490-1408.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   The Plain.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Plebs.

      See PLEBEIANS;
      also, ROME: THE BEGINNING, and after.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Politiques.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1573-1576.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Popolani.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Populist or People's.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1892.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Prohibitionists.

      See PROHIBITIONISTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Protectionists.

      See TARIFF LEGISLATION.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Puritan.

      See PURITANS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Republican (Earlier).

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1825-1828.
      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854-1855.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Ribbonmen.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1820-1826.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Right.—Right Center.

      See RIGHT, LEFT, AND CENTER.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Roundheads.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1641 (OCTOBER);
      also, ROUNDHEADS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Sansculottes.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Secesh.

      See BOYS IN BLUE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Serviles.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Shias.

      See ISLAM.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Silver-greys.
   Snuff-takers.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Socialists.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Soft-Shell Democrats.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845-1846.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Sons of Liberty.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765
      THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SONS OF LIBERTY,
      and 1864 (OCTOBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Stalwarts.

      See STALWARTS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Steel Boys.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Sunni.

   See ISLAM.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Taborites.

      See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434;
      and 1434-1457.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Tammany Ring.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1863-1871;
      and TAMMANY SOCIETY.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Tories.

      See RAPPAREES; ENGLAND: A. D. 1680;
      CONSERVATIVE PARTY;
      and TORIES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Tugenbund.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1808 (APRIL-DECEMBER).

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
    Ultramontanists.

       See ULTRAMONTANE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   United Irishmen.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1703-1798.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Utraquists.

      See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434; and 1434-1457.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Whigs (American).

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1834.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Whigs (English).

      See WHIGS.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Whiteboys.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   White Hoods.

      See FLANDERS: A. D. 1379,
      and 'WHITE HOODS OF FRANCE.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Whites.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300; and 1301-1313.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Wide Awakes.

      See WIDE AWAKES.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Woolly-heads.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Yellows;

      See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Yorkinos.

      See MEXICO: A. D. 1822-1828.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Young Ireland.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1841-1848.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Young Italy.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1831-1848.

PARTIES AND FACTIONS:
   Zealots.

      See ZEALOTS;
      and JEWS: A. D. 66-70.

PARTITION OF THE SPANISH EMPIRE, The Treaties of.

   See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700.

PARTITIONS OF POLAND.

   See POLAND: A. D. 1763-1773; and 1793-1706.

PARU, The Great.

   See EL DORADO.

PASARGADÆ.

   One of the tribes of the ancient Persians, from which came the
   royal race of the Achæmenids.

      See PERSIA: ANCIENT PEOPLE AND COUNTRY.

PASCAGOULAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

PASCAL I.,
   Pope, A. D. 817-824.

   Pascal II., Pope, 1099-1118.

PASCUA.

      See VECTIGAL.

PASSAROWITZ, Peace of (1718).

      See HUNGARY: A. D. 1699-1718;
      and TURKS: A. D. 1714-1718.

PASSAU: Taken by the Bavarians and French.

   See GERMANY: A. D. 1703.

PASSAU, Treaty of.

      See GERMANY; A. D. 1546-1552.

PASSÉ, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

PASTEUR, Louis, and his work in Bacteriology.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY.

PASTORS, The Crusade of the.

      See CRUSADES: A. D. 1252.

PASTRENGO, Battle of (1799).

      SEE FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

{2494}

PASTRY WAR, The.

      See MEXICO: A. D. 1828-1844.

PATAGONIANS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PATAGONIANS.

PATARA, Oracle of.

      See ORACLES OF THE GREEKS.

PATARENES.
PATERINI.

   About the middle of the 11th century, there appeared at Milan
   a young priest named Ariald who caused a great commotion by
   attacking the corruptions of clergy and people and preaching
   repentance and reform. The whole of Milan became "separated
   into two hotly contending parties. This controversy divided
   families; it was the one object which commanded universal
   participation. The popular party, devoted to Ariald and
   Landulph [a deacon who supported Ariald], was nicknamed
   'Pataria', which in the dialect of Milan signified a popular
   faction; and as a heretical tendency might easily grow out of,
   or attach itself to, this spirit of separatism so zealously
   opposed to the corruption of the clergy, it came about that,
   in the following centuries, the name Patarenes was applied in
   Italy as a general appellation to denote sects contending
   against the dominant church and clergy—sects which, for the
   most part, met with great favour from the people."

      A. Neander,
      General History of the Christian Religion and Church
      (Bohn's edition),
      volume 6, page 67.

   "The name Patarini is derived from the quarter of the
   rag-gatherers, Pataria."

      W. Moeller,
      History of the Christian Church in the Middle Ages,
      page 253, foot-note.

   During the fierce controversy of the 11th century over the
   question of celibacy for the clergy (see PAPACY: A. D.
   1056-1122), the party in Milan which supported Pope Gregory
   VII. (Hildebrand) in his inflexible warfare against the
   marriage of priests were called by their opponents Patarines.

      H. H. Milman,
      History of Latin Christianity,
      book 6, chapter 3.

      See, also,
      CATHARISTS: ALBIGENSES;
      and PAULICIANS;
      and TURKS: A. D. 1402-1451.

PATAVIUM, Early knowledge of.

      See VENETI OF CISALPINE GAUL.

PATAY, Battle of (1429).

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431.

PATCHINAKS.
UZES.
COMANS.

   The Patchinaks, or Patzinaks, Uzes and Comans were successive
   swarms of Turkish nomads which came into southeastern Europe
   during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries, following and
   driving each other into the long and often devastated Danubian
   provinces of the Byzantine empire, and across the Balkans. The
   wars of the empire with the Patchinaks were many and seriously
   exhausting. The Comans are said to have been Turcomans, with
   the first part of their true name dropped off.

      E. Pears,
      The Fall of Constantinople,
      chapter 3.

      See, also, RUSSIANS: A. D. 865-900.

PATER PATRATUS.

      See FETIALES.

PATER PATRIÆ.

   "The first individual, belonging to an epoch strictly
   historical, who received this title was Cicero, to whom it was
   voted by the Senate after the suppression of the Catilinarian
   conspiracy."

      W. Ramsay,
      Manual of Roman Antiquity,
      chapter 5.

PATERINI, The.

      See PATARENES.

PATNA, Massacre at (1763).

      See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.

PATRIARCH OF THE WEST, The.

   "It was not long after the dissolution of the Jewish state
   [consequent on the revolt suppressed by Titus] that it revived
   again in appearance, under the form of two separate
   communities mostly dependent upon each other: one under a
   sovereignty purely spiritual, the other partly temporal and
   partly spiritual,—but each comprehending all the Jewish
   families in the two great divisions of the world. At the head
   of the Jews on this side of the Euphrates appeared the
   Patriarch of the West: the chief of the Mesopotamian community
   assumed the striking but more temporal title of
   'Resch-Glutha,' or' Prince of the Captivity. The origin of
   both these dignities, especially of the Western patriarchate,
   is involved in much obscurity."

      H. H. Milman,
      History of the Jews,
      book 18.

      See, also, JEWS: A. D. 200-400.

PATRIARCHS.

      See PRIMATES.

PATRICIAN, The class.

   See COMITIA CURIATA;
   also, PLEBEIANS.

PATRICIAN, The Later Roman Title.

   "Introduced by Constantine at a time when its original meaning
   had been long forgotten, it was designed to be, and for a
   while remained, the name not of an office but of a rank, the
   highest after those of emperor and consul. As such, it was
   usually conferred upon provincial governors of the first
   class, and in time also upon barbarian potentates whose vanity
   the Roman court might wish to flatter. Thus Odoacer,
   Theodoric, the Burgundian king Sigismund, Clovis himself, had
   all received it from the Eastern emperor: so too in still
   later times it was given to Saracenic and Bulgarian princes.
   In the sixth and seventh centuries an invariable practice
   seems to have attached it to the Byzantine viceroys of Italy,
   and thus, as we may conjecture, a natural confusion of ideas
   had made men take it to be, in some sense, an official title,
   conveying an extensive though undefined authority, and
   implying in particular the duty of overseeing the Church and
   promoting her temporal interests. It was doubtless with such a
   meaning that the Romans and their bishop bestowed it upon the
   Frankish kings, acting quite without legal right, for it could
   emanate from the emperor alone, but choosing it as the title
   which bound its possessor to render to the church support and
   defence against her Lombard foes."

      J. Bryce,
      The Holy Roman Empire,
      chapter 4.

PATRICK, St., in Ireland.

      See IRELAND: 5-8TH CENTURIES;
      and EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: IRELAND.

PATRIMONY OF ST. PETER, The.

   The territory over which the Pope formerly exercised and still
   claims temporal sovereignty.

      See STATES OF THE CHURCH
      also, PAPACY: A. D. 755-774, and after.

PATRIOT WAR, The.

      See CANADA: A. D. 1837-1838.

PATRIPASSIANS.

      See NOËTIANS.

PATRONAGE, Political.

      See STALWARTS.

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1877-1891.

PATROONS OF NEW NETHERLAND, and their colonies.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1621-1646.

PATZINAKS, The.

      See PATCHINAKS.

PAUL, St., the Apostle,
   the missionary labors of.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100;
      and ATHENS: B. C. 54 (?).

   Paul, Czar of Russia, A. D. 1796-1801.

   Paul I., Pope, 757-767.

   Paul II., Pope, 1464-1471.

   Paul III., Pope, 1534-1549.

   Paul IV., Pope, 1555-1559.

   Paul V., Pope, 1605-1621.

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PAULETTE, The.

   See FRANCE: A. D. 1647-1648.

PAULICIANS, The.

   "After a pretty long obscurity the Manichean theory revived
   with some modification in the western parts of Armenia, and
   was propagated in the 8th and 9th centuries by a sect
   denominated Paulicians. Their tenets are not to be collected
   with absolute certainty from the mouths of their adversaries,
   and no apology of their own survives. There seems however to
   be sufficient evidence that the Paulicians, though professing
   to acknowledge and even to study the apostolical writings,
   ascribed the creation of the world to an evil deity, whom they
   supposed also to be the author of the Jewish law, and
   consequently rejected all the Old Testament. … Petrus Siculus
   enumerates six Paulician heresies.

   1. They maintained the existence of two deities, the one evil,
      and the creator of this world; the other good, … the author
      of that which is to come.
   2. They refused to worship the Virgin, and asserted that
      Christ brought his body from heaven.
   3. They rejected the Lord's Supper.
   4. And the adoration of the cross.
   5. They denied the authority of the Old Testament, but
      admitted the New, except the epistles of St. Peter, and,
      perhaps, the Apocalypse.
   6. They did not acknowledge the order of priests.

   There seems every reason to suppose that the Paulicians,
   notwithstanding their mistakes, were endowed with sincere and
   zealous piety, and studious of the Scriptures. … These errors
   exposed them to a long and cruel persecution, during which a
   colony of exiles was planted by one of the Greek emperors in
   Bulgaria. From this settlement they silently promulgated their
   Manichean creed over the western regions of Christendom. A
   large part of the commerce of those countries with
   Constantinople was carried on for several centuries by the
   channel of the Danube. This opened an immediate intercourse
   with the Paulicians, who may be traced up that river through
   Hungary and Bavaria, or sometimes taking the route of
   Lombardy, into Switzerland and France. In the last country,
   and especially in its southern and eastern provinces, they
   became conspicuous under a variety of names; such as
   Catharists, Picards, Paterins, but, above all, Albigenses. It
   is beyond a doubt that many of these sectaries owed their
   origin to the Paulicians; the appellation of Bulgarians was
   distinctively bestowed upon them; and, according to some
   writers, they acknowledged a primate or patriarch resident in
   that country. … It is generally agreed that the Manicheans
   from Bulgaria did not penetrate into the west of Europe before
   the year 1000; and they seem to have been in small numbers
   till about 1140. … I will only add, in order to obviate
   cavilling, that I use the word Albigenses for the Manichean
   sects, without pretending to assert that their doctrines
   prevailed more in the neighbourhood of Albi than elsewhere.
   The main position is that a large part of the Languedocian
   heretics against whom the crusade was directed had imbibed the
   Paulician opinions. If anyone chooses rather to call them
   Catharists, it will not be material."

      H. Hallam,
      Middle Ages,
      chapter 9, part 2, and foot-notes.

      ALSO IN:
      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 54.

      See, also,
      CATHARISTS, and ALBIGENSES.

PAULINES, The.

      See BARNABITES.

PAULISTAS (of Brazil).

      See BRAZIL: A. D. 1531-1641.

PAULUS HOOK, The storming of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779.

PAUSANIUS, The mad conduct of.

      See GREECE: B. C. 478-477.

   ----------PAVIA: Start--------

PAVIA:
   Origin of the city.

   See LIGURIANS.

PAVIA: A. D. 270.
   Defeat of the Alemanni.

      See ALEMANNI: A. D. 270.

PAVIA: A. D. 493-523.
   Residence of Theodoric the Ostrogoth.

      See VERONA: A. D. 493-525.

PAVIA: A. D. 568-571.
   Siege by the Lombards.
   Made capital of the Lombard kingdom.

      See LOMBARDS: A. D. 568-573.

PAVIA: A. D. 753-754.
   Siege by Charlemagne.

      See LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774.

PAVIA: A. D. 924.
   Destruction by the Hungarians.

      See ITALY: A. D. 900-924.

PAVIA: A. D. 1004.
   Burned by the German troops.

      See ITALY: A. D. 961-1039.

PAVIA: 11-12th Centuries.
   Acquisition of Republican Independence.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1056-1152.

PAVIA: A. D. 1395.
   Relation to the duchy of the Visconti of Milan.

      See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

PAVIA: A. D. 1524-1525.
   Siege and Battle.
   Defeat and capture of Francis I., of France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1523-1525.

PAVIA: A. D. 1527.
   Taken and plundered by the French.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1527-1529.

PAVIA: A. D. 1745.
   Taken by the French and Spaniards.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1745.

PAVIA: A. D. 1796.
   Capture and pillage by the French.

   See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

   ----------PAVIA: End--------

PAVON, Battle of.

      See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1819-1874.

PAVONIA, The Patroon colony of.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1621-1646.

PAWNEES, The.

   See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

PAWTUCKET INDIANS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAXTON BOYS, Massacre of Indians by the.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SUSQUEHANNAS.

PAYAGUAS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

PAYENS, Hugh de, and the founding of the Order of the Templars.

      See TEMPLARS.

PAYTITI, The Great.

      See EL DORADO.

PAZZI, Conspiracy of the.

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1469-1492.

PEA INDIANS, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PEA RIDGE, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-MARCH: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

PEABODY EDUCATION FUND.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1867-1891.

PEACE, The King's.

      See KING'S PEACE;
      also LAW, COMMON: A. D. 871-1066, 1110, 1135, and 1300.

PEACE CONVENTION, The.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY).

PEACE OF AUGUSTUS, AND PEACE OF VESPASIAN.

      See TEMPLE OF JANUS.

PEACE OF THE DAMES,
THE LADIES' PEACE.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1527-1529.

{2496}

PEACH TREE CREEK, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (MAY-SEPTEMBER: GEORGIA).

PEACOCK THRONE, The.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748.

PEAGE,
PEAKE.

      See WAMPUM.

   ----------PEASANT REVOLTS: Start--------

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 287.
   The Bagauds of Gaul.

      See BAGAUDS.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1358.
   The Jacquerie of France.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1358.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1381.
   Wat Tyler's rebellion in England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1381.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1450.
   Jack Cade's rebellion in England.

      See ENGLAND; A. D. 1450.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1492-1514.
   The Bundschuh in Germany.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1492-1514.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1513.
   The Kurucs of Hungary.

      See HUNGARY: A. D. 1487-1526.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1521-1525.
   The Peasants' War in Germany.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1524-1525.

PEASANT REVOLTS: A. D. 1652-1653.
   Peasant War in Switzerland.

      See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1652-1789.

   ----------PEASANT REVOLTS: End--------

PEC-SÆTAN.

   Band of Angles who settled on the moorlands of the Peak of
   Derbyshire.

PEDDAR-WAY, The.

   The popular name of an old Roman road in England, which runs
   from Brancaster, on the Wash, via Colchester, to London.

PEDIÆI.
THE PEDION.

   See ATHENS: B. C. 594.

PEDRO
   (called The Cruel), King of Leon and Castile, A. D. 1350-1369.

   Pedro, King of Portugal, 1357-1367.

   Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil, 1822-1831;

   Pedro IV., King of Portugal, 1826

   Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, 1831-1889

   Pedro II., King of Portugal, 1667-1706.

   Pedro III., King-Consort of Portugal, 1777-1786.

   Pedro V., King of Portugal, 1853-1861.

   Pedro.

      See, also, PETER.

PEEL, Sir Robert: Administrations of.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1834-1837, 1837-1839, 1841-1842, to 1846;
      TARIFF LEGISLATION (ENGLAND): A. D. 1842, and 1845-1846;
      MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1844.

PEEP-O'-DAY BOYS.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798; and 1784.

PEERS.
PEERAGE, The British.

   "The estate of the peerage is identical with the house of
   lords."

      W. Stubbs,
      Constitutional History of England,
      volume 2, page 184.

      See LORDS, BRITISH HOUSE OF;
      and PARLIAMENT, THE ENGLISH.

PEERS OF FRANCE, The Twelve.

      See TWELVE PEERS OF FRANCE.

PEGU, British acquisition of.

      See INDIA: A. D. 1852.

PEHLEVI LANGUAGE.

   "Under the Arsacids, the Old Persian passed into Middle
   Persian, which at a later time was known by the name of the
   Parthians, the tribe at that time supreme in Persia. Pahlav
   and Pehlevi mean Parthian, and, as applied to language, the
   language of the Parthians, i. e. of the Parthian era. … In the
   latest period of the dominion of the Sassanids, the recent
   Middle Persian or Parsec took the place of Pehlevi."

      M. Duncker,
      History of Antiquity,
      book 7, chapter 1.

PEHUELCHES, The.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

   ----------PEKIN: Start--------

PEKIN: The origin of the city.

      See CHINA: A. D. 1259-1294.

PEKIN: A. D. 1860.
   English and French forces in the city.
   The burning of the Summer Palace.

      See CHINA: A. D. 1856-1860.

   ----------PEKIN: End--------

PELAGIANISM.

   "Pelagianism was … the great intellectual controversy of the
   church in the fifth century, as Arianism had been in the
   fourth. … Everyone is aware that this controversy turned upon
   the question of free-will and of grace, that is to say, of the
   relations between the liberty of man and the Divine power, of
   the influence of God upon the moral activity of men. … About
   the year 405, a British monk, Pelagius (this is the name given
   him by the Greek and Latin writers; his real name, it appears,
   was Morgan), was residing at Rome. There has been infinite
   discussion as to his origin, his moral character, his
   capacity, his learning; and, under these various heads, much
   abuse has been lavished upon him; but this abuse would appear
   to be unfounded, for judging from the most authoritative
   testimony, from that of St. Augustin himself, Pelagius was a
   man of good birth, of excellent education, of pure life. A
   resident, as I have said, at Rome, and now a man of mature
   age, without laying down any distinct doctrines, without
   having written any book on the subject, Pelagius began, about
   the year I have mentioned, 405, to talk much about free-will,
   to insist urgently upon this moral fact, to expound it. There
   is no indication that he attacked any person about the matter,
   or that he sought controversy; he appears to have acted simply
   upon the belief that human liberty was not held in sufficient
   account, had not its due share in the religious doctrines of
   the period. These ideas excited no trouble in Rome, scarcely
   any debate. Pelagius spoke freely; they listened to him
   quietly. His principal disciple was Celestius, like him a
   monk, or so it is thought at least, but younger. … In 411
   Pelagius and Celestius are no longer at Rome; we find them in
   Africa, at Hippo and at Carthage. … Their doctrines spread. …
   The bishop of Hippo began to be alarmed; he saw in these new
   ideas error and peril. … Saint Augustin was the chief of the
   doctors of the church, called upon more than any other to
   maintain the general system of her doctrines. … You see, from
   that time, what a serious aspect the quarrel took: everything
   was engaged in it, philosophy, politics, and religion, the
   opinions of Saint Augustin and his business, his self-love and
   his duty. He entirely abandoned himself to it." In the end,
   Saint Augustin and his opinions prevailed. The doctrines of
   Pelagius were condemned by three successive councils of the
   church, by three successive emperors and by two popes—one of
   whom was forced to reverse his first decision. His partisans
   were persecuted and banished. "After the year 418, we discover
   in history no trace of Pelagius. The name of Celestius is
   sometimes met with until the year 427; it then disappears.
   These two men once off the scene, their school rapidly
   declined."

      F. Guizot,
      History of Civilization
      (translated by Hazlitt),
      volume 2, lecture. 5.

      ALSO IN:
      P. Schaff,
      History of the Christian Church, period 3,
      chapter 9.

      See, also,
      PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS.

{2497}

PELASGIANS, The.

   Under this name we have vague knowledge of a people whom the
   Greeks of historic times refer to as having preceded them in
   the occupancy of the Hellenic peninsula and Asia Minor, and
   whom they looked upon as being kindred to themselves in race.
   "Such information as the Hellenes … possessed about the
   Pelasgi, was in truth very scanty. They did not look upon them
   as a mythical people of huge giants—as, for example, in the
   popular tales of the modern Greeks the ancestors of the latter
   are represented as mighty warriors, towering to the height of
   poplar trees. There exist no Pelasgian myths, no Pelasgian
   gods, to be contrasted with the Greeks. … Thucydides, in whom
   the historic consciousness of the Hellenes finds its clearest
   expression, also regards the inhabitants of Hellas from the
   most ancient times, Pelasgi as well as Hellenes, as one
   nation. … And furthermore, according to his opinion genuine
   sons of these ancient Pelasgi continued through all times to
   dwell in different regions, and especially in Attica.

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 1, chapter 1.

   "It is inevitable that modern historians should take widely
   divergent views of a nation concerning which tradition is so
   uncertain. Some writers, among whom is Kiepert, think that the
   Pelasgi were a Semitic tribe, who immigrated into Greece. This
   theory, though it explains their presence on the coast, fails
   to account for their position at Dodona and in Thessaly. … In
   another view, which has received the assent of Thirlwall and
   Duncker, Pelasgian is nothing more than the name of the
   ancient inhabitants of the country, which subsequently gave
   way to the title Achaean, as this in its turn was supplanted
   by the term Hellenes. … We have no evidence to support the
   idea of a Pelasgic Age as a period of simple habits and
   agricultural occupations, which slowly gave way before the
   more martial age of the Achaeans. The civilization of the
   'Achaean Age' exists only in the epic poems, and the 'Pelasgic
   Age' is but another name for the prehistoric Greeks, of whose
   agriculture we know nothing."

      E. Abbott,
      History of Greece,
      part 1, chapter 2.

      ALSO IN:
      M. Duncker,
      History of Greece,
      book 1, chapter 2.

      See, also,
      DORIANS AND IONIANS;
      ŒNOTRIANS;
      ARYANS;
      ITALY: ANCIENT.

PELAYO, King of the Asturias (or Oviedo) and Leon, A. D. 718-737.

PELHAMS, The.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1742-1745; and 1757-1760.

PELIGNIANS, The.

      See SABINES.

PELISIPIA, The proposed State of.

      See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1784.

   ----------PELLA: Start--------

PELLA.

   A new Macedonian capital founded by Archelaus, the ninth of
   the kings of Macedonia.

PELLA:
   Surrendered to the Ostrogoths.

      See GOTHS (OSTROGOTHS): A. D. 473-488.

   ----------PELLA: End--------

PELOPIDS.
PELOPONNESUS.

   "Among the ancient legendary genealogies, there was none which
   figured with greater splendour, or which attracted to itself a
   higher degree of poetical interest and pathos, than that of
   the Pelopids:—Tantalus, Pelops, Atreus and Thyestes, Agamemnon
   and Menelaus and Ægisthus, Helen and Klytaemnestra, Orestes
   and Elektra and Hermione. Each of these characters is a star
   of the first magnitude in the Grecian hemisphere. … Pelops is
   the eponym or name-giver of the Peloponnesus: to find an
   eponym for every conspicuous local name was the invariable
   turn of Grecian retrospective fancy. The name Peloponnesus is
   not to be found either in the Iliad or the Odyssey, nor any
   other denomination which can be attached distinctly and
   specially to the entire peninsula. But we meet with the name
   in one of the most ancient post-Homeric poems of which any
   fragments have been preserved—the Cyprian Verses. … The
   attributes by which the Pelopid Agamemnon and his house are
   marked out and distinguished from the other heroes of the
   Iliad, are precisely those which Grecian imagination would
   naturally seek in an eponymus—superior wealth, power,
   splendour and regality."

      G. Grote,
      History of Greece,
      part 1, chapter 7.

   "Of the … family of myths … that of Pelops [is] especially
   remarkable as attaching itself more manifestly and decisively
   than any other Heroic myth to Ionia and Lydia. We remember the
   royal house of Tantalus enthroned on the banks of the Sipylus,
   and intimately associated with the worship of the Phrygian
   Mother of the Gods. Members of this royal house emigrate and
   cross to Hellas from the Ionian ports; they bring with them
   bands of adventurous companions, a treasure of rich culture
   and knowledge of the world, arms and ornaments, and splendid
   implements of furniture, and gain a following among the
   natives, hitherto combined in no political union. … This was
   the notion formed by men like Thucydides as to the epoch
   occasioned by the appearance of the Pelopidæ in the earliest
   ages of the nation; and what element in this notion is either
   improbable or untenable. Do not all the traditions connected
   with Achæan princes of the house of Pelops point with one
   consent over the sea to Lydia?"

      E. Curtius,
      History of Greece,
      book 1, chapter 3.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, The.

      See GREECE: B. C. 435-432, to B. C. 405;
      and ATHENS: B. C. 431, and after.

PELOPONNESUS, The Doric migration to.

      See DORIANS AND IONIANS.

PELTIER TRIAL, The.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1802-1803.

PELUCONES, The.

   The name of one of the parties in Chilean politics, supposed
   to have some resemblance to the English Whigs.

      E. J. Payne,
      History of European Colonies,
      page 279.

   ----------PELUSIUM: Start--------

PELUSIUM.

   "Behind, as we enter Egypt [from the east] is the treacherous
   Lake Serbonis; in front the great marsh broadening towards the
   west; on the right the level melancholy shore of the almost
   tideless Mediterranean. At the very point of the angle stood
   of old the great stronghold Pelusium, Sin, in Ezekiel's days,
   'the strength of Egypt' (xxx. 15). The most eastward
   Nile-stream flowed behind the city, and on the north was a
   port commodious enough to hold an ancient fleet. … As the
   Egyptian monarchy waned, Pelusium grew in importance, for it
   was the strongest city of the border. Here the last king of
   the Saïte line, Psammeticus III, son of Amasis, awaited
   Cambyses. The battle of Pelusium, which crushed the native
   power, may almost take rank among the decisive battles of the
   world. Had the Persians failed, they might never have won the
   command of the Mediterranean, without which they could
   scarcely have invaded Greece. Of the details of the action we
   know nothing."

      R. S. Poole,
      Cities of Egypt,
      chapter 11.

   It was at Pelusium that Pompey, defeated and flying from
   Cæsar, was assassinated.

{2498}

PELUSIUM: B. C. 47.
   Taken by the king of Pergamus.

      See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 48-47.

PELUSIUM: A. D. 616.
   Surprised by Chosroes.

      See EGYPT: A. D. 616-628.

PELUSIUM: A. D. 640.
   Capture by the Moslems.

      See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 640-646.

   ----------PELUSIUM: End--------

PEMAQUID PATENT.

      See MAINE: A. D. 1629-1631.

PEMAQUID PATENT: A. D. 1664.
   Purchased for the Duke of York.

      See NEW YORK A. D. 1664.

PEN SELWOOD, Battle of.

   The first battle fought, A. D. 1016, between the English king
   Edmund, or Eadmund, Ironsides, and his Danish rival Cnut, or
   Canute, for the crown of England. The Dane was beaten.

PENACOOK INDIANS.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PENAL LAWS AGAINST THE IRISH CATHOLICS.

      See IRELAND: A. D. 1691-1782.

PENDLE, Forest of.

   A former forest in Lancashire, England, which was popularly
   believed to be the resort of "Lancashire Witches."

PENDLETON BILL, The.

      See CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.

PENDRAGON.

      See DRAGON.

PENESTÆ, The.

   In ancient Thessaly there was "a class of serfs, or dependent
   cultivators, corresponding to the Laconian Helots, who,
   tilling the lands of the wealthy oligarchs, paid over a
   proportion of its produce, furnished the retainers by which
   these great families were surrounded, served as their
   followers in the cavalry, and were in a condition of
   villanage,—yet with the important reserve that they could not
   be sold out of the country, that they had a permanent tenure
   in the soil, and that they maintained among one another the
   relations of family and village. This … order of men, in
   Thessaly called the Penestæ, is assimulated by all ancient
   authors to the Helots of Luconia."

      G. Grote,
      History of Greece,
      part 2, chapter 3.

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN OF McCLELLAN.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862
      MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA;
      MAY: VIRGINIA,
      JUNE: VIRGINIA,
      JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA,
      JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA.

PENINSULAR WAR, The Spanish.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1807-1808 to 1812-1814.

PENN, William, and the colony of Pennsylvania.

      See PENNSYLVANIA; A. D. 1681. and after.

PENNAMITE AND YANKEE WAR.

      See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1753-1790.

   ----------PENNSYLVANIA: Start--------

PENNSYLVANIA.
   The aboriginal inhabitants and their relations to the white
   colonists.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
      DELAWARES, SUSQUEHANNAS, and SHAWANESE.

PENNSYLVANIA:A. D. 1629-1664.
   The Dutch and Swedes on the Delaware.

      See DELAWARE; A. D. 1620-1631, and after.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1632.
   Partly embraced in the Maryland grant to Lord Baltimore.

      See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1634.
   Partly embraced in the Palatine grant of New Albion.

      See NEW ALBION.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1641.
   The settlement from New Haven, on the site of Philadelphia.

      See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1640-1655.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1673.
   Repossession of the Delaware by the Dutch.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1681.
   The Proprietary grant to William Penn.

   "William Penn was descended from a long line of sailor
   ancestors. His father, an admiral in the British navy, had
   held various important naval commands, and in recognition of
   his services had been honored by knighthood. A member of
   Parliament, and possessed of a considerable fortune, the path
   of worldly advancement seemed open and easy for the feet of
   his son, who had received a liberal education at Oxford,
   continued in the schools of the Continent. Beautiful in
   person, engaging in manner, accomplished in manly exercises
   and the use of the sword, fortune and preferment seemed to
   wait the acceptance of William Penn. But at the very outset of
   his career the Divine voice fell upon his ears as upon those
   of St. Paul." He became a follower of George Fox, and one of
   the people known as Quakers or Friends. "Many trials awaited
   the youthful convert. His father cast him off. He underwent a
   considerable imprisonment in the Tower for 'urging the cause
   of freedom with importunity.' … In time these afflictions
   abated. The influence of his family saved him from the heavier
   penalties which fell upon many of his co-religionists. His
   father on his death-bed reinstated him as his heir. 'Son
   William,' said the dying man, 'if you and your friends keep to
   your plain way of preaching and living, you will make an end
   of the priests.' Some years later we find him exerting an
   influence at Court which almost amounted to popularity. It is
   evident that, with all his boldness of opinion and speech,
   Penn possessed a tact and address which gave him the advantage
   over most of his sect in dealings with worldly people. … In
   1680 his influence at Court and with moneyed men enabled him
   to purchase a large tract of land in east New Jersey, on which
   to settle a colony of Quakers, a previous colony having been
   sent out three years before to west New Jersey. Meanwhile a
   larger project filled his mind. His father had bequeathed to
   him a claim on the Crown for £16,000. Colonial property was
   then held in light esteem, and, with the help of some powerful
   friends, Penn was enabled so to press his claim as to secure
   the charter for that valuable grant which afterward became the
   State of Pennsylvania, and which included three degrees of
   latitude by five of longitude, west from the Delaware. 'This
   day,' writes Penn, January 5, 1681, 'my country was confirmed
   to me by the name of Pennsylvania, a name the king [Charles
   II.] would give it in honour of my father. I chose New Wales,
   being as this a pretty hilly country. I proposed (when the
   Secretary, a Welshman, refused to have it called New Wales)
   Sylvania, and they added Penn to it, and though I much opposed
   it, and went to the King to have it struck out and altered, he
   said 'twas past, and he would take it upon him. … I feared
   lest it should be looked upon as a vanity in me, and not as a
   respect of the King, as it truly was, to my father, whom he
   often mentions with praise.'
{2499}
   'In return for this grant of 26,000,000 of acres of the best
   land in the universe, William Penn, it was agreed, was to
   deliver annually at Windsor Castle two beaver-skins, pay into
   the King's treasury one fifth of the gold and silver which the
   province might yield, and govern the province in conformity
   with the laws of England and as became a liege of England's
   King. He was to appoint judges and magistrates, could pardon
   all crimes except murder and treason, and whatsoever things he
   could lawfully do himself, he could appoint a deputy to do, he
   and his heirs forever.' The original grant was fantastically
   limited by a circle drawn twelve miles distant from Newcastle,
   northward and westward, to the beginning of the 40th degree of
   latitude. This was done to accommodate the Duke of York, who
   wished to retain the three lower counties as an appanage to
   the State of New York. A few months later he was persuaded to
   renounce this claim, and the charter of Penn was extended to
   include the western and southern shores of the Delaware Bay
   and River from the 43rd degree of latitude to the Atlantic. …
   The charter confirmed, a brief account of the country was
   published, and lands offered for sale on the easy terms of 40
   shillings a hundred acres, and one shilling's rent a year in
   perpetuity. Numerous adventurers, many of them men of wealth
   and respectability, offered. The articles of agreement
   included a provision as to 'just and friendly conduct toward
   the natives.' … In April, 1681, he sent forward 'young Mr.
   Markham,' his relative, with a small party of colonists to
   take possession of the grant, and prepare for his own coming
   during the following year. … In August, 1682, Penn himself
   embarked."

      Susan Coolidge
      (S. C. Woolsey),
      Short History of Philadelphia,
      chapter 2.

   "The charter [to Penn], which is given complete in Hazard's
   Annals, consists of 23 articles, with a preamble. … The grant
   comprises all that part of America, islands included, which is
   bounded on the east by the Delaware River from a point on a
   circle twelve miles northward of New Castle town to the 43°
   north latitude if the Delaware extends so far; if not, as far
   as it does extend, and thence to the 43° by a meridian line.
   From this point westward five degrees of longitude on the 43°
   parallel; the western boundary to the 40th parallel, and
   thence by a straight line to the place of beginning. … Grants
   Penn rights to and use of rivers, harbors, fisheries, etc. …
   Creates and constitutes him Lord Proprietary of the Province,
   saving only his allegiance to the King, Penn to hold directly
   of the kings of England, 'as of our castle of Windsor in the
   county of Berks, in free and common socage, by fealty only,
   for all services, and not in capite, or by Knight's service,
   yielding and paying therefore to us, our heirs and successors,
   two beaver-skins.' … Grants Penn and his successors, his
   deputies and lieutenants, 'free, full, and absolute power' to
   make laws for raising money for the public uses of the
   Province, and for other public purposes at their discretion,
   by and with the advice and consent of the people or their
   representatives in assembly. … Grants power to appoint
   officers, judges, magistrates, etc., to pardon offenders."

      J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott,
      History of Philadelphia,
      chapter 7 (volume 1).

      ALSO IN:
      T. Clarkson,
      Memoirs of William Penn,
      volume 1, chapters 16-17.

      S. Hazard,
      Annals of Pennsylvania,
      pages 485-504.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1681-1682.
   Penn's Frame of Government.

   Before the departure from England of the first company of
   colonists, Penn drew up a Frame of Government which he
   submitted to them, and to which they gave their assent and
   approval by their signatures, he signing the instrument
   likewise. The next year this Frame of Government was published
   by Penn, with a preface, "containing his own thoughts upon the
   origin, nature, object, and modes of Government. … The Frame,
   which followed this preface, consisted of twenty-four
   articles; and the Laws, which were annexed to the latter, were
   forty. By the Frame the government was placed in the Governor
   and Freemen of the province, out of whom were to be formed two
   bodies; namely, a Provincial Council and a General Assembly.
   These were to be chosen by the Freemen; and though the
   Governor or his Deputy was to be perpetual President, he was
   to have but a treble vote. The Provincial Council was to
   consist of seventy-two members. One third part, that is,
   twenty-four of them, were to serve for three years, one third
   for two, and the other third for one; so that there might be
   an annual succession of twenty-four new members, each third
   part thus continuing for three years and no longer. It was the
   office of this Council to prepare and propose bills, to see
   that the laws were executed, to take care of the peace and
   safety of the province, to settle the situation of ports,
   cities, market towns, roads, and other public places, to
   inspect the public treasury, to erect courts of justice,
   institute schools, and reward the authors of useful discovery.
   Not less than two thirds of these were necessary to make a
   quorum; and the consent of not less than two thirds of such
   quorum in all matters of moment. The General Assembly was to
   consist the first year of all the freemen, and the next of two
   hundred. These were to be increased afterwards according to
   the increase of the population of the province. They were to
   have no deliberative power; but, when bills were brought to
   them from the Governor and Provincial Council, to pass or
   reject them by a plain Yes or No. They were to present
   sheriffs and justices of the peace to the Governor, a double
   number for his choice of half. They were to be elected
   annually. All elections of members, whether to the Provincial
   Council or General Assembly, were to be by ballot. And this
   Charter or Frame of Government was not to be altered, changed,
   or diminished in any part or clause of it, without the consent
   of the Governor, or his heirs or assigns, and six parts out of
   seven of the Freemen both in the Provincial Council and
   General Assembly. With respect to the Laws, which I said
   before were forty in number, I shall only at present observe
   of them that they related to whatever may be included under
   the term 'Good Government of the Province'; some of them to
   liberty of conscience; others to civil officers and their
   qualifications; others to offences; others to legal
   proceedings, such as pleadings, processes, fines,
   imprisonments, and arrests; others to the natural servants and
   poor of the province. With respect to all of them it may be
   observed, that, like the Frame itself, they could not be
   altered but by the consent of the Governor, or his heirs, and
   the consent of six parts out of seven of the two bodies before
   mentioned."

      T. Clarkson,
      Memoirs of William Penn,
      volume 1, chapter 18.

      ALSO IN:
      S. Hazard,
      Annals of Pennsylvania,
      pages 558-574.

{2500}

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1682.
   Acquisition by Penn of the claims of the Duke of York to
   Delaware.

   "During the negotiations between New Netherland and Maryland
   in 1659, the Dutch insisted that, as Lord Baltimore's patent
   covered only savage or uninhabited territory, it could not
   affect their own possession of the Delaware region.
   Accordingly, they held it against Maryland until it was taken
   from them by the Duke of York in 1664. But James's title by
   conquest had never been confirmed to him by a grant from the
   king; and Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore,
   insisted that Delaware belonged to Maryland. To quiet
   controversy, the duke had offered to buy off Baltimore's
   claim, to which he would not agree. Penn afterward refused a
   large offer by Fenwick 'to get of the duke his interest in
   Newcastle and those parts' for West Jersey. Thus stood the
   matter when the Pennsylvania charter was sealed. Its
   proprietor soon found that his province, wholly inland, wanted
   a front on the sea. As Delaware was 'necessary' to
   Pennsylvania, Penn 'endeavored to get it' from the duke by
   maintaining that Baltimore's pretension 'was against law,
   civil and common.' Charles Calvert, the third Lord Baltimore,
   was 'very free' in talking against the Duke of York's rights;
   but he could not circumvent Penn. The astute Quaker readily
   got from James a quit-claim of all his interest in the
   territory included within the proper bounds of Pennsylvania.
   After a struggle, Penn also gained the more important
   conveyances [August, 1682] to himself of the duke's interest
   in all the region within a circle of twelve miles diameter
   around Newcastle, and extending southward as far as Cape
   Henlopen. The triumphant Penn set sail the next week. At
   Newcastle he received from James's agents formal possession of
   the surrounding territory, and of the region farther south."

      J. R. Brodhead,
      History of New York,
      volume 2, chapter 7.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1682-1685.
   Penn's arrival in his province.
   His treaty with the Indians.
   The founding of Philadelphia.

   Penn sailed, in person, for his province on the 1st of
   September, 1682, on the ship "Welcome," with 100 fellow
   passengers, mostly Friends, and landed at Newcastle after a
   dreary voyage, during which thirty of his companions had died
   of smallpox. "Next day he called the people together in the
   Dutch court-house, when he went through the legal forms of
   taking possession. … Penn's great powers being legally
   established, he addressed the people in profoundest silence.
   He spoke of the reasons for his coming—the great idea which he
   had nursed from his youth upwards—his desire to found a free
   and virtuous state, in which the people should rule
   themselves. … He spoke of the constitution he had published
   for Pennsylvania as containing his theory of government; and
   promised the settlers on the lower reaches of the Delaware,
   that the same principles should be adopted in their territory.
   Every man in his provinces, he said, should enjoy liberty of
   conscience and his share of political power. … The people
   listened to this speech with wonder and delight. … They had
   but one request to make in answer; that he would stay amongst
   them and reign over them in person. They besought him to annex
   their territory to Pennsylvania, in order that the white
   settlers might have one country, one parliament, and one
   ruler. He promised, at their desire, to take the question of a
   union of the two provinces into consideration, and submit it
   to an assembly then about to meet at Upland. So he took his
   leave. Ascending the Delaware … the adventurers soon arrived
   at the Swedish town of Upland, then the place of chief
   importance in the province. … Penn changed the name from
   Upland to Chester, and as Chester it is known. Markham and the
   three commissioners had done their work so well that in a
   short time after Penn's arrival, the first General Assembly,
   elected by universal suffrage, was ready to meet. … As soon as
   Penn had given them assurances similar to those which he had
   made in Newcastle, they proceeded to discuss, amend, and
   accept the Frame of Government and the Provisional Laws. The
   settlers on the Delaware sent representatives to this
   Assembly, and one of their first acts was to declare the two
   Provinces united. The constitution was adopted without
   important alteration; and to the forty laws were added
   twenty-one others, and the infant code was passed in form. …
   Penn paid some visits to the neighbouring seats of government
   in New York, Maryland, and the Jerseys. At West River, Lord
   Baltimore came forth to meet him with a retinue of the chief
   persons in the province. … It was impossible to adjust the
   boundary, and the two proprietors separated with the
   resolution to maintain their several rights. … The lands
   already bought from the Redmen were now put up for sale at
   four-pence an acre, with a reserve of one shilling for every
   hundred acres as quit-rent; the latter sum intended to form a
   state revenue for the Governor's support. Amidst these sales
   and settlements he recollected George Fox, for whose use and
   profit he set aside a thousand acres of the best land in the
   province. … Penn was no less careful for the Redskins. Laying
   on one side all ceremonial manners, he won their hearts by his
   easy confidence and familiar speech. He walked with them alone
   into the forests. He sat with them on the ground to watch the
   young men dance. He joined in their feasts, and ate their
   roasted hominy and acorns. … Having now become intimate with
   Taminent and other of the native kings, who had approved these
   treaties, seeing great advantages in them for their people, he
   proposed to hold a conference with the chiefs and warriors, to
   confirm the former treaties and form a lasting league of
   peace. On the banks of the Delaware, in the suburbs of the
   rising city of Philadelphia, lay a natural amphitheatre, used
   from time immemorial as a place of meeting for the native
   tribes. The name of Sakimaxing—now corrupted by the white men
   into Shackamaxon—means the place of kings. At this spot stood
   an aged elm-tree, one of those glorious elms which mark the
   forests of the New World. It was a hundred and fifty-five
   years old; under its spreading branches friendly nations had
   been wont to meet; and here the Redskins smoked the calumet of
   peace long before the pale-faces landed on those shores.
   Markham had appointed this locality for his first conference,
   and the land commissioners wisely followed his example.
{2501}
   Old traditions had made the place sacred to one of the
   contracting parties,—and when Penn proposed his solemn
   conference, he named Sakimaxing [or Shackamaxon] as a place of
   meeting with the Indian kings. Artists have painted, poets
   sung, philosophers praised this meeting of the white men and
   the red [October 14, 1682]. … All being seated, the old king
   announced to the Governor that the natives were prepared to
   hear and consider his words. Penn then rose to address them. …
   He and his children, he went on to say, never fired the rifle,
   never trusted to the sword; they met the red men on the broad
   path of good faith and good will. They meant no harm, and had
   no fear. He read the treaty of friendship, and explained its
   clauses. It recited that from that day the children of Onas
   and the nations of the Lenni Lenapé should be brothers to each
   other,—that all paths should be free and open—that the doors
   of the white men should be open to the red men, and the lodges
   of the red men should be open to the white men,—that the
   children of Onas should not believe any false reports of the
   Lenni Lenape, nor the Lenni Lenape of the children of Onas,
   but should come and see for themselves, … that if any son of
   Onas were to do any harm to any Redskin, or any Redskin were
   to do harm to a son of Onas, the sufferer should not offer to
   right himself, but should complain to the chiefs and to Onas,
   that justice might be declared by twelve honest men, and the
   wrong buried in a pit with no bottom,—that the Lenni Lenape
   should assist the white men, and the white men should assist
   the Lenni Lenape, against all such as would disturb them or do
   them hurt; and, lastly, that both Christians and Indians
   should tell their children of this league and chain of
   friendship, that it might grow stronger and stronger, and be
   kept bright and clean, without rust or spot, while the waters
   ran down the creeks and rivers, and while the sun and moon and
   stars endured. He laid the scroll on the ground. The sachems
   received his proposal for themselves and for their children.
   No oaths, no seals, no mummeries, were used; the treaty was
   ratified on both sides with yea,—and, unlike treaties which
   are sworn and sealed, was kept. When Penn had sailed, he held
   a note in his mind of six things to be done on landing:

   (1) to organize his government;
   (2) to visit Friends in Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey;
   (3) to conciliate the Indians;
   (4) to see the Governor of New York, who had previously
       governed his province;
   (5) to fix the site for his capital city;
   (6) to arrange his differences with Lord Baltimore.

   The subject of his chief city occupied his anxious thought,
   and Markham had collected information for his use. Some people
   wished to see Chester made his capital; but the surveyor,
   Thomas Holme, agreed with Penn that the best locality in
   almost every respect was the neck of land lying at the
   junction of the Delaware and the Skuylkill rivers. … The point
   was known as Wicocoa. … The land was owned by three Swedes,
   from whom Penn purchased it on their own terms; and then, with
   the assistance of Holme, he drew his plan. … Not content to
   begin humbly, and allow house to be added to house, and street
   to street, as people wanted them, he formed the whole scheme
   of his city—its name, its form, its streets, its docks, and
   open spaces—fair and perfect in his mind, before a single
   stone was laid. According to his original design, Philadelphia
   was to cover with its houses, squares, and gardens, twelve
   square miles. … One year from the date of Penn's landing in
   the New World, a hundred houses had been built; two years
   later there were six hundred houses."

      W. H. Dixon,
      History of William Penn,
      chapters 24-25.

      ALSO IN:
      J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott,
      History of Philadelphia,
      volume 1, chapter 9.

      Memoirs of the Penn Historical Society,
      volume 6 (The Belt of Wampum, &c.).

      W. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay,
      Popular History of the United States,
      volume 2, chapter 20.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1685.
   The Maryland Boundary question.
   Points in dispute with Lord Baltimore.

   "The grant to Penn confused the old controversy between
   Virginia and Lord Baltimore as to their boundary, and led to
   fresh controversies. The question soon arose: What do the
   descriptions, 'the beginning of the fortieth,' and 'the
   beginning of the three and fortieth degree of northern
   latitude,' mean? If they meant the 40th and 43rd parallels of
   north latitude, as most historians have held, Penn's province
   was the zone, three degrees of latitude in width, that leaves
   Philadelphia a little to the south and Syracuse a little to
   the north; but if those descriptions meant the belts lying
   between 39° and 40°, and 42° and 43°, as some authors have
   held, then Penn's southern and northern boundaries were 39°
   and 42° north. A glance at the map of Pennsylvania will show
   the reader how different the territorial dispositions would
   have been if either one of these constructions had been
   carried out. The first construction would avoid disputes on
   the south, unless with Virginia west of the mountains; on the
   north it would not conflict with New York, but would most
   seriously conflict with Connecticut and Massachusetts west of
   the Delaware. The second construction involved disputes with
   the two southern colonies concerning the degree 39-40 to the
   farthest limit of Pennsylvania, and it also overlapped
   Connecticut's claim to the degree 41-42. Perhaps we cannot
   certainly say what was the intention of the king, or Penn's
   first understanding; but the Quaker proprietary and his
   successors adopted substantially the second construction, and
   thus involved their province in the most bitter disputes. The
   first quarrel was with Lord Baltimore. It has been well said
   that this 'notable quarrel' 'continued more than eighty years;
   was the cause of endless trouble between individuals; occupied
   the attention not only of the proprietors of the respective
   provinces, but of the Lords of Trade and Plantations, of the
   High Court of Chancery, and of the Privy Councils of at least
   three monarchs; it greatly retarded the settlement and
   development of a beautiful and fertile country, and brought
   about numerous tumults, which sometimes ended in bloodshed.'"

      B. A. Hinsdale,
      The Old Northwest,
      chapter 7.

   "As the Duke of York claimed, by right of conquest, the
   settlements on the western shores of the Bay of Delaware, and
   had, by his deed of 1682, transferred to William Penn his
   title to that country, embracing the town of Newcastle and
   twelve miles around it (as a reasonable portion of land
   attached to it), and as far down as what was then called Cape
   Henlopen; an important subject of controversy was the true
   situation of that cape, and the ascertainment of the southern
   and western boundaries of the country along the bay, as
   transferred by the Duke's deed. …
{2502}
   After two personal interviews in America, the Proprietaries
   separated without coming to any arrangement and with mutual
   recriminations and dissatisfaction. And they each wrote to the
   Lords of Plantations excusing themselves and blaming the
   other. … At length, in 1685, one important step was taken
   toward the decision of the conflicting claims of Maryland and
   Pennsylvania, by a decree of King James' Council, which
   ordered, 'that for a voiding further differences, the tract of
   land lying between the Bay of Delaware and the eastern sea, on
   the one side, and the Chesapeake Bay on the other, be divided
   into equal parts, by a line from the latitude of Cape Henlopen
   to the 40th degree of north latitude, the southern boundary of
   Pennsylvania by Charter; and that the one half thereof, lying
   towards the Bay of Delaware and the eastern sea, be adjudged
   to belong to his majesty, and the other half to Lord
   Baltimore, as comprised in his charter.' … This decree of King
   James, which evidently exhibits a partiality towa