The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.
[Pg i]
Copyright, Ewing Galloway
The Majestic, Largest Steamship in the World
[Pg ii]
[Pg iii]
[Pg iv]
[Pg v]
Popular Science Library
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
GARRETT P. SERVISS
AUTHORS
- WILLIAM J. MILLER
- HIPPOLYTE GRUENER
- A. RUSSELL BOND
- D. W. HERING
- LOOMIS HAVEMEYER
- ERNEST G. MARTIN
- ARTHUR SELWYN-BROWN
- ROBERT CHENAULT GIVLER
- ERNEST INGERSOLL
- WILFRED MASON BARTON
- WILLIAM B. SCOTT
- ERNEST J. STREUBEL
- NORMAN TAYLOR
- DAVID TODD
- CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN
- ROBIN BEACH
ARRANGED IN SIXTEEN VOLUMES
WITH A HISTORY OF SCIENCE, GLOSSARIES
AND A GENERAL INDEX
ILLUSTRATED
VOLUME SIXTEEN
P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY
NEW YORK
[Pg vi]
Copyright 1922
By P. F. Collier & Son Company
MANUFACTURED IN U. S. A.
[Pg 1]
HOW TO USE THE POPULAR
SCIENCE LIBRARY
BY
GARRETT P. SERVISS
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
BY
ARTHUR SELWYN-BROWN
GENERAL INDEX
P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY
NEW YORK
[Pg 2]
[Pg 3]
PREFACE
The final or Index volume of the Popular Science
Library not only increases the value of this great
set, but actually multiplies it. Volume XVI is in
three parts: First, the editor, Garrett Serviss, in
"How to Use the Popular Science Library," describes
the way the reader may enjoy and profit most from
its store of scientific knowledge in connection with
his everyday experiences. Then follows Arthur
Selwyn-Brown's "History of Science," an excellent
foundation for the study of man's achievements in
his struggle to understand and turn to his own use
the forces of nature. Here is a concise record of
progress from the earliest times until now—discoveries
and inventions past, present, and about to come.
The third part of Volume XVI occupies nearly
half the book. It is the General Index, which is
as complete and as practical as it is possible for an
index to be. Here, then, we have sixteen volumes
on science, every work agreeable to read, every work
complete in itself, and all of them, including the
Index, prepared by specialists, each of whom has
already gained distinction in the field he covers.
The Index binds the collection into a consistent
whole, making every bit of knowledge in the sixteen
books available to reader or student without delay.
The style employed in the Index is a standard for
such material. Volume numbers are represented by
the Roman numerals, i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, vii, viii, ix,
x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi. Pages are indicated[Pg 4]
by figures. All topics and subtopics are arranged
alphabetically.
When you read or study the Popular Science
Library, keep the Index volume at hand whenever
it is convenient. It will add greatly to your interest
and give you a depth of insight into these matters
if you can compare one author's opinions and descriptions
with those of another. If you are consulting
the Library as a reference collection for information
on particular topics, the Index will give
you volume and page for every bit of text on the
subject you are considering.
The Popular Science Library is unique in the number
and standing of its authors and in the care that
has been taken to make it the easiest as well as the
most engrossing of all scientific collections for the
reader or student to use.
[Pg 5]
CONTENTS
|
PAGE |
How to Use the Popular Science Library. By Garrett P. Serviss |
9 |
History of Science |
39-198 |
CHAPTER |
I. |
History of Science |
39 |
II. |
Primitive Man and Early Civilizations |
46 |
III. |
Pre-Babylonian Science |
56 |
IV. |
Egyptian Science |
64 |
V. |
Founding of Systematic Science in Greece |
76 |
VI. |
Golden Age of Greek Sciences |
86 |
VII. |
The Roman and Middle Ages |
97 |
VIII. |
Science in the Seventeenth Century |
106 |
IX. |
Prelude to Modern Science—The Eighteenth Century |
117 |
X. |
Physical Sciences in the Nineteenth Century |
129 |
XI. |
The Natural Sciences |
139 |
XII. |
Organic Evolution, Variation, and Heredity |
149 |
XIII. |
Chemical and Botanical Theories |
159 |
XIV. |
Geology, Metallurgy, and Meteorology |
168 |
XV. |
Medicine and Pharmacy |
178 |
XVI. |
Electricity and Radioactivities |
188 |
XVII. |
Science in the Twentieth Century |
195 |
General Index |
199-384 |
[Pg 6]
[Pg 7]
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The Majestic, Largest Steamship in the World |
Frontispiece |
|
FACING PAGE |
Eohippus—From Which the Modern Horse Developed |
16 |
Ornitholestes—A Prehistoric Animal of America |
17 |
Huntsman, Horse, and Hunting Dog of Long Ago—From an Ancient Cretan Fresco |
17 |
Prehistoric Paintings—An Exhibition of Copies from the Cavern at Altamira, Spain |
24 |
Saber-Toothed Tiger That Once Roamed Over North America |
25 |
Gutenberg's Printing Presses—Models on Exhibition |
32 |
Benjamin Franklin's Printing Press |
33 |
Model of the "Santa Maria," the Flagship of Columbus |
48 |
Curtiss Navy Racer, the Airplane That Won the Pulitzer Race of 1921 |
49 |
U. S. Army Dirigible on a Transcontinental Flight |
49 |
Electric Motor of 1834 |
64 |
Turning Lathe of 1843 |
64 |
Edison Phonograph of 1878 |
65 |
Whitney's Cotton Gin |
65 |
De Witt Clinton Train of 1831 Beside a Modern Locomotive |
80 |
Locomotive of the 1870 Period |
81 |
"John Bull," a Locomotive Brought from England in 1831 |
81[Pg 8] |
Weather and Astronomical Instruments on the Roof of Greenwich Observatory, England |
112 |
Mooring Tower for Airships, with the "R-24" Fastened Head On |
113 |
Hospital Room in Which Infected Articles Are Sterilized |
160 |
Modern Operating Room in Paris, Fitted with a Glass Dome and Radio Microphones for Observing Students and Doctors |
161 |
Edouard Belin and the Telautograph, which Transmits Pictures by Wire |
176 |
Lee De Forest, Inventor of the Oscillating Audion |
177 |
Automobile with Radio Equipment for Listening in En Tour |
177 |
Gifts for Tutankhamen Brought by One of his Viceroys |
192 |
Tutankhamen's Tomb—Bringing Up the Hathor Couch |
193 |
Queen Nefertiti, Mother-in-Law of Tutankhamen and Wife of Ahknaton |
193 |
[Pg 9]
HOW TO USE THE POPULAR
SCIENCE LIBRARY
This series of books is written for all the people
and not for specialists only, though it is the work
of specialists who know how to explain their subjects
clearly and interestingly, without unnecessary
technicalities and with keen appreciation of the
popular and constantly increasing desire for scientific
knowledge.
The supreme importance of science in the wonderful
age in which our lot has been cast was demonstrated
with overwhelming force of conviction by
the events of the World War. If, as certain persons
assert, science may be accused of having rendered
war more destructive and terrible, yet, on the other
hand, no one can deny that it was science that saved
the world from sliding backward into an age of
despotism.
The true importance of science for everybody
arises from its rapidly increasing service in the
development of human industry in all its forms,
for industry is the mother of democracy.
Said Gabriel Lippman, the French physicist, inventor
of color photography, who died in the summer
of 1921: "For thousands of years science progressed
by groping and feeling its way, and coincidentally
industry got slowly on by guesswork; but within the
last century science has developed more than during
all preceding time, while industry has sprung upon[Pg 10]
its feet and begun to march with the strides of a
giant."
Notwithstanding its immense importance and the
vast extent and complication of its application in
modern times, science is not really difficult for any
person of ordinary school education and of good
natural intelligence to comprehend, provided it is
presented in a clear, plain, common sense manner,
in popular language with illustrations drawn from
everyday life and experience. The much talked-of
methods of science are, after all, nothing more than
the methods of common sense, applied with systematic
care by minds disciplined to a high degree of
efficiency. And, in fact, the only practical difference
between the mind of a trained scientist and that of
any other intelligent person is that the scientist has
acquired a way or habit of looking at and thinking
about things and events, which enables him to get at
their inmost nature and meaning more swiftly and
accurately than he could do if he went to work in a
haphazard manner as, in truth, his forerunners
of the earlier centuries were obliged to do. The
pioneer must always work by rule of thumb, but
when he has exploited his field he knows better ways.
Each branch of science has its own particular
methods, but it is not necessary for the average
reader to study these special methods in order to
become able to grasp the facts and principles that
have been developed by them. The results are all
thrown into a common store—or should be if science
is to attain its utmost usefulness to humanity—and
from the common store the great public, the people
at large, should be enabled freely to draw. The
object of this series of books is to form such a store
of science for the people.
[Pg 11]
It may encourage those who look with some
degree of timidity upon the task of trying to understand
the great discoveries and achievements of
modern science to know that even the ablest scientists,
leaders in their own particular branches, do
not pretend, or attempt, to grasp the special methods
or the technicalities of any division of science except
that one in which their own work is done. They
stand, with regard to other branches, practically on
the same footing with the unscientific reader, having
over him only such possible advantages as
their special training in clear thinking and in the
intense application of the mental powers may
give them.
Besides, science is really the most interesting
thing in the world—outside of men and women—and
they would be less interesting, even to themselves,
if science had not transformed their lives as well
as their surroundings. If one of Voltaire's favorite
messengers from some other, wiser world had visited
our earth a few hundred years ago, or even only one
hundred, and should now repeat his call, he would be
amazed, and no doubt delighted, by the changes in
every feature of life and society which he would find
that science had brought about, as if by magic,
during the interval between his visits. He would be
likely to exclaim: "Some great teacher and trainer
from a more enlightened part of the universe must
have been here since I saw this world before. What a
marvelous new spirit he has imparted to these creatures.
Through him they have become more masterful
and more like sons of God."
See if you can find a single detail of your daily life
that is not affected by science, or upon which science
does not throw new light. It is fascinating to trace[Pg 12]
out the scientific relations of the simplest things that
surround us, or the most ordinary occurrences and
incidents.
Start with your first awakening in the morning,
and you will perceive that there is not a thing that
you see, or that in any way attracts your attention,
that is not touched and illuminated by science, and
often in the most unexpected and delightful ways.
It is by considering these things that one may best
perceive how to use the volumes of this little library.
As you open your eyes in the morning you see a
bright glow through the window curtain, then you
know that the sun has risen.
But stop a moment. What does that mean—"the
sun has risen"? The sun has not "risen" at all.
But, one of the greatest facts of the science of
astronomy is illustrated before your eyes—a fact
that it took mankind thousands of years to find out.
You are standing in the astronomer's shoes now, if
you choose to wear them. This is a part of his field
of science. It took him a long time to convince
the world that the "rising" of the sun in the east
next morning after its "setting" in the west really
means that the globular earth has turned half way
over during the night. If this seems simple to you
now, it seemed very hard to comprehend to our
remote ancestors, who, though reasoning men like
ourselves, had not learned as much about the relativity
of motion as we now know, though even we may
be puzzled by some of the consequences that Einstein
has drawn from it. And a hundred other things
that astronomy has discovered about the sun and the
other suns, called stars, and the other worlds, called
planets, immediately rush to your mind, and you
turn to the volume on astronomy to read about them.
[Pg 13]
But this is only a beginning of the string of everyday
incidents that are rendered curiously interesting
as soon as their scientific relations and meanings
become evident to you. Science is right at your
elbow to raise questions and to answer them the
moment you step out of bed, and your mind begins
to work.
As you throw open the window to see what kind
of a day it is going to be, whether fair, or cloudy, or
rainy, cool or warm, you draw your conclusions
from the appearance of sky and air, but in doing
that you are entering another field covered by another
branch of science and included in our little
library—meteorology, or the realm of the air—and
you may be sure that the correctness of the conclusions
that you draw from the aspect of the clouds
and the feeling of the air will be greatly increased,
not only in certainty, but also in interest, if you
read what the students of this subject have learned
about the laws and the mysteries of the rains, clouds,
cyclones, barometric pressures, great winds and
genial breezes, great storms and little storms; in
short, the whole wonderful science of the atmosphere,
that invisible, yet powerful kingdom of
the air, which we are just beginning to annex
to our world of activities without regard to what
its natural occupants, the birds, think of such
an invasion.
Now you leave the window to begin making your
morning ablutions. You turn on a faucet and take
a drink, or plunge hands and face into the refreshing
liquid, so cool, lively, and invigorating. But a bird
or any four-footed animal may find just as keen
physical enjoyment in the touch and taste of the
water as you do. You, however, because you are a[Pg 14]
thinking being, possess a source of enjoyment
from the touch and appearance of the water that is
not open to those humbler creatures, and that source
of enjoyment springs from the principles and facts
of another branch of science which the mere sight
of the running water may call to mind if you have
caught the spirit of these books—the science of chemistry,
whose early history is filled with that irresistible
kind of romance that pertains to the search for
Eldorado, or the strivings of the human spirit after
the powers of magic; for the realm of chemistry
was once a kind of semi-scientific dreamland, wherein
the "alchemists" delved at the same time for the
"philosopher's stone" which was to turn base metal
into gold, and for the wand of the magician which
would give to its possessor the boundless gratifications
of a Faust. Water is no mystery to the
lower animals, but it is a great mystery even yet
to the highest ones—ourselves—because we have
been enabled to analyze it. You cannot look at it
pouring from the faucet, and sparkling into bubbles,
without recalling the fact that it is composed of two
invisible, silent gases, and that chemistry tells us
not only how to make the water disappear by
taking those gases apart, but also how to form new
water by making the two gases combine. The mystery
is—why should this be so? It is a captivating
question, and the business of the book on chemistry
is to give you all possible light on the solution of
that question, and others of a like nature. You will
find, too, that the very latest chemistry has, strangely
enough, discovered a sort of justification for the
extravagant expectations of the ancient alchemists,
by finding a way in which one substance may actually
change, or be changed, into another, different[Pg 15]
substance—one "element" taking the form of
another "element"—and also by getting clues to
the existence of marvelous locked-up energies in
matter, the release of which would give man
control over powers that could properly be called
"magical."
After finishing your toilet, with all the suggestions
and remembrances of chemical science that it has
produced, you start to quicken the circulation of
your blood by catching up a pair of dumb-bells, or
Indian clubs, or by pulling elastic cords, or banging
a leather ball with your fists, as if you meant to go in
for the championship of the world. Now, what
taught you the value of such exercises? You are
still on the ground of science, and you are practically
demonstrating the principles of another of its
branches—the science of health, or hygiene, which
is a part of the subject of medicine, taken in its
broadest signification, for, as the volume on that
subject will assure you, the greatest service that
this science can render to mankind is in teaching us
the laws of our physical existence, and indicating,
directly or indirectly, how all the functions of the
body may be kept in the best working order by
proper attention and exercise. You will find such
things pointed out in the several sciences that deal
with the body, such as physiology and medicine.
While you are making the leather ball strike the
ceiling with resounding whacks, your dog, excited
by the inspiring noise, bursts into the room, and
interrupts your exercise with his enthusiastic morning
greetings, expressed as energetically by his wagging
tail as by his joyous barks and licks, all anticipatory
of a lively morning run. He brings immediately
into your mind the thought of still another
division of science—zoölogy—to which you will devote
many pleasant half-hours of reading, for it is
full of most entertaining matter, as well as of matter
calculated to awaken profound and useful thought
concerning the relations of the many different members
of the animal world to one another, and especially
to their head and chief, man, to whom the
supervision of the whole was, according to the Bible
story, originally committed. Familiar as your dog
may be to you, there are a hundred particulars of
his family relationships, his descent from wild
ancestors, etc., which can only become known to you
through the studies that have been devoted to the
science of zoölogy by curious-minded investigators
from the times of Aristotle and Pliny down to our
own day, when we have seen an ex-President of the
United States wandering adventurously through
some of the remotest portions of the inhabited globe,
seeking fresh knowledge of, and personal acquaintance
with, the rarer kinds of wild animals, and hunting
down in their native wilds great beasts which
the Cæsars used to admire from the security of the
imperial seat, high above the bloody sands of the
Roman arenas. And this modern ruler, after having
laid down the political power intrusted to him by
fellow citizens, found no occupation so attractive as
that of adding something to the growing stores of
science.
[Pg 16]
Painting, Chas. R. Knight. (American Museum of Natural History)
THE LITTLE EOHIPPUS. FROM WHICH THE MODERN HORSE DEVELOPED
[Pg 17]
ORNITHOLESTES—PREHISTORIC ANIMAL OF AMERICA
Photo, Metropolitan Museum
HUNTSMAN. HORSE AND HUNTING DOG OF LONG AGO
From an ancient Cretan fresco
Next, your stomach, awakened to its wants and
needs by the restored circulation resulting from your
lively exercises, reminds you of what will be at the
same time a pleasure and a means of sustained
strength for body and mind, your breakfast. Breakfast
properly comes under the supervision of the
science of physiology. It is also suggestive of mechanics
and physics, since it has to do with the
stoking of the furnace that keeps the bodily engine
up to its work. Here you are face to face with a
branch of science which you could no more safely
neglect than an engineer or a fireman could neglect
to learn the elements and principles underlying his
critically important occupation. One of the first
sciences to be systematically developed was that of
man's body, including its structure, or anatomy, and
its functioning, or internal action, physiology. You
will find that correct ideas on these subjects were
slow in being developed, yet even in the most
ancient times men were shrewd and wise enough
to understand the importance of knowing something
about their own bodies, in order to be able
to take proper care of them, and to deal with
wounds and sickness.
It was an old saying that "the proper study of
mankind is man." But that is a study which has
two main branches. The first covers the subjects of
physiology, anatomy, medicine, etc., while the second
relates to that even more intimate part of ourselves
which has ever been a fascinating mystery, and
which we call the mind, or sometimes the soul. This
is the theme of the science of psychology, whose
name comes from that delicate, inscrutable spirit,
Psyche, the Soul, which plays like a flitting sunbeam
through the magical atmosphere of Greek mythology.
Now, this subtle and exquisite science,
often more poetic and mystic than scientific in its
original character, presents itself in its more sober
and practical dress to you as soon as, having finished
your breakfast and prepared your bodily energies
for the day's work, you begin to meditate on the
problems of the day opening before you.
[Pg 18]
When you went to bed, perhaps your mind was
agitated by some important matter of business
through whose intricacies you could not clearly see
your way. You turned and tossed on your pillow,
and stated and restated the facts and arguments and
lines of reasoning, but all the while they became more
obscure and entangled until at last, in sheer exhaustion,
you fell into a troubled sleep. But this morning,
to your immense surprise and gratification,
without any effort on your part, and while you are
occupied with other things—putting on your clothes,
hitting the ball, playing with the dog, eating your
bacon and eggs, or what not—suddenly the elusive
clue or solution, so vainly sought the night before,
presents itself plain before you. In an instant, in
the twinkling of an eye, the troublesome problem is
solved, as easily and naturally as water runs down
hill, and you are provoked at yourself for having
been so dull and stupid as not to see it all before.
But not so fast! You were stupid, to be sure, but
it was not your mind's fault as you are now disposed
to think, but the trouble lay in your physical fatigue.
You were driving your brain too long without refreshment,
and it became like an engine whose oil
cups are empty. It could not receive and report the
impressions of thought.
Now this kind of experience comes many times
to many men and women, and it is the purpose of
the book on psychology in this series to make everybody
acquainted with the laws of the working of
our minds through our brains. Yet, how many of
those who are frequently puzzled by such things
are aware that there is a branch of science, one of
the most captivatingly interesting of all, devoted
especially to this subject? By studying the volume[Pg 19]
on psychology you will get light on just such things
as so greatly puzzled you, and haunted you, before
the solution of your problem unexpectedly rose up,
as it were, and stood plain before you on the breakfast
table, after having for twenty-four hours resisted
your utmost efforts to master it, or even to
get an effective hold upon it. It is unnecessary to
speak of the immense importance to all human
beings of a knowledge of the laws governing the
manifestations of the mind, by taking advantage of
which they may get the most out of themselves with
the least loss of time and expenditure of effort.
Let us keep on further along the wonderful road
of science on which your feet begin almost unknowingly
to tread from the moment of your awakening,
and which they follow, often just as unconsciously,
until you fall asleep at the close of another day;
while, as we have just seen, even when we are asleep
our minds are not altogether inactive, and may even
secretly disentangle the puzzles of the day while our
tired brains are restoring themselves with slumber.
Perhaps you live in the suburbs of a city, or far
from the business center, and have to take a considerable
journey from your house to your place of
work or business. Maybe you go by automobile, or
by street car, or by a trolley route, or take a commuters'
train. In any event, whether you drive
your own car, or ride in one drawn by a motor or a
locomotive engine, you are brought face to face with
the science of physics, including, of course, not only
mechanics, but also, in our own day, electricity
and magnetism. If you glance at a steam locomotive,
puffing and blowing, and then at a smooth,
silent electric motor drawing a long train, and then
at a swift automobile winding and turning with[Pg 20]
serpentine agility through crowds of slow horse-drawn
vehicles—in all cases your memory must
recall the long, hard road by which these things were
brought about, and you must be lacking in intelligent
curiosity if you do not resolve to know for yourself,
not only the history of these triumphs of human
invention, but the principles of action upon which
they depend. If you have a car, it would be a good
thing to drive it yourself and learn to take care of
its machinery yourself, for thus you would go far
toward mastering the elementary principles of the
science of mechanics, which has done more than all
other things combined to transform the face of the
world we live in. You cannot, of course, acquire all
this knowledge by practical experience, but by putting
together what you observe with what you read
in the volumes devoted to mechanics, physics, chemistry,
electricity, etc., you will find that every day
is a school day for you in which you have learned
something new, useful, and interesting, and something,
moreover, which every wide-awake person in
this wide-awake age ought necessarily to know, and
can know by pursuing such a course as that just suggested.
Your morning's ride to work will be transformed
into a delightful intellectual experience if
you prepare yourself by a little daily reading to
understand the construction and manner of working
of all the machines, engines, and mechanisms
presented on every side to your inspection.
But machinery is not everything in life. Suppose
that as you ride along your eye is caught by the great
beauty of the flower gardens by the roadside, their
blossoms bright in the morning sunshine and sparkling
with the yet undried dew, as if sprinkled with
diamonds. Perhaps your attention may never be[Pg 21]fore
have happened to be called so strongly to these
objects, and possibly you have hitherto remained
almost unacquainted with the names and peculiarities
of some of the most common plants and flowers.
But this morning, for some accidental reason, which
may have a psychological origin, you are particularly
charmed with the brilliant sight, and you resolve
that you will be no longer ignorant of what could,
manifestly, give you so much pleasure, besides being
of unquestionable usefulness. When you return
home you will take up the volume on botany, and it
may lead you into a realm of mental delight previously
unknown to you.
If it is the springtime, you may be interested by
the sight of a tall, graceful tree, as lofty as a pine,
and as straight in trunk, with many exquisite blossoms
hanging from the pendulous stems on its great
limbs, fifty or more feet above the ground, as if it
were a flower garden in the air for the special delectation
of the birds. Having never heard of a flowering
tree outside the tropics, you feel a keen desire to
know what this one is, and thus a way of introduction,
founded on keen, personal interest, is opened
for you to the science of botany. And few persons
can take a ride, or a walk, anywhere in city or country
or park, without having attention attracted by
some unknown flower or plant, or tree, and without
becoming aware how much pleasure is lost, and how
much useful knowledge missed, by lack of the easily
acquired knowledge of these things, which anybody
can have by giving to it only that amount of time
which would otherwise be wasted almost as completely
as if the eyes were kept closed and the mind
dismissed from its home in the brain. More mysterious,
and not less fascinating than flowers and[Pg 22]
trees, are the birds and insects that flit by on their
own errands. To explain them you have the volume
on zoölogy, the science of animal life. Botany and
zoölogy together go far to revolutionize the ordinary
man's ideas about the attractiveness of outdoor life.
For the cultivator of the soil, whether farmer,
gardener, or fruit grower, botany, of course, is the
queen of sciences—though he may not safely remain
ignorant of the others mentioned, which form a
brilliant court for his queen. In no direction has
science lately proved itself so indispensable as in
the application of botanical knowledge to the improvement
of agricultural operations of all kinds.
In France, always one of the richest of lands in this
respect, the government has since the war made
special provisions for placing instruction in botany
and plant physiology, and the results of all advances
in the science of the vegetable kingdom, before the
pupils of the primary as well as those of the secondary
and higher schools. Botanical reading and
study are encouraged in every possible way. One
of the most significant propositions for the extension
of this educational reform consists in the suggestion
that the schools in the country districts give much
more attention to the various branches of botanical
knowledge than the city schools do, for the purpose
not only of supplying instruction that will be of fundamental
practical use to the young people who grow
up on the land and are to make its cultivation their
life's occupation, but also of stimulating a love of the
country for itself, its scenes, its atmosphere, its
society, its amusements, and its simple, beautiful,
and healthful ways of life.
As your train, or car, rushes through a rock cut
where the roadway has been carried, without change[Pg 23]
of level or grade, through the round back of a hill,
you may happen to see on the side walls of the
excavation curious striations, or cross checkings, of
the rock surface, or alternate strata, or layers, of
varying color and texture; some composed of
smooth-faced stone, of a dark, uniform color, and
others of coarse granular masses of variegated hue,
some of whose particles flash like microscopic mirrors
in the glancing sunlight that grazes the top of
the cut. Here, then, you are plunged into the
wonder world of the geologist and the mineralogist,
the subject of one of the most interesting of our
volumes. That man must indeed be dull of intellect
who does not feel a thrill of interest at the sight of
these signs and inscriptions, written by the ancient
hand of nature in the rocks, and telling, in language
far more easily decipherable than the hieroglyphics
of Egypt, the story of the gradual growth of this
round planet on whose surface we are confined, like
flies or ants, as it rotates and revolves in empty
space, circling with us around a star, ninety-three
million miles away, called the sun, which saw the
birth of our world and has ever since kept it warmed
and lighted with its rays.
In those layers of rock in the railway cut you see
the leaves of the book of geology, infinitely older
than the oldest scripture from man's hands, and
relating things that occurred in those far-off nights
and mornings of time that flitted over the globe ages
before the human stem had set off from the trunk
of terrestrial life. These geologic pages speak of
occurrences in the building of the world that happened
millions of years ago, and millions of years
apart, though they have left marks and vestiges that
the eye can discern as easily as if they had been the
work of yesterday. No observant person can ride
twenty miles through the country, especially in a
hilly region, without having the fundamental facts
of geology continually before him, and all that he
needs in order to comprehend these things is a little
preparatory reading, accompanied and followed by
intelligent thought and observation. Anybody to
whom all rocks look alike, and all hills the same,
needs a little awakening of the mind. He is one of
the persons had in view when this series was conceived
and written, and he has no occasion to feel
in the slightest degree offended by such a statement,
for the simple fact that probably ninety-nine one-hundredths
of his fellow citizens, and they among
the best in the community, are just as unfamiliar
with the plainest facts of geology as he is. Geology
is not a difficult science to master in its main outlines,
and there are few more fascinating when once
its drift is caught. Even the beginner in the reading
of the volume on geology, by seizing such chances of
observation as every ride or walk affords, may in a
very short time acquire the ability to read the history
of a landscape from its face, to recognize the work
of the glaciers in the great Age of Ice, to see where
ancient streams flowed, or where molten rock has
gushed up through the surface layers of the earth's
crust, and even to recognize on sight some of the
fossils, which are under everybody's feet in some
parts of the country, and which still retain the forms
of animals some of which were among the primal
inhabitants of the earth, whose lines have died out,
while others, though their individual lives expired
tens or hundreds of millions of years ago, bear in
their fossilized forms a close resemblance to modern
relatives and descendants whose generations still
flourish in the living world in this twentieth century
of man's latest historic era.
Presently, turning from the attractions of the outdoor
world, which seem just as entrancing the hundredth
time you look upon them as they did the first
time, particularly if you have cultivated the habit
not merely of noticing but of thinking and reading
about them, you take up the morning newspaper, in
which most of your companions of the car are
already deeply buried, and amid the political news,
the personal gossip, the inevitable exploitation of
the deeds of criminals, the foreign intelligence, and
the social gossip that falls under your eyes, your
attention is caught (this is an actual happening of
not long ago) by the headline: "John Daniel, the
orang-utan, is dead." This sounds odd. There has
been no animal's obituary in the papers since Barnum
lost his biggest elephant, and bequeathed its
skeleton to science. You read further and find an
interview with a professor about the human relationships,
or apparent relationships, of the anthropoid
apes, of whom "John Daniel" would probably have
been the acknowledged king if his relatives of the
woods could have understood the regard in which
he was held by his white-skinned and clothes-wearing
jailers. You will probably cut out that paragraph
and put it aside for further consideration,
remembering that there are at least three volumes
in your Popular Science set at home, that on
zoölogy, that on geology, and that on anthropology,
in which there will be an abundance of interesting
and authoritative matter bearing on this most important
subject—for important you will consider
it now that the death of a kind of caricature of
humanity in the zoölogical garden that had so long[Pg 26]
amused the children as well as their elders with its
humanlike motions, habits, looks, and pranks, has
suddenly brought the whole question up among the
news of the day, affording you a new light on a
matter which you had hitherto thought to belong
exclusively to the field of the professors of zoölogy
and their students. Hereafter you will disposed
to take a broader view of all these things, and will
be in a better position to understand and enjoy the
discussions of learned scientists when they are interviewed
by newspaper men on subjects of this
kind. The inquiring spirit of the time requires this
concession even if in your private opinion there is no
real relationship between men and apes. And, without
regard to any such questions, you will find the
volume on anthropology immensely interesting and
informing.
Finally, as your morning's trip comes to an end,
your attention is recalled from the natural to the
mechanical sciences. You descend from your car or
train, to go to your office. Your now fully awakened
mind, alert to all the scientific relations of
everything about you, can no longer keep from
dwelling upon the underlying meanings of this marvelous
display of realized human dreams. With the
speed of the wind you are carried deep under the
city's pavements, inclosed in a little flying parlor,
in the midst of an artificial subterranean daylight,
far beyond the reach of the solar rays, emulating the
self-luminous creatures of the deep sea bottom; or
you go shooting past the window of third, fourth,
and fifth stories, or even above the levels of roofs,
and you cannot but reflect and marvel that electricity
does it all; electricity, that strange imp with blue
star eyes no bigger than pin points, and a child's
crown of little crinkling, piercing rays, which seemed
so amusing when you were at school in the old days
of frictional electric machines, when it was a great
joke to give the cat a shock and see her flee with a
squall, her hair standing on end in spite of herself.
But now electricity has become a giant of unrivaled
and terrific power, spurning the heavy-limbed Brobdingnag,
steam, from its swift path, and fast making
the world all its own—except its master, man,
who is still, however, half afraid of his new and
all-capable servant.
[Pg 24]
EXHIBITION OF COPIES OF PREHISTORIC PAINTINGS FROM THE CAVERNS AT ALTAMIRA, SPAIN
[Pg 25]
Painting by Chas. R. Knight. Photo, American Museum of Natural History
THE SABER-TOOTHED TIGER THAT ROAMED OVER NORTH AMERICA IN
PREHISTORIC TIMES
[Pg 27]
This modern genie of limitless power, conjured out
of his deceptive bottle, can do the smallest as well as
the greatest things for you. When, upon reaching
your office, you telephone to your wife that Mr. Blank
will be home to dinner with you, you cannot form
the slightest idea of how the miracle of distant
speech is accomplished unless you are either an
electrician yourself, or have read intelligently upon
the subject of the applications of electricity to the
motivation of all kinds of machinery, a subject to
which an entire volume is devoted in our series. It
would be a kind of shame and reproach to an intelligent
man to be ignorant of the way his telephone
works, and of the simple scientific principle on which
it is constructed. If telephones, and such things,
were products of nature and grew on trees, we might
be excusable for not knowing exactly their secret;
but being made by men, with the same limitations
as those that circumscribe us all, we ought at least to
understand them.
Thus, by a simple review of the series of common
happenings that arrive every day to everybody, we
perceive how intimately and indissolubly the various[Pg 28]
branches of science treated of in this compact library
of science, are linked with all that we do, including
our most unconscious acts and our most habitual
subjects of thought. We have taken for illustration
the morning history of a person supposed to live
amid urban or suburban surroundings. Equally
illuminating would be that of an inhabitant of a
village or a rural district, and even more suggestive
in many respects. The dweller in the country is
brought into closer association with the infinitely
changing aspects of nature than the city dweller
enjoys. The simplest incident in the life of a person
living on a farm may be the beginning of a thread
of connection leading, like the clue of a labyrinth,
into the heart of some of the most marvelous departments
of science, and resulting in a mental revolution
for the fortunate person who follows out the
clue under such guidance as these volumes afford.
The writer has remembered from boyhood the indelible
impression made upon his mind by the finding
of an Indian arrowhead in a recently ploughed
field. The shapeliness of the beautifully chipped
piece of flint, almost as translucent at the edges as
horn, the delicate tapering point which, as if by
miracle, had remained unbroken probably since colonial
times, the two curious little "ears" carefully
formed on each side of the flat triangular base to
facilitate attachment to the head of the arrow, and
the thought, suggested by older persons, that this
weapon might actually have been used in some midnight
attack on a white settlement, made more terrifying
by the frightful Mohawk war whoop and the
display of the reeking scalps of human victims in
the glare of burning stockade and cabins—all these
things bred a keen desire to learn the particulars of[Pg 29]
the history of the red warriors of the Five Nations,
the "Romans of the New World," and also to know
something about the life and customs of this strange,
savage race of mankind which continued to live in an
"age of stone" on a continent that had never known
civilization. No volume like that on the history
and development of man in this series existed at
that time; but if such a book had existed and had
fallen into the hands of the finder of the arrowhead,
it would surely have fascinated him more than
"Robinson Crusoe" did, because a boy can distinguish
as readily as a grown person the superior
interest of the true over the pretended, provided
that the true possesses the real elements of
romance.
So, too, the writer remembers having an interest
in mineralogy awakened in his mind, never to be
obliterated, by the sight of another plowed field, in
the southern skirts of the Adirondack Mountains,
whose freshly turned furrows glittered in the sunshine
with thickly scattered quartz crystals, some of
the larger and more perfect of which blazed across,
the whole breadth of the field, like huge diamonds,
and made the heart of the finder beat with an excitement
akin to that of the discoverer of a Koh-i-noor.
There were also some very curious "stone buttons"
which one could break out with a hammer from slate
rocks along the Schoharie Creek, and which, when
cracked open, were found to be composed of pyrites
that resembled pure silver—and sometimes gold—freshly
broken. Now, things of this sort are always
attracting the attention and awakening the curiosity
of children living in the country, but the real
pleasure and instruction that they might afford are
usually missed because of the lack in the family[Pg 30]
library of popularly written books on the natural
sciences—a lack that we are trying to supply.
For city children and their elders, whose eyes are
constantly greeted, not by hills, creeks, ponds, rivers,
woods, and fields, but by sky-aspiring buildings,
railroads elevated on stilts, multiple-decked suspension
bridges, electric power houses, tunnels that
form a second city underground, and the thousand
marvels and splendors of electric illumination at
night, the volumes on physics, mechanics, and
electricity and magnetism have a more immediate
interest and value. What the children learn about
these things in school is far from sufficient to
satisfy their curiosity. They need books at home
to guide their inquiries as well as to answer
them. Only by that means can the diffusion of
scientific knowledge, and the popularization of the
scientific method of getting at the truth and the
meaning of things be thoroughly effected. Science,
as its history plainly demonstrates, progresses most
rapidly only when a great number of minds have
been led to concentrate their powers upon its problems.
Great genius, it is true, rides over obstacles;
yet consider how much further its energies might
have carried it if the obstacles had been more or less
completely removed in advance. Many a young man
has been led to a brilliant career, to the great advantage
of his country and his time, as a result of
the interest awakened in him by the clear statements
of a popularly written book on some branch of
science.
One of the difficulties that persons unfamiliar with
certain branches of science encounter in reading
about them arises from the excessive use of technical
terms, the lack of simple illustrative examples, and[Pg 31]
also, sometimes, a lack of sympathetic appreciation
of the reader's difficulties. It has been a special
object of this series to avoid this trouble. Ordinary
textbooks are prepared for students in school and
are intended to be supplemented by the personal instruction
and guidance of a teacher, standing at the
pupil's elbow, or readily approachable. But the
reader who wishes to inform himself upon some progressive
branch of science after his school days are
over needs to have the teacher included in the book
itself.
Then, too, there are many persons who have no
comprehension of the great and gratifying power
that a knowledge of some of the elementary principles
and formulas of science bestows upon anybody
who may take the little trouble necessary to
master them, a trouble that does not imply a long
course of scientific study. The "man in the street,"
if he possesses these easy-working keys to knowledge,
can verify for himself some of the calculations
of scientists which, if he did not know how they were
done, would always remain for him in the category
of the mysterious achievements of genius.
To illustrate, let us take a simple example—that
of the Newtonian law of falling bodies. Many persons
would assume on the face of it that there was
nothing in this law that could have a particular interest
for them. But let us see. You will find in
the volume on physics that the law is stated thus:
S = ½gt2, i. e., "S equals one-half of the product of
g multiplied by t squared." As you look at it you
would, perhaps, as soon think of picking up a complicated
tool and trying to use it for some ordinary
purpose. Nevertheless, let us try. "S" in the formula
means the space or distance traversed by the
falling body, "g" means the velocity that the force
of gravity imparts in each successive second to the
body, and "t" means the time elapsed during the
fall. What the formula tells us, then, is that if we
observe the time during which the body is falling,
and then square the number of seconds involved
(multiply the number by itself), multiply this square
by "g," which is represented practically everywhere
on the face of the earth by the number 32, and finally
divide the whole by 2, we shall have the distance that
the body fell. This distance will be in feet, since the
number 32, representing "g," is in feet. Now, it
might be a matter of life and death, or at any rate
of mental discomfort against quietude of mind, to
have that rule in memory and to be able to apply it.
For instance, you are on your vacation and stopping
in a strange hotel, where they have put you in the
top story. On looking out of the window you
are dismayed at finding no fire escape, or other appliance
of safety, so that your only resource in case
of fire would be to make a rope out of the bedclothes
and let yourself down with it. But, how far is it to
the ground? How long should the rope be? Are
there sheets enough on your bed to furnish it? The
little formula about falling bodies will answer the
question for you in five minutes. First, you let some
small solid object drop from the window, and note
by your watch, or by counting seconds, which everybody
ought to teach himself to do, how long it takes
to reach the ground. You repeat the experiment
two or three times to make sure. Say the time comes
out three seconds. Very well, now apply the rule:
The square of 3 is 9, and 9 multiplied by 32 gives
288, and dividing by 2 you have 144 feet for the
height! It is to be feared that your bedclothes rope
would not be long enough; you had better send to
the office for something to supplement it. But if the
time of fall should be only 2 seconds, which is more
likely, except in skyscraper hotels, then the calculation
would give you 64 feet for the height, which you
might manage with the aid of the bedclothes.
[Pg 32]
MODELS OF GUTENBERG'S PRINTING PRESSES
The models show three stages of development, the first of them at the right
[Pg 33]
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S PRINTING PRESS
The original is now in the National Museum at Washington
This is only a single example among many that
could be given to show the usefulness and interest
of many of the formulas of science which the ordinary
reader looks upon as beyond the reach of any
person whose occupation leads him another way.
But cases of equal simplicity could be found in connection
with the subjects of electricity and magnetism,
chemistry, medicine, physiology, etc. Sometimes
it happens that a technical word contains its
own definition and explanation in a nutshell. A
striking instance of this will be found in astronomy,
in the word "light-year." The meaning of this word
stands forth on its face—it evidently expresses the
distance that light travels in the course of one year.
Now, since it is known by means of direct measurement
that light goes at the rate of 186,300 miles per
second, manifestly a light-year must be equivalent
to an enormous number of miles. In fact that number,
roundly stated, is no less than 5,860,000,000,000.
But to what marvelous regions of thought such a
term opens the way! Yonder star is 2,000 light-years
distant from the earth; then its light-waves
now entering your eyes left it when Julius Cæsar
was conquering Gaul, and have been speeding on
their way to the earth ever since! Another star is
found to be 5,000 light-years distant; then the light
by which you now see it started from the star when
Abraham set out from Ur of the Chaldees to settle
in the Holy Land, and has not found a resting place[Pg 34]
anywhere in boundless space until just now when
its tiny waves break and expire on the retina of your
eye! Such treasures of knowledge and tonics to
thought are scattered all through the volumes of this
set, the purpose of whose publishers, editors, and
writers has been to accumulate such things in small
compass and in crystal clearness, for the use not
only of those who, after their school days are over,
still wish to keep abreast of the progress of science
in all its branches—as everyone should strive to do
in this most scientific of all ages—but also for those
who have hitherto not had the time, or the opportunity,
or perhaps even the desire, to make themselves
at home in the house of science.
It may be well to add a few words on the interrelation
of the different subjects treated in the
various volumes of the series. This will suggest to
the reader himself the best order in which to take
up the reading of the books. Naturally he will desire
to obtain both a clear general view of the whole
field of science, and also more detailed acquaintance
with its special parts, the amount of detail depending
upon his particular interest in a subject. For the
first purpose the preferable way would be to run
first over the brief account that follows in this
volume, of the history and development of science in
general, and then to take up the simpler and more
easily grasped branches.
But it should be firmly kept in mind that, fundamentally,
science is one, having in all its branches
but one aim and object, viz., the ascertainment and
demonstration of the exact truth of things as far
as human capacities are able to reveal and comprehend
such truth, and also but one method of procedure,
which is the method of common sense[Pg 35]
trained to the utmost attainable exactitude in observation
and the greatest possible clearness and
precision of reasoning. Science properly so-called
confines itself to things that are subject to observation
by the senses and to verification by repeated
observation and experiment, while its reasonings
and predictions are based entirely upon the unvarying
sequence of the phenomena of nature, as they
display themselves before us.
Science is just as one and inseparable as life, or
as an organic being, and its divisions no more imply
lack of unity than do the various organs and limbs
of an animal, or a tree, or the different structural
parts of a building. Astronomy is not entirely independent
of geology, nor geology of botany, nor botany
of chemistry, nor any of these of physics, nor
physics of electricity and magnetism, nor the last
of physiology and medicine. Accordingly the question
where to begin in studying science is not one
that can be answered in the same way for everybody.
But the spirit is the same in all the branches.
Perhaps the best general indication of the order in
which a person who has no predilection for any one
branch of science should take up the various parts
is afforded by their historic development. This was
a result of the natural reaction of man's mind to its
surroundings. The things nearest to him, and most
immediately important, first attracted his attention.
The broadest division would be into the science of
things on the earth's surface; the science of things
above the earth, in the air and the sky; and the
science of things within the earth, concealed from
immediate view.
If we take these in their order they naturally subdivide
themselves as follows:
[Pg 36]
1—Things on the Earth—Explained by
(a) Anthropology, the Science of Man and His Ancestors,
treating of his nature, origin, development,
division into races and tribes, society, industry,
etc.
(b) Zoölogy, the Science of Animal Life, treating
of the "lower animals," and of animal life in
general as distinguished from the kingdom of the
plants, although the related science of biology
deals with both plants and animals, its special
subject being the phenomena of life in its widest
sense.
(c) Botany, the Science of Plant Life.
(d) Geography, combined with Physiography, the
Science of the Face, or Superficies, of the Earth,
dealing with lands and seas, rivers and mountains,
political divisions, etc. This is covered in our
series by the volume on Physiography.
(e) In this compartment several branches of science
may be grouped, since they are all the product of
study of things encountered on the earth's surface.
They are:
Physics, the Science of the Forces of Nature,
dealing with the laws of the inanimate world
around us, including the phenomena relating to
solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies and substances.
Chemistry, the Science of Matter and Its
Changes, dealing with the atoms and their constituents,
and with the combinations of atoms
into molecules to form the various chemical elements,
etc.
Electricity and Magnetism, the Science of
Power, fundamentally underlying all other
branches, and through its investigation of the[Pg 37]
nature of the constituents of atoms—the electrons—going
deeper into the constitution of
things than chemistry itself. In fact this science,
in some respects, blends with chemistry, although
it is quite separate when it deals with the mechanical
developments of electromagnetism.
Medicine, the Science of Health, Physiology,
the Science of the Body, Psychology, the Science of
Human Behavior, Mechanics, the Science of
Machinery, etc., also naturally fall into this
category of Things on the Earth.
2—Things Above the Earth—Explained by
(a) Astronomy, the Science of the Heavenly
Bodies.
(b) Meteorology, the Science of the Atmosphere,
rains, winds, storms, fair and foul weather, the
changes of the seasons, and essentially related
to the new and fast developing art of aerial
navigation.
3—Things Within the Earth—Explained by
(a) Geology, the Science of the Earth's Crust, or
shell; which also deals with the various stratifications
of the rocks, superposed one above another,
and containing in the shape of fossils, and other
marks, a wonderful record of the character and
development of the living forms that have inhabited
the earth during the long ages of the
past. Of course some of the phenomena dealt
with by geology are manifest on the earth's surface,
and others, like volcanoes and earthquakes,
hot springs and geysers, are partly subterranean
and concealed from sight and partly evident by
their effects on the surface.
[Pg 38]
(b) Closely associated with Geology are Mineralogy,
the Science of the Constitution and Structure of
Rocks and of Mineral and Metallic substances;
Vulcanology, the Science of Volcanoes, and of
earth disturbances in general; and the Science of
Mining, which has several branches, and forms
the basis of enormous industrial developments.
It is manifest, as before said, that the reader must
be his own best judge as to the precise order in which
to take up the perusal of the volumes in which this
immense mass of scientific knowledge is presented.
But, where there is no predisposition to choose one
subject rather than another, or where there is a
desire to follow, as nearly as may be, the natural line
of development of human knowledge, it would be
well to take first, after the history, the volume on
astronomy, a science that from the beginning has
had a peculiar power to awaken intellectual curiosity;
then that on anthropology; then the various
so-called "natural history" subjects, leaving the mechanical
and the more technical subjects for the last.
Or, the reader might first take up the subjects of
personal importance to every human being—Medicine,
the Science of Health; Physiology, the Science
of the Human Body; Psychology, the Science of the
Mind—every one of which is essential to the proper
care and preservation of life; and afterward study
the other branches in the order already suggested.
[Pg 39]
CHAPTER I
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
The romantic history of science shows how the
discoveries of the greatest human minds, slowly
operating since the remotest times, have made possible
our present-day civilization. Few studies are
worthy of greater attention; no other department
of knowledge affords more real pleasure. Whoever
clearly understands the history of science possesses
intellectual advantages over those who are ignorant
of the causes that have led to the establishment of
the basic principles of our modern industrial arts
and applied sciences. Standards of comparison are
furnished by the history of science which illuminate
many of the wonders of to-day, develop alertness of
mind, and afford a never-ending train of suggestions
for thought.
The term science means knowledge. It was derived
from the language of the Romans. It is well
to have a clear idea of the meaning of the word.
Everyone knows that it has to do with certain kinds
of knowledge; few know the particular kinds it embraces.
It does not mean the mere knowledge of a
single fact. It does not mean a knowledge of something
which has to be done. Long before science
was born, our early ancestors observed many isolated
physical, philosophical, and religious facts.
They knew that day followed night, that the stars
moved, that every day the sun progressed over the[Pg 40]
arch of the heavens. Such facts did not constitute
science.
What we know as science began when man commenced
to compare one fact with another, to classify
phenomena, and to arrange his knowledge systematically.
Order, method, system, are basic principles
of science. The best description would,
therefore, appear to be systematized knowledge of
any kind which had been gained and verified by
exact observation and correct thinking. The whole
field of human knowledge is now methodically
formulated and arranged into rational systems.
Modern science may, therefore, be said to embrace
all our exact knowledge. Its province is enormous;
its subdivisions are limitless.
Science takes no account of knowledge which is
not exact. Many people acquire valuable information
which they profitably use in business, but which
they are unable to communicate or describe to others
because they do not actually understand it.
Farmers and flower growers often possess important
practical knowledge of facts which are
embraced by the principles of the sciences of agriculture,
botany, and biology. But their practical
knowledge is not true science. It is rather like an
artist's intuitive impulse. It is not the result of
scientific analysis, and there is no tangible, communicable
residuum.
There could be no science if men did not discover
principles of knowledge which can be communicated
to, and made available for use by
others. Scientific knowledge must be stripped of
all traces of emotionalism and personal convictions.
True science is, therefore, depersonalized
knowledge.
[Pg 41]
The history of science shows how our exact knowledge
has been developed along irregular paths but
with progressive advances. There have been long
periods during which little apparent progress was
accomplished, which have been succeeded by others
made memorable by brilliant discoveries.
We must constantly bear in mind that many of
the truths generally accepted to-day were doubtful
or novel theories at some previous period. The
history of science shows the enormous mental effort
expended in testing and developing what now appear
to us as commonplace truths.
Basic principles like those of algebra, geometry,
and the planetary motions were tested during several
thousand years before they were finally accepted
as true.
The human intellect at the dawn of history was
similar to what it is to-day. But it was not exercised
as we exercise ours because it did not have adequate
materials and opportunities. For the same reason
science made slower progress in early times than
it does now. Progress is cumulative. Each advance
helps that which follows. The functions of a scientist
are to struggle against individual views, and to
provide an explanation of phenomena which may be
accepted as true by other minds. Ascertained facts
must be classified and then sequence and significance
recognized from an unbiased viewpoint.
The history of science is the written record of
countless experiments, theories, and experiences of
mankind which have been submitted to the tests of
scientific methods.
While it is true that science embraces all knowledge
its real scope is limited to knowledge which
is reducible to laws and can be embodied in systems.[Pg 42]
The human mind unites all knowledge by a single
thread, but we have to chart and map it into larger
and smaller divisions which we define by the methods,
basic concepts, and plans used in developing
them.
We may now see how it is that the boundaries of
any science are merely approximate. The general
grouping of the sciences is likewise approximate.
The first large group includes the abstract, or formal,
sciences such as mathematics and logic. The
other great group comprises the concrete sciences
dealing with phenomena as contrasted with formal
relationships. Chemistry, biology, physics, psychology,
and sociology belong to the concrete group.
At the beginning of history man is discovered
observing the great phenomena of Nature and struggling
to learn their laws and to explain them. Religion
is both emotional and intellectual, and through
these qualities it attracted primitive man while he
was attempting to gather light on the riddles of the
world. It was through religion that science was
born.
Recent researches into primitive beliefs have
shown in a surprising manner the psychological
unity of man. In all parts of the world, in all
periods of history, and under all conditions, the
minds of men, in their natural reactions against the
basic factors of existence, operate in similar ways.
There is a remarkable resemblance in the mental
processes of men. The laws of thought appear to
work automatically in all men. The minds of prehistoric
people worked like those of men to-day. The
impressions of the senses appear to be interpreted
in similar ways by all peoples. Here is the explanation
of the numerous resemblances we find in[Pg 43]
national histories, national folk lore, and national
religions. They differ much in innumerable details,
but possess many resemblances in their great fundamental
conceptions. Normal man has always been
religious. Mankind has always assumed definite
attitudes toward the universe and this has resulted
in the universality of religion.
Early men the world over appear to have been as
eager to learn the keys to the riddles of the universe
as was the boy Longfellow sang about in the following
stanzas:
Nature, the old nurse, took
The child upon her knee,
Saying: "Here is a story-book
Thy Father has written for thee."
"Come wander with me," she said,
"Into regions yet untrod;
And read what is still unread
In the manuscripts of God."
And he wandered away and away
With Nature, the dear old nurse,
Who sang to him night and day
The rhymes of the universe.
And whenever the way seemed long,
Or his heart began to fail,
She would sing a more wonderful song,
Or tell a more marvelous tale.
Modern science has developed from this instinctive
human desire to read Nature's story-book and
understand her marvelous tales.
Early struggles of mankind taught that human
behavior must be regulated in accordance with
rigid moral laws. This promoted the primitive
social processes which were early concerned with[Pg 44]
religious beliefs as well as with magic and medicine.
Two of the earliest beliefs universally accepted were
that we possess souls and that our personality persists
after death. These basic principles of faith
have caused extremely beneficial results to follow
in the development of knowledge.
Some of the American Indians and other primitive
peoples of to-day still live in the belief that
the heavenly bodies, the sky, sea, and earth, as well
as plants, animals, and men, all belong to a vast
system of all-conscious and interrelated life, in
which the degrees of relationship are distinguished
by the degrees of resemblance.
Religious beliefs were developed from struggles
to conceive the inconceivable and discover the infinite.
Religions led to studies of mysteries and
ceremonies and rites. Magic developed and this
also had its customs, dogmas, and rites. The difference
between magic and religion was that the
magician was consulted by his personal friends,
whereas the holders of religious beliefs had a common
bond uniting them in one strict form of worship.
Magic was not systematized, while religion
was a unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred things, and chiefly to the regulation
of moral concepts and conduct.
The intimate association of religion, magic, necromancy,
and science continued until the early Greek
era. There were many temples erected in Greece
and dedicated to Æsculapius, the god of medicine.
Cures were believed to be effected through the valuable
offerings made to the god by patients and their
friends. It was thought that the ways to health
would be indicated to them by the god through
dreams.
[Pg 45]
Recent investigations of the representative ceremonial
rites of the aboriginal peoples of Australasia
and of North and South America have yielded
a remarkably rich fund of information on the
causes and conditions which operated in prehistoric
eras in developing the mental, moral, and physical
sciences.
Some of the most romantic stories ever developed
by the human intellect are to be found in recent
scientific works dealing with the history and principles
of the tribal customs, ceremonies, and religious
rites of primitive peoples. The early chapters
in the history of man's mental development and the
evolution of science from distant origins in mystic
forces, through magic and necromancy to religion
and philosophy, must give abundant pleasure to all
thoughtful persons by showing how it came that
the high state of civilization now attained was
brought about by slow processes, operating through
immense periods of time and blossoming only during
the past two or three thousand years. A study
of these stories cannot fail to show how intimately
science has been associated with religion, why every
normal individual is essentially religious, and why
the continuation of our civilization, and the very
existence of the human race, are absolutely contingent
upon the recognition of the moral laws, in
the future as in the past. The history of science
establishes the fact that moral sanctions, which require
religious ceremonies to keep them vital, are
the essential bases of human progress.
[Pg 46]
CHAPTER II
PRIMITIVE MAN AND EARLY
CIVILIZATIONS
The development of scientific history has not
followed a uniform course. Progress has been
rhythmic. There has been always a reaction coming
in the steps of brilliant discoveries. Periods
of feverish experimental activities have been succeeded
by others during which little apparent progress
was made.
Such dull intervals seem to have been necessary
for developing, formulating, classifying, and testing
the innumerable details and inferences that the
discoveries of the active periods produced.
While mankind in general has contributed to the
total of our intellectual treasures, some races have
been more active in this way than others. For this
reason it is advisable to briefly survey the more
recent discoveries about the ancestors of existing
peoples.
Indo-Malaysia, parts of central Asia, and the valleys
of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia
are variously credited with having been the
cradle of the human race. It should be understood,
however, that we are only permitted to speak
authoritatively of existing races, because the land
forms of the earth have undergone such remarkable
changes that we can know little definitely about the
earlier periods of human history. For the purposes[Pg 47]
of the history of science, while bearing in mind
these qualifying suggestions, we may accept the
statement that man's ancestors originated in proximity
to India.
It was around the waters of the Persian Gulf
that the earliest known civilizations arose. The
people who founded them came from central Asia.
They had reached a considerable degree of culture,
which suggests that they themselves came from
earlier centers of civilization.
The study of prehistoric antiquity is termed
archæology. Its principal periods have been divided,
for convenience, into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron
Ages. Each of these is distinguished by the substances
used for tools. In the Stone Age men used
stone spearheads, arrows, and knives, whereas in
the Iron Age similar things were made of iron or
copper.
The science of mankind is known as Anthropology.
It deals with the innumerable steps in the
evolution of mankind from remote periods, and
with the primitive development of the arts, sciences,
and religion. Yet it is one of the youngest of the
sciences.
One of its essential teachings is that heredity and
racial predispositions play, and always have played,
more important parts in man's evolution, and in
the development of civilization, than environment
and education.
Hereditary tendencies, such as the religious,
moral, and æsthetic instincts have been indispensable
in preserving and developing all the races of
mankind.
Moral discipline has been the chief factor in self-control,
and therefore in civilization. It is because
the moral sense has proved so beneficial to the
human race, and is the most powerful of our instinctive
desires, that mankind always has been and
must be religious. It controls man's knowledge,
desires, and will, and has dominated the race since
our early ancestors began to think.
When we recognize this fact we can readily see
that anything which tends to oppose the moral or
ethical sanctions, or detract from religious beliefs,
is injurious to civilization and human progress.
The histories of religion, ethics, and æsthetics plainly
develop the rôles which have been played by moral
self-discipline in the protection and development of
mankind, as well as of knowledge and science.
The moral control of individuals acts also upon
society generally, and upon whole racial and
national groups. The ethical ideals assist each individual
mind to realize its own end and at the
same time tend to influence the tribal and social
mind to attain a common end. This great moral,
instinctive force, which has played such an immensely
valuable part in developing civilization
and science, is known as the human social and
national conscience. It acts both individually and
collectively.
European races have been divided into classes
corresponding to the prevailing cephalic indices.
The longheads are grouped as the Nordic, or Baltic,
subspecies, because they were formerly numerous
around the Baltic countries. People of this group
are distinguished by tall statures, fair skin and hair,
good physique, and light colored eyes. These peoples
include the Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxon, and certain
important Teutonic groups, as well as Asiatic peoples
who are known as the Aryans.
[Pg 48]
Copyright, Ewing Galloway
MODEL OF THE SAILING VESSEL "SANTA MARIA," THE
FLAGSHIP OF COLUMBUS
[Pg 49]
CURTISS NAVY RACER, THE AIRPLANE THAT WON THE
PULITZER RACE OF 1921
U. S. ARMY DIRIGIBLE ON A TRANSCONTINENTAL FLIGHT
The most important rôles in the development
of modern civilization, art, industry, and science
have been played by representatives of the
Nordics.
The Iberian, or Mediterranean, subspecies, ranks
next in importance. The peoples of this great racial
division originally occupied the countries between
the northern Atlantic coast of Africa and the confines
of the areas of the Nordics around the northern
provinces of France. They spread down the
Mediterranean and over large areas in Asia. Their
skulls are long, but differ from those of the Nordics
in their absolute size. Their stature is lower, and
weaker than that of the Nordics, while their hair,
eyes, and skin are dark or black. The Welsh, the
Moors, and the early Greeks are chiefly classed with
the Mediterranean group. The Carthaginians,
Phœnicians, Egyptians, and Etrurians were members
of it.
The roundheads comprise the Alpine subspecies.
This is the strongest numerical group to-day.
It is characterized by small round heads, short
bodies, dark hair, and dark eyes. It is of Asiatic
origin and includes the Slavs, modern Greeks, Italians,
Germans, Austrians, Swiss, the pre-Nordic
Irish, French, and Belgians. The first Alpine invasion
of Europe began about 10,000 B. C. There were
many subsequent ones through the plateaus of Asia
Minor, the Balkans, and valley of the Danube. They
reached England about 1800 B. C., and formed small
colonies in Ireland, the descendants of which now
call themselves Celts and are clearly distinguished
by the characteristic Alpine indices. This race is
now so well acclimatized in Europe that most of
its Asiatic traces have been lost, and its round[Pg 50]
skulls and dark eyes and hair are the only reminders
of its Mongolian origin.
Members of each of these three great racial groups
of mankind have throughout the ages contributed
to the development of the sciences and arts. The
Nordics began to appear in European history as
agricultural tribes, speaking Aryan languages, like
Celtic and Welsh, who swept down from the north
and pushed the earlier settlers back through their
irresistible arms, which were made of bronze and
later of iron. The earlier settlers were still furnished
with arms and implements of the Stone Age.
There was a much older intellectual people than
the Nordics settled in Europe. The people of this
race, about whom we have learned through recent
archæological researches, are known as the Cro-Magnons.
They lived between 25,000 and 10,000
B. C. Their skulls were distinguished from those
of the Nordics by their pronounced cheek-bones
and broad faces. Their culture, as their favorable
cephalic index would suggest, was of a high character.
Numerous drawings and art works of theirs,
which have been preserved, place them among the
world's superior peoples.
Soon after the settlement of the Cro-Magnons
in Europe, and their intermarriage with the
earlier settlers, their physical development and stature
began to decline. They were finally absorbed
and destroyed by the inferior peoples among whom
they dwelled. Their disappearance, like that of the
ancient Greeks, who appear to have been the most
intellectual people the world ever produced, shows
how the upward development of human physical
and intellectual qualities is constantly injured by
the contacts of superior and inferior races.
[Pg 51]
The scientific discoveries made prior to the Iron
Age, or about 2000 B. C., were not numerous. The
struggle for life was so intense that few had opportunity
for contemplation and philosophic reflection.
It was subsequent to the discovery of the basic
principles of metallurgy, in the Iron Age, that
science began rapidly to advance. The benefits bestowed
upon mankind by the employment of metals
reduced the sharpness of life's struggles, permitted
and instigated reflection, and provided means for
experimentation.
Modern history begins with the peoples of Mesopotamia.
There were cultured peoples east of the
Tigris and Euphrates, in Persia, India, Mongolia,
Tartary, and China before the founding of
Babylon. But we are more instructed about the
Babylonians and Assyrians than about earlier
Asiatic races.
The Babylonians and Assyrians appear to have
originated in central Asia and to have migrated to
Arabia about 10,000 B. C., and perhaps earlier.
They were well settled in Arabia before the
Egyptian pyramids and other Semitic memorials
were planned. They brought with them
from the farthest Orient many important contributions
to civilization and culture, and developed
many others.
These were religious, philosophical and keen commercial
peoples. They shaped the organization of
modern religions. The Babylonians reduced the
world of gods to a single system with classifications
distinguishing between major and minor deities,
and between those of heavenly, or stellar, and
earthly habitats, and those of time and space. They
developed many religious myths of the Creation,[Pg 52]
the Flood, Paradise, and others which were subsequently
embraced by other religions.
Both the Babylonians and Assyrians composed
beautiful hymns, prayers, parables, and religious
tales, and had numerous elaborate religious customs,
rituals, ceremonies, and festivals conducted
by priests, nuns, and acolytes.
Anu, or Anum, the God of Heaven, was the principal
Babylonian deity, while Ashur was the leading
god of the Assyrians.
Religious studies and rites occupied a large portion
of the time of these peoples and, consequently,
their temples, monasteries, schools, and other religious
buildings were large and numerous. Their
architecture was elaborately artistic. This was one
of their incentives to scientific invention. They
made important discoveries in all the basic physical
sciences, like chemistry, physics, metallurgy, and
mathematics, to enable them to improve their buildings
and to embellish them with paintings, pictorial
tiles, and fancy metals and textiles. They had excellent
professional men, artists, jurists, bankers,
contractors, and scientists. They were fond of
literature and founded extensive libraries. Music
and musical instruments were very popular with
them. Their cuneiform writings, as disclosed by
numerous beautiful stone and porcelain tablets
which have come down to us, were excellently
done.
The fragments of literature, laws, and religious
policies that we are acquainted with indicate that
the numerous Babylonian and Assyrian settlements
in each great empire possessed social and political
conditions similar to those of our days. Science and
art were then sufficiently advanced to enable these[Pg 53]
ancient people to live as agreeable, moral, and
legally secure lives as those of any subsequent
peoples.
The Chinese appear to have been making similar
progress to that of the Babylonians about the same
period. It would seem that both these peoples were
in contact with a similar but earlier cultured race
in central Asia. Although the early Chinese were a
religious people, they appear to have been more
philosophical than the Babylonians. This enabled
them to make further progress in the abstract
sciences. In subsequent years they made rapid
strides in the physical sciences, as will be shown
later.
The Egyptians came into prominence toward the
end of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, and
for many centuries played a great rôle in developing
civilization. The numerous benefits which they
bestowed upon the world by their researches in
science and art are not fully appreciated.
Early history pictures two great Asiatic races
struggling for supremacy in India. They were the
Aryans, a fair-skinned people, and the Dravidians,
a colored people. The Aryans succeeded in displacing
the Dravidians in the great plains, upon which
they settled and developed large cities, important
world commerce, and contributed great art
works and scientific and philosophical discoveries
to the world's stores. The Dravidians retired
to the hill country, where their representatives
still live.
The minds of the various Indian peoples have always
been strongly philosophical. This led them
to the development of numerous religious sects and
philosophical systems, and they made important[Pg 54]
mathematical discoveries. While the scientific bent
of the ancient Greeks was of a concrete nature,
which tended toward geometrical proofs for scientific
problems, that of the ancient peoples of India
was toward numerical symbolism and arithmetical
proofs. We find that when the Greeks were developing
geometry the Indians were contributing to
arithmetic and algebra.
The Chinese closely resembled the ancient Indians
in the philosophical tendency of their minds;
but, owing perhaps to the different conditions under
which they lived, they were more concrete in their
ideas. They also made progress in mathematics
and developed medicine, chemistry, metallurgy, and
many of the sciences which were applied to commercial
and industrial uses. The progress made in
mathematics in China was transmitted to Egypt,
and therefore to Europe, through India. Among
early Chinese discoveries in mathematics were
methods of solving numerical equations and the development
of magic squares and circles, which gave
a great stimulus to studies in geometry and
astronomy.
The Arabs, Greeks, and Romans took up the discoveries
of the Asiatic peoples, and the Egyptians
enlarged them and passed them forward to us. The
Arabs solved cubic equations by geometrical means,
perfected the basic principles of trigonometry, and
made great advances in mathematics, physics,
chemistry, and astronomy.
A survey of the early history of science indicates
that from the remotest period man was engaged in
grappling with the great principle of causation.
Progress was necessarily slow at first on account of
the scarcity of tested data. Then it became more[Pg 55]
rapid. Soon after the founding of the great city of
Babylon we find that the Babylonians were possessed
of enough knowledge of the arts and sciences to
enable them to become world traders and great industrial
undertakers. They built many cities and
lived highly civilized lives. The history of modern
science may very properly be dated from the building
of Babylon.
[Pg 56]
CHAPTER III
PRE-BABYLONIAN SCIENCE
The transcending wonders of the phenomena of
the heavenly bodies attracted the attention of
primitive man at an early period of his intellectual
development. The succession of day and night, the
phases of the moon, comets, meteorites, the eclipses
of sun and moon, the recurrence of the seasons were
observed and recorded. In this way, through long
uncivilized times, many scientific facts were noticed
and handed down by tradition, and probably were
among the first scientific data collected. We have no
means of determining when the primitive science of
astronomy became systematized, although there are
reasons for believing that it was roughly outlined
at a remote date.
There was a tradition among the Babylonian
priests that their astronomical observations and
records went back to a period of more than 400,000
years. This statement was believed by the
people of antiquity, and was made to Alexander the
Great during his Indian campaign.
Astronomy appears to have been developed into
an organized system by the primitive peoples of
central Asia. It was carried to China, India, and
Arabia by learned travelers. There were government
astronomers in China before the year 3000
B. C., and history records that two of these officials,
named Ho and Hi, were beheaded in the year 2159[Pg 57]
B. C. for being careless in their work and failing to
issue a timely prediction of a solar eclipse.
Chinese history also relates that the Emperor, in
2857 B. C., issued an edict recommending the study
of astronomy. From these and other historical references
we learn that nearly 5,000 years ago astronomical
science was not only well developed, but
that its educational value was recognized.
While attention was being given to the study of
astronomy in China, this science was independently
developed in India. The astronomers of India invented
a different system from that of the Chinese,
and compiled numerous astronomical tables which
were published and widely used as far back as
3102 B. C.
These early astronomical studies resulted in the
division of time practically as we know it to-day.
The Babylonians had a week of seven days. The
days bore names of the planets and were divided
into hours and minutes. Days were combined into
months and years. The Babylonian and Chaldean
astronomers, like those of China and India, were
important men and were credited with great
learning.
The Babylonian month began on the evening
when a new moon was first observed. An adjustment
was made necessary between the months, owing
to the fact that the actual lunar interval is
about twenty-nine and a fraction days. Numerous
astrological observations were made with the view
of obtaining data to facilitate the monthly adjustments.
The taking of these observations was made
easier by maps of the heavens which were recorded
on baked clay tablets and prisms. Similar maps of
the world, with positions fixed by astronomical[Pg 58]
observations, were likewise made in Babylonian
times.
The usefulness of astronomical observations and
predictions led to the belief that they could be employed
with advantage for wider purposes. The
astrologers endeavored to deduce omens and forecast
horoscopes. In order to facilitate their calculations,
the astrologers invented calculating and
time-dividing machines. Tablets from the royal
library at Nineveh indicate that Chaldean astrologers
possessed mechanisms which divided the hours
of the day by mechanical means. These were forerunners
of modern clocks and timepieces.
These early scientists represented the earth as a
vast circular plain, intersected by high mountain
ranges and surrounded by a large river, with other
mountain chains which lost themselves in an infinite
ocean. The heavenly vault was believed to be supported
by the highest peaks of the outlying mountains.
It was owing to the peculiar nature of this
cosmogony that the pre-Babylonians and Babylonians
were unable to develop a satisfactory mechanical
view of the world. The world had to wait
for an adequate mechanical theory before general
knowledge could be advanced, so that men like
Newton and Laplace could correct the errors of
early theories and furnish a sound working
hypothesis.
The advancement of science requires methodical
observations and the use of the highest powers of
the imagination. It is thinking in picture-like figures
that supplies primitive reasoning. While pure
reasoning deals with abstract, verbal images, the
more concrete picture-thinking deals with object-images.
The differences between thinkers and[Pg 59]
dreamers is chiefly in the way their minds act. But
even thinkers are supplied with thought material
by the elementary mental operation of picture-thought,
dreams, or dream-thinking. Science needs
the active use of the imagination to anticipate experience
and suggest the issues of a process in
course of action. Most great inventions, and probably
all primitive inventions, were stimulated by
imagination. But the imagination, unless skillfully
directed, is liable to numerous errors. That is why
in all ages there has been much error in connection
with knowledge. There could, however, be little or
no progress without imaginative work. It is only
within very recent years that the modern sciences
have been stripped of much absurd matter derived
from crude imaginative work. When we bear this
in mind, we have the key to the part played by
ancient myths, magic, and ceremonies in developing
civilization.
The term magic is derived from the Persian term
for priest. The magi, or priests of Zoroaster, their
religion, learning, and occult practices had important
world-wide effects just before the Babylonian
era. Magic is a pioneer of religion, philosophy, and
science.
Medicine was benefited, in some ways, by the
priests seeking means for dealing with the work of
the spirits of evil. Chemistry and metallurgy were
also advanced, and new realms of knowledge were
opened even by magicians.
The magic of the Babylonians survived their empire.
It was handed over to the Egyptians and contemporary
peoples, and was in turn passed down to
the magicians and alchemists of the Middle Ages,
and to the dramatists, poets, and novelists of all ages.
[Pg 60]
The accumulation of scientific facts was greatly
facilitated by the improvements made by the
Babylonians in the manufacture of earthenware
tablets, scrolls, and prisms. Beautifully drawn
cuneiform picture signs recorded on these all the
knowledge of the day. These stonelike records
were filed away in many monasteries and libraries.
Subsequently, letters were invented, alphabets were
formed, and writing displaced the hieroglyphic
symbols.
The invention of alphabets made reading easier.
This resulted in giving an impetus to education
which has had cumulative effects right down
through the ages.
We are now in a position to realize why scientific
discoveries were made very slowly, and at long
intervals apart, in early times. Facts had to be
accumulated, studied, grouped, and compared. Accounts
of these studies had to be pictured and stored
away for future use. Only exceptionally learned
men did this. But when alphabets were invented
and education increased, numerous minds became
active and there was a great extension of thought,
experimentation, and philosophical contemplation.
This was followed by the establishment of new religious
houses, schools, and philosophical academies,
at all of which the ablest men of the day emulated
the scholars in formulating theories and making
inventions.
Soon after the perfecting of cuneiform writing
in Babylon, characters were devised for representing
numbers. A vertical, arrowlike wedge represented
the figure 1, while a horizontal wedge stood
for 10. A vertical and horizontal wedge, placed together,
signified 100. Other arrangements of these[Pg 61]
characters meant that they were to be multiplied,
subtracted, divided, or added together. In this
simple manner all kinds of arithmetical results
could be recorded.
The Babylonian mathematicians were familiar
with decimals, integers, and fractions, and their
tables and records of astronomical and engineering
calculations reveal a remarkably high degree of
mathematical ability, indicating that peoples who
preceded us by several thousands of years were
familiar with the more important calculations requisite
in trade and industry as well as for astrological
computations.
Babylon was a great world metropolis. It occupied
a position similar to that occupied by London
to-day. Its merchants were engaged in world-wide
commercial operations which needed good systems
of bookkeeping and accountancy. These, in turn,
presupposed a highly developed arithmetical system.
Practically all the arithmetical calculations
used in commerce to-day were employed by them.
Their accountants, like those of China to-day, used
the abacus, or calculating machine.
A lucid illustration of the accuracy of ancient calculations,
the efficiency of their reports, and the
confidence with which they executed intellectual
duties is afforded by the following translation of a
Babylonian astronomer's official report:
"To the King, my lord, thy faithful servant,
Mar-Istar.
"... On the first day, as the new moon's day of
the month of Thammuz declined, the moon again
became visible over the planet Mercury, as I previously
had predicted that it would to my master
the King. My calculations were accurate."
[Pg 62]
The records of Babylon furnish us with a wealth
of documents of this character.
The numerous peoples of India have always been
divided into castes. This has resulted in the pioneering
work in science falling to the priests. However,
the principal priests were among the most
intellectual men of each generation and, as they
traveled in search of instruction, India was always
in contact with the progress made in China, central
Asia, and Babylonia. These great centers of ancient
learning progressed together.
The Indians were able mathematicians and discovered
and developed at an early period what is
now known as "Arabic notation." In this work they
were assisted by the Babylonians.
The Indians, like the Chinese and Babylonians,
solved problems in interest, discounts, partnership,
the summation of arithmetical and geometrical
series, and determined number changes in combinations
and permutations with ease. They were also
proficient in algebra, the extraction of the roots
of numbers, various classes of equations, and the
principles of trigonometry.
The Chinese have always been good mathematicians.
It is probably due to this fact that they have
at all times been such able traders and bankers.
We are not so familiar with the works of Chinese
mathematicians in pre-Babylonian times as we are
with the Indian; but the references of contemporary
writers indicate that the Chinese scientists were as
able and active as their contemporaries.
We have remarked the high degree of perfection
which was attained in the Babylonian era by
scholars in science and mathematics. Similar perfection
was attained in art, industry, law, and medi[Pg 63]cine.
The wonderful law work that has come down
to us under the name of the code of Hammurabi indicates
not only the extensive progress which had
been made in law, but incidentally through its
references the progress of agriculture, industry,
commerce, and business.
Many references in the Hammurabic code, written
about 2300 B. C., show that the medical profession
had attained considerable advance in Babylon.
Surgeons were daring operators. They commonly
performed operations for cataract. Many of the
common major operations now performed by surgeons
were also done by the ancients. They were
experts at setting fractured bones. The physicians
made effective use of drugs. Many drugs employed
to-day were known to them.
The discoveries of the early oriental nations were
collected and developed in Babylon. The entire fields
of science, mathematics, geometry, agriculture, astronomy,
philosophy, and art were focused in Babylon
and handed down to the Egyptians and the
Greeks. Much credit that is given to ancient Greece
should be shared also by Babylon. It was from
Babylon that Greece obtained the principles of its
civilization, arts and sciences. Even Greek architecture
and sculpture were originally derived from
Babylon.
[Pg 64]
CHAPTER IV
EGYPTIAN SCIENCE
The early civilization in Egypt developed in the
ancient cities of Thebes and Memphis. Authorities
on the dawn of history in Egypt are unable to
definitely account for the origins of the various peoples
who have ruled the land. One school contends
that the early negroid inhabitants originated in
Africa. Another school opposes this view and suggests
an Asiatic origin. Each of these schools can
marshal facts to sustain its contentions. The truth
is that Africa was inhabited at such an early period
that we are unable to fully trace back the movements
of its races.
Man was divided into species and subspecies at a
very remote period. The dominant peoples in each
country, in each era, were the successful contestants
in long conflicts for supremacy. Many races have
vanished without leaving any traces beyond reversional
strains which still come to the surface at
times in families living to-day. The laws of evolution,
only recently deciphered, are the sole means we
possess for learning about many of the long-perished
species of men.
A few races, too weak to ever gain supremacy and
themselves to occupy districts, or countries, have
survived by dwelling among stronger races. The
Ainus, in Japan, and the Jews in Asia and Europe,
are well-known examples.
MODEL OF AN EARLY ELECTRIC MOTOR
The original was invented by M. H. Jacobi in 1834 and was used in
1838 to propel a boat on the Neva at St. Petersburg.
MODEL OF AN EARLY TURNING LATHE
This mechanism was invented by Thomas Blanchard in 1843. He also
invented a lathe for turning gun barrels.
[Pg 65]
Copyright, Underwood & Underwood
AN EDISON PHONOGRAPH OF 1878
The sound record was made on a sheet of tin foil vibrated by the voice.
WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN
This device, invented in 1793, revolutionized the cotton and cotton
manufacturing industries.
Egypt, owing to its remarkable geographical
situation between Asia, Europe, and the vast continent
of Africa, has been a great highway for race
migrations. Many peoples have lived and ruled
there and passed on before incoming tides of new
and more vigorous peoples. Each race, undoubtedly,
during its residence in Egypt contributed to the general
fund of Egyptian knowledge and customs and
assisted in the development of science.
The tombs of Thebes have given us bodies of
ancient Egyptians of more than six thousand years
ago. At that time the people were characterized by
the Grecian type of profile. They resembled the
contemporary active peoples in India and Arabia
and did not differ much from the Egyptians of our
day. The incoming streams of people who settled
in the Nile valley, both Asiatic and negroid, changed
the appearance of the Egyptians at different times
by intermarriage, but when their vigor waned and
they were crowded out by other peoples, the Egyptians
assumed their regular Semitic characteristics.
Egyptian history really begins with the old kingdom
dynasties, about ten thousand years ago. The
tombs of Abydos have furnished material for accounts
of this early period. There were eight powerful
kings in the first dynasty and all of them contributed
to the advancement of civilization. Abydos,
and later Memphis, were their principal cities. They
ruled in great luxury and were patrons of the arts
and sciences. The art works, sculptures, and carvings
in ivory and ebony of this era speak in eloquent
terms of the taste and high mental powers of the
people. Modern museums are well supplied with
relics of those times, which illustrate the degree
of civilization attained by the Egyptians at the be[Pg 66]ginning
of their history better than any written
account.
The early Egyptians adopted the sciences, arts
and customs of the Babylonians. With these as a
basis the priests and learned men experimented and
made many independent researches and discoveries.
The pyramids, erected near Cairo 3000 B. C.,
indicate the high degree of culture which the early
Egyptians had attained. These renowned monuments
to the kings were scientifically designed and
constructed to exist for all time. In order to contribute
to their usefulness, they were planned so as
to exhibit correct geometrical forms and indicate
the cardinal points of the compass and the positions
of certain astronomical bodies. The details of their
construction disclosed much mathematical, geometrical
and physical knowledge, and their actual building
called for not only an all-around mechanical
skill but a high degree of engineering ability. They
were constructed of various materials. Some large
granite blocks were used in the outside walls and
these were brought from the upper Nile. They were
towed down the river on barges and were lifted into
the positions in which they are found to-day. Various
mortars and mortar mixtures were employed in
binding the brickwork and masonry. These called
for a good knowledge of chemistry and physics. The
arches and sloping walls of some of the larger pyramids
show how well the architects and engineers of
the day knew their professions. With similar means
in their possession, the best professional men of the
present day would find it difficult to get such splendid
results.
In the past few years, lapidaries and gem-workers
have learned to cut stones and gems with steel [Pg 67]disk-wheels,
the cutting edges of which are furnished
with carborundum or emery powder or insets of diamonds.
The pyramid builders knew this method of
sawing and cutting stones. They actually employed
bronze saws set with diamonds to cut the huge
blocks of granite, syenite, diorite, and basalt used
in the construction of the pyramids. They also set
the cutting ends of their rock drills with diamonds,
and bored rocks as we do to-day with diamond core
drills. The art of making these tools was afterward
lost. Only within the past half-century have
mechanical rock saws and diamond drills been reinvented.
This brilliantly indicates the inventive
ability of the engineers at the dawn of Egypt's history.
The builders of the splendid monument of
Rameses II in the Memnonium, at Thebes, which
weighs 887 long tons, transported the huge stone by
land from the quarries at E'Sooan, a distance of
138 miles. Such tasks appear never to have deterred
early Egyptian engineers and architects. They
were so sure of their ability to carry their great
operations to satisfactory completion that they
never hesitated in agreeing to the severest penalties
for nonfulfillment of contract. Their cranes, levers,
wedges, rock drills, pumps, air blowers and compressors,
and building tools all showed how well
mastered was their knowledge.
Their quarrying methods were similar to those
used in the best practice to-day. When huge blocks
and slabs of stone were needed the required dimensions
were marked on the rock and channeled out.
Metal wedges were forced into the channels and
struck at once by a large number of hammers. The
constant vibration, in time, broke off the stone with
clean-cut surfaces. When these were to be carved[Pg 68]
into statuary or ornamental shapes it was often
done at the quarries, so as to reduce transportation
difficulties. Water transportation was used when
possible. When the stone had to be moved over the
desert sands it was lifted by cranes and set on sleds
drawn by men or animals, or driven forward by
levers, just as heavy steel machinery is moved by
modern engineers.
The principle of the siphon was known to the
Egyptians at an early period. It was employed daily
in many homes for supplying water and for drawing
off wine from barrels and tanks into domestic utensils.
Its principal use, however, was in civil engineering
works. Siphons were constructed on a large
scale for furnishing water to villages, draining land
for farming, and for irrigation purposes. They
were built, in many known instances, for carrying
large quantities of water, in high lifts, over hills.
Herodotus tells us that the science of geometry
was discovered by the Egyptians as a result of the
necessity for making annual surveys of the farming
lands in the Nile valley.
When geometry was established as a practical
science, land and astronomical surveying were simplified
and many branches of mathematics were enlarged.
The science of marine surveying was also
developed and this led to a great improvement in
map-making and in geography, in which the Egyptians
became famous.
The skill attained by the Egyptians in land surveying
required accurate surveying instruments.
These were invented at an early period. The Greeks
claim the invention of the theodolite and similar instruments,
but Egyptian history shows that gnomons,
surveying compasses, and levels were used[Pg 69]
by Egyptian surveyors long before the Greeks began
to study the learning of Egypt.
Astronomical science made great progress in
Egypt. The theory attributing to the sun the central
place in our planetary system, now called the Copernican
theory, was known and used in Egypt. They
were familiar with the obliquity of the ecliptic, and
knew that the Milky Way was an aggregation of
numerous stars of various sizes. They understood
that moonlight is simply the reflected light of the
sun. The movements of comets, the positions of the
principal stars and stellar constellations and other
astronomical phenomena were studied and charted
on astronomical maps or recorded and forecasted
in astronomical tables.
The discoveries made by the Greek scientists
naturally stimulated philosophical thought, which
in turn reacted upon scientific experimentation and
led to a broadening of the scope of general research
work. We are dependent upon the pictorial records
of early Egyptian times for descriptions of the instruments
and machinery employed and these are
not always clear. They indicate, however, that the
Egyptians quickly learned the sciences developed by
the Babylonians and other Oriental peoples and
improved them. Their knowledge of astronomy,
mathematics, geometry, chemistry, physics, medicine,
and agriculture was extensive. The priests
and learned men taught the pure sciences and
constantly experimented; the engineers, architects,
surveyors, and mechanics applied the sciences to
the arts.
In one of the records of an early dynasty the
father of a student sailing up the Nile to begin his
studies in one of the leading scientific schools gave[Pg 70]
this advice: "Put thy heart into learning and love
knowledge like a mother, for there is nothing that
is so precious as learning."
The Mesopotamian peoples, as we saw in the last
chapter, considered the stars and principal heavenly
bodies as deities. The Egyptians did not do this,
although they looked upon the heavens as the abode
of all pious souls. Their astronomical knowledge at
the time of the establishment of the New Empire at
Thebes, about the year 1320 B. C., was remarkably
extensive.
The Egyptians divided time in accordance with
the course of the sun into periods of 365¼ days,
and these were divided in accordance with the course
of the moon into periods of about 29½ days. Thus
the basis of the system of years and months used by
us was perfectly understood by the Egyptians.
The science of medicine was developed at a very
early period in Egyptian history. The various divisions
of physicians, surgeons, pharmaceutists, veterinarians,
and dentists organized by the Babylonians
were retained by the Egyptians. Many names of
distinguished practitioners have been handed down.
Nevertheless, their anatomical knowledge remained
poor, and there were many superstitious practices
connected with medicine. The various medical
manuals which have been preserved show that the
Egyptian physicians studied diagnosis with modern
thoroughness. They were aware that an exact
knowledge of each disease, obtainable only by a complete
study of the symptoms, was necessary before
a correct treatment could be prescribed. When the
magic and the superstitious dressings are abstracted
from Egyptian medical works and prescriptions, we
find that the broad principles were sound and effi[Pg 71]cient.
They were developed along lines similar to
those of modern times.
Mathematics attracted much attention in Egypt.
The learning of Oriental countries on this subject
was readily absorbed by the Egyptians. The Greek
historians were so surprised at the efficiency of
the Egyptians in this branch of knowledge that they
almost unanimously asserted that the mathematical
sciences originated in Egypt.
The pyramid base lines run in the direction of the
four points of the compass, and were determined by
correct astronomical methods. The astronomers and
surveyors were skilled in trigonometry. Fractions
were known to the Egyptians, who were taught in
the schools of Babylon. The modern x, representing
an unknown factor, was known to the Egyptians
under the name of "hau."
Quadratic equations were employed by them. The
problem of finding x and y, when x2 + y2 = 100 and
x:y = 1:¾, one of the earliest problems of this character
known, was found in a papyrus at Kahun. The
problem was stated as follows: "A given surface
of, say, 100 units of area, shall be represented as the
sum of two squares, whose sides are to each other
as 1:¾."
The papyrus gave the working out of the solution.
Many similar problems are given in mathematical
works and papyri. They show the proficiency in
mathematics that Egyptian scientists had attained
at a remote period. But their methods of expressing
mathematical problems were crude and, consequently,
involved much tedious labor in finding solutions.
There can be little doubt that if effective
mathematical symbols had been devised the abstract
sciences would have made even greater progress[Pg 72]
than they did in early Egypt. When we study the
complicated solutions of algebraic problems made
by the Egyptians, owing to the lack of simple
symbols, we can appreciate how greatly modern
mathematical science is benefited by the devices
now employed for expressing quantities, variations,
and operations.
The Egyptians were expert in applying the discoveries
of science to the arts. The Nile made their
country potentially rich in agriculture, and they
devoted much attention to inventing such things as
single and double plows, rakes, and other agricultural
machines, many of which were drawn by oxen,
donkeys, and other animals. Reaping was done with
sickles and scythes. Not only was irrigation understood
and widely practiced, but the importance of
fertilization was recognized.
The farmers understood the preservation of meat,
vegetables, and foodstuffs generally, by drying or
pickling. They also brewed beer and made wines,
vegetable and seed oils, and alcohol. The selection
of breeding animals and the principles of variation
were understood and employed for developing particular
breeds of cattle and farm stocks.
The papyrus reed grew luxuriantly in Egypt and
this resulted in the discovery of paper making, weaving,
thread making and many textile methods. These
industries led to the invention of looms, rope and
twine twisting appliances, flax weaving and other
machinery. The linens and cloths made by these
machines have never been excelled.
Dyeing was developed with the textile industries.
As the skies of Egypt are bright, the people in all
ages have had a fondness for brilliant colors. The
call for bright textile colors led to a considerable[Pg 73]
development in the chemistry of dyes and dyeing.
Vegetable and mineral dyes were used. Dyes were
not always applied to the whole pieces of goods, but
stenciling and other methods of patterning were
used. The highly organized artistic skill of the
people demanded art-designed textiles and the
manufacturers responded with beautiful and rich
materials.
The fur and feather industries became important
at an early period. The Egyptians were fond of
beautiful ornamental skins like those of the panther
or gazelle. Such skins were manufactured into numerous
domestic articles, made into clothing or used
as rugs, mats, and seat coverings.
Skins not valuable for art purposes were sent to
the tanners to be converted into various kinds of
leather. Tanning was highly developed, and the
tanners turned out leathers which are to-day admired
for their excellence. The tanners carried on
their industries by chemical processes similar to
those in use to-day.
The scarcity of wood in Egypt led to the invention
of various substitutes. One common substitute was
a kind of papier mâché. This was manufactured out
of linen, wood or vegetable pulp and various kinds
of paste. When it was used for art work the molded
forms were covered with lacquer or various kinds
of stucco. Very beautiful objects were manufactured
from these substances, which indicate that
the artists possessed a wide practical knowledge of
physical and chemical principles.
Chemical knowledge was also well shown in their
manufacture of glass. They excelled in this industry.
All kinds of glass were made and decorated
by staining and glazing. The glassmakers were able[Pg 74]
to imitate precious stones in glass and their glass-bead
and enamel work has never been excelled.
Some modern chemists express the opinion that
glass making was carried to a greater degree of perfection
in Egypt than any modern nation has
attained.
Egyptian porcelains were also finely executed.
These were enameled, stained, and decorated in
numerous ways. The colors, glazes, and art mediums
employed by the artists in pottery and porcelain
necessitated a wide chemical knowledge. Some
of the pigments employed both in glass and porcelain
ornamentation were made from metals. Their
use required a knowledge of metallurgy. Metals
like lead, nickel, manganese required fluxing and refining
before they could be secured in a state sufficiently
pure to be used as bases for colors. Not
only did the artists know the value of many metallic
oxides, but they understood how to secure the tints
resulting from blending different oxides, and by
acting upon metals with acids, just as they acted
upon vegetable and metallic dyes with acids to get
rare tones in linen dyeing.
Mordants were employed in dyeing cloths and these
were acted upon by acids and alkalies to produce
various colors. We are dependent upon the relics
which have been preserved for our knowledge of the
chemical and physical learning of the Egyptians.
No chemical books of theirs have come down
to us, and inferences must be drawn from the
results seen.
In carrying out metallurgical operations, the
Egyptians employed small blast furnaces and melting
pots. Air was compressed by bellows and conducted
into molten substances by pipes.
[Pg 75]
The methods of metal working, melting, rolling,
forging, soldering, annealing, and chasing were similar
to common methods in use in modern times.
The Egyptians were a practical people. They
made wonderful progress in the industrial arts and
learned enough of scientific principles to enable them
to deal with much success with the mechanical,
agricultural, astronomical, medicinal, and chemical
problems encountered. But, like the Babylonians,
Assyrians and other Oriental peoples, the Egyptians
did not systematize their sciences. Their investigations
were always carried out with practical objects
in view, and when the objects were attained
the experiments ceased. They never discovered a
true scientific method. That was left to be done by
another people who were long students of Egyptian
science and who, taking all the learning of Egypt,
worked out from it, as a basis, the principal sciences
as we have them to-day. The Greeks took the torch
of scientific progress from the Egyptians, organized
learning, and passed it on to the Romans and other
peoples in sound, effective and augmented forms.
The Greeks idealized and systematized scientific
principles, whereas the Egyptians and earlier peoples
rested content with the results they could
obtain by their practical efforts. We will find that,
throughout the history of science, progress has
always been made by similar reactions between
peoples possessing the one a practical, the other a
philosophical genius.
[Pg 76]
CHAPTER V
FOUNDING OF SYSTEMATIC SCIENCE
IN GREECE
The world is indebted to the Greeks as much for
science as for art and literature. The idealistic
spirit of ancient Greece invested scientists as well
as poets, artists, and thinkers generally. But the
Greek scientists were students in the great schools
of Egypt and brought much of their knowledge from
that country. The greatest contributions made by
Greece were in the nature of methods and analysis.
They were led to these by the tendencies of the Greek
mind to abstract thought and philosophical investigations.
They soon recognized that science is
knowledge gained by certain methods of abstraction.
Data had to be systematically collected, digested,
classified, and impartially studied. The results of
such studies had to be assembled and expressed in
the most useful forms. Progress had to be made by
the trial and error method and the results of experiments
tested by synthesis as well as analysis; by
induction as well as deduction.
The Ionian philosophers were the first to break
away from the mythological traditions surrounding
the principles of Egyptian and Asiatic science.
Thales of Miletus about the year 580 B. C. taught
that there is an essence, force, or soul in all things.
This universal principle of activity is superhuman.[Pg 77]
Seeking to find of what the world is made, he arrived
at the idea that water, or moisture, is the basic element.
All matter, he said, is water in various forms
and combinations. Here we see scientific knowledge
sought with a definite aim and with unity of purpose.
None of the earlier peoples had ever attempted
to approach knowledge in this logical and
fruitful manner.
When the learned Babylonians were asked what
the earth was they simply said: "When the world
was created, Marduk, the sun god, took Tiamat, or
Chaos, and divided her. The sky was formed above
and the earth below." And the Egyptians answered
the question in a similar way by saying: "When
the world was created, Shu tore the goddess Nuit
from the arms of Keb, and now she hangs above him
and he is the earth."
It was this kind of statement that Thales cast
aside. He sought for more concrete definitions.
Customary beliefs were not acceptable to him; his
knowledge must be based on reason. Here we see
the dawn of a new scientific spirit and the beginning
of a new method of investigating knowledge. The
world was introduced to a new field of intellectual
activities.
The theory of Thales was studied by other
Greek philosophers. But Anaximander, a friend
of Thales, rejected it, and in its place suggested
that there is one eternal, indestructible substance
which constitutes the basis of matter. This was
not water but an infinite eternal motion. Water is
subjected to extremes of temperature. Under such
conditions nothing could have been stable enough
to constitute matter. A primary substance must be
free from warring or antagonistic elements.
[Pg 78]
The world arose, said Anaximander, through the
evolution of a substance subjected to temperature
changes which developed from the eternal, boundless,
basic element. A sphere of flame arose from
this, as from an explosion, and assumed a rounded
form with concentric divisions. As these rings became
detached, the sun, moon, stars, and other
heavenly bodies and the earth were formed. Aristotle
tells us that, according to Anaximander's theory,
the terrestrial region was at first moist; and,
as the moisture was dried up by the sun, the portion
that was evaporated produced the winds and the
turnings of the sun and moon, the remaining portion
becoming the sea. In time the sea, Anaximander
held, would dry up. The heat, or fire, of the world
would burn the whole of the cold moist element.
Then the world would become a mixture of heat and
cold like the boundless, primary element surrounding
it, and by which it would be absorbed.
This theory of matter and the evolution of the
world marks a notable advance over any previous
scientific theory. It was well developed by numerous
teachers of the Milesian philosophical school and has
played a great rôle in intellectual history.
The daring nature of some of Anaximander's explanations
of earthly organisms may be realized
from a sketch of his views on the evolution of animals.
He taught that living creatures arose from
the moist element as it was evaporated by the sun.
Man at first resembled a fish. All animals were developed
in the moisture wrapped in a protecting
cover or bark. As they advanced in age, they came
out into a drier atmosphere and discarded their protective
coats. Man was not an original creation, but
resulted from the fusion of other species. Anaxi[Pg 79]mander's
reason for this statement was that the
period of infancy of the human being is so long that
had he been born that way originally he could not
have survived. There must have been a slow development
from ancient ancestors. This may be
regarded as an anticipation of the Darwinian theory.
Thus man's thoughts in succeeding ages have a
rhythmic swing.
Anaximenes rejected some of Anaximander's
ideas and furnished new ones to take their places.
He was not so daring a thinker as his predecessor,
and his theory of the world was not as interesting
as Anaximander's. Many of his teachings, however,
are accepted as sound to-day.
Anaximenes contended that the basic element was
not boundless, but determinate. Innumerable substances
are derivable from it and, just as our soul,
like an atmosphere, holds us together, so do breath
and air encompass the whole world. Air is always
in motion, otherwise so many changes could not be
made by it. It differs in various substances in
virtue of its rarefaction and condensation.
The perpetual changes taking place in the world
owing to the instability of matter were emphasized
by Heraclitus. He taught that there is nothing immutable
in the world process excepting the law or
principle which governs it.
Cosmological speculations were not the only ones
attracting the attention of the Greek scientists.
Pythagoras, for example, founded a philosophical
college devoted to mathematical studies which resulted
in the development of arithmetic to points
beyond the requirements of commerce. He made
arithmetic the basis of a profound philosophical
system.
Pythagoras studied science in Egypt and first became
familiar with Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics
and geometry. He also studied the Milesian
cosmological philosophy. On his return to Greece
from his foreign studies he sought to discover a
principle of homogeneity in the universe more
acceptable than any suggested by the earlier
philosophers. He had noticed numerous relationships
between numbers and natural phenomena,
and believed that the true basis of philosophy
was to be found in numbers. In seeking data
to sustain this thesis, he discovered harmonic progression.
His experiments showed that when harp
strings of equal length were stretched by weights
having the proportion of ½:⅔:¾, they produced
harmonic intervals of an octave, a fifth
and a fourth apart. Since he saw that harmony
of sounds depended upon proportion he concluded
that order and beauty in the world originate in
numbers. There are seven intervals in a musical
scale, and seven planets sweeping the heavens.
Seven must, therefore, be a basic number. This
suggested to him his ideas regarding the harmony
of the spheres.
Pythagoras and his students found that the sum
of a series of odd numbers from 1 to 2n+1 was
always a complete square. When even numbers are
added to the above series we get 2, 6, 12, 20,
etc., in which every member can be broken
into two factors differing from each other by
unity. Thus 6 = 2.3, 12 = 3.4, 20 = 4.5, etc.
Such numbers were called heteromecic. Numbers
like n(n+1)/2 were called triangular. A large number
of other arithmetical relations were found and
given distinctive names. The Pythagoreans were
also familiar with the principles of arithmetical,
geometrical, harmonic, and musical proportion.
[Pg 80]
DE WITT CLINTON TRAIN OF 1831 BESIDE A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE
[Pg 81]
LOCOMOTIVE OF THE 1870 PERIOD STILL IN USE IN THE
OZARKS
"JOHN BULL," A LOCOMOTIVE BROUGHT FROM ENGLAND
AND PUT INTO SERVICE IN AMERICA IN 1831
Pythagoras made similar advances in geometry.
He believed that each arithmetical fact had an analogue
in geometry, and each geometrical fact a counterpart
in arithmetic. He devised a rule by which
integral numbers could be found so that the sum
of the squares of two of them equaled the square
of the third. He also developed the theory of irrational
quantities. The first incommensurable ratio
discovered is said to have been that of the side of a
square to its diagonal which is 1:√2̅.
Euclid (300 B. C.) developed this theory in the
tenth book of his geometry as still used.
Pythagoras not only placed mathematics on a
solid scientific basis, he also established the fact that
the physical phenomena of the world are governed
by mathematical laws.
Little progress appears to have been made in
astronomy by the Greeks in the time of Pythagoras.
The Milesians and the associates of Pythagoras advanced
numerous theories, but none of these was
better than some of the Egyptian ideas. Hicetas,
and others of this period, believed that the sun,
moon, stars, and all other bodies in the heavens were
stationary and that only the earth moved. The
great turning movement of the earth around its axis
produced the illusion that it was the heavenly bodies
which were moving while the earth remained stationary.
The astronomical theories of Pythagoras, Hicetas,
and Philolaus, all affirmed that the universe is composed
of the elements earth, air, fire, and water, the
whole mass being of spherical shape with the earth
at the center and all having life or motion. These[Pg 82]
early theories, 2,000 years later, did service by aiding
to secure acceptance for the Copernican theory.
The Pythagorean ideas that the universe is one
grand harmonious system, and that thought instead
of sense is the sole criterion of truth, have exercised
important influence on intellectual speculation
throughout the ages.
In order to collect data for testing their theories
in the physical and mathematical sciences, the
Greeks invented many physical appliances. The
monochord, employed in determining the relationships
of vibrating harmonic strings is one of the first
mechanisms used in practical physics that we have
definite information about. An anvil, metal and
glass disks, and bell-shaped cylinders were employed
in studying the movements of sound waves.
Alcmæon (508 B. C.) was one of the earliest of the
Greek anatomists. He was a disciple of Pythagoras
and employed the logical research methods of his
teacher in the investigation of medical problems.
Although the Egyptians had developed medical
science to a considerable extent and had taught the
Greeks, their methods were not based upon sound
principles. The result was that the more analytically
minded Greeks could not accept certain Egyptian
ideas. The Egyptian anatomical teachings were
particularly crude, and Alcmæon began to investigate
that science. His discoveries, both in anatomy
and physiology, were very great. He outlined the
functions of the principal organs of the body, discovered
the optic nerve, the difference between the
arterial and nervous systems, the Eustachian tube,
the two divisions of the brain, the nerves connecting
the brain with the organs of sense and with the
spinal column. These advances placed the medical[Pg 83]
sciences on a logical basis similar to that of the
physical, mathematical, and astronomical sciences.
This first great anatomist and physiologist invented
the practice of anatomical dissection and surgical
exploration, and advanced the practice of medicine
to a higher degree of usefulness.
After the Greeks had satisfied themselves that
they possessed a cosmological theory which answered
the demands of reason they turned their
investigations to the question of how matter was
changed into its innumerable forms. Empedocles
had taught that when the primary elements, earth,
air, fire, and water, were mixed in variable proportions
they yielded different kinds of matter. Leucippus,
Democritus, Anaxagoras, and others studied
the subject more carefully and developed a novel
theory. When matter is divided as far as possible
do the ratios of the constituents remain the same?
This problem attracted their attention. They also
asked themselves whether there was not a simpler
conception to explain the basic state of matter.
When they began their inquiries, the qualities of
matter were believed to reflect their essences. For
example, the sweetness of honey and the color of the
sky were real things which should be studied in
themselves apart from honey and the sky. Democritus
thought, however, that such changes of color
as the sky undergoes at dawn and sunset would not
take place if the colors were real elementary things.
While meditating on this the thought arose in their
mind: "If we assume matter to be composed of an
infinite number of minutest particles or atoms, could
we not explain the changes in matter by changes in
atomic quantities and orders?" This line of thought
resulted in the development of the atomic theory[Pg 84]
and the origin of the philosophic school of the
atomists.
According to Leucippus some of the atoms darting
about in the universe collide and thus give rise to
new substances. He also believed that the atoms
followed whirling or circular paths and that such
rotary motions drew in neighboring atoms, and that
as these movements continued indefinitely within
the atoms the constituents were being constantly rearranged,
the lighter elements being grouped around
the periphery; the heavier ones around the center.
These changes were due to pressure and impact.
These conceptions about atoms were carried into
cosmological discussions and it was taught that there
are various worlds and planets within the boundless
universe, each one moving freely according to physical
laws, unless fractured by collision with another.
Zeno challenged these doctrines because of the
importance attached to the whirling motion. He
attempted to show that such atomic motions are impossible.
His proofs of the impossibility of atomic
motion were designed with the object of sustaining
his own theory of an ultimate principle of unity.
His mental trend was toward negation. Whenever
his rival Parmenides argued affirmatively regarding
a scientific principle, Zeno would invariably maintain
the negative side of the question.
Zeno's first proof of the impossibility of motion
referred to the impossibility of passing through a
fixed space. He showed that by dividing a line into
an infinite number of parts an infinite number of
points would be obtained and these permitted no
beginning of motion.
His second proof tried to show the impossibility
of passing through space having movable bound[Pg 85]aries.
The story of Achilles and the tortoise illustrates
this. A pursuer in a race at every interval
must reach a point from which the pursued starts
simultaneously. But the latter is always in advance.
The third, or "resting arrow," argument showed
that a moving arrow is at every instant in some one
point of its track. Its movement at such instant is
then equal to zero. Its track is a group of zeros. No
magnitude could be framed from these.
Zeno also anticipated much later philosophical
discussions, like Einstein's, relating to the relativity
of motion. He took for an example a moving wagon.
Its movement would appear different to observers
on other moving bodies going in various directions.
They would see changes in rates of speed as well as
in direction.
Protagoras, at a subsequent date, developed this
idea of relativity and showed that things are as they
appear to each individual at the moment they are
perceived. He summarized his teaching in the
aphorism: Man is the measure of all things.
The Skeptics, 200 years later, developed the Protagorean
theory of relativity, and by a series of
arguments attempted to prove that perceptions
change not only with the different species of animate
beings, but with many conditions and circumstances.
It was also shown that not only man's perceptions
are subject to changes, but also his opinions following
from his perceptions. Another school taught
that to every opinion the opposite can be opposed
with equally good reasons.
[Pg 86]
CHAPTER VI
GOLDEN AGE OF GREEK SCIENCES
Science had made a great advance as a result
of the researches and theories of the atomists.
A consistent mechanical theory of matter and the
universe had been set forth. Science and philosophy
were stripped of many of the old superstitions that
had clung to them. The leading theories invented
were based on logical principles. While these
changes were being worked out, numerous inventions
of scientific instruments and apparatus were
made and systematic methods of studying science
were organized. These furnished the means for
still greater progress.
The apparent completeness of the mechanical
theory of the universe satisfied the inquiring intellect.
The excitement caused by the scientific discussions
and discoveries from the time of Heraclitus
subsided. But after a short intervening period,
when public attention had been largely centered on
practical affairs, there was a reaction against
science. When scientific principles were quoted a
tendency was shown to question their validity and
usefulness. This resulted in inquiries into the
sources of knowledge and conduct and ushered in a
new intellectual era that is now known as the Humanistic
period which, beginning about 450 B. C.,
extended to 400 B. C.[Pg 87]
The Sophists, who were teachers of rhetoric and
were accustomed to studying the phrasing of verbal
statements, became active in searching for the foundations
of thought.
The Protagorean theory of knowledge was based
on Empedocles's doctrine that the inner atoms advance
to meet the outer ones. Perception is the resultant
product of these atoms when they collide.
They believed that this perception is something else
than the perceiving subject and is also something
different from the object giving birth to the perception.
It is conditioned by both, but has a distinct existence.
The doctrine of the subjectivity of sense
perception was developed in explanation of this
psychological problem. From this it followed that
knowledge must be strictly personal and could be
true only under conditions existing at the instant
of perception. These limitations caused Protagoras
to advance his theory of relativity, which teaches
that man is the measure of all things. Facts
are what appear to each individual to be statements
of truth. Isocrates, Plato, Aristotle, and
Socrates were the leaders of this intellectual movement.
Socrates developed the Pythagorean theory of
intelligible forms. The specific qualities of the senses
belong to the realm of perception. When these are
withdrawn from an object of thought there remains
only the form or idea. Therefore it is evident that
pure, intelligible forms constitute the essences of
things. The early scientists, such as Democritus,
thought, perhaps, in terms of atom forms. Socrates,
Plato, and later teachers looked upon forms as conceptions
of similar logical elements. Knowledge, in
the view of Democritus, was essentially rationalistic.[Pg 88]
Plato considered knowledge as having ethical and
æsthetic purposes within itself.
Each of these types of rationalism stimulated
Greek thought and resulted in a strong impulse to
philosophical and scientific investigation. They prepared
the outlook for Aristotle.
Science had been hampered by the confusion
raised by the discussions relating to forms. Aristotle
realized that proper progress in logic, physics, and
ethics, the leading sciences of his time, could not be
made unless the essential nature of science were
kept in view. He saw that knowledge of the forms
of correct thinking can be understood only by keeping
in view the object of thought and this requires
definite ideas of the general relations of knowledge
and its objects. The study of general relationships
led to the study of particular or special relations.
The connection of general with particular ideas was
unfolded, and Aristotle saw that conceiving, understanding,
and proving result from the deduction of
particular from universal, or general, ideas. Therefore
science consists in deriving or deducing facts
acquired through perception from their general
grounds or phenomena. The logical form of the
syllogism naturally suggested itself to Aristotle
when engaged with these thoughts and the invention
of the syllogism was one of the most
brilliant contributions to knowledge made by the
Greeks.
The logical results of the invention of syllogistic
forms suggested a solution of the problem of true
reality which Aristotle showed was the essence that
unfolds in phenomena themselves. This led to fruitful
scientific results. Plato and his contemporaries
unified mathematics, formulated the definitions logi[Pg 89]cally,
and demonstrated correct methods of criticism
and proof. A point was shown to be the boundary
of a line; while a line is the boundary of a surface,
and a surface the boundary of a solid. This concrete
definition of scientific elements progressed
through the use of analytic methods, by proceeding
from the known to the unknown, and led to
the discovery of tests for scientific assumptions
and of synthetic proof. None of the earlier philosophers
possessed anything like the progressive
tools Aristotle placed in the hands of scientists.
Their use quickly led to a general review of
knowledge and a great increase in the number of
sciences.
The textbook on geometry compiled by Euclid,
still used in many schools, gives us a good picture
of the state of scientific methods in his time. Euclid,
like Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and others, was a great
systematizer. He collected the geometrical proofs
of his mathematical predecessors, selected those
which were logically correct and simple, and raised
on a few axioms, or first principles, a great geometrical
system.
Archimedes published textbooks on spherical and
cylindrical geometry. He proved that the surface
of a sphere is equal to four times a great circle. He
showed the properties of spherical segments and
methods for calculating surface areas and other
parts of spherical forms.
This great scientist also developed mechanics and
physics. He investigated the lever and demonstrated
the principle upon which its power is based.
He then studied hydrostatics and hydraulics, and
discovered the theory of specific gravity and invented
methods for determining it.
[Pg 90]
Apollonius began publishing scientific textbooks
about forty years after Archimedes. His masterpiece
was his textbook on conic sections.
The work done by Archimedes on the quadrature
of curvilinear figures resulted, centuries later, in the
discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, while the
theory of conic sections published by Apollonius led
to theories for the solution of problems relating to
geometrical curves of all degrees. They placed the
geometry of measurements and the geometry of
forms and positions on strictly scientific bases.
Hipparchus applied the new mathematical and
geometrical discoveries to astronomy. He found a
method for representing the observed motions of
the sun, moon, and planets by assumed uniform circular
motions. His theory of the sun's motion
assumed that the earth was not the center of the
sun's orbit. He drew a line through the earth and
the real center of the orbit and found where the
sun's distance is least and where greatest. He then
compiled a large set of solar tables giving the position
of the sun among the stars at any time. He
next turned his attention to the movements of the
moon and prepared tables for determining eclipses.
Then the various planets were studied and their
mean motions were calculated and recorded. The
stars were mapped and catalogued. He described
the apparent movements of 1,080 stars and comparing
his observations and calculations with those of
Aristyllus and Timocharis, made 150 years previously.
He also discovered the precession of the
equinoxes.
The astronomical calculations of Hipparchus led
to a great improvement in trigonometrical methods.
By using chords, as we use sines, and assuming the[Pg 91]
heavens to be a plane surface, he fixed the positions
of stars (and similarly geographical points) by
the intersections of lines of latitude and longitude.
A planosphere, an instrument for representing
the mechanism of the heavens, was among the many
scientific inventions of Hipparchus.
While Hipparchus was engaged upon problems in
astronomical physics, Hero, a professor of science
at Alexandria, was working out numerous problems
relating to matter and devising machines for practically
applying the teachings of mechanical science.
Ctesibius, assisted perhaps by his pupil Hero, made
a large number of valuable engineering inventions.
He was an authority on hydraulics and pneumatics.
He devised improved siphons, a pneumatic organ, a
force pump, a vacuum pump, a hot-air motor, and
other machines.
His studies regarding the physics of gases led him
to adopt a molecular theory of matter. He believed
that there are vacua existing between the innumerable
particles which constitute matter in all its
states and forms.
Ctesibius improved surveying instruments. His
dioptra, an instrument corresponding to a theodolite,
was a plane table set on a tripod, furnished with
compass points and two sights. The plane was adjusted
by screws and a water level. This instrument
was used by engineers for leveling, laying out
irrigation works and farm lands, sinking shafts for
mining and prospecting purposes, and for tunneling.
A cyclometer for measuring angles of dip and elevation
of rock beds and mountains was also used with
this instrument.
The Greeks owed much of their knowledge of
hydrostatics, mechanics, pneumatics, and physics[Pg 92]
generally to Ctesibius. He was not only a great inventor
and lecturer, but also a writer of valuable
textbooks dealing with physical and mechanical
sciences.
Hero edited a number of editions of the textbooks
of Ctesibius, and is credited with inventing some of
the theories and machines discussed. He, too, published
numerous scientific books.
Hero's work in trigonometry was important. He
described a formula for estimating the area of a
triangle which still bears his name. He defined
spherical triangles and arranged methods for determining
the volumes of irregular solids by measuring
the water displaced by them.
The steam turbine is the best known of Hero's
machines. Scholars read much about his wonderful
musical instruments operated automatically by
pneumatic means resembling the mechanisms of
player-pianos, and particularly about his mechanical
toy mimicking a number of singing birds. A group
of birds were made alternately to sing and to
whistle. The mechanism consisted of air tubes
operating various kinds of whistles. A running
stream was made to operate an air compressor. The
air from the compressor tank operated the various
movements of the birds and supplied air for blowing
the whistles. The numerous mechanisms of this
character which Hero and his master made indicate
that they were as much at home in making pneumatic
and similar mechanical toys as is any expert
to-day. They not only knew the scientific principles,
but had the engineering and mechanical ability to
design them and make them work.
Hero's fire engine is not as well known as his
steam engine. It was a remarkable invention, how[Pg 93]ever.
It was worked by levers and force pumps and
resembled the engines still employed by fire companies
in some remote rural districts.
Not the least interesting machine described by
Hero was his slot machine for dispensing wine and
other liquids. This machine consisted of a cylindrical
container with a slot hole on top through
which coins were dropped. Beneath this there was
a lever with a receptacle for the dropped coin.
The weight of a falling coin depressed one arm
of the lever and raised the other, which opened a
valve and allowed the liquid to escape. When the
lever arm had moved a certain distance, the
coin slipped off and the valve was automatically
closed.
Hero's steam turbine was a crude model. Steam
was generated in a boiler and conducted through
pipes so as to play upon revolving globes or wheel
vanes. This machine was invented to operate
mechanical toys. It was not until nearly 2,000
years later that it occurred to an inventor that steam
could be used to operate more important mechanism
than toys.
The next great name in science is that of Claudius
Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer, who lived in
Alexandria about 139 A. D. He brought out new
editions of the mathematical works of Hipparchus,
and published a number of scientific books of his
own. His principal work, known as the Grammar
of Mathematics, formed the basis of all astronomical
studies down to the time of Copernicus, about
1500 A. D.
The earth formed the center of the universe, according
to Ptolemy's theory. The sun and planets,
he thought, revolved around the earth.
[Pg 94]
We obtain our minutes and seconds from Ptolemy's
great work. He divided the circle with 360
degrees and its diameter into 120 divisions. Each
division of the circumference he divided into sixty
parts. The Latin names for these parts were partes
minutæ primæ and secundæ, or the first small divisions
and the second small divisions.
The Greek scientists were so interested in logical
analysis that they constantly investigated the fundamental
facts upon which their teachings were based.
They made provisional hypotheses, deduced mathematical
consequences, and compared these with the
results of observation and experiments. When Hipparchus
found that his planetary theories did not
meet his tests, he decided to make as many new
observations as possible and collect astronomical
data to be used at a later period by other scientists.
He realized that, while he knew the old theories were
incorrect, there was not enough data at hand to
enable better theories to be established. He therefore
deliberately labored to provide data for
posterity.
Ptolemy's treatise on geography was an encyclopedia
of places, names, and descriptions. In this
work he located over 5,000 places between India and
Morocco, giving their latitude and longitude.
Ptolemy's textbooks on sound and optics were
long celebrated. The work on optics contained valuable
chapters on refraction, a subject he had done
much to develop. These works contained some of
the finest collections of experimental data illustrating
the best scientific methods used in antiquity.
The next great mathematicians and physicists
are Pappus and Diophantus. The former lived
about 300 A. D. He was the author of textbooks on[Pg 95]
mathematics and astronomy. Some of these have
been preserved and are of great value in exhibiting
the status of Greek science at that time.
The arithmetical textbook of Diophantus, which
is extant, is remarkable as being the first to contain
a complete exposition of algebra and the use of
algebraic symbols and methods. Euclid solved quadratic
equations geometrically and Hero solved them
algebraically, although without using symbols. But
in Diophantus's arithmetic quadratics are solved by
the use of algebraic symbols. After several centuries,
when the Euclidean geometry was in the
ascendant, and many problems which were suited
to arithmetical and algebraic methods of analysis
were solved by geometrical and trigonometrical
means, Diophantus succeeded in renewing interest
in arithmetic and mathematics generally.
Political changes and other intellectual interests
soon after the time of Diophantus turned men's
thoughts in other directions and no great scientists
were afterward developed by the Greeks.
While the physicists were making their discoveries,
medical men were studying anatomy, biology,
and materia medica. Medical science in the time of
Diophantus had a status, with a theory and practice,
closely resembling those of to-day.
Hippocrates of Cos (460 B. C.), was the greatest
leader of Greek medical science. He cast superstition
aside and based his researches and practice
upon the same principles of inductive philosophy
that had proved so valuable in other sciences. He
established hospitals for the nursing of the sick,
and had attendants note the symptoms and the histories
of the cases. In this way a number of casebooks
were made. He wrote a work on Public[Pg 96]
Health. His operations in trepanning were more
heroic than would be undertaken by good surgeons
to-day. These are described in his book on Injuries
of the Head. Many of his works are extant and
furnish very interesting and valuable pictures of
the state of medical science in Greece.
During the several centuries in which the Greeks
placed science and all the leading departments of
knowledge upon firm bases, stripped of the sentimental
and traditional trappings which had come
down from remote times, changes of a political
nature were causing the immigration of foreign
peoples to Greece. The importance of preserving
racial purity was not recognized. The result was
that the original Greeks, who were of the long-headed
type, were forced to give way to the hordes
of inferior peoples coming in from Asia. These
new, round-headed people were not original thinkers,
and were unable to advance science and the arts as
the Greeks had done. They were, to a large extent,
even unable to appreciate the wonderful treasures
of knowledge bestowed upon them by the cultured
people they had displaced.
The Egyptians and Babylonians advanced knowledge
for practical purposes and when these were
served they showed no desire to explore further.
But the analytical mind of the Greek called for
knowledge of basic laws and first principles.
[Pg 97]
CHAPTER VII
THE ROMAN AND MIDDLE AGES
The Romans succeeded to Greek culture; but they
were a business people. They exhibited smaller
intellectual capacity than the Greeks for analytical
thinking. This precluded them from advancing the
sciences. The Romans attained great eminence in
oratory, history, art, and literature. They probably
equaled the Greeks in music. They never produced
any great thinkers like Aristarchus, Hipparchus,
Euclid, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Democritus, Hippocrates,
Plato, Aristotle, and others referred to in the
preceding chapters.
What the Romans lacked in intellect they made up
in energy. They became good soldiers and sailors,
good politicians, able architects, engineers, and
farmers. This explains how they became so powerful
politically. They were the most practical people
in a practical world. Instead of bequeathing us great
scientific masterpieces like the Greeks, they have
left us miles of useful roads, waterways, walls,
fortresses, bridges, buildings, and statuary. Remains
of these objects occur throughout Europe and
northern Africa, showing that Roman engineering
practice has been as universally useful as Roman
law and political practices. The great scientific
discoveries of the world have been made by only a
few peoples. Those nations which have possessed
the scientific temperament have not always been pro[Pg 98]ductive.
Great inventions and discoveries appear
to be made in response to national needs and are
preceded by long periods during which the preparatory
work is being done. The great men of science
being active generalizes, need the cooperation of
many lesser scientists to collect data and observations
upon which general theories may be built.
This appears to be the explanation of the irregular
periods of great scientific activity.
Julius Cæsar, great in many departments of
human endeavor, carried through two important
scientific reforms. He caused the rectification of
the calendar. In the year 47 B. C. there was an
accumulated error of nearly 85 days in the calendar.
This was corrected and the year was made to consist
of 365 days, with an additional day every four
years. Cæsar's calendar is still in use.
His other reform, which was not completed until
the reign of Augustus, was a scientific survey of the
Roman empire. This conferred great benefits not
only upon Rome, but upon the world. Geography,
commerce, and industry were enlarged, many practical
scientists were trained, and the various data and
maps which had to be collected and drawn resulted
in many improvements in statistical methods and in
surveying and astronomical computations.
An early contribution to science by Rome was the
textbook on Architecture by Vitruvius. This great
work became the standard guide to building until
the changed conditions in the Middle Ages called for
new architectural methods.
The works on natural philosophy by Lucretius, the
geography of Strabo, the books on natural history
by Pliny, and the encyclopedic medical works of
Galen were successive contributions. These chiefly[Pg 99]
aimed at developing the teachings of the great Greek
scientists for the practical use of the Romans.
Roman history shows that all branches of the
learned professions were popular and Roman professional
men were very competent. None, however,
stands out as a great discoverer. The names just
above recorded are those of the chief lights of
Roman science, and they simply reflect the practical
nature of the Roman intellect. The best the
Romans did was to preserve Greek science, test it
extensively by practical applications throughout
their vast empire, and hand it on to succeeding
nations.
Philosophical thought in the declining years of
Greece turned to theosophical speculations, and
finally to ethics and theology. Much interest was
evinced by the Romans in ethics, æsthetics, and
theology. A new religion, destined to exert profound
influences on intellectual developments, gradually
attracted the attention of thinkers. The
Romans were fascinated by the monotheism of
Christianity and the doctrines of a future life and
good will and love. There grew out of the critical
attacks on this new theology a powerful scholastic
philosophy aiming at the exposition, systematization,
and demonstration of the principal Christian
doctrines.
Aurelius Augustinus, a native of Africa (353-430
A. D.), championed the opinion that knowledge of
God and self was the proper kind to study. The
sciences have only value in illuminating the power
of God. Intelligence is necessary to comprehend
what we believe; faith is required to believe what
we comprehend. As the highest good, or moral ideal,
is transcendent, Christians cannot realize it, so[Pg 100]
human perfection should consist in the love of God
and bearing good will to others.
The conditions brought about by this turn of
thought were not favorable for scientific development.
The world had to wait until the scholastic
philosophy lost itself in metaphysical discussions.
Then Roger Bacon (1214-1294) released science and
mathematics from the chains which had so long
confined them.
While European thought was occupied in discussing
scholastic philosophy, the Arabs and Moors
were carrying on the practice of the sciences. The
Moors in Spain published many valuable textbooks
and developed new principles in architecture and
medicine. Their Giralda observatory in Seville
was the first astronomical building erected in Europe,
and their university in Cordova remained for
a long period the leading professional school.
The universities of Paris, Salerno, Oxford, and
Cambridge, and the law school at Bologna, were
founded in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and
have continued to hold up the torch of science until
our time.
Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan monk, was
a graduate of the University of Paris. He was
a brilliant student of physical and mathematical
sciences. Pope Clement IV invited him to write a
textbook of science. Bacon did this in 1266. He
became a professor in Oxford University in 1268.
His Opus Majus (1267) summarized ancient and
current philosophy and science and included the researches
of the Moors. This great book reasserted
the fact that science must be based upon experiments
and that the astronomical and physical
sciences must rest upon geometry and mathematics.[Pg 101]
Bacon's clear recognition of the value of experimental
methods and logical exposition mark him as
the greatest intellectual force of his century.
The errors in the calendar were estimated and
corrected by Bacon. He criticized the astronomical
principles of Ptolemy, which were still generally
accepted. His experiments in physics led him to
make important discoveries in optics. He improved
lenses and apparently made microscopes and telescopes.
He proposed a lunar theory in accounting
for the movements of the tides.
Roger Bacon made so many accurate comments on
physical phenomena and so accurately forecasted
recent mechanical inventions that his book, which
was so far in advance of his time that it was unintelligible
and caused him to be charged with witchcraft,
still astonishes its readers.
Lenses were used for spectacles in Asia in the
remotest times, but there are reasons for believing
that Bacon was the first to prescribe them on scientific
principles for the correction of defective vision.
He also appears to have appreciated the value of
gunpowder as an explosive agent and had it introduced
into Europe from Morocco. Being misunderstood,
Bacon founded no school and left no
students.
Nicole Oresme, Bishop of Normandy (1323-1382),
used fractional powers in mathematics and developed
a notation. About the same period, Thomas
Bradwardine, Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote on
star polygons, and other Englishmen, like Boethius
and Bath, wrote new textbooks on astronomy and
mathematics. They started a school of trigonometry
in England that made great improvements in that
branch of science.
[Pg 102]
Between 1200 and 1400 A. D. the magnetic compass
was improved and used at sea, clocks were
improved and made popular, improvements were
made in weaving, printing was invented, textbooks
were written on many subjects, and education began
to spread in Europe. All these factors prepared
the way for a great industrial and scientific
awakening.
Nicholas de Cusa (1401-1464), Bishop of Brixen,
published books on mathematics and suggested that
the earth's movements indicate a diurnal rotation.
The way was now paved for a new theory of
planetary motions. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
a Pole, developed the astronomical system
bearing his name, as a result of suggestions gained
by studying the works of the Greek astronomer
Hicetas, and Plutarch's Lives of Greek Scientists.
His great work was entitled "De Revolutionibus
Orbium Celestium, or the Movements of Heavenly
Bodies," which treated the sun as the center of the
planetary system.
Weather forecasting was improved by Tycho
Brahe (1546-1601), and many fine astronomical observations
were made by him. He greatly improved
astronomical instruments and built and splendidly
equipped a great observatory in Uraniborg, Denmark.
Numerous important observations were
made there.
John Kepler, the discoverer of the ellipticity of
the planetary orbits and the laws of their movements,
was a student under Brahe, and continued his
master's researches. His observations on the movements
of the planet Mars led to his discovery that
the planets travel in ellipses and not in circles.
Besides his numerous works on astronomy he[Pg 103]
wrote valuable books on optics and other scientific
subjects.
Galileo (1564-1642) took up the work of Tycho
Brahe and Kepler and carried it forward to new
triumphs. He made the first telescope ever used for
astronomical observation, and with it was able to
discern that the Milky Way was composed of aggregations
of innumerable stars; that the surface of the
moon was covered with plains and mountains, that
there were four moons revolving around the planet
Jupiter, that the planet Venus showed phases like
those of the moon as she moved around her orbit,
and that there were black spots, at times, upon the
sun, which revealed its rotation on its axis. Galileo
did equally fundamental work in developing the
laws of motion, and the principles of mechanism and
physics.
The development of modern mathematics began
with three intellectual feats—the invention of the
Arabic notation, of decimal fractions, and of logarithms.
The notation was derived by the Arabs
from India about 700 A. D. They had used numerals
long before, but the old system was crude like the
systems employed by the Egyptians and Greeks.
The Textbook on Mathematics by Mohammed ibn
Musa, published at Bagdad about 825 A. D., contained
the first notable exposition of modern numerals.
This important work gave rise to many
more Arabic treatises, some of which showed improved
methods.
Decimal fractions were used by the early peoples
of central Asia and were transmitted by them to the
Babylonians. Their system was based, apparently,
upon a sexagesimal scale. Simon Stevin (1548-1620),
a Belgian, made great improvements in[Pg 104]
decimals. He adopted the plan of William Buckley,
of England, and other mathematicians, and made
the base 100,000, instead of 60.
John Napier (1550-1617), a Scottish nobleman,
invented logarithms. The story of this great mathematician's
work is one of the most interesting in
the history of science. Napier's first table of logarithms
was published in 1614. Henry Briggs (1556-1631),
professor at Oxford, made suggestions for
the improvement of the tables, and persuaded
Napier to make the base 10, as is now done in tables
of common logarithms. Briggs published tables in
1624 containing the logarithms to 14 places of
decimals for the numbers between 1 and 20,000 and
from 90,000 to 100,000. Adrian Vlacq (1600-1667),
a Dutchman, computed the logarithms of the numbers
running from 20,000 to 90,000, and thus completed
the whole series of logarithms between 1 and
100,000. Edmund Gunter (1581-1626), of London,
calculated the logarithmic sines and tangents of
angles for every minute to seven places. He invented
the terms cosine and cotangent and used
them in a work published in 1620.
Another Englishman, William Oughtred (1574-1660),
wrote textbooks on mathematics, and invented
numerous mathematical symbols which are
now in general use, as well as rectilinear and circular
slide rules.
Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598-1647) made many
improvements in mathematical formulæ and expounded
a new method of indivisibles which solved
some of the difficult astronomical problems raised
by Kepler, and enabled Torricelli, Viviani, de Roberval,
and others to solve abstruse problems relating
to all types of curved figures.
[Pg 105]
Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), one of the greatest
of French mathematicians, developed rules for calculating
maxima and minima. His functions in this
type of equation closely approached those of the
differential calculus. The calculus was developed
from Fermat's work by Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier,
and other Frenchmen.
Pascal and Fermat developed the theory of probability.
Pascal worked out many useful methods for
dealing with curves.
The intense mathematical activity in England and
France resulting from the stimulation given by the
invention of Napier, prepared the way for the discovery
of the infinitesimal calculus by Newton and
Leibnitz.
Newton was born in England the same year that
Galileo died in Italy. His greatest work is presented
in his celebrated "Principia," or "Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy," in which the
law of gravitation, the laws of motion, and the
mathematical principles of mechanics are developed.
The "Principia" was published in 1687, and it has
ever since been regarded as the corner stone of
mathematical and physical science.
[Pg 106]
CHAPTER VIII
SCIENCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY
The wonderful advances made in the mathematical,
physical, and astronomical sciences, and
the invention of many new scientific instruments,
together with the publication of improved textbooks
and scientific tables, like those mentioned in the
preceding chapter, stimulated interest in other
fields of science at the beginning of the seventeenth
century.
Medicine, which failed to advance with the astronomical
and physical sciences, began to improve.
The Moors had established great medical schools in
Spain, but their teachings were based upon the
principles enunciated by Hippocrates and the Greek
schools.
Modern medicine was started upon a firm basis
by John Harvey (1578-1657). Hippocrates taught
that the blood was one of the principal parts of the
body—one of the four great "humors." Its movements,
however, had never been investigated until
Harvey began to study the functions of the arterial
system by the dissection of animals. The arteries
had been considered as merely air tubes. This was
due to the fact that they were studied only in post-mortem
examinations when they were empty. The
anatomists of the sixteenth century failed to grasp
their importance.
[Pg 107]
Harvey, who was a penetrating observer, had
studied in several continental universities as well as
in England, and having an original mind he determined
to test the medical theories which he had
been taught. His discoveries of the functions of the
heart, the arteries, and the veins were epochal. He
did his work so well and made such simple, yet
telling, demonstrations that he had less difficulty
than his predecessors in getting his teachings
accepted. He was soon recognized as the peer of
Hippocrates and Galen.
Harvey died without actually seeing the blood
coursing from the arteries into the veins, but four
years after his death Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694)
exhibited microscopically the passage of blood corpuscles
through the minute vessels in the lung of a
turtle, on their way from the heart through the
arteries into the veins and returning to the heart.
The blood circulation was demonstrated at a subsequent
date by applying a microscope to the web of
a frog's foot. With low-powered lenses a good view
is obtainable in this manner.
Many other important discoveries were made by
Harvey, particularly in embryology. He demonstrated
that the embryo chicken is formed by
gradual development and processes of differentiation
and not, as had previously been believed, from
a minute perfect chicken.
Microbes were discovered in 1683 by Antonius
von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), when he was examining
some scrapings from his teeth. He saw for
the first time the long and short rods of bacilli and
bacteria, the spirillum and the micrococci. He tried
means for destroying them and met with a fair
degree of success with a gargle composed of a[Pg 108]
mixture of vinegar and hot coffee. This experiment
was one of the early anticipations of antiseptic
surgery, which was invented by Lister in the nineteenth
century.
A French surgeon, Ambroise Paré (1517-1590)
was a pioneer in the treatment of wounds. The old
method was to use boiling oil. He found that by
simply cleaning and bandaging wounds he could get
better and quicker results than with hot oil, which
was a very painful treatment. Paré used ligaments
in stopping hemorrhages, improved the surgery in
harelip and hernia operations and for suprapubic
lithotomy. He learned the principles of these operations
from Peter Franco (1505-1570), an itinerant
surgeon, who had much skill in operations for kidney
and bladder troubles.
Franz de la Boë (1614-1672), a professor in the
university of Leyden, who is best known under the
name of Sylvius, the discoverer of the brain fissure
of Sylvius, founded a new school of chemical medicine.
Van Helmont suggested to him the possibility
of the stomach being the seat of many common disorders.
When this was investigated, many experiments
were made with new medicines. The success
of these experiments led to a great reform in
medical practice. Thomas Willis (1622-1675), an
English physician, completed the development of the
treatments suggested by Van Helmont and Sylvius
as a result of their studies of the works of Harvey.
Another great English medical genius arose to
establish the practice of medicine on a scientific
basis. Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) founded a
school of medicine in accordance with these three
principles: (1) Accurate descriptions of the courses
of diseases, (2) following a fixed method of treat[Pg 109]ment
in each disease, (3) searching for specific
remedies for each diseased condition.
The results of these teachings were very pronounced.
Before Sydenham's time, the only drug
used in medicine was an extract of cinchona. The
Dutchmen above named and Sydenham discovered
many active medicinal substances. Sydenham's
principal discovery in materia medica was that of
the properties of laudanum.
William Gilbert, court physician to Queen Elizabeth
of England, while Galileo and Stevin were
developing the laws of gravitation and hydrodynamics,
undertook the investigation of the laws
of terrestrial magnetism and chemistry. His researches
in chemistry were extensive and valuable.
His fame, however, was perpetuated by his study
of magnetism and electricity. He found that the
earth is a vast magnet with north and south poles.
His remarkable textbook on magnetism covered
many of the fundamental facts known to-day. He
noted the distinction between magnetism and electricity,
described electrical charges, the principles
of conductivity and methods for magnetizing iron.
Galileo wrote of him: "I extremely admire and
envy this author."
The mercurial barometer and its laws were discovered
by Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) a
student of Galileo. By means of his barometer,
Torricelli was able to make great advances in knowledge
relating to the physics of the air and to gas
pressures, and he investigated the principles of
hydraulics. The microscope, telescope, sextant and
other instruments were greatly improved by him,
and his mathematical work ranks only second to his
contributions to experimental science.
[Pg 110]
The Torricellian tube, used as a barometer, was
a means of creating a vacuum, which was formed
at the top of the column of mercury. Pascal, the
French mathematician, took up the study of the
physics of the vacuum and published an important
work on his own experiments. These and
other experiments made by European scientists
prepared the ground for, and suggested, the investigations
of gases and vacua by Boyle, Mariotte,
and others which finally resulted in the invention
of the steam engine and many other modern
machines.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published at Oxford in
1660 a book which distinguished between chemical
compounds and chemical mixtures. He adopted the
use of the term gas, which was first proposed by
Van Helmont, and made some valuable studies on
the physics of boiling and freezing. The oxidation
of metals, the results of calcination, and of the
fusing of metals and alloys, calculation of the
atmospheric pressure, a study of colors as affected
by light rays, and investigations in electricity were
among the scientific works carried out by this great
experimenter. But his fame rests mainly upon the
results of his researches on gases.
Boyle began life as an alchemist and died a well-trained
chemist.
Edme Mariotte, a French contemporary of
Boyle's, carried out similar experiments and
assisted in formulating the physical laws of gases
bearing the names of Boyle and Mariotte.
A German physicist, Otto von Guericke (1602-1686),
also followed up Boyle's work and invented
a new form of air pump. He also carried on important
experiments in electricity.
[Pg 111]
Gilbert, Harvey, Van Helmont, Torricelli, Boyle,
Mariotte, and other similar pioneers in scientific
methods not only invented numerous valuable
instruments and wrote suggestive textbooks, but
advanced scientific learning and the love of it by
their delightful accounts of their experiments.
Modern education started with these men. Before
this period there had been a sterile age in which the
fundamental purpose of education was only to teach
men how to protect the soul and to serve God. This
humanistic principle, however, failed to advance
knowledge of the laws of nature, and the researches
of the scientists gradually caused a strong reaction
against it. This in turn resulted in further advances
being made, not only in the sciences, but in all
departments of learning. The way was paved for
the era of naturalism, developed by Hobbes, Locke,
Descartes, Voltaire, Kant, Rousseau, and others.
Naturalism aimed at explaining all phenomena in
the simplest terms, and correlating all things by
universal principles. It has received a great impetus
in modern times from the Darwinian theory of
evolution.
The great scientific discoveries of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries had other important educational
effects. They led to professional specialization
and the founding of scientific institutions,
schools, and universities. The Lyncean Society of
Scientists was founded in Italy in Galileo's time.
It subsequently became, in 1657, the Accademia del
Cimento.
The Royal Society of England was organized
about 1645 and chartered in 1662. It did much
valuable scientific work from its inception. It has
assisted the foremost scientists in their work, directed
scientific researches, and financed the printing
of scientific records and the carrying out of foreign
expeditions. Nearly all the leading countries in the
world have formed institutions with similar aims.
The chemical discoveries of Boyle attracted widespread
attention and led to investigations started
with the view of discovering the constitution of
matter. Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738) of
Leyden, took up the study of organic chemistry.
Stephen Hales (1677-1761) did similar work in
England. Both of these chemists invented valuable
laboratory processes and instruments. Hales
improved the pneumatic trough used for collecting
gases.
Scientists were now furnished with the telescope,
compass, sextant, microscope, barometer, thermometer,
air pump, manometer, and other instruments
so that cellular structures of plants, animals,
and insects, the microbes and bacteria, the animalculæ
found in water and in the sea, as well as the
phenomena of the air, sky, and earth crust could
now be studied by trained observers. The invention
of these instruments caused workers to specialize
more and more, and completely severed science
from philosophy, of which it had been an appendage
since the earliest times.
The microscopical investigations of Malpighi,
Kircher, Leeuwenhoek, Grew, and Hooke opened
up an immense field for research. They developed
microscopical chemistry and anatomy, and changed
the prevailing ideas regarding animal and vegetable
tissues. The sciences of mineralogy, botany and
entomology were benefited and the medical sciences
were practically revolutionized. The first publications
of the Royal Society show the widespread
attention microscopical and telescopic studies were
then receiving.
[Pg 112]
Copyright, Keystone View Co.
WEATHER AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS ON THE
ROOF OF GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, ENGLAND
[Pg 113]
Courtesy "Aeronautics," London
A MOORING TOWER FOR AIRSHIPS, WITH THE R-24 FASTENED HEAD ON
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), René Descartes
(1596-1650) and Gottfried Leibnitz (1646-1716),
in England, France, and Germany, respectively, lent
powerful aid to the advance of science at this time.
Bacon's great learning enabled him effectively to
describe scientific methods and to direct scientific
criticism. He attracted general attention to scientific
methods based on inductive processes.
Descartes, seeing that the world's best intellects
had long been exercised with philosophy and metaphysics,
without discovering anything with certainty,
resolved to accept no beliefs upon the authority
of any name or reputation. He would reach his
own conclusions based upon the scrupulous examination
of data. He hoped to solve the mysteries of
nature by the aid of mathematics and geometry,
and developed the Cartesian philosophy.
The mathematical works of Descartes are now
better known than his general scientific ideas. He
published in 1637 his "Discourses on Method" and on
Geometry. In the last-named work, suggestions are
given for the development of analytic methods. It
has been said of his formulæ that they are even
cleverer than himself. The general use of his
analytic methods by other mathematicians resulted
in the solution of many scientific problems that had
been handed down for centuries as insoluble.
Descartes also advanced algebra. The application
of the doctrine of curved lines to algebra greatly
enlarged the scope of its usefulness. In making
these innovations, Descartes introduced the methods
and symbols of modern exponential notation. The
English mathematician Wallis was also an impor[Pg 114]tant
agent in the development of mathematical
notation. He based his work on the Greek notation
and that of Nicolas Chuquet (1484), J. Bürgi,
Thomas Harriot (1631), Johann Hudde (1659), and
others. Descartes was familiar with the writings
of these scholars and, undoubtedly, was influenced
by them.
Roberval, Fermat, and Pascal were contemporary
mathematicians in France and left great names in
the history of the mathematical sciences. They all
made contributions which permanently enriched
mathematics and made further progress in other
sciences possible.
The geographical sciences now began to attract
attention. The new scientific instruments made it
possible to collect data in all parts of the world that
was needed in unraveling scientific mysteries.
William Dampier (1653-1715) was one of the
pioneers in scientific voyages of discovery. In voyages
to the Orient and Australasia he collected much
important data on zoölogy, botany, meteorology, the
winds, tides, currents, and on fish and sea life. His
book on winds became the first great standard work
on meteorology.
The doctrine of spontaneous generation had long
held sway in Europe. The Greeks entertained it
and it was accepted as true in the time of Martin
Luther. Francesco Redi (1626-1697), an Italian
biologist, showed that when the flesh of dead animals
is protected it remains fresh. The Abbé
Spallanzani (1729-1799) carried Redi's theory further
and showed that microbes and bacteria do not
develop in concoctions which have been boiled and
sealed. Here we note the beginning of antiseptic
science.
[Pg 115]
Under the leadership of Bacon in England,
Calvin in France, Luther in Germany, and Knox in
Scotland, European thought was being stirred up
while the great discoveries just related were being
made. Just as Boyle's chemical discoveries caused
the divorcing of chemistry from alchemy, and the
naturalistic philosophy of the times led to the
specialization of scientists and the breaking off of
philosophy from science, so the intellectual awakening
aroused by Bacon and his contemporaries led to
the suppression of belief in witchcraft and to
revolutionary ideas in religion and ethics.
Locke endeavored to base a "rational Christianity"
on the ground of experience. Until his times,
theology was tangled up with a maze of physical
problems which dismayed even such intellects as
those of Newton, Hume, and Locke.
Newton's researches were chiefly based upon
mathematical and astronomical problems. While a
student at Cambridge in 1660, he studied the works
of Descartes, Kepler, Van Schooten, Barrow, and
particularly those of the Greek and British mathematicians.
The works of J. Wallis were very valuable
to him. The "Arithmetic of Affinities" of Wallis
drew his attention to astronomical problems and
thus led to his great triumphs later on.
Newton's "Principia" has already been referred
to as being one of the greatest works of the intellect
ever produced.
The result of Newton's meditation upon the
nature of the central force that keeps the planets
in their courses was that he furnished a mathematical
basis for Kepler's laws by proving that if the
planets describe elliptical orbits about the sun, the
force acting toward the sun, keeping them in revolu[Pg 116]tion,
must vary inversely as the square of the distance.
On the revolution of the moon around the
earth he found a practical confirmation of this law
of gravitational attraction. He then took up the
study of motion in general and showed that every
particle of matter attracts every other particle in
accordance with the same principle of inverse
squares.
Botanical gardens were established in Padua in
1545, and not long after in Pisa, Leyden, Paris, and
London. Much attention was devoted to medicinal
plants, and numerous herbal books were published.
Malpighi, Grew, and Camerarius (1665-1721) published
works on botany and plant morphology. Ray
and Linnæus (1707-1778) studied the classification
of plants and compiled textbooks of descriptive
botany.
Buffon (1707-1788) published his famous "Natural
History of Animals" which did for zoölogy
what the works of Linnæus did for botany.
Looking backward, we can now see that all scientific
knowledge has been gained by the trial and
error method and cumulative analyses of a multitude
of observations. Progress is not made uniformly
but in a recurrent, cyclic manner. Reactions
follow advances, but in the end all goes forward.
[Pg 117]
CHAPTER IX
PRELUDE TO MODERN SCIENCE—THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
When the eighteenth century opened science
had begun to make men think, and the works
of the great scientists had changed the trend of
thought on all sides. Liberty of conscience, of worship,
and of opportunity were demanded, as well as
representative government, economic freedom, and
individual equality before the law. Men wanted to
be free agents. The philosophical writings of
Berkeley, Locke, Hume, Spinoza, Voltaire, Rousseau,
and others supplemented the books of the scientists
and promoted rational thinking. Syllogistic reasoning
displaced the practice of accepting beliefs upon
authority. This change in public thought reacted
most favorably upon science.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) conceived
matter as a plurality of simple forces. Many kinds
of matter, he said, exist. There is no single natural
force, but an infinite number. Each force is represented
by some individual substance. Force is indivisible,
immaterial, and unextended. Simple forces
he called essential forms, units, atoms, or monads.
The monads are not mathematical points, nor physical
points. Real points are metaphysical. In other
words, Leibnitz created a philosophy of eternal
force atoms.
[Pg 118]
The Greeks were taught by Leucippus, Empedocles
and Anaxagoras that matter is formed of atoms.
Space is infinite; atoms are indivisible. Atoms are
in a continuous state of activity. Atoms constitute
worlds and planets. Falling through space they
give rise to eddying motions by mutual impact.
Many philosophers rejected these views. Throughout
the ages, however, they were learned by students
and when Leibnitz advanced his new atomic theory,
the world was ready to consider it. The Leibnitzian
monads were like Plato's ideas—eternal purposes.
Aristotle held that monads are absolute, indivisible
beings. Leibnitz suggested that each monad is in
process of evolution and realizes its nature through
inner necessity. It is not determined from without.
Each form of matter existed in germ in an embryo.
Nothing in a monad can be lost, and future stages
are predetermined in the earlier stages. Each
monad is charged with the past and big with the
future. The biologists at this period generally
accepted this incasement theory. Caspar F. Wolff
suggested, in 1759, that there is an epigenesis or a
progressive evolution and differentiation of organs
from a homogeneous primitive germ. This view did
not meet with approval until Darwin published his
great discoveries in the middle of the last century.
The history of the atomic theories furnishes a
clear illustration of the long period of preparation
that great scientific ideas must pass through before
they are united by a generalizing genius of exceptional
capacity and launched in the form of a new
theory.
Modern mathematical science grew out of the
analytical geometry of Descartes. He showed that
the true method for the discovery of scientific facts[Pg 119]
was to accept nothing as true which was clearly not
recognizable as true. All assumptions should be
proved. Each difficulty should be separately studied.
No intermediate steps should be skipped, and details
should be methodically enumerated. Thoughts must
be guided in an orderly manner, beginning with the
simplest characteristics of an object and proceeding
in a logical sequence to the most complicated aspects
of each subject. Descartes carried out his own rules
in his work. His improvements in the differential
calculus, and those in the integral calculus made by
Cavalieri, and in the calculus of probabilities by
Pascal and Fermat, furnished scientists with instruments
capable of solving almost every physical
problem met with in their investigations.
One of the first results of the new analytical
methods was the establishment of the science of
optics.
Newton demonstrated that white light is composed
of rays of various colors, and that the color
reflected by any object is due to the ability of the
object to reflect certain rays while absorbing the
rest. The Dutch physicist, Huygens, championed
the undulatory or wave theory of light. Refraction
was explained by both Newton and Huygens, and
the latter, while studying the double refraction of
crystals of Iceland spar, discovered the phenomena
of polarization.
Boyle's chemical discoveries led to much research
in chemistry. Black, Bergman and Van Helmont
investigated the properties of carbonic acid gas.
Joseph Black treated limestone with acid and collected
the gas evolved in a Hales pneumatic trough.
He weighed the gas and the remainder of the limestone,
finding that what the limestone lost was[Pg 120]
equivalent to the weight of the gas. He then
reversed the process and succeeded in making chalk
from a solution of lime. This simple experiment
paved the way for chemical analysis and syntheses
which have added profoundly to our knowledge of
the composition of matter.
Bergman tested Black's gas with litmus and found
it gave an acid reaction and in 1779 Lavoisier
demonstrated that it consisted of carbon and
oxygen.
Priestley and Cavendish, both English chemists,
then took up this study. Cavendish treated iron,
tin, zinc, and other metals with sulphuric acid and
discovered a new gas which he termed hydrogen.
Rutherford discovered nitrogen in 1772 and
Priestley isolated nitric oxide, and in 1774 discovered
oxygen. In the course of his experiment
Priestley also discovered ammonia, sulphur dioxide
and other chemicals.
His greatest achievements, however, were the
isolation and recognition of oxygen, and the discovery
of the composition of water. Following up
these discoveries, he noted that the air is not a
simple elementary substance, but a mixture of
nitrogen and oxygen with several impure gases.
The work of this great chemist became as fruitful
in the chemical field as that of Newton in physics,
astronomy, and mathematics.
Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swede, carried out many
experiments which resulted in the discovery of
tartaric acid, the decomposition of silver chloride by
light, magnesium nitrate, magnesia, microcosmic
salt, and sulphureted hydrogen, chlorine, hydrofluoric,
and other inorganic acids. He also discovered
the following organic acids: lactic, gallic, pyrogallic,[Pg 121]
oxalic, citric, malic, mucic and uric. He isolated
glycerin and sugar of milk and determined the
nature of hydrocyanic acid, borax, plumbago, Prussian
blue, and other chemicals. He invented many
new chemical and laboratory processes. Scheele was
an apothecary's assistant and lived in poverty. But
although his experiments were conducted under disadvantageous
circumstances his discoveries ranked
him as the greatest chemist of his time and one of
the greatest chemical experimenters of all time.
Cavendish established the proportions of the constituents
of air, demonstrated the nature of water
and its volumetric composition. The character of
the experiments conducted by Cavendish, his elegant
methods of weighing, measuring and calculating
have caused him to be looked upon as the
founder of systematic chemistry. He was more
scientific in his methods than the brilliant Lavoisier,
and much more learned and philosophical than the
practical Scheele.
While the chemists were making these great
advances there were important developments in
physical science. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790),
the first American scientist to acquire world-wide
fame, announced that lightning was an electrical
phenomenon. In 1752 he showed by his famous
kite experiments that atmospheric and machine-generated
electric charges are of a like nature.
Franklin suggested to Cavendish certain electrical
experiments with a view to studying the electric
force between two charges. These experiments led
Cavendish to the discovery of the law of electric
attraction between charged bodies. Franklin subsequently
discovered the law of conservation of an
electric charge.
[Pg 122]
Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806) rendered
great service to electrical experimentation. He resurveyed
the experiments of Cavendish, Priestley,
and other pioneer electricians, and established a
theory of molecular magnetization which provided
a working formula to explain electrical currents and
magnetic fields.
Simeon Denis Poisson (1781-1840) discovered the
law of induced magnetism which bears his name.
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) observed that the
limbs of a frog are convulsed whenever they are
connected up through the nerves and muscles with
a metallic arc formed from more than one metal.
He thought the convulsions were due to a peculiar
fluid which he called galvanism, or animal
electricity.
Another Italian, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)
discovered and explained the theory of the voltaic
pile.
Nicholson and Carlisle discovered frictional electricity
while William Cruickshank showed that a
voltaic current decomposes solutions of metallic
salts. William Hyde Wollaston used Cruickshank's
discovery to prove that frictional and voltaic electric
currents are identical. Humphry Davy (1778-1829)
in 1807 established a new voltaic theory
which combined the chemical and contact theories
previously held, and showed that electrical and
chemical attractions are produced by similar causes.
Chemical affinity he found to be an essentially electrical
phenomenon.
Francis Hawksbee, in 1705, communicated to the
Royal Society a monograph which showed that when
common air is passed over mercury in a well-exhausted
receiver an electric light is produced.[Pg 123]
This was the first demonstration of the availability
of electricity for the production of light.
Dufay (1699-1739) described positive and negative
electric currents.
Watson determined, for the Royal Society, the
velocity of an electric current and found it practically
instantaneous.
These, and numerous lesser, discoveries did for
electricity what the chemical discoveries of Priestley,
Cavendish, Scheele, Boyle, Lavoisier, and others
had done for chemistry.
The numerous voyages of discovery in the eighteenth
century helped to develop the geographical
sciences. Special expeditions were fitted out for the
acquirement of geographical knowledge without any
thought of trading profits. The Jesuits carried out
a valuable survey of China and Mongolia early in
the century. A Danish scientific expedition studied
Arabia, the results of which were published by
Niebuhr in 1772. James Bruce visited Abyssinia
with the view of solving the ancient problem of the
source of the Nile. Mungo Park studied the course
of the Niger. Captain James Cook led a scientific
expedition to Tahiti with the object of making
astronomical observations. This resulted in one
of the greatest and most valuable voyages of discovery
in history. Cook determined the westernmost
point of America in 1778 and his accounts of
Bering Sea and Alaska revived interest in the Polar
seas, which resulted in numerous Arctic and Antarctic
expeditions yielding rich scientific returns.
The Hudson's Bay Company sent out many investigators
to determine the characteristics and resources
of Arctic America. The Russians did the
same for their own northern lands.
[Pg 124]
These activities of geographical investigators led
to improved methods of navigation, nautical surveying,
sounding and shipbuilding, besides supplying
an enormous amount of scientific data.
The British naval authorities pointed out to King
Charles II the need for correct nautical tables.
Flamsteed, one of the leading astronomers of the
day, was appointed Astronomer Royal in 1675, with
the definite object of producing a new catalogue of
star positions, tide tables, and other nautical data.
He immediately founded the Greenwich observatory,
which has supplied the world with data for
the navigator.
Bradley, a successor of Flamsteed at Greenwich,
made many important astronomical discoveries
while carrying on the star maps. He discovered
the aberration of light and the mutation of the
earth's axis.
Locaille studied the parallax of the sun and made
numerous stellar observations at the Cape of Good
Hope in 1751. He located the positions of 10,000
stars in the southern hemisphere.
Measurements were made in Peru, Lapland, and
elsewhere to discover data regarding the earth's
curvature. Pendulum observations to detect variations
of gravity were made in many countries.
Maskelyne, the astronomer royal, made observations
on the transit of Venus at St. Helena in 1761.
On this expedition he perfected the method of finding
longitude at sea by lunar distances.
Sir William Herschel discovered the planet
Uranus in 1781, and subsequently found its satellites.
Many star groups, double stars and nebulæ
were discovered by him and he found that the
solar system is traveling through space in the[Pg 125]
direction of a point in or near the constellation
of Hercules.
Greenwich observatory was publishing at the end
of the eighteenth century the Nautical Almanac,
and annual reports on star and meteorological
observations as well as important astronomical
monographs. Similar publications were founded in
the next century in France, Germany, and Italy.
The discoveries in mathematics during the eighteenth
century included the differential, integral,
and other forms of the calculus, differential equations,
and various formulæ for dynamics, mechanics,
and physical and astronomical calculations. Euler,
Lagrange, Laplace, D'Alembert, and Carnot were
prominent mathematical investigators.
Heat in earlier times had been regarded as an
imponderable substance called caloric which was
supposed to be emitted by hot and absorbed by cold
bodies. Thus the expansion of mercury was explained
by the addition of caloric and not by the
increase of distance between the molecules. Francis
Bacon and the Scotch chemist Black did the preliminary
work which enabled Count Rumford
finally to establish the true theory of heat. Watt
and Newcomen were attracted by these studies and
reduced their theories to practice in the steam
engine. Black described specific and latent heat
and invented, and used, the calorimeter bearing his
name.
Hall invented an achromatic lens for telescopes in
1733, and Dollond, another English optician, improved
achromatic lenses and made, in 1758, achromatic
telescope objectives. The lenses were primarily
designed for astronomical telescopes, but they
were also applied to microscopes and other scien[Pg 126]tific
instruments, resulting in improvements in our
knowledge of light.
The voyages of discovery, in this century,
encouraged study of zoölogy and natural history subjects
generally, including mineralogy and geology.
Hooke, Ray, and Woodward made collections of
rocks and fossils in England and advanced hypotheses
to explain their origins. Lazzaro Moro
suggested that fossils must have been deposited in
rocks when they were being formed. He also distinguished
rock formations by the characteristic
fossils found in them. Hutton and Smith then
made scientific studies of English rocks, fossils,
and earth sculpture, and prepared the materials for
the subsequent brilliant discoveries of Lyell.
The first governmental school of mines was
established in Freiberg, Saxony, in 1775. This
institution, and others which were afterward
established in different countries, led to an intensive
study of the geological and metallurgical
sciences, which eventuated in great advances during
the nineteenth century.
Aristotle and Theophrastus in early times, Gesner
in the sixteenth century, Ray, Grew, Malpighi
and Willughby in the seventeenth century, had been
the writers of the principal textbooks on zoölogy.
Buffon (1707-1785) and Linnæus (1707-1778)
were the founders of modern natural history in the
eighteenth century. Buffon described species, while
Linnæus classified them. Linnæus named Homo
sapiens as a distinct species in the order of primates
which includes apes, lemurs, and bats, and
fixed man's place in nature.
The medical sciences were revolutionized by the
researches of Edward Jenner. He applied the[Pg 127]
scientific methods of the chemists, mathematicians,
and astronomers to medicine and through accurate
observation, skillful experimentation, careful generalization,
and thorough verification, founded preventive
medicine. His discovery of vaccination as
a preventive for smallpox, communicated to the
Royal Society in a very interesting paper in 1798,
was the pioneer of the many brilliant advances of
our day.
The Freiberg School of Mines, the Woolwich
Observatory, the School of Civil Engineering in
Paris (1747), the Universities of Göttingen (1737),
Bonn (1777), Brussels (1781), Yale (1701) and
Princeton (1746) were founded in this century.
Modern industrialism began in the final part of
this century. The invention of the steam engine
by Watt resulted in giving the greatest impulse to
material civilization the world ever experienced.
This invention was the direct result of the experimental
work of Boyle, Newton, Black, Cavendish,
Davy, Priestley, and Lavoisier. It illustrates how
the scientific discoveries of one generation furnish
the data for the advancement of knowledge by the
next generation and how a single invention may
change the whole aspect of life, giving employment
for vast numbers of people, developing settlement
in foreign lands, starting new industries, and
extending the fields of commerce. The history of
the development of the steam engine from the
results of a few basic physical researches by
British scientists forms one of the grandest stories
in the history of science.
The new aspect assumed by the world as a result
of the great scientific discoveries and the increases
in industry and commerce which followed them[Pg 128]
seemed strange to the people who were unused to
rapid progress. There was a disturbed feeling akin
to fear abroad while the new ideas were being
popularized and disseminated throughout the
world. The movement in favor of enlightenment
was strongest in France because of the social,
political, and religious oppression of the people. It
ended in the French Revolution, which strengthened
the respect for reason and human rights throughout
the world.
[Pg 129]
CHAPTER X
PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY
During the nineteenth century, the path of
scientific discovery might almost be represented
by a vertical line. Never before was such
rapid and marvelous progress made. The releasing
of the mind from the oppressive restrictions of
earlier conservative ages liberated the intellectual
energies of mankind. A new idealistic philosophy
supplanted that of an earlier period and universal
attention was given to science and material things.
Amidst these changes social science was devolved,
and, with it, the study of psychology.
But it was the physical sciences which most felt
the stimulus of the new rationalistic spirit.
The relationships between physical magnitudes
are established by measurements. When these are
accurately ascertained, questions regarding their
variable functions can be solved by mathematical
principles. Physics is thus linked with mathematics
through measurements. The more science
advances, the greater is the accuracy needed in
physical measurements. The strictness and clearness
of experimentation which has been attained
in physics has given birth to a science of measurement,
which has its own instruments, rules,
methods, and formulæ.
[Pg 130]
Measurement of length is one of the bases of
physics. It is a relative operation carried out by
comparing the length of one body with that of
another. Standards of length are preserved by a
Bureau of Weights and Measures in most countries.
Delambre, a French authority on the decimal system
of measures, taught at the beginning of the
nineteenth century that magnitudes as small as the
hundredth of a millimeter are incapable of observation.
The International Bureau of Weights and
Measures now guarantees to determine two or
three ten-thousandths of a millimeter. So much
has the science of measurement progressed in a
century.
The undulations of light rays are used for determining
standard lengths. Michelson and Benoit
measured a standard length of ten centimeters, in
1894, in terms of the wave lengths of the red, green,
and blue radiations of cadmium, and then in terms
of the French standard meter. These experiments
yielded very accurate results.
The measurement of mass is another important
base of physics. Mass is the quantity of matter in
a body and the action which gravity exerts on mass
is called weight. Weight does not depend entirely
upon mass, but also upon the position of the body
weighed, because when the body is weighed in one
place and reweighed in another, there will be a
difference in the force of gravity due to change of
latitude and of altitude. National standards of
mass have been made of alloys of iridium and
platinum.
Many remarkable measurements of time, temperature,
and physical constants were carried out
during the century.
[Pg 131]
High and low temperature charts were completed,
showing temperatures in the air, the earth, and the
sea. Instruments and methods were devised for
measuring any temperature whether of high furnace
gases or low freezing mixtures.
The measuring units of mass, length, time, and
temperature are fundamental, others like velocity,
acceleration, power, and area are referred to them.
For that reason the latter are called derived units.
Many of these are important and call for accurate
determinations.
One of the first achievements of the century was
the establishment of the doctrine of the conservation
of energy.
Francis Bacon had suggested that motion is a
phenomenon of heat, and Newton had divined the
principle of the conservation of energy, but it was
Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who discovered
the nature of friction and made the first
estimate of the mechanical equivalent of heat. Sir
Humphry Davy showed that two pieces of ice could
be melted by simply rubbing them together, in a
vacuum. But he failed to draw the great inference
that this experiment warranted.
If he had observed that the heat could not have
been supplied by the ice because ice is an absorber
of heat, he would have anticipated the great work
done by James P. Joule, an English physicist, who
published the results of many experiments carried
out by him prior to 1843. His task was to find the
exact mechanical equivalent of heat.
His best results were secured by dropping a mass
of lead from a measured height and using the
energy generated during the descent to operate a
revolving paddle in a dish of measured water.[Pg 132]
Delicate thermometers recorded the increase of
temperature in the water and showed that the
descent of 424 grams of lead through a distance of
one meter, or one gram of lead through 424 meters,
generated sufficient heat to raise one gram of
water one degree centigrade (1° C.).
Otherwise expressed, a fall of 772 lbs. of lead
through a distance of 1 foot, or 1 lb. of lead through
772 feet, raises the temperature of 1 lb. of water
one degree Fahrenheit (1° F.). These 772 foot-pounds,
or 424 gram-meters, represent the mechanical
equivalent of heat upon which so many
important theories have been based. But Joule's
equivalent was determined for common air temperatures
whereas the specific heat of water increases
with the temperature so that the value of the
equivalent rises with increased temperatures.
Osborne Reynolds, in 1897, found the mean equivalent
for temperatures between the freezing and
boiling points to be 777 foot-pounds.
The discovery of Joule's equivalent established a
relationship between motion or mechanical work
performed and the amount of heat generated when
work is completely expanded in friction. The same
relationships continue good when the work is transformed
by indirect means as by generating electric
currents or expanding gases. The multitude
of elegant experiments used to confirm the truth of
Joule's law showed that heat is not a substance, or
calorie, but a purely mechanical effect. This great
discovery of the relation of friction and heat lies
at the basis of electricity, molecular physics, and
chemistry, and is the source of the formulæ used
by engineers in designing power machinery. The
internal combustion engine is largely a result of[Pg 133]
the discovery of Joule's equivalent and the physical
theories derived from it.
This great discovery caused a new theory of matter
to be developed. Dalton had suggested, when
applying the atomic theory to chemistry, that when
two elements combine to form a third substance, it
is probable that one atom of one element joins itself
to one atom of the other, unless some exceptional
condition exists. When water is formed by bringing
oxygen and hydrogen together, he supposed
that one atom of oxygen combined with one atom of
hydrogen. Gay-Lussac subsequently proved that
not only does one volume of oxygen combine with
two volumes of hydrogen (not one as Dalton
believed) in the production of water, but that nitric
and carbonic acid gases combine with ammonia gas
in the ratio of 1:1 or 1:2. He also demonstrated
that one volume of nitrogen united with three of
hydrogen form ammonia, and that carbonic oxide
burning in a mass of oxygen consumes half its volume
of oxygen. He concluded from these and other
facts that gases always combine together in simple
proportions by volume and that the apparent contraction
of volume they show on combining bears a
similar simple relationship to the volume of one or
more of the gases.
Avogadro, working on Gay-Lussac's experimental
data, suggested that the number of integral molecules
in any gas is always the same for equal volumes,
or is always proportional to the volumes. He
also suggested that equal volumes of different gases
at the same pressure and temperature contain the
same number of molecules. Experiments on alcohol
made by Williamson raised doubts as to the validity
of Avogadro's hypotheses when applied to chemical[Pg 134]
combinations. These doubts were cleared in 1860,
when the new chemical atomic weights and formulæ
were introduced into English textbooks.
The molecular theory of matter derived from
these experiments supposes that all visible forms of
matter are aggregations of simpler and smaller
chemical elements. Mendeléeff and Newlands
showed that the physical and chemical properties of
the elements are functions of their atomic weights.
Investigations of radioactivity and the observations
based upon the passage of electric currents
through gases have recently modified our views
with respect to the atomic theory, but these points
will be dealt with in the chapter dealing with
radiation.
Questions regarding the eventual loss of energy
in matter are best studied in gases. A considerable
number of important investigations are now being
carried on in Europe with the view of tracing the
interchanges of molecular energies in gas molecules.
Maxwell and other investigators found long
ago that the motion of molecules cannot go on perpetually.
The energy of motion will in time be
frittered away by friction, air resistance, collisions
with other molecules, vibrations set up by collisions,
and other molecular movements. It has been found
that the energy which is dissipated by air resistance
is transformed into energy in the air. That
which is lost by collisions is converted into internal
vibrations within each molecule. The question
now arises as to what effects are exerted on a gas.
It involves the effects of the communicated internal
molecular vibrations and their transference of
energy to the surrounding medium. What is
known as the Quantum dynamic theory has been[Pg 135]
proposed to account for this phenomena. Quantum
dynamics appear to be distinct from the Newtonian.
Carnot and Clausius discovered that the motive
power of heat is independent of the agents brought
into play for its realization. The motive power of a
waterfall depends, for example, on its height and
on the quantity of water falling within a given
time. Clausius stated the Carnot idea in mechanical
terms by saying: That in a series of transformations,
in which the final is identical with the initial
stage, it is impossible for heat to pass from a
colder to a warmer body unless some other accessory
phenomenon occurs at the same time. A heat
motor, which, after a series of transformations,
returns to its initial state, can only supply work, or
power, if there exist two sources of heat, and if a
certain quantity of heat is given to one of the
sources which can never be the hotter of the two.
The output of a reversible machine working
between two given temperatures is greater than
that of any nonreversible engine, and it is the
same for all reversible machines working between
these two temperatures.
Clausius showed that this principle conduces to
the definition of an absolute scale of temperature
and there is another factor assisting in restoring
physical equilibrium which he termed entropy. It
is a variable which, like pressure or volume, serves
concurrently with another variable to define the
state of a body.
These discoveries of Carnot and Clausius showed
the impossibility of finding a source of perpetual
motion and helped to solve many of the difficulties
in securing efficiency from internal combustion
engines. Industrial, as well as scientific results of[Pg 136]
immense importance have developed from these
principles.
Theories on the compressible fluids and elastic
equilibrium were developed as the result of work
done between 1875 and 1896 by J. W. Gibbs,
Helmholtz, Duhem, and others on internal thermodynamic
potentials. These theories have proved
of incalculable value in elucidating electrical and
radiation phenomena.
Another discovery of Gibbs, made in 1876, has
also had brilliant results. It is known as the Phase
Law. The homogeneous substances into which a
material system is divided is called a phase. Carbonate
of lime, lime, and carbonic acid gas are the
three phases of a system which comprises Iceland
spar partially dissociated into lime and carbonic
acid gas. The number of phases, combined with the
number of independent bodies entering into the
reactions, fixes the general form of the law of equilibrium
of the system. This discovery of Gibbs has
resulted in greatly extending the field of physics.
It is of importance in molecular and atomic investigations,
in osmosis, electrolysis, and in most questions
dealing with thermodynamics.
Light is generally defined as the sense impression
received by the eye. It was formerly believed
that it was caused by streams of corpuscles emitted
by the source of light. This was known as the
emission theory. Early in the nineteenth century,
the undulatory displaced the emission theory.
According to this, light is a transverse vibratory
motion extended longitudinally through the ether.
The experiments of Faraday, Maxwell, Fresnel,
Hamilton, Green, and others suggested that the
undulatory theory required for its validity a new[Pg 137]
medium different from the atmospheric air and
from every substance known to man. Just as the
results of investigations into reflection, refraction,
diffraction, and polarization showed that the old
corpuscular theory of light was untenable, so these
experiments seemed to cast doubt upon both the
undulatory and emission theories.
Fresnel, when studying problems in polarization,
noticed that a theory of light proposed by Hooke
appeared to be true. Hooke asserted that light
vibrations are not longitudinal but transverse.
Fresnel found by his experiments that the idea of
longitudinal vibrations acting along the line of propagation
in the direction of the rays would not
explain the polarization changes in light. They
suggested that there was a transverse movement
perpendicular to the ray. When Fresnel's researches
were published, physicists realized that if
the transverse direction of luminous vibrations was
denied the undulatory movement of light would also
be denied. Now transverse vibrations cannot exist
in any medium resembling a fluid, because it is
characteristic of fluids that, so long as the volume
continues constant, its different parts can be displaced
without the appearance of any reaction. This
necessitates the assumption that light needs a solid
body for its transmission and Lord Kelvin asserted
that this body must be a solid more rigid than steel.
When the vibratory theory was accepted, it
became necessary to investigate the nature of the
ether and to determine its characteristic properties.
Neumann, MacCullagh, Green, and Stokes then
developed an elastic solid theory of the ether.
The experiments of Lord Rayleigh, Lorentz,
Drude, Larmor, and others suggested that light is[Pg 138]
identical with electromagnetic disturbances and,
consequently, is an electrical phenomenon.
Some of the finest developments in physics during
the nineteenth century were in the realm of
electricity. They resulted in an enormous extension
of the use of electricity in industry and
commerce and led to the investigation of radioactivities
of various kinds and these in turn are
developing investigations of a most brilliant
character.
[Pg 139]
CHAPTER XI
THE NATURAL SCIENCES
Manifestations of animal life are everywhere
visible. They may be seen on mountain
peaks, in desert plains, and by the seashores. Even
the bleak arctic ice fields have their faunas. This
extraordinary distribution of life has attracted
attention since the dawn of history. Primitive
man, by his often beautiful cave drawings, indicated
that he studied intimately the wild life surrounding
him. The basic facts of natural history were
studied by the early peoples of the Near East. The
Greeks prepared many books on natural history
and anticipated modern evolutionary theories. The
natural sciences, however, made slow progress until
toward the end of the eighteenth century when
Linnæus and Buffon began their great works.
When the nineteenth century opened, the broader
fields of nature were segregated, classified, and
described. Linnæus took broad views regarding
the principles of classification based upon general
structure, and his work was enlarged and improved
by Cuvier.
Buffon contributed suggestions regarding the
probable mutability of species with respect to
changes in environment, and improved on the old
Greek evolutionary ideas by formulating a definite
theory of the causes of mutability. He was an
important agent in promoting the modern theories[Pg 140]
of evolution in zoölogy and botany, which have
done more than anything else to augment our
knowledge of terrestrial life.
The numerous scientific exploring expeditions in
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries collected an
enormous amount of data regarding animals and
animal life. Early in the nineteenth century this
data was worked up and classified. It soon became
apparent that the range of any given species of
animal is strictly limited. A new science, that of
the geographical distribution of life, was developed.
This has been very fruitful in defining the true home
areas of all species of animals, insects, birds, and
fish, and locating their principal paths of migration.
The world has been divided into about a dozen
terrestrial life regions, subregions and transitional
regions. These have been mapped and described.
The work of Dr. A. R. Wallace, in 1876, showed the
comparative importance and extent of these life
zones and their variable richness in zoölogical
forms, the relationships of the species in different
zones, and their degrees of isolation. The descriptions
of these great geographical zones fill many
interesting volumes and cover all the important
forms of existing life.
The naturalists who studied particular zones, or
classes of animals, frequently did extraordinary
work. The bird studies in North America,
recorded in a series of wonderful paintings by
Audubon, and the studies of Fürbringer and other
naturalists, are comparable with Wallace's great
book on the Geographical Distribution of Animals,
published in 1876.
The morphological researches of Parker, Huxley,
Quatrefages, Owen, and others revolutionized many[Pg 141]
of the subdivisions of natural history and led to
important discoveries in biology.
The effects of climate upon the development,
migration, and decline of species and upon the
extension and upbuilding of civilization have been
minutely studied. Kropotkin showed that climatic
changes in Asia drove the hordes of native tribes
into Europe at early periods. They were forced to
migrate on account of droughts leading to a food
shortage. Many historical events have been shaped
by climatic factors. Just as men who inhabit dry
districts are usually nomads on account of their
need of seeking new food supplies, so animals and
insects are forced to migrate for a similar reason.
The life changes wrought by disease epidemics
under climatic influences have also been studied
and have shed much light upon the origin and
development of many organs and upon the habits of
animals. Some of the chief inferences arising from
investigations on the effects of climatic variations
on life are that certain types of climate favor the
development of certain animal species; certain
climates have prevailed in historical times in centers
where civilization flourished greatly. Therefore
it may be presumed that definite climatic conditions
are required for the specific development of
each type of species and for each kind of civilization.
Just as history shows that one of the many
conditions of human progress has changed repeatedly
from century to century on account of variations
in climatic factors, so these stimuli have,
from the earliest times, swayed and modified all
classes of organic life. Climate serves to develop,
retard, or extinguish animal characteristics,
habits, and development. The study of the rôle of[Pg 142]
climate in modifying living conditions has disclosed
data which throws much light on the philosophical
problems surrounding organic life, its laws and
progress.
The voyage of the Beagle in 1831, for a scientific
cruise to South America, with Charles Darwin
aboard as naturalist; that of the Ross Antarctic
expedition in 1839, with Sir W. J. Hooker as botanist;
that of the Rattlesnake for Australia and the
South Seas in 1846, with T. H. Huxley as surgeon,
resulted in the assembling of scientific data in natural
history fields which, when classified and developed,
revolutionized the natural sciences.
The work of the Challenger, in 1872, and many
other memorable British scientific expeditions augmented
and confirmed the data collected in the
earlier explorations.
Harvey's explanation of the movement of the
blood by the pumping pulsations of the heart quickened
interest in biology. Mayer and Helmholtz,
when chemists, had succeeded in artificially making
urea and sugar and investigated living organisms
from the viewpoint of mechanisms operated on the
principle of the conservation of energy. They
traced the manifold functions of the body to chemical
and thermal energies developed by the destruction
of food.
These valuable discoveries were augmented by
Schleiden and Schwann, showing that all organisms
are built up of living cells. The offices performed
within cells by colloids and solutions, and
in the nerves by electric movements, were traced.
Investigations into the most minute forms of
animal life also furnished startling results. Schwann
found, in 1838, that fermenting yeast consists of[Pg 143]
living vegetable cells, and that organic putrefaction
is caused by the activities of such cells. Louis Pasteur
(1822-1895) demonstrated that the presence
of bacteria in any animal is always due to the
entrance of bacteria and microbes from the outside,
or by means favoring the abnormal increase of
existing germs. He also showed by experiments
that diseases like chicken cholera, phylloxera, or the
silkworm disease are caused by particular microbes.
These discoveries led to the tracing of many common
diseases to their special living germs.
While these impressive additions to scientific
knowledge were being made, other naturalists were
studying the instinctive emotional and intelligent
behavior and psychology of animals, both singly
and in herds. Animals and insects were found to
display signs of intelligence, sometimes of a high
order; to live socially, in many cases; and to play
and court with emotional attributes. Throughout
the animal kingdom, until man is reached, animals
are guided in their activities by self and racial
preservation.
Play was found to be a fruitful factor in animal
education, even in minute insects. The behavior of
any animal does not stand alone, but is related to
that of others. Animals which hunt, or are hunted,
combatants, rivals, mates, and enemies, react upon
one another.
Entomology, the science of insects, has been
extensively systematized. Practically every phenomenon
relating to the insect metamorphosis has
been disclosed. The works of Binet, Lubbock,
Fabre, and many others have illuminated the psychology
of insect life. The charming writings of J.
H. Fabre on the life of a fly, on the mason bees, the[Pg 144]
hunting wasps, the life of a caterpillar, of a grasshopper,
of the sacred beetles and other insects, are
as thrilling and instructive as any masterpiece of
romantic writing. What could be more interesting
than Fabre's account of his observations on the
glowworm, when he discovered that its luminescence
is due to oxidation by air forces through a
special lightning tube, and that it occurs in males
as well as females and in the eggs and grubs likewise?
He shows that the glowworm's life, from
start to finish, is one carnival of light. The females
are living lighthouses which brilliantly illumine
the wild thyme and other flowering plants they
haunt on dark nights, making miniature fairylands
in country districts.
Studies in the growth and form of living bodies
have opened up many interesting problems in
physical biology. The cell and tissue, shell and
bone, leaf and flower are various portions of matter,
the particles of which are moved, molded, conformed,
or shaped in obedience to the laws of
physics. Forms like those of the lovely wing scales
of butterflies, of lace flies, or the spiral shells of the
foraminifera are natural diagrams of the results
of physical forces. Biologists not only study the
nature of the motions of living organisms as
animal kinetics, but also the conformation of the
organism itself, whose permanence or equilibrium
is explained by the interaction or balance of forces
leading to static conditions.
The dynamics of cell formation and cell division
and their karyokinetic figure drawings are the
result of numerous complex physical force struggles
brought about by chemical and physiological
reactions. Studies of these have shown that the[Pg 145]
spermatozoön, nucleus, chromosomes, or the germ
plasms, which develop organic life, can never act
alone. They must be started by other forces which
make them seats of energy.
The experiments of George Rainey on the
elementary formation of the skeletons of small
animals, of Carpenter upon the formation of shells,
and those of Professor Harting on the same subjects,
have shown how lime solutions acting in conjunction
with gelatinous substances, or membranes,
build up the numerous geometric shapes of the
frames of so many kinds of primitive organisms,
and the scales of fish or the extraordinarily beautiful
markings and sculpture of shells.
The application of the Cartesian coordinates
to the outline of organisms, skulls, bones, and
organs of animals has opened up a new field of
mathematics—biological research which has yielded
many results confirming theories based on other
data and supplying facts of great interest that
may at any time result in the establishment of important
generalizations.
The fact of beauty in animate nature is so pronounced,
and man's contemplative delight in beautiful
things is so natural that investigations have
been made into the æsthetic emotions of other
animals. A vast array of facts has been collected
which leaves no doubt of the universal appreciation
of beauty. The lovely colors of shells, butterflies
and birds, the extraordinary beauty of the
designs of the frames of the Foraminifera, radiolarians
and sponges, the graceful logarithmic spirals
of horns and flower and leaf buds, and the charming
flowing lines in the shape of the race horse and
gazelle, these elements of organic beauty which[Pg 146]
emphasize and enhance the forms of animals, all
contribute to the general embellishment of nature.
The combinations of beauty of form, color, and
movements in parrots, humming birds, the fish inhabiting
coral reefs, butterflies, and orchids, are
always perfect. We likewise find that in all parts
of the globe, and in each life zone, organic beauty
conforms to that of the landscape and the heavens.
The biological significance of this universality of
beauty in the organic world will be dealt with in
the following chapter.
The fishes of the seas, rivers, streams, and lakes
have been studied, classified, and described as completely
as the insects of the air, the field, the soil,
and those parasitic upon other organisms.
The surveys of the Atlantic have brought to
light many types of fish which inhabit only the
deepest parts of the ocean. These fish are modified
in most extraordinary ways to fit their surroundings.
Owing to the darkness of their living
zones, they are provided with luminescent appendages
which are practically similar to the firefly's
and glowworm's electric generators. The lights
are formed, as in the insects, by the oxidation of
material exuded by the fish.
There are more than 180 families of fishes
recorded. Each family contains an average of
twenty genera and each genus about five species.
The known species of fish are, therefore, between
19,000 and 20,000. The Danish naturalist Hensen
found 278,795,000,000 fecundated fish eggs per
square mile in the summer waters of the Skagerrack.
The waters of the seas from the Arctic to the
Antarctic limits are full of fish eggs as well as
those of shellfish and sea organisms generally.[Pg 147]
This shows that organic life is as abundant in the
sea as anywhere on land.
Just as temperature and salinity are the chief
agents of oceanic circulation and current movements,
so they are the leading factors in promoting
the organic life of the sea.
The vast heterogeneous mixtures of living creatures,
comprising vegetable and animal organisms,
larvæ, and eggs of fish and animals, which are swept
hither and thither by the sea tides are called plankton.
This term means the living dust or emulsion
of the sea.
It has been shown that vegetable plankton is
composed of bacteria and adult microscopic algæ,
largely of the Diatomaceæ, Peridinaceæ, Cyanophyceæ,
and other primary groups.
The animal plankton comprises a mass of microscopic
creatures belonging to the Protozoa,
Radiolaria, and Globeriginæ. There are also immense
numbers of tiny, invisible crustaceans like
the Copepoda, and eggs and spores of all kinds of
fish and algæ. These organisms are so dense in
certain sea areas that their particular colorations
are reflected in the water. The Red Sea, for example,
is colored by a reddish algæ; the Baltic and
ocean areas near Greenland are colored green by
swarms of algæ, and certain tropical seas are often
brilliantly colored in the same manner.
Plankton furnishes fish with nutriment. The
study of the movements of plankton, at seasonal
intervals, has led to the discovery of the causes, extent,
and results of the migration of the principal
commercial fishes. These researches are so valuable
that most large nations support marine biological
stations and ships to regularly make obser[Pg 148]vations.
The Norwegian naturalist Särs, Sir John
Murray, the Prince of Monaco, and others have
furnished accounts of the life histories, feeding
grounds, metamorphoses and migrations of many
fishes, and have shown how the inhabitants of the
plankton masses live upon themselves or produce
nitrifying or denitrifying bacteria, chemicals, and
mineral substances like lime, phosphates, and horny
membranous material.
The development of biology and embryology, and
the peculiar habits and color schemes of certain
fish, insects, birds, and animals led to inquiries
about design in nature, the causes of the development
of species, and the instincts and habits of
animals. Erasmus, Darwin, Buffon, Cuvier, and
others began these studies, but it was Charles Darwin
(1809-1882), who by the publication of his
"Origin of Species" in 1859, first furnished many of
the keys to the riddles of organic life. The next
chapter will show what has developed from his
labors.
[Pg 149]
CHAPTER XII
ORGANIC EVOLUTION, VARIATION, AND
HEREDITY
Science developed when primitive man began
pondering over the problems of the creation.
He sought the causes of life, of the development of
life forms, and the authorship or origin of the uniformity
and apparent design in nature. It is, therefore,
probable that what we now study as the
science of organic evolution is one of the oldest of
the sciences. As the ages have rolled on, the origin
of life has been explained in turn by theories of:
(1) eternity of present conditions; (2) miraculous
creation; (3) catastrophism with (a) increases by
immigration (b) increases by successive creations;
and, finally, by (4) organic evolution.
The term organic evolution means the forming
of new combinations of the elements of organisms.
It does not mean the arising of an animal or plant
out of nothing—a new creation. That idea was
exploded long ago. The science which Darwin
started surveys the whole course of natural history
in terms of four dimensions—length, breadth,
depth, and duration. This was the plan which led
Darwin to his great discoveries. While studying
the minor changes taking place in common animals
and plants, and looking over the broad vistas of
nature back to the remotest times, he saw how
each year countless weak and ill-adapted plants,[Pg 150]
insects, and animals were killed off. When he
reflected that this process has been going on
throughout all time, the idea flashed into his mind
that it is through this testing ordeal that adaptability
of surviving organisms is derived.
One of the grandest conceptions of the human
mind is that the apparently complex, inharmonic
system of nature has developed from a simple
beginning on a cooled globe from a jellylike cell.
The theory of the permanence of species was
generally held by biologists before publication of
Darwin's first great book. Darwin said that no
naturalist of his time doubted the accuracy of the
theory of the eternity of existing conditions and
they refused to listen to his views regarding the
mutability of species.
Darwin put forth the theory of organic evolution
by natural selection and the survival of the
fittest. The great beauty of this theory lies in its
simplicity and its appeal to agencies which we can
see in full operation every day and night. The
skillful manner in which Darwin marshaled data
to substantiate his theory quickly converted the
scientific world, and led to revolutionary changes in
the general tendencies of knowledge, and in practically
all fields of human activity.
Darwin's terse statement of his conception was:
"As many more individuals of each species are
born than can possibly survive, and as consequently
there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence,
it follows that any being, if it vary in any
manner profitable to itself, under the complex and
sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a
better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally
selected. From the strong principle of inheritance[Pg 151]
any selected variety will tend to propagate its new
and modified form." ("Origin of Species," Intro.)
This statement of the doctrine of the survival of
the fittest, suggesting a glimpse at the great
pageant of nature from the remotest times, shows
how the organisms existing at this moment are the
descendants of the victors in the world's greatest
battles. The struggles for life, always keen and
persistent, shared in by every individual organism,
both animal and vegetable, are the instigators of
all progress in the natural world. They are
nature's means for the attainment of beauty, usefulness,
and perfection.
The Darwinian theory was based upon the observed
facts that members of any given species are
not alike, while their offspring may differ in numerous
ways from their parents. The data furnished
by zoölogy, botany, physiology, and other sciences
supply overwhelming evidence that the present
species of animals and plants have arisen through
the modification from various causes of many pre-existing
species. The organisms with which we are
familiar owe their characteristics to the accumulation
of a long series of changes similar to those
that we may see that they are still undergoing.
The methods pursued in studying variation in
species, and its important accompaniment, heredity,
consists in comparison, statistical examinations,
cultural experiments, and crossbreeding.
Evolution is the process of differentiation accompanying
the operations of nature. All the great
naturalists before Darwin's time noted facts indicating
this universal differentiation, but it required
the particularly wide sweep of Darwin's mind to
phrase and demonstrate it.
[Pg 152]
The law of origin by evolution, as Herbert
Spencer showed, is not confined to the method of
bringing into existence new species of animals and
plants. The stars, planets, the geological strata and
earth contours and forms, human institutions,
social customs, and practically everything in nature
are obedient to it.
Much research work in evolution has been done
since Darwin stated his theory, but the basic principle
of the survival of the fittest remains untouched
by criticism. Some of his views respecting
minor details of selection and the effects of various
factors have been modified or enlarged, and many
new evolutionary forces have been discovered. It
has also been found that a single cause is usually
followed by more than one effect.
Weissmann has drawn attention to the importance
of adaptations. Most organic beings are
usually closely fitted for the conditions under which
their lives are spent.
The principal parts of every animal and plant,
and all the points in which one species differs from
a nearly related species, have been shown to have
arisen on account of their usefulness to the creatures
possessing them. As natural selection is always
progressive, it follows that no adaptation is ever
perfect. There is always progress from the useful
to the more useful—a continual striving for greater
beauty of form and color and higher efficiency.
Works on evolution furnish an abundance of
interesting evidence showing how adaptation
works. A single instance may be cited here.
One of the Mexican yucca plants common in our
Southern States is pollinated by a moth of the
Pronuba family. This moth is adapted for its[Pg 153]
work by several special organs including a special
ovipositor and peculiar maxillary tentacles which
are not found in other moths. The female moth
collects pollen with these tentacles from several
yucca flowers, rolls it into a ball and kneads it into
a pellet. When the pellet is ready the moth seeks
an unvisited flower and, after depositing a few of
her own eggs in the ovary, she climbs the style and
forces the pollen pellet into the stigma. This is
the way the yucca is pollinated and fertilized. Two
important purposes are served by this arrangement:
a species of plant and a species of moth,
together with those dependent upon them, are
enabled to survive by this moth's activities. There
are many known cases of similar cooperative adaptation
to living conditions.
Quetelet, in 1845, followed by Francis Goltin and
Karl Pearson, have applied statistical methods in
dealing with evolutionary problems, and a new
science called biometry has been developed. This
science has yielded much important data regarding
the effects of inherited characteristics.
The studies of variations in plants by mutations,
made by the Dutch botanist De Vries, have opened
up wide fields of study regarding the causes of
variation. He has shown that increased bulk or
better coloration may result from improved nutrition
and more light, and that such improved characteristics
may be inherited.
A law of ancestral heredity has been worked out
for men by biometricians, and this has been confirmed
by the experiments of Professor Johannsen,
of Copenhagen, on self-fertilizing beans, and by
Jennings on protozoa. This hypothesis suggests
that every ancestor of a particular man or woman[Pg 154]
contributes its quota to the heritable qualities displayed
by that individual. The average amount of
resemblance between an individual and any of his
particular ancestors is capable of being numerically
expressed.
The experiments and conclusions of Gregor Mendel
(1822-1882) tend to oppose the law of ancestral
heredity, but it is believed that any exceptional
cases may be explained by the operation of special
conditions.
Karl Pearson has shown by the analyses of
numerous statistical records of Englishmen that by
artificial selection any selected characteristic, such
as facial contour or stature, can be changed within
a few generations. But when the character has
been changed about 90 per cent within a short time
another method must be employed, because the
original one then becomes less efficient.
Individuals in any given population who differ
in size from the mean of the population give rise
to offspring which differs from that mean value in
the same direction but to a smaller extent. The
same law applies to the color of the hair or to intelligence
or constitution. Selection will always produce
a change in the average character of a population
taken as a whole. But selection within a
pure line, or one which shows only normal variability
about a mean or type value, does not produce
marked changes.
The usual selection within any particular population
consists in the partial separation of extreme
types.
The personal characteristics of any ancestor do
not influence his descendants. Only the typical
characteristics are handed down.
[Pg 155]
These and many other facts developed by investigations
in biometry should be of value in regulating
immigration, so as to guard against degenerative
influences, and they have greatly increased the
efficiency of farming by showing how to improve
farm stocks and crops so as to yield larger returns.
Farmers have been more ready than politicians
to avail of their advantages. We note how the
speed of racing and trotting horses, and the milking
capacity of cows, have been improved by the
past century, but we are doing little to reform
national health and efficiency.
Mutation is the name given to the process of
origination of a new species or character accomplished
by a single step or by a series of steps.
Bateson, in 1894, showed that symmetry is a
characteristic common to all organisms. This may
affect the whole or parts of an organ. Major symmetry
involves the whole organism and minor symmetry
only an organ or part. There are meristic
variations, involving the symmetrical pattern, and
substantive variations involving changes in the
constitution or substance of the organism. Red-flowering
plants, for example, may yield offspring
bearing white flowers. Substantive variations
are often discontinuous, or accidental, and are
infrequent.
Organic bodies are built up of a number of cells.
The living material of cells is protoplasm formed
out of many elements, of which carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur are the more important.
New cells arise from bipartition of existing
cells. Therefore by following back the history
of any animal or plant we will arrive at a stage
when its ancestors had only one cell. Every animal[Pg 156]
or plant which is propagated sexually actually
starts as a cell and develops through its main evolutionary
changes in the embryonic state. Cells are
liable to all the evolutionary changes that the organism
as a whole is subject to.
Studies of embryology have shown that the
fusion of biparental reproductive cells results in the
formation of a complete new individual which, at
the time of the fusing of the two conjugating cells,
called gametes, or germ cells, inherits the characteristics
of each parent and its ancestors.
The determination of the sex of the cell, plant,
or animal, depends upon the presence of extra
male or female sex-chromosomes, or sex-determinant
fibers of the cell nucleus. Certain animals
and plants transmit male characteristics to the
female descendants, while the female transmits her
characteristics to the male descendants. There are
many variations of this kind. These strange movements
in heredity are explained by the laws governing
chromosomes and idio-chromosomes and elementary
cells.
According to the germ plasm theory of inheritance,
the separate parts of living organisms are
assumed to be represented by separate material
particles in the germ cells. In the Mendelian
theory each cell is assumed to contain a large number
of ids, or complete sets of sex determinants,
half the total being derived from each parent. This
permits the germ cells to contain a certain number
of ids from each parent.
Studies of these subjects show that the great
harmonies of the natural world are manifested in
form, number, pattern, and color, which we find
to be basically simple and, when studied systemati[Pg 157]cally,
they appear quite clearly, so as to be capable
of being described and expressed as laws.
The study of the agencies under social control
which may improve, or impair, the racial qualities
of future generations, either physically, socially,
or mentally, is called the science of eugenics.
This new science is another outgrowth of the revolution
in intellectual development originating with
the publication of Darwin's theory. Sir Francis
Galton was the pioneer worker, and he has been
followed by Pearson, Yule, Lombroso (1836-1909),
and others.
Eugenic studies, confirmed by those of genetics
and biometry, show that the human race, which is
the masterpiece of Nature's evolutionary processes,
is capable of much further development
through the careful guiding of the very forces
used in evolving man to his present state. Man
can be improved by selection and education to
greater beauty, clearer intellect, larger stature,
sounder character, and better physique. The measure
of what man has done is a good criterion of
what he is capable of doing under the guidance and
encouragement of science.
Genetics, the study of the hereditary phenomena
of organisms, is based upon the law of inheritance
discovered by Mendel in 1865. This law relates to
the inheritance of certain definite characters called
allelomorphs. These characters are found to group
themselves in pairs which exhibit more or less
antagonistic qualities. A knowledge of these characteristics
is necessary to conduct selective breeding
experiments scientifically. It is found that
when two similar germ cells, each bearing the same
new combination of allelomorphs, meet in fertiliza[Pg 158]tion,
they result in the development of a new
zygotic combination of a pure type which breeds
true. This accounts for the establishment of new
species. When, on the other hand, the coupling is
unequal, or only partial, there will be irregularities
in the characters of the offspring and no new
species is likely to develop. Immense value is
attached to this law by naturalists working in all
fields. The three new sciences of eugenics, genetics,
and biometry have prepared the way for a regeneration
of humanity through breeding in the desirable
and breeding out the undesirable.
[Pg 159]
CHAPTER XIII
CHEMICAL AND BOTANICAL THEORIES
The World War served to demonstrate the degree
of perfection which has been attained in
chemistry. The wonderful high explosives used,
the poisonous gases, the lubricating and motor oils
and a multitude of valuable chemicals employed for
military and naval purposes, many of which were
developed at short notice, showed the modern
chemist's command of his science. Yet chemistry
is a new science. Practically it began with Robert
Boyle, in England, in 1661. Boyle conducted experiments
on the rarefaction of air and the nature
of gases, and in his book, "The Sceptical Chemist,"
he made this remarkable statement: "I am apt to
think that men will never be able to explain the
phenomena of nature, while they endeavor to deduce
them only from the presence and proportions
of such or such ingredients, and consider such ingredients
or elements as bodies in a state of rest;
whereas, indeed, the greatest part of the affections
of matter, and consequently of the phenomena of
nature, seem to depend upon the motion and contrivance
of the small parts of bodies."
Thus Boyle anticipated the chemical theories of
matter developed in the nineteenth century.
Lavoisier, about 1777, advancing from the quantitative
study of one chemical change to another was
able to describe many processes, and to distinguish
between an element and a compound. He cast aside
all the alchemical formulæ and expressed the results
of his experiments in fractions and proportions.
J. B. Richter between 1791 and 1802 made a
series of experiments by which he secured the
weights of various bases neutralized by constant
weights of several acids, and the weights of several
acids neutralized by constant weights of several
bases. He found that the composition of chemical
compounds is constant, as had been assumed by
Lavoisier and Boyle.
Dalton described the atomic constitution of gases
in 1808, and sketched the law of multiple proportions
in chemical combinations and described binary,
ternary and quaternary combinations.
Prussic acid was investigated by Gay-Lussac in
1815, when he isolated cyanogen and found that
although it is a compound it plays the part of an
element with hydrogen and the metals. Berzelius
also found that ammonium possessed all the properties
of an alkali metal.
Ten years after the above discoveries were made,
Faraday prepared a compound of carbon and
hydrogen from liquefied coal gas which led to the
general study of isomerism and the great discoveries
of the organic radicals with their important combinations.
When isomeric combinations were studied by
Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848), he was led to devise
a means of expressing organic reactions. He wrote
to Wöhler and Liebig a letter outlining his new
method in which he said: "From the moment when
one has learned to recognize with certainty the
existence of ternary atoms of the first order which
enter compounds after the manner of simple substances,
it will be a great relief in the expression of
the language of formulæ to denote each radical by
its own symbol, whereby the idea of composition it
is desired to express will be placed clearly before
the eye of the reader."
[Pg 160]
Photo, Fifth Avenue Hospital
ROOM IN WHICH INFECTED ARTICLES ARE STERILIZED
[Pg 161]
MODERN OPERATING ROOM IN A PARIS HOSPITAL. IT IS
FITTED WITH A GLASS DOME AND RADIO MICROPHONES
FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND DOCTORS WHO WISH TO
WATCH THE OPERATIONS AND HEAR DISTINCTLY THE
COMMENTS OF THE SURGEONS
An example of this method of expressing reactions
was given in the case of the action of chlorine on
benzoic acid. He wrote B2O for benzoic acid, B2CL2
for chlorbenzol and B2 + NH2 for benzamide. With
certain simple improvements made subsequently
by Gmelin, the method devised by Berzelius was
generally adopted and is in use to-day.
The numerous investigations now being made with
the object of discovering the various combinations
of the elements led to many improvements in chemical
analyses. When we read Berzelius' accounts of
his analyses they seem to have been written only
yesterday. He and his contemporaries developed
analytical and synthetic methods to almost the
efficiency that we see to-day.
We also owe to Berzelius a table of the elements
showing their electrical qualities, an electrochemical
theory, identifying chemical affinity with electric
attraction, and a new nomenclature, besides a vast
amount of descriptive chemistry.
The discovery of the specific heats of various solid
elements by Dulong and Petit in 1819, and Mitscherlich's
finding of the isomorphic phenomena in
1818, resulted in the publication of a new atomic
weight table in 1826 by Berzelius.
The experiments made in isomorphism by Mitscherlich
led him to discover dimorphism and study
crystallography. He used his knowledge of crystal
measurement extensively and developed synthetic
chemistry and the laws of crystallization.
[Pg 162]
Thompson, Prout, and Wollaston were working
on problems in England similar to those examined
in Sweden by Berzelius and Mitscherlich.
Molecules were discriminated from atoms in 1826
by Jean Baptiste Dumas and Faraday discovered
his law of electrochemical action in 1834.
Organic chemistry originated in Manchester, England,
when Dalton read his paper before the Manchester
Philosophic Society in 1803 on the theory of
atomic weights. This paper led Gay-Lussac,
Thenard, Berthollet, de Saussure and others to study
organic analyses as devised by Dalton. Gay-Lussac
and Thenard greatly improved Dalton's methods and
in 1824, as shown by Chevreul's work on fats and
greases, organic analyses had been brought to high
perfection.
The phenomena of substitution in hydrocarbon
compounds like the petroleum oils were studied by
Laurent who proposed a theory of basic nuclei.
C10H8 being the nucleus of the naphthalene group and
C2H4 that of the ethylene group, derived nuclei
can be obtained from these by substitution and
hydrogen and other elements acting on derived
nuclei from numerous hydrocarbon series.
The homology of the hydrocarbons was discovered
by Gerhardt in 1844 while he was investigating
the alcohols. Wurtz's work on the ammonia
compounds, Williamson's on the ethers, Hoffmann's
on anilines, Graham's and Liebig's on the citrates,
and Frankland's, Kolbe's and Kekulé's work on
other compounds raised organic chemistry to such
a high plane that industrial chemists were able
to use their theoretical conclusions and build a
great number of important industries upon organic
principles.
[Pg 163]
Lothar Meyer, in 1868, and Mendeléeff, in 1869,
published atomic weights showing improvements in
the theories of valency and the interrelationship
of atomic weights. Mendeléeff was able to predict
from the vacant positions in his table the discovery
of important new elements. A number of these
elements have since been discovered.
The aniline dye industries have grown out of the
discoveries of many chemists. The basic work was
done by Faraday, Laurent, and Runge, who isolated
valuable hydrocarbons from coal gas tar. Hoffmann
discovered aniline and Perkin obtained mauve in
1856 by the oxidation of aniline with chromic acid.
It was this and subsequent discoveries by Perkin
which gave the greatest impetus to synthetic dyes.
The solubility of a dye was improved by increasing
its acidity (sulphonation) or by increasing its
alkalinity (alkylation). Similar dyes are now made
by the same methods from many common aromatic
substances.
The chemistry of explosives was developed by
Van Helmont, Debus, Bunsen, Abel, Nobel, and,
others. Fulminates were used for detonators by
Ure in 1831, picrates were employed as explosives
by Fontaine and Abel; nitrocellulose (guncotton)
discovered by Braconnot in 1832 and used as an
explosive by Schönbein in 1846, and nitroglycerine
was produced by Sobrero in 1847. Smokeless
powders made from guncotton, dynamite, and gelatine
were introduced by Nobel in 1890.
Pasteur showed, in 1848, that when the double
sodium ammonium racemate was crystallized, two
kinds of crystals separated from the solution. When
one set of crystals was dissolved in water the solution
rotated a beam of polarized light to the left,[Pg 164]
while the aqueous solution of the other crystals
rotated the light to the right. These crystals thus
revealed their geometrical properties with perfect
light while in solution in water. Pasteur noted
that optical activity of this kind is the expression
of some form of molecular asymmetry.
Le Bel in 1874 also pointed out that optical
activity is an expression of the asymmetry of the
chemical molecule and showed that all carbon compounds
which are optically active contain a
carbon atom combined with four different atoms,
or groups. Van't Hoff showed in 1875 that there
were definite relations between the arrangements of
tetrahedral carbon atoms and polarization phenomena
and established the theory of such atoms.
Willard Gibbs, of Yale, discovered what is known
as the phase rule, which shows, by thermodynamic
methods, how the conditions of chemical equilibria
can be systematically grouped.
Van't Hoff, Pfeffer, and others noticed that when
two solutions are brought together, if one is more
concentrated than the other, diffusion begins in the
concentrated and extends to the weaker solution.
This shows a talent force in concentrated solutions
which is now known as osmotic pressure. Van't
Hoff and Arrhenius showed that for comparable concentrations
the osmotic pressure of a solution is
exactly equal to the pressure of a gas. These discoveries
led to a brilliant series of investigations
into electrolytic chemistry.
The theory of electrolytic dissociation advanced by
Ostwald shows that the molecules of electrolytes in
aqueous solutions are broken down into electrically
charged parts called ions. In very dilute solutions
the dissociation of strong acids, bases, and salts is[Pg 165]
practically complete as was suggested by Williamson
in 1851.
Catalysis, or reaction brought about by agents
which do not enter into the chemical changes, was
discovered by Berzelius. Ostwald investigated and
developed catalytic reactions which are now extensively
employed in industry, particularly in refining
oils and in the fixation of nitrogen. Hot
platinum, for example, is used to act catalytically
in causing sulphur dioxide and oxygen to combine
and form the basis of sulphuric acid, sulphur
trioxide.
One of the most important applications of
catalysis to industry is the Haber process for securing
nitrogen from the air. When air and hydrogen
are compressed and heated to a high temperature
in the presence of a catalyzer such as metallic
uranium or iron carbide, the nitrogen and hydrogen
combine and form ammonia.
The experiments of Sir William Crookes on
vacuum tubes subjected to electrical impulses led
the way to the discovery of radioactivity, and investigations
of radium have revolutionized our conceptions
of the nature and properties of matter.
The discovery of helium, argon, the niton emanation
from radium and other elements by Ramsay,
Collie, Soddy, and others will be referred to later.
Carl Linnæus, who is called the father of modern
botany, established the genera and species of plants
upon philosophical principles. He established a
binomial nomenclature and formulated modern
descriptive methods. Thus he prepared the way for
the systematic works of De Jussieu and De Candolle.
De Candolle, in 1819, published a new method of
classification based upon morphological characters.[Pg 166]
He defined and illustrated the doctrine of the
symmetry of plant organs and asserted that a
natural classification must be based on a plan of
symmetry.
The relationships between the endosperm and
embryo were shown in 1810 by Robert Brown in
his monograph on the Australian Proteaceæ. The
morphological nature of seed reserves was described
by him. He also discovered the functions of the cell
nucleus and founded cytology. He showed that
the oscillation of minute particles in the fluids of
plants when viewed under high microscopic powers,
known as the Brownian movement, is due to purely
physical causes.
Schultze, Unger, and others, working on suggestions
previously made by Knight, Robert Brown, and
Hooke, discovered the rôle of protoplasm in plant
cells. Alexander Braun and De Bary correlated the
movements of protoplasm with the locomotory movements
of free zoögonidia and the amœboid movements
of Mycetozoa. These investigations directed
research to further studies of the structure and constitution
of protoplasm and helped develop the
cellular theory.
The Algæ were studied and classified by Naegeli,
Unger, Von Mohl, Haustein, and others in 1847-1850.
The vascular cryptogams were studied by Hofmeister.
He found that the alternation of a
sexual with an asexual generation is common to all
plants of the mosses, vascular cryptogams, and
gymnosperms, as well as among angiosperms.
Hofmeister's work led to appreciation of the
fact that a natural system of plant classification
must be based, not on balancing the values of the
morphological parts of fruits and flowers, but on[Pg 167]
the anatomy of the real and concealed reproductive
organs.
Fossil botany, or paleophytology, was founded,
in 1828, by Adolphe Brongniart. Witham, Goeppert,
Unger, Corda, and others helped to advance this
science.
The publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species"
in 1859 found the various botanical sciences already
well worked out by numerous capable experts. A
huge amount of data and descriptive matter had
been assembled and botany, like the other sciences,
was ready to be quickened by the Darwinian
theories.
The idea of a progressive evolution in plants had
been suspected by many botanists, but the genius
of Darwin developed it. Living plants were
pictured as a multitude of units competing for food,
light, air, and room for growth, and struggling
against unfavorable environments. The classification
of tissues was begun, and the phenomena of
absorption of water and salts, the ascent of sap, the
absorption of minerals and nitrogen, and metabolism
and growth were elucidated. Investigations
were made into the nature and functions of chlorophyll
and other plant substances. These studies
resulted in suggesting means for improving crops
by artificial selection, as shown in the work of
Luther Burbank.
[Pg 168]
CHAPTER XIV
GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, AND
METEOROLOGY
Geology is essentially a nineteenth century
product. Fossils, minerals, rocks, and rock
strata had attracted more or less attention from
the earliest times. The Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans had books dealing with such subjects, and
Greek philosophers, like Aristotle, lectured upon
them. But it was only in the last century that
geology was placed upon a scientific basis and
began to make progress. The reformation was
begun by Cuvier's work on paleontology, the chemical
and physical discoveries of the eighteenth
century, and the works of Hooke, Boyle, Buffon,
Linnæus, and others. The special technique required
in geographical research could not be developed
until the biological, anatomical, botanical, and
physical sciences had been established on a scientific
plane. That is why geology remained for so
many centuries undeveloped, and then rapidly advanced
during the nineteenth century. Its preparation
was long and involved, while its fruition was
rapid and brilliant.
William Smith (1769-1839), called the father of
English geology, was a mining surveyor engaged in
making colliery and farm surveys in Oxfordshire
and the west of England. His professional work
led him to study the coal outcrops, and in 1793 he[Pg 169]
mapped the inclined coal deposits in Somersetshire.
The numerous rock strata accompanying the coal
beds contained fossils which he found could be used
to identify the beds in that field with others in
northern counties. He published an account of
this manner of using type fossils for identifying
fossiliferous rock formations in 1799, and in 1815
issued his geological map of England, Wales, and
southern Scotland. This map showed the advantages
that scientific geology and mineralogy offered
to industry and caused scientists all over Europe to
study geological phenomena and make sketch maps
of local geology.
A work on paleontology, dealing with the fossils
of the Old Red Sandstone deposits, published in
England by Hugh Miller (1802-1856), which had
an enormous popularity and has been described as
the most fascinating book ever written on a geological
subject, followed Smith's "Strata Identified by
Organized Fossils." A large amount of mapping
resulted from the issuing of these two works.
These maps called for detailed descriptions, and
these in turn resulted in the accumulation of many
interesting data which, when collected, and systematized,
led to many important discoveries.
While these authors were preparing their books,
Werner, De Luc, De Saussure, Lamarck, and others
were working out paleontological problems, Romé
de l'Isle, Brongniart, Haüy, d'Aubuisson, and
others were building up the science of mineralogy.
"The Theory of the Earth," of Dr. James Hutton
(1726-1797), was published in 1785, and in an
enlarged form in 1795. This book described the
metamorphoses of sand into sandstones, quartzites,
schists, and other rock formations; the work of[Pg 170]
floods and lava floods; the sculpturing powers of
streams, rains, and winds, etc. He indicated the
effects of the alternate sinking and raising of
strata through earth shrinkings and volcanic phenomena,
and taught that purely physical causes can
be found for every geological effect.
Playfair's "Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory
of the Earth" augmented the teachings of Hutton's
book, while works by Jameson, Kirwan, Boué, Sir
James Hall, Daubrée, St. Claire-Deville, Buckland,
Sedgwick, Bakewell, Breislak, Maclure, and others
rapidly appeared sustaining the Huttonian, or the
Wernerean theories of geological deposition.
The work of James Sowerby (1757-1822), entitled
"The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain"
and that of James de Carle Sowerby (1781-1871),
published between 1812 and 1845, marked the
establishment of paleontology as a science. Both
father and son were well-trained naturalists and
artists, and, like William Smith, reproduced the fossils
and their containing rocks to scale and in natural
colors. These works greatly simplified the
labors of field geologists in identifying rock strata
and type fossils.
In Germany geology was worked out by Baron
von Schlotheim (1764-1882), Goldfuss (1782-1848),
and Count Munster (1776-1844). Brocchi (1772-1826)
described Italian fossil strata.
The "Geological Classification of Rocks," of MacCulloch,
marked the separation of petrology as a
science from descriptive geology. MacCulloch noted
that the ancient granites and granite schists are
among the oldest rock forms.
Von Humboldt, Murchison, Lyell, De la Beche,
Von Buch, Elie de Beaumont, Holley, Geikie,[Pg 171]
Bonney, Wollaston, Scrope and Daubeny were
among the pioneer geologists in Europe, while
James Dwight Dana (1818-1895), E. S. Dana, Conrad,
Hitchcock, Warren, Lesley, Fremont, and others
published descriptive geological accounts in the
United States.
References to the geology and minerals of New
Mexico were made in Humboldt's "New Spain."
Greenhow's work on Oregon and California, published
in 1845, and Lewis and Clark's reports
added much to our knowledge of American topography
and geology. These reports were followed
by those of Stanton, Clarence King, Hague, Emmons,
Custer, Powell, Davis, Gilbert, Agassiz, and
others which dealt with various phases of American
geology, paleontology, glaciation, and mineralogy,
and prepared the way for the publication of the
valuable works of Dana, Williams, Iddings, Washington,
Pirsson, Clarke, Grabau, Brush, and others.
The treatment of geological problems from the
viewpoint of present causes was begun after the
publication of Lyell's "Principles of Geology" (1830-1833).
Earlier geologists were aware of the fact
that many of the rock formations had been derived
from other consolidation of sand and mud beds and
by other actions which may be studied in operation
to-day. But the systematic manner in which Lyell
treated the whole field of geology made such an impression
upon geologists that the publication of his
great work marked a new era in the science. De
la Beche, Buckland, Geikie, Bonney, and other
geologists in England; Dana, and a number of
scientists in the United States Geological Survey,
in America; Vogt and Naumann, in Germany;
Studer in Switzerland; Stopanni, in Italy, and[Pg 172]
many specialists in other countries took up the
work of Lyell, and at present practically every important
geological factor is known and the effects of
its operations have been described.
The succession of life in geological periods is
studied under paleontology. This science developed
at the same time as systematic and descriptive
geology. Many great naturalists have contributed
to it. Agassiz, Hall, Dawson, Walcott, Marsh, and
others in the United States and Canada; Owen,
Prestwich, and others in England; and numerous
writers in Europe have published valuable monographs
on various phases of fossil and strata-graphical
geology.
Paleontology, by fixing the succession of animal
and vegetable eras, has served as a basis for measuring
time, revealing the antiquity of man and of
the principal mammals, as well as showing changes
in climate, and in land and sea areas.
The application of geology to many industries
called forth another branch of the science known as
economic geology. This deals with the origin and
geographical distribution of the useful minerals,
the derivation of underground waters and petroleum,
and the changes undergone by soils.
The first important impetus to economic geology
was given by the publication of Whitney's "Metallic
Wealth of the United States" in 1854, Von Cotta's
work on ore deposits in 1859, and the economic references
in the textbooks of the leading European
and American geologists. The recent work of
Bonney, Groddeck, De Launay, Phillips, Prosepny,
Van Hise, Emmons, Le Conte, Lindgren, and others
has greatly advanced the interest and usefulness
of the science.
[Pg 173]
These writers carried out an extended series of
investigations on the depth temperature and physical
and chemical condition of the earth's crust.
Chemical analyses of rocks and soils were made and
the changes wrought by physical and chemical
forces were noted. On these were based theories
as to the formation of rocks, soils, minerals, and ore
deposits. The erosive properties of soil water were
found to be limited to a depth not exceeding 20,000
feet, although hydrostatic water bodies are rarely
found as low as half that distance, the rise in temperature
precluding their existence. The work of
these men revealed the part played by vulcanism in
rock changes, and the effects produced through hot
solutions and magmatic intrusions.
Various systems of classification of minerals and
ore deposits were developed. Richard Beck's, "The
Nature of Ore Deposits" (1900), and Lindgren's
"Mineral Deposits" (1919), are works which have
contributed to the systematizing of economic
geology from the mineral standpoint, and the establishment
of epochs of metal generation.
The ore deposits of the United States have been
described in the monographs of the United States
Geological Survey, and by Kemp, Spurr, Grabau
and other writers.
This branch of geology emphasizes the strong
tendency to concentration shown by mineral elements.
All climatic forces are found to aid this
work. Underground waters, both flowing and stationary,
are powerful assistants.
Other phases of economic geology have been
developed in studies of subterranean waters, microscopical
petrology and mineralogy, the chemical
analyses of rocks, etc. Among the leaders in this[Pg 174]
work have been Pirsson, Emmons, Iddings, Washington,
Van Hise, Clarke, and others.
The enormous metallurgical industries of to-day
are all dependent upon scientific principles chiefly
discovered and applied in the nineteenth century.
Metallurgists in the previous century knew that
by adding certain metals to molten steel it could be
hardened. A method of this kind was published by
Réaumur in 1722. Tool points, he showed, could
be hardened if the steel when red hot was forced
into solid tin, lead, copper, silver or gold, thus producing
an alloy stronger and harder than the pure
steel.
A series of calorimetric researches on metallic
alloys, carried on by Bergman, led to the discovery
that steel differs from iron merely in the carbon
contents. Clouet, in 1798, followed this by an
experiment in which he melted up a little crucible
iron with a diamond and obtained a mass of steel.
This created a sensation and led to many other
experiments on the metallurgy of cast and wrought
iron and steel.
Thomas Young, in 1802-7, studied the mechanical
properties of iron and steel and developed the
theory of the modulus of elasticity. A patent was
issued to the Rev. Robert Stirling, in 1817, for a
regenerative iron smelting furnace. The next year
Samuel Baldwin Rogers substituted iron bottoms
for sand bottoms in puddling furnaces. Faraday
and Stodart produced the first alloy of nickel and
steel in 1820, and in 1822 Faraday showed that
there is a fundamental chemical difference between
hard and soft steel.
The first patent for a hot blast for iron furnaces
was granted to James Beaumont Neilson in 1828.[Pg 175]
All these discoveries led to important improvements
in iron making.
The steam hammer was patented by Nasmyth in
1842, and between 1843 and 1848 Thomas Andrews
conducted valuable investigations into the heat of
combination.
The ground was now prepared for one of the
greatest of metallurgical inventions—the conversion
of pig iron into steel by an air blast in a Bessemer
converter. This invention not only vastly
extended the use of steel, but drew attention to the
valuable oxidizing effects of a hot air blast and in
that way induced many important improvements
in the metallurgy of copper, lead, and zinc.
Siemens, Whitworth, Bell, Graham, Percy, Richards,
Martin, Thomas, Holley, Hewitt, Fritz, Howe,
Jones, and others made further important improvements
in the metallurgy of iron and steel in the
United States and Europe.
One of the early American iron smelters was
built by Governor Keith, in 1726, in New Castle
County, Delaware. A rolling mill and forge
were subsequently built at Wilmington. The first
American smelted iron was shipped to England
from smelters in Maryland and Virginia in 1718.
The Bessemer steel process was introduced into the
United States by Abram Hewitt at the Troy
smelter, New York, in 1865. From these beginnings
the iron industries of the United States have grown
so that they now produce more than two-fifths of
the world's annual supplies.
The alloys of iron and steel have now attained
importance and a new science known as metallography
has developed. Professor Arnold, of Sheffield,
Sherard Cowper-Coles, Roberts-Austen, Sorby,
Tschermak, Tschernoff, Wüst, and Ziegler have
been active promoters of this branch of metallurgy,
and a closely related one dealing with the
effects of the heat treatment of metals.
Developments in the iron industries led to others
in the metallurgy of copper, lead, and zinc.
The application of the blast furnace to copper,
lead, and zinc smelting was chiefly made in America.
One of the early furnaces was built in Leadville,
Colorado, in 1877. From that time, pyritic smelting
has been chiefly developed by American metallurgists.
The metallurgy of lead, copper, and zinc
has reached a similar high plane to that attained by
iron and steel.
The metallurgy of gold and silver began to
improve after the discovery of the Californian
deposits in 1848. The stamper battery and amalgamation
processes were improved; when sulphide
ores were encountered, chlorination processes were
developed. Subsequently, in response to demand
for a cheaper chemical solvent for low-grade ores,
the cyanide and bromide processes were devised.
The application of the electric furnace to metallurgy
greatly increased the scope of metallurgists'
methods.
Pichon, in 1853, described a small arc furnace
with which he was experimenting, and in 1878 Sir
William Siemens built a furnace for reducing iron
ores. Moissan made numerous tests of furnaces
and smelting methods in the nineties and did much
to develop commercial electric smelting. Faure,
Cowles, Borchers, De Chalmont, Girod, Heroult, and
others invented furnaces, smelting methods, and
metallurgical processes. The aluminum, carborundum,
acetylene, and other important industries
are developments from the electrometallurgy of
iron and copper. Zinc, copper, nickel, silver, gold,
and platinum plating and the electrodepositing of
copper in the form of tubes by the Elmore process
are dependent upon the principles of electrometallurgy
as is the electrorefining of metals.
[Pg 176]
Copyright, Keystone View Co.
EDOUARD BELIN AND THE TELAUTOGRAPH, WHICH TRANSMITS PICTURES
BY WIRE
[Pg 177]
LEE DE FOREST, INVENTOR OF THE OSCILLATING
AUDION
AUTOMOBILE WITH RADIO EQUIPMENT FOR
LISTENING IN EN TOUR
The physical phenomena of the earth's atmosphere
are studied under the science of meteorology.
The art of weather forecasting is as old almost
as mankind, but only in recent years has it been
placed upon a sound basis.
Torricelli, in 1643, invented the barometer; Boyle,
in 1685, developed it and applied it to measuring gas
pressures. The chemists of the eighteenth century,
Boyle, Black, Rutherford, Priestley, Scheele,
Lavoisier, and Cavendish, all studied the chemistry
of the atmosphere. Franklin, in 1749, raised thermometers
by kites to measure temperatures. Balloon
ascents were made by Jefferies and Blanchard, in
1784, for atmospheric observations. Soundings of
the upper air by balloons, kites, and other apparatus
have been conducted since the closing years of the
nineteenth century.
[Pg 178]
CHAPTER XV
MEDICINE AND PHARMACY
Medicine was in a state of transition at the
beginning of the nineteenth century. The
great scientific discoveries of the eighteenth century
had carried people away to such an extent that
they showed a tendency to exaggerate their
bearings upon medicine. The result was a
wild diffusion of extravagant speculation and
unsubstantial hypotheses.
One of the leading physicians of the eighteenth
century, who wielded broad influence throughout
Europe, was Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738). His
work, entitled "Aphorismi," published in Leyden,
1709, was immensely popular. It was translated
into all the European and several Asiatic languages.
His reputation now depends upon his
chemical discoveries and his medical teachings.
One of the most brilliant students of Boerhaave's
medical school was Albrecht von Haller (1708-77).
Haller published many medical works and monographs.
His "Elements of Human Physiology,"
(1759-66) is the best known. The function of bile
in the digestion of fats, the demonstration of Glisson's
hypothesis that irritability in an excised
muscle is a specific property of all living tissues,
and several theories explaining the heart's activities,
were among his best contributions to medical
science.
[Pg 179]
The discovery of the existence of lacteal and
lymphatic vessels in birds, reptiles, and fish brought
William Hewson into prominence and secured
him membership in the Royal Society. He published
his monograph on the coagulation of the
blood in 1771.
William Cumberland Cruikshank (1745-1800)
investigated the surgery of the nerves, the functioning
of the Fallopian tubes, the physiology of
absorption.
The electrical discoveries of Galvani, Volta,
Benjamin Franklin, Henly and others caused much
experimenting with the electric current in the
treatment of muscular diseases.
The Monros, father, son and grandson, by their
wonderful teaching abilities, caused the medical
teaching center of Europe to be transferred from
Leyden to Edinburgh in 1720. These men, and
many of their students, did brilliant work in all
branches of medicine.
The medical school which they so established in
Edinburgh University still maintains its great
reputation.
The best anatomists of the eighteenth century
were Cheselden, Pott, the Monros, the Hunters,
Desault, and Scarpa. Their work was largely topographical.
Surgical anatomy started with the
writings of Joseph Lieutaud (1703-1780), Albinus,
Eisenmann, Soemmering, Mascagni, Sandifort,
and Caldani.
The anatomical textbooks in use in the year 1800
gave general accounts of the body's structure and
included current theories of the functions of organs
and their relationships to injuries and disease.
More than half of the chapters were occupied with[Pg 180]
morbid anatomy and the recital of cases. The
anatomy of the tissues and finer structures
was neglected because the microscopes of the
period were little better than simple lenses.
Physiology was studied by all medical students,
but the science was so badly developed that it
never stood alone. For many years it formed a
part of studies in anatomy. Early in the nineteenth
century it began to expand, and in 1846
physiology was taught as a separate subject for
the first time at Guy's hospital, London, by Sir
William Gull. Before that it was taught by the
professors of midwifery. It was the great developments
made in chemistry and physics, referred to
in previous chapters, that pushed physiology to the
front as an important branch of medical science.
Denman's "Introduction to the Practice of Midwifery,"
the work of the greatest living authority
at the time of its publication in 1805, shows that
gynecology hardly existed at that time.
Anesthetics and antiseptics, together with the
systematic employment of abdominal and bimanual
palpation, all were revolutionary discoveries of the
nineteenth century, unknown when Denman presided
over the obstetric department of the Middlesex
Hospital.
When the nineteenth century opened, medical
men were unaware of the value of auscultation and
percussion. They were familiar with the symptoms
of fevers and with diseases of the heart and
chest, but they had no means of determining
differences between them. Textbooks of that time
show that the now common forms of heart disease
were known only from post-mortem inspections.
But they distinctly state that physicians were[Pg 181]
unable to determine, in case of changes in stricture
of the heart's valves, what part was affected. The
seat of disease in heart and chest troubles could
not be located.
Parasitology was no better advanced. Books
published as late as 1810 indicated that parasites,
like hydatids, threadworms, etc., were very puzzling
phenomena to the physician.
The status of surgery throughout the eighteenth
century was very low. The best work was done in
France and Holland, until Cheselden, the Hunters,
the Monros, and Abernethy established their
schools in England and Scotland. German medical
practitioners were barbers until after the army
authorities formed the Medico-Chirurgical Pépinière
in Berlin in 1785. There were several good
medical schools in the United States in 1800
including those of the King's College, New York,
and of the Harvard, Dartmouth, and Philadelphia
Colleges, and the University of Pennsylvania.
There were also numerous medical societies.
European medical and surgical textbooks were
used like those of Cheselden, Monro, Haller, Boerhaave
and Sydenham. Medical practice was on the
same plane in America as in Europe. There were
many patent remedies used, but the authorities
recognized the importance of regulating the practice
of medicine. Regulation acts were passed in
New York City in 1760, New Jersey in 1772, and
a general quarantine act was enacted by Congress
in 1799.
The modernization of medicine was brought
about to a large extent by the publication of the
"Conservation of Energy" by Helmholtz, in 1847,
and Darwin's "Origin of Species," in 1859. These[Pg 182]
books cleared away completely the myths and
legends which had surrounded medicine at earlier
periods, and taught medical students the strict need
of proceeding entirely upon scientific grounds precisely
as chemists, physicists, engineers, and others
were already doing with wonderful success. Darwin's
biological teachings appealed very strongly
to medical men and influenced all their activities.
Virchow's "Cellular Pathology," published in 1858,
Huxley's textbooks on "Physiology" (1866) and on
"Vertebrate and Invertebrate Anatomy" (1871-77)
Haeckel's "General Morphology" (1866), and numerous
medical encyclopedias and textbooks on practice
and special diseases were the result of the new
scientific spirit. New medical associations were
formed and these promoted discussions, the reporting
of observations, and the publication of
innumerable monographs. Medical journals and
magazines of a high character did fine educational
work.
The investigations on fermentation and putrefaction
made in France by Pasteur caused Joseph
Lister, professor of surgery at Glasgow University,
to reflect upon the great mortality witnessed daily
in the hospitals from pyæmia, erysipelas, tetanus,
septicemia, gangrene, and other similar diseases.
He observed that in spite of his great care to maintain
scrupulous cleanliness in treating wounds,
45 per cent of his surgical cases were mortal.
Pasteur's dictum that putrefaction is a micro-organic
phenomenon, caused Lister to experiment
with the view of preventing the development of
microorganisms in wounds. Beginning with weak
solutions of zinc chloride and zinc sulphite, he
accidentally tried carbolic acid, securing surprising[Pg 183]
results, and two years later, in 1867, he published
his monograph on antiseptic surgery which
instantly became world-famous. Lister, instead of
being carried away by the celebrity he attained,
turned his attention to the scientific development of
his important discovery. He investigated lactic-acid
fermentation, the relation of bacteria to flesh
inflammations and to the best methods of treating
wounds antiseptically.
Lister, however, was not the first to employ antiseptics
in the treatment of wounds, and his great
contribution to medical practice was due to the
systematic manner in which he experimented. He
was not a brilliant surgeon, but a deliberate and
careful one whose chief desire was to have the
patient recover. His whole surgical career was
guided by this principle which proved so successful
that before his death the whole medical profession
saluted him as master, and when he died, rejoiced
that his remains were entombed in Westminster
Abbey.
Theodor Billroth was one of Lister's greatest
disciples. He introduced Lister's methods into continental
surgery and through their use improved
the treatment of wounds and opened up new fields
in the surgery of the alimentary tract. He was the
first to make a resection of the esophagus and
pylorus and to excise the larynx.
Mikulicz-Rodecki, a Pole, was Billroth's chief
assistant. He was also a pioneer in Lister's practice.
Specializing on the surgery of the alimentary
organs, he promoted antiseptic methods and introduced
the modern modes of exploring the esophagus
and stomach. He was also a master in the
treatment of diseases of the mouth.
[Pg 184]
Felix Guyon applied Lister's system to surgical
treatment of the genitourinary ailments, and
became a leader in this class of surgery. Bernard
Naunyn, a well-known German writer on surgery,
became a leading authority on diabetes and diseases
of the liver and pancreas. Jean Martin
Charcot made the Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, the
greatest of the world's neurological clinics. He
was also a great authority on diseases of the
biliary passages and kidneys. Sir James Paget,
Sir Jonathan Hutchinson, Sir William Gull, Jenner,
Wilks, Spencer Wells, and Clifford Allbutt, besides
doing much by their writings to advance the
practice of medicine, all closely allied themselves
with large hospitals, giving as much attention
to the hospitals as to the treatment of disease.
Modern hospitals are largely due to their pioneering
work.
Louis Pasteur's studies in fermentation led to the
discovery of lactic-acid bacteria and this was the
starting point for a number of revolutionary discoveries
in bacterial diseases. Infectious diseases
were placed in new categories by his work.
The etiology of traumatic infectious diseases was
advanced by the researches of Robert Koch (1843-1910).
His work in discovering the cholera vibrio,
the microorganisms of Oriental ophthalmia and his
researches on the nature and treatment of tuberculosis,
made his name known everywhere. His
isolation of the tuberculosis germ in 1882, and that
of Asiatic cholera in 1884, were leading steps
toward the discovery of a great number of disease
germs.
Fevers, like typhus, typhoid, yellow fever, and
malaria, a few generations ago, took a great annual[Pg 185]
toll of lives. The work of the men mentioned above,
Lister, Pasteur, Koch, and the French physiologist,
Claude Bernard, gave medical men the means of
curbing the ravages of these diseases so that to-day
they are incidental annoyances rather than human
scourges.
The germ of typhoid fever was discovered in
1880 by Eberth. The cocci of pneumonia were
isolated by Frankel in 1886.
Modern surgery has been greatly facilitated by
the employment of numerous anesthetics, chemicals
which possess the power of inducing local or general
insensibility. Soporific drugs have been used in
surgical operations since the remotest antiquity,
but modern practices in the employment of anesthetics
followed the discoveries of Faraday in 1818.
He described the properties of nitrous oxide, or
ether and other gases in that year and suggested
their use in medicine.
John Godman (1822), James Jackson (1833), and
Drs. Wood and Bache (1834) were among American
medical men who made use of Faraday's
suggestions. Dr. Horace Wells, a dentist at Hartford,
Connecticut, used ether in 1844. Two years
later W. T. Morton, a dentist in Boston, employed
it successfully. Chloroform was described as a
useful anesthetic by Dr. Flourens, of Paris, in
1847, the year in which Sir James Simpson
introduced ether as an anesthetic in obstetric
practice.
Mesmer introduced hypnosis into medical practice
about 1777, and in 1784 Benjamin Franklin
reported favorably on the medical value of what
he called magnetic sleep. Alexandre Bertrand,
about 1831, described the nature of hypnosis and[Pg 186]
in 1841 James Braid employed it in his English
medical practice. The employment of hypnosis
has not become general, although it is recognized
that in certain nervous troubles there is a field
for it.
Among other American medical men who advanced
their science in the past were James Marion
Sims (1813-1883) and Thomas Emmet, who
acquired wide fame for successful methods of operating
in obstetric diseases. William Beaumont
(1785-1853) investigated the offices of the gastric
juice and devised treatment for digestive
troubles. John Shaw Billings served his profession
by compiling, with the assistance of Robert
Fletcher, an Index Catalogue of the Surgeon General's
library, Washington.
Pharmacology is as old as medicine. The medicinal
qualities of herbs, roots, and gums were known
to primitive man. There have been herbalists and
druggists in all important communities at all times.
Scientific pharmacology, however, is just as new as
modern medicine. Cordus published a pharmacopœia,
which listed drugs in use in 1535. Since
that time many such works have appeared. The
second of the Monros of Edinburgh University
Medical School, Magendie, and Claude Bernard
placed pharmacy upon a scientific basis. They
followed scientific methods used by Fontana in
Florence in 1765 in studying the effects of snake
poisons. Pareira's "Elements of Materia Medica"
was the leading textbook in 1842. This work
gave very brief accounts of the physiological
effects of drugs. The physiological values were
not properly appreciated until about twenty years
later.
[Pg 187]
Drugs are now scientifically classified and prepared,
the full resources of science being used
in their manufacture. American chemists have
invented machinery and methods of preparing new
drugs. Citrate of magnesia was invented by Henry
Blair, of Philadelphia. Many other valuable remedies
came from his laboratory, including sirup of
phosphates.
[Pg 188]
CHAPTER XVI
ELECTRICITY AND RADIOACTIVITIES
Among the most marvelous scientific developments
of the nineteenth century those in the
electrical field claim universal attention. It was
only as recently as 1844 that Morse introduced
electric telegraphy. The telephone was introduced
by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 and Edison built
one of his early dynamos in 1878 and in 1879 made
his first high resistance incandescent lamp for
parallel operation. The first Edison power and
lighting station was opened at 257 Pearl Street, New
York City, in 1882.
Although electrical phenomena were understood
in a general way thousands of years ago, they were
not studied and applied to practical purposes until
the sixteenth century when William Gilbert carried
out his classical experiments in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. The Leyden jar was discovered in the
early half of the eighteenth century. From experiments
carried out with these jars a great number
of important inventions were derived and our
knowledge of electricity was for many years dependent
upon researches of this kind. Benjamin
Franklin in experimenting with the Leyden jar
found that its electrical discharges were similar to
those of lightning and he subsequently discovered
that the inner part of the jar, when charged with[Pg 189]
a frictional current, was positively electrical while
the outer portion was negative.
The voltaic pile was invented in 1796 as a result
of Galvani's experiments in physiological electricity
and Sir Humphry Davy exhibited the first practical
electrical lamp before the Royal Society in 1809.
The dynamo was, in substance, invented by Faraday,
and described by him before the Royal Society in
1831. This was, perhaps, the greatest of all electrical
triumphs because it gave engineers a practical
means of generating and using electrical currents
of any desired dimensions. Bunsen in 1840 devised
a means for making carbon rods for arc lamps, and
Edison made practical carbon incandescent lamp
filaments in 1879. Faraday's invention promoted all
of these lighting discoveries.
The engine-driven electric dynamo was made a
practical machine in 1870 and thenceforward became
the source of power of a great multitude
of secondary machines, such as electric street cars,
marine engines, power plants, and forging hammers.
A new and profitable field was opened for the
use of electricity by the invention of the electric
furnace. Sir Humphry Davy produced his electric
arc in 1808 and was greatly impressed with its fusing
properties. He melted many metals with the
arc and found that it fused platinum just as easily
as an ordinary tallow candle melts beeswax. The
electric furnace, which is now extensively used in
chemical and metallurgical works, is simply a large
electric arc provided with means for containing the
heat. Furnaces lined with carbon are now heated
to over 4,000 degrees centigrade.
When the electrical manufacture of aluminum on
a large scale was started at Niagara, Dr. Edward[Pg 190]
Acheson, who was impressed by the industrial needs
of cheap abrasives, accidentally discovered that by
heating a piece of porcelain to a high temperature
in an electric furnace and bringing it in contact with
pure carbon, the carbon was rendered very hard.
In 1891 he carried on experiments with high
currents and a mixture of ground coke and sand.
He found a method of fusing these so that the
oxygen of the sand passed off with carbon in the
form of carbonic acid gas, and the reduced metallic
silicon combined with an equal atomic weight of
carbon and produced a new body which he named
carborundum. The success met with in making
carborundum led to the devising of a method of
manufacturing artificial graphite in the electric
furnace. A soft, non-coalescing graphite was made
in 1906. This is extensively used in lubricating
heavy machinery.
Dr. Acheson produced the first chemically pure
artificial carbon in his electric furnace in 1911.
By using pressure during consolidation this carbon
may eventually be converted into diamonds.
Another valuable product of the electric furnace,
acetylene gas, was discovered in Dublin by
Edmund Davy in 1836. Subsequently numerous
chemists discovered means for making carbides.
T. Sterry Hunt, an American chemist, observed in
1886 that oxides of the alkaline metals and of
calcium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, and boron
could be reduced in the electric furnace in the
presence of carbon and could be alloyed with other
metals. He also found that silicon and acetylene
could be made that way.
T. L. Wilson, a Canadian engineer, in attempting
to make aluminum bronze in an electric furnace,[Pg 191]
devised an experiment for reducing lime with
carbon. He found that this produced calcium carbide
and secured a patent for the invention in 1892.
Variations of this process are now used for manufacturing
nitrogen and nitrates from atmospheric
nitrogen.
Wireless developments have resulted from the
work of many separate investigators. K. A. Steenheil
in 1838 used the earth return in live telegraphy and
suggested the possibility of wireless telegraphy.
Joseph Henry produced the first high-frequency oscillations
in America in 1840. Lord Kelvin in 1853
enunciated the mathematical principles governing
uncoupled electrical oscillatory circuits. Joseph
Heyworth patented a wireless telegraphic process in
1862. Clark Maxwell in 1867 predicted the existence
of electromagnetic radiations and these were demonstrated
by Hertz in 1887. Hughes discovered
the phenomena of the coherer and Branby used
Hughes's coherer for wireless wave detection in
1892. A. E. Dolbear secured United States patents
for a system of wireless telegraphy using aerials
in 1886. Sir Oliver Lodge described his wireless
system before the Royal Society in 1894 and in the
same year Popoff issued descriptions of his wireless
system.
Wireless telegraphy became commercially practicable
in 1897 when G. Marconi secured the promotion
of the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company
in England. Marconi succeeded in turning
to commercial account a long series of brilliant discoveries
in electricity, and this success has led to
numerous kindred discoveries. De Forest's three-electrode
thermionic detector, known as an Audion,
invented in 1907 and improved in 1911 by Lieben
and Reiss, in 1913 by Meisser and in 1914 by
Langmuir, opened up great possibilities for sound
transmission by wireless telephony.
The electric deposition and refining of metals have
been referred to in previous chapters. Many industries
are based upon these. Niepce produced
commercially successful photographs in 1838.
Earlier, in 1824, he had etched plates for printing
and in that year published his photo-engraving of
Cardinal d'Amboise. Fox Talbot patented a mixture
of gelatine and bichromate of potash to take the
place of the bitumen used by Niepce as a plate coating.
Gillot found in 1872 that Fox Talbot's method
of making intaglio plates could also be used for making
relief blocks. In 1885-1886, F. E. Ives sealed
two single-line screws together and made a new fine
cross-line screen, which resulted in the development
of the half-tone process. Ives at this time also developed
the three-color photo-engraving process.
Photography and photo-engraving are so widely
used and are so intimately connected with our
civilization that few people now realize that the
great industries based upon them are the results
of a few scientific discoveries of a couple of American
and European scientists made only a generation
or two ago.
[Pg 192]
GIFTS FOR TUTANKHAMEN BROUGHT BY HUY, VICEROY
OF ETHIOPIA. THE MAN IN THE GAY COSTUME, AT THE
RIGHT, MAY BE A PHŒNICIAN. (EGYPTIAN PAINTING)
[Pg 193]
TUTANKHAMEN'S TOMB—BRINGING UP THE HATHOR
COUCH. THE COW WAS SACRED TO ISIS OR HATHOR OF
WHOM THE HORNS WITH THE MOON DISK WERE EMBLEMS
QUEEN NEFERTITI, MOTHER-IN-LAW OF TUTANKHAMEN
This wonderful work of an unknown Egyptian sculptor represents
the wife of Ahknaton, the "heretic" king of Egypt (originally
Amenhotep or Amenophis IV). The original is now in the Berlin
Museum.
Chemists had long recognized the fact that certain
chemicals like preparations of zinc, fluorine, and
phosphorus were phosphorescent. It was found
early in the eighties that Welsbach gas mantles,
when placed on a photographic plate and exposed in
a dark room for two weeks, made a fine picture. Invisible
rays in the mantle imprint its image.
Röntgen, in 1895, discovered what are now known
as the X-rays. This discovery was the result of experiments
begun in 1859 by Plucker to ascertain
the cause of fluorescence in light glass, and Sir
William Crookes, between 1879 and 1885, carried
out beautiful experiments on fluorescence. These
were the immediate pioneers of the discovery of the
cathode rays and the other great radio discoveries
of recent years. Crookes, remembering Faraday's
suggestions concerning a fourth state of matter,
expressed the opinion, in 1885, that the matter constituting
cathode rays is neither solid, gaseous, or
liquid, but in a fourth state which transcends the
gaseous condition. Perren found in 1895 that the
rays carried electrically negative charges and Sir
J. J. Thomson noticed that their velocities are
appreciably less than the speed of light. Owing,
however, to their great momentum, hardly anything
can long endure their impacts. They fuse platinum
and make diamonds buckle up into coke.
Electrons, which constitute the cathode rays, were
originally studied in Crookes vacuum tubes, though
they are now found to pervade the universe.
Larmor in 1897 proposed an electronic theory of
magnetism.
Henri Becquerel was the first to discover radioactivity.
He made radiographs from uranium salts
in 1896. M. and Madame Curie undertook the
investigation of uranium and found that among the
minerals occurring in pitchblende, or uranium ore,
bismuth and barium showed radioactive properties,
whereas when these metals are found in their
ordinary ores they are not radioactive. This discovery
led to the finding of two new metals, polonium
and radium. Radium is now obtained by
fractional distillation of solutions obtained from
American and Australian pitchblende.
[Pg 194]
Helium, one of the lightest substances known,
was discovered in 1895 by Sir William Ramsay, and
liquefied, at a temperature 3 degrees above absolute
zero, or -270 degrees centigrade, by Onnes in 1908.
Helium appears to be one of the ultimate products
of the disintegration of all radioactive elements.
Some of the most interesting discoveries about
radioactivity are very recent. Radium prepared
from uranium in 1915 was found in 1919 to have
increased proportionately to the square of the time
interval. The amount of radium in some preparations
was found to have increased ten times in four
years. The old idea of the constant fluxation of
matter was thus shown to have been based upon a
scientific truth.
[Pg 195]
CHAPTER XVII
SCIENCE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
It is obvious that we are now in a great period
of transition. Scientific discoveries came so
quickly at the end of the last century that a recasting
and readjusting of scientific conceptions had to
be undertaken. This process was in progress when
the World War began. The world-wide disturbance
led to temporary scientific infertility except in such
directions as served the purposes of war. But
therein science became allied more closely than ever
before with certain branches of industry, and the
cooperation thus established has been recognized in
all civilized countries as of the utmost value to the
future progress of mankind.
The philosophic thought of each era generally
develops in harmony with social and intellectual
conditions. The philosophical doctrines of the
leading writers may, therefore, be taken as representative
of the spirit of their age. When Darwin
in the middle of the last century published his doctrines
of evolution, of the struggle for existence and
the influences of living conditions upon survival of
species, philosophy turned away from the utilitarianism
and tolerance of Hamilton, Hume, and Mill
and the positivism of the French to the synthetic
evolutionism of Herbert Spencer. One of the basic
teachings of Spencer was the relativity of knowledge.
The process of thinking involves relation,[Pg 196]
difference, and likeness. This is merely relationing.
Therefore no thought can ever express more than
relations. The primary act of thought through
which we discover likeness and difference underlies
all our knowledge.
A reaction against this new empiricism began in
1898, when William James published his "Philosophical
Conceptions and Practical Results." This
work popularized the philosophy of pragmatism
which denies the absoluteness or ultimateness of
the traditional antithesis between theory and practice
and relies for its justification upon the fact that
everything which we think about, and do, must first
be willed. Reality consists in pure experience quite
independent of thought. Bergson developed this
philosophy of practicalism further and taught that
knowledge of reality comes through intuition and
that life is merely intuitive knowledge. Intuition,
is deeper than scientific reason because it feels, and
links us with, the eternal processes of nature.
Philosophic thought is now temporarily influenced
by the revival of an old principle known as
the principle of relativity. The popular name for
this is the Einstein theory, because in 1905 Albert
Einstein, working on some theories developed by
Lorentz and Fitzgerald, published his first principle
of relativity which suggested that the velocity of
light is constant, however the position of an
observer may vary and that space and time are
variable. In 1917 Einstein enlarged this idea in
order to include all the laws of nature.
Space and time are treated as just mental concepts.
They lack the concreteness of matter, but
they compose the framing of the universe and give
it form and continuity. Consequently we see so[Pg 197]
much of them that we attribute reality to them.
The theory of relativity suggests that time is not
continuous. There is no identity of instants at
different places. The present instant really does
not extend beyond this immediate point. At other
points there are instants older, younger, and contemporaneous
with this instant. They are, however,
quite distinct from this one. In order for an
instant to be simultaneous it would be necessary
that it should occur at the same point.
An object or event gains its substance and form
from activities of our minds. Any meaning or significance
that an object or event has is also derived
from our minds. The reality of the universe is an
activity, or series of activities, which are manifested
in life and mind.
The relativity of space is illustrated by an
example given by Professor Henri Poincaré. Assume
that I meet you in Wall Street, New York, and say,
"I will meet you here again at this time to-morrow."
You promise to do so. But you could not keep such
a promise except with regard to position on the
surface of the earth, because between now and to-morrow
the earth will have moved over an enormous
distance carrying Wall Street and a great
mass of other things with it. The sun also will have
moved away the stars, carrying the earth with it.
Another interesting mental picture is drawn by
Professor Herbert Wildon Carr to illustrate the
philosophical meaning of the principle of relativity.
Suppose that on a very frosty morning we were to
see a watery vapor in the air we breathe condense
into a little cloud and after floating around a while
gradually disappear and become reabsorbed in the
atmosphere. Assume that at the moment of this[Pg 198]
reabsorption we should undergo an instantaneous
transformation of all our proportions so that our
new dimensions become infinitesimal in comparison
with our former state. Do you think that we would
recognize the fact that we had changed? The
theory of relativity declares that we would not
know what had happened, because with the alteration
in proportions the ratios would remain constant.
The change would express itself in the new
dimensions of objects around us. The little globules
of water composing the little cloud would now
appear like stars and planets occupying immense
areas in distant spaces, far apart from each other,
and all undergoing a slow age-long evolution. Such
a change would be signalized as a new time and a
new space.
Yet the principle of relativity does not appear to
our physical senses to represent a truth of nature.
It is noteworthy that the principle of relativity is
usually invoked when conditions are unstable, when
thought is confused, and when a period of readjustment
is in progress. Thus the Einstein theory may
be representative of present-day harmonies, but yet
may prove, in the future, to have been merely a
passing philosophic mood.
Bagehot, a shrewd observer, writing in 1868
about the changes wrought by Darwin's evolutionary
theory, said: "There is scarcely a department of
science or art which is the same, or at all the same,
as it was fifty years ago. A new world of inventions
has grown up around us which we cannot help
seeing; a new world of ideas is in the air, and affects
us though we do not see it." Those were very true
words more than half a century ago, yet they serve
to describe present conditions!
[Pg 199]
GENERAL INDEX
- A, vowel sound, record of, iv, 234
- Aard-vark, xii, 281-2
- Abacus, or calculating machines, xv, 183-4, xvi, 61
- Abalones, xii, 71
- Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, i, 216-17
- Abbot, Dr., solar studies, ii, 171, 186-7
- Abdomen, blood circulation in, ix, 196, 197;
- methods of examination, x, 147, 371;
- muscles of, ix, 77
- Abdominal Organs, control of circulation of, ix, 215, 216, 217, 220;
- development of, in black and white races, xv, 50;
- mesentery support of, ix, 59;
- smooth muscles in, 160-1
- Aberration of Light, ii, 91-2
- Abert, Lake, Oregon, xiv, 203
- Abnormal Complexes, x, 355-6
- Absaroka Range, xiv, 104-5, 226
- Abscesses, cause (germs) of, x, 195, 198, 221;
- cure of neurasthenic, 58-9
- Absinthe, source, xiii, 266
- Absolute, technical meaning, iv, 381
- Absolute Magnitude (stars), ii, 317;
- Adams' method of determining, 124, 153;
- spectral type and, 115, 317;
- used in measuring star distances, 318, 330
- Absolute Maximum & Minimum (meteorology), i, 204, 365
- Absolute Scale (thermometry), i, 73, iv, 141, viii, 107-8
- Absolute Units, iv, 64, 69, 70
- Absolute Zero, i, 73, iv, 141, v, 347-8, viii, 107-8;
- molecular condition at, iv, 142-3, viii, 108;
- nearest approach, i, 32, iv, 173, xvi, 194;
- of outer space, vi, 270
- Absorption Lines, ii, 111-12 (see Fraunhofer Lines, Spectrum)
- Abstract Ideas, difficulty of attention to, xi, 228, 233-4;
- expression of, in primitive language, xv, 144-150
- Abul Wefa, Arab astronomer, ii, 38
- Acceleration, definition & measurement, iv, 57, 381;
- force in relation to 59-61, 63-4, 71-2;
- of gravity, 65
- Accidents, from electricity, x, 254;
- from fatigue, xi, 274;
- prevention of, vii, 32-3, xi, 365
- Accidents (geological), xiv, 188
- Accommodation, of vision, ix, 110-11, 113;
- muscles of, 161, 162
- Accumulators, storage batteries, iv, 300
- Accumulators, water-pressure, v, 106
- Accuracy, habit and, xi, 253;
- indifferent types of men, 156, 157, 158-9
- Acetic Acid, vi, 111, viii, 220;
- solubility, 112;
- in vinegar, 218, 249, 293
- Acetylene Gas, discovery, xvi, 190;
- formation, vii, 312;
- in steel making, 321;
- luminosity of flame, viii, 60;
- preparation & uses, 231
- Achenes, xiii, 58-9, 344, 345
- Acheson, Dr. Edward G., vii, 300-1, 309-10, xvi, 189-90
- Acheulean Implements, xv, 105, 107
- Achromatic Lenses, iv, 373;
- invention, xvi, 125-6
- Achromatic Refractors, ii, 100-1, 103
- Acidosis, x, 280
- Acids, viii, 19-20, 114-15, 373;
- action on saccharides, 226, 228;
- amino, 230 (see Amino Acids);
- bases and, 115;
- defined by ionization theory, 122;
- electrolytes, 125;
- formation, 20, 39, 118, 373;
- formation in body, x, 280-1;
- hydrogen prepared from, viii, 32-3, 102;
- ionization in solution, 119-25, 300-1;
- manufacture of, 275-6;
- molecular structure, 218;
- molecular structure & physical state, 298;
- nomenclature, viii, 98;
- organic, 52, 219-21;
- oxygen in, 34;
- salts formed from, 72, 83, 114, 373;
- vegetable, 222-3, 336, 349;
- volumetric analysis of, 292-3
- Acid Salts, viii, 116
- Acne, causes of, x, 201, 311
- Aconite, xiii, 252
- Acorns, xiii, 193;
- dispersal by squirrels, 55-6, 340;
- survival rate, xv, 21
- Acoustic Clouds, i, 190
- Acoustics, atmospheric, i, 186-96;
- of auditoriums, iv, 239
- (see also Sound)
[Pg 200]
- Acquaintanceships, selection of, xi, 257, 380-1
- Acquired Characters, inheritance of, ix, 325-7, x, 230
- Acquired Tastes, xi, 72-3
- Actinic Rays, iv, 365-6, 381, vii, 250, 361
- Actinolite, iii, 321-2
- Action & Reaction, iv, 33-4, v, 143;
- Newton's law, ii, 66, iv, 69
- Activity, food needs dependent on, ix, 295, 296, 297;
- mind as, xi, 12, 13, 236;
- temperature effects on, i, 323-4
- Activity (mechanics), iv, 80
- Adaptations, of eardrum to sound, xi, 100;
- of eye to colors, 95;
- of nose to odors, 80-1;
- of skin to pressures, 111;
- of tongue to tastes, 72;
- to warmth and cold, 113
- Adaptation to Environment, xv, 16;
- by animals, 16-18;
- by man, 3, 25, 26, 28, 31, 36;
- by plants, xiii, 11, 12, 28-31, 89-90, 149-50, 346, 355-83, xv, 16, 18-19;
- between insects & plants, xiii, 144, xvi, 152-3;
- mental efforts at, x, 361-2;
- natural selection and, xv, 24-5;
- principle never perfect, xvi, 152-3
- (see also Environment, Environmental Variation)
- Adder's Tongue Fern, xiii, 159
- Adding Machines, v, 326-7
- Addison, Thomas, x, 106, 112
- Adenoids, ix, 104, 224, x, 341-2;
- as infection foci, 220
- Adenoid Tissue, ix, 223, 224
- Ader, C., v, 231
- Adiabatic Changes, iv, 158-9, 381
- Adipose Tissues, ix, 298
- Adirondack Mountains, age, iii, 191;
- club mosses in, xiii, 305;
- erratic bowlders in, iii, 70;
- fault blocks in, 89;
- fault lines and streams, xiv, 128;
- granite formation, iii, 112;
- Grenville strata, 165, 167;
- ice age survivals, xiii, 321;
- iron district, iii, 359;
- lakes, how formed, 145;
- lightning effects, 24;
- Ordovician strata eroded, iii, 186;
- quartz & slate formations, xvi, 29
- Adjutant Bird, xii, 255
- Admiration, sentiment of, xi, 146-7
- Adolescence, mental conditions of, x, 236-7
- Adrenalin, ix, 171-2, 209, 219, xi, 137, 138, 273
- Adrenals, ix, 170-1;
- Addison's disease of, x, 112-13;
- functions, xi, 60, 137;
- shock effects, 59
- Adriatic Sea, bora, i, 133;
- coasts of, xiv, 252-3, 263;
- filling in by deltas, 53;
- Karst district, 150
- Adsorption, viii, 316, 373
- Adulteration of Food, viii, 370-1
- Adults, basal metabolism in, x, 271;
- growth in, ix, 287, 288-9;
- heart rate in, x, 334;
- protein needs of, ix, 281-3
- Advance Metal, resistance, vi, 77
- Advertising, psychology of, xi, 343-9;
- sign & display, vii, 339-43;
- tied images in, xi, 221;
- weather considerations, i, 255-6
- Ægean Sea, volcanoes, xiv, 317, 319
- Æolian Tones i, 195
- Aerial Echoes, i, 190, 193
- Aerial Roots, xiii, 20-2;
- of fig tree, (illus.), 48
- Aerials, iv, 314, vii, 261;
- Dolbear's patent, xvi, 191;
- in aeroplane sets, vii, 282
- (see also Antennæ)
- Aeroclinoscope, i, 282, 365
- Aerology, i, 18-19, 20-3, 89, 365-6
- Aeronautical Meteorology, i, 284-305
- Aeronautics, accidents & safety questions, i, 49-50;
- accidents in World War, x, 246;
- aneroid barometer importance in, iv, 124;
- fog in, i, 94, 95, 300-2;
- history & future, 39-51;
- Langley's work in, iv, 43-4;
- pilot balloons in, i, 22;
- therapeutic possibilities, 51;
- weather importance, 284-6;
- wind & air currents, 126, 130, 289-300
- (see also Aeroplanes, Balloons)
- Aeroplanes, altitudes attained, i, 22, 46;
- altitude effects, 303;
- astronomical use, ii, 208, 212, 225-6, 382;
- Brocken specters seen from, i, 185;
- engine efficiency, v, 170;
- gyroscopic stabilizing, 343-4;
- helicopter, i, 42;
- history & development, 40-1, iv, 43-4, v, 230-3, 382, 383-4;
- landings, i, 42, 45, 294 (fig.) 302;
- mail service, 44-5, vii, 76;
- meteorological uses, i, 22;
- passenger, 41-2, 43-5, 50;
- photographic mapping by, 45-8;
- principles, i, 286-305, v, 233-8;
- propellers (tractors) of, iv, 34;
- radiotelephony and, vii, 282-3;
- rise or "taking off" of, iv, 43;
- safety question, i, 49-50;
- stereograms from, xi, 180-1;
- uses, present & future, i, 41-2, 43-9;
- war uses, v, 107, 372-3, 375;
- wind effects, i, 285-6, 289-300;
- wireless directing, vii, 283;
- World War, i, 185, 308, 312, vii, 283, x, 246
- (see also Aeronautics, Aviators)
- Æsculapius, x, 16, 17;
- temples of, 17, xvi, 44
- Æsthetic Arts, development of, xv, 297-324
- Æsthetic Instinct, xvi, 47, 48
- Æther of Space, vi, 118-20;
- constitution, vii, 368;
- elastic solid theory, xvi, 137;
- universal presence of, iv, 180-1
[Pg 201]
- Æther Waves, various kinds, vi, 119, 269, vii, 249, 250, 259-61, 371
- Aetius, medieval writer, x, 31
- Ætna (see Etna)
- Affection, emotion of, xi, 147;
- importance, 129;
- seat of, ix, 200
- Africa, animals of (carnivora), xii, 339, 342, 344, 345, 348, 352-3, 355, 356-7, 359, 360, 365;
- animals,(herbivora) xii, 302, 303, 304-5, 308, 310, 320-1, 327-8, 329;
- anteaters of, 281;
- antiquity of man in, xvi, 64;
- bats of, xii, 370;
- birds of, 249, 260, 266, 267;
- "bush" lands of, xiv, 378-9, 380;
- coasts & islands, 251-2, 263;
- coasts contrasted, xii, 40, xiv, 305;
- coffee production in, xiii, 233;
- crocodiles, xii, 199-200;
- drainage system, xiv, 190;
- dust haze, west coast, i, 55;
- elephant-trapping in, xv, 225;
- exploration of, xiv, 196-7;
- forests of, 366, 368-9, 382;
- fishes of, xii, 151, 154, 160, 166;
- former submergences, iii, 216, 235;
- geographical features & results, xv, 136;
- Gold Coast, death rate on, 50;
- grasslands in south, xiv, 384;
- health conditions, 197, 223-4;
- lemurs of, xii, 374, 375;
- lizards, 208;
- monkeys & apes, 379, 380, 383;
- palm oil, importance to, xiii, 11;
- plains of, xiv, 217-18;
- plateau of interior, 196, 221, 222;
- rivers, broken courses, 155;
- rivers, navigability of, 196;
- rock weathering in central, 78;
- rodents of, xii, 288, 289-90;
- rubber production, xiii, 248;
- salt lakes, viii, 139;
- short races of, xv, 38-9;
- sleeping sickness in, x, 167-70;
- smallpox superstition of natives, 285-6;
- snakes of, xii, 214, 226, 227-8, 231-2;
- timber supplies, xiv, 382;
- vegetables originating in, xiii, 222-7;
- volcanoes & lava fields, xiv, 317;
- yellow fever on coasts, x, 160
- (see also East, North, South, West Africa)
- African Savages, body decoration of, xv, 256, 257-8;
- debtors, treatment of, 370;
- language changes, 155;
- rule of fathers among, 367
- (see also Bushmen)
- African Sleeping Sickness, x, 167-70, 199, xiv, 197, 223, 357;
- chemotherapy in, x, 381;
- Koch's work on, 150, 169
- After-Images, xi, 90-2, 220;
- of sun (green flash), i, 171
- After-Summers, i, 362, 366
- Agassiz, Lake, iii, 144, xiv, 201;
- plain of, 215-16
- Agassiz, Louis, discoverer of Ice Age, iii, 236;
- on fish scales, xii, 134;
- on snapping turtles, 188
- Agate, iii, 337
- Age, chronological & physical, ix, 214;
- effect on disease, x, 236-7;
- growth in relation to, ix, 288-9
- Agonic Lines, iv, 246, 247
- Agoutis, xii, 289
- Agramonte, Dr. Aristide, x, 160, 200
- Agricultural Chemistry, viii, 334-47
- (see also Fertilizers, Nitrogen, Potash, Soils)
- Agricultural Implements & Machinery, v, 239-50, xv, 235-6;
- Egyptian, xvi, 72;
- electricity in, vii, 230
- Agricultural Meteorology, i, 245-60
- Agricultural Stage, xv, 187, 199-203;
- polygamy in, 288;
- rulers in, 367
- Agriculture, ancient centers of, xiii, 221;
- beginnings of, 209-10, xv, 200-2;
- civilization and, 128;
- fundamental importance, xiv, 218;
- grasslands and, 383;
- plains most favorable to, 218-19;
- possibilities, by what determined, 64;
- summer rain importance, 352
- Ailerons, i, 289, 299, v, 238, 343
- Air, amount consumed by breathing, ix, 256;
- ancient ideas, xvi, 79;
- as balloon ballast, v, 226;
- boiling point of, iv, 173;
- buoyant power of, 107, 108;
- burning of, in gas, viii, 55, 56;
- burning, in gasoline engines, v, 156-7;
- "change of" (vertical), i, 51;
- closeness or stuffiness of, (see Ventilation);
- combustion and, i, 10;
- composition, 9-16, vii, 321, viii, 66-8, ix, 254, 268;
- composition, discovery of, xvi, 120, 121;
- compressed (see Compressed Air);
- compressibility, v, 126;
- cooling power, i, 318, 319-21;
- critical temperature & pressure, iv, 172, 173;
- decay in relation to, xiii, 312-13;
- density of, iv, 113, 198;
- drying power, i, 77, 323;
- dryness & dampness, viii, 67, xiv, 353-4;
- elasticity of, iv, 198, v, 126;
- electrical conductivity, i, 144-5, iv, 259, 265;
- expansion by heat, 151;
- frozen, v, 345;
- health benefits of special types of, x, 241;
- heat conductivity, iv, 178, 179;
- ionization, i, 142-4, 146, 150;
- life without, (see Anaërobic);
- liquefaction of, iv, 171, 172;
- (see Liquid Air);
- moisture capacity, xiv, 352-4
- (see also Humidity);
- molecular velocity in, iv, 133;
- necessity to life, ii, 244, 245;
- necessity to plants, xiii, 102, 109;
- physics of, historical development, iv, 28-30;
- popular & scientific conceptions, i, 9-10;
- pressure of, iv, 132
- (see also Atmospheric Pressure);
- purifying by ozone, i, 15, vii, 354;
- purity tests, i, 321-2;
- resistance due to inertia, v, 234;
[Pg 202]
- resistance effects on aeroplanes, i, 286-9, iv, 43, v, 235-6;
- resistance to falling bodies, iv, 42, 97;
- resistance to projectiles, v, 369;
- saturated, i, 14, viii, 67;
- shimmering of, i, 174, iv, 328, 329;
- in soil, xiii, 92;
- solubility in water, viii, 111;
- sound transmission by, i, 186, iv, 195, 198-9, 201, ix, 98-9;
- specific heat of, iv, 161;
- specific heat ratio, 156;
- surfeit of, bodily effects, 31;
- ventilation of, (see Ventilation);
- vibrations of, 215;
- warming of, by sunshine, 182;
- warming of, by freezing water, 161;
- weight of, 107, 116, 124, v, 221-2, 230;
- weight, discovery of, iv, 29, 114-16;
- weight of heated, v, 223
- (see also Atmosphere)
- Air Bladder, xii, 135-6, 164-5
- Air Brakes, iv, 129, 200, v, 130-3, 380, 381;
- on electric cars, vii, 185-6
- Air Columns, resonance of, iv, 226-31;
- vibrations of, 215
- Air Compressors, i, 26-7, iv, 128, v, 89-93, 127-8
- Air-cooled Engines, v, 160-1
- Air Currents in aeronautics, i, 293-300;
- pilot balloons to discover, 21-2
- Air Cushioning, v, 133-5
- Air Holes, i, 298-9, 374, v, 224
- Air Jets, v, 135-6
- Airlifts, iv, 130, v, 114-15
- Air Locks, v, 118-19, 124
- Air Pumps, iv, 126-7
- Airships, in forest service, i, 49;
- future landing places, 43;
- future uses in transportation, 42-3;
- high altitude effects, 303;
- history of development, 40-1;
- possibilities of, iv, 107-8
- (see also Dirigible Balloons, Zeppelins)
- Air Springs, v, 126-38
- Air Waves, i, 294 (fig.), 298
- Akeley, Carl E., v, 136
- Alabama, aluminum production, iii, 369;
- chalk deposits, 216;
- coal beds, 199;
- iron production, 358-9;
- soil of, xiv, 218
- Alabaster, iii, 331, 332, viii, 149
- Alaska, animals of, xii, 318, 319, 320, 337;
- auks of, 265;
- blackfish of, 163;
- coal fields, iii, 348;
- coast changes, earthquake of 1899, 97, xiv, 34, 114, 334-5;
- coast formations, iii, 57;
- fiord coasts, xiv, 258, 259;
- glaciers, iii, 59, 60, 62, xiv, 55, 60;
- gold production, iii, 366, 367;
- ice age in, 239
- Albania, story of unchangeableness, v, 251
- Albategnius, ii, 38
- Albatross, xii, 251-2
- Albe, E. Fournier d', v, 332
- Albucasius of El-Zahra, x, 32
- Albumens (see Proteins)
- Albuminuria, x, 345-6
- Alcmæon, Greek anatomist, xvi, 82-3
- Alcohol, (ethyl or grain), viii, 212, 213-14;
- boiling point, iv, 168;
- cooling by, 174;
- conversion to acetic acid, viii, 218;
- denatured, 250;
- flame of, 60;
- formula of, 218;
- freezing point of water lowered by, 299-300;
- frozen, v, 345;
- frozen in liquid air, i, 31;
- future motor fuel, viii, 209;
- manufacture, 250;
- per cent in distilled beverages, 250;
- physiological effects, ix, 94, 214, 244, 248-9, 320-1;
- production by fermentation, viii, 213-14, 248-50, ix, 248, x, 138;
- solvent properties, viii, 217;
- specific gravity of, iv, 112;
- (see also Alcohols)
- Alcoholic Drinks, viii, 249-50;
- arterial elasticity impaired by, ix, 214;
- food value, viii, 366, ix, 248-9;
- in tropics, xv, 126-7;
- stomach absorption increased by, ix, 244;
- warmth produced by, 94, 320-1
- Alcoholic Fermentation, viii, 248-9;
- in body, ix, 248-9;
- Pasteur's studies, x, 138
- Alcoholometer, iv, 113
- Alcohols, viii, 212-14, 373;
- boiling points, 299;
- double & triple, 215;
- in esters, 221;
- molecular complexity & physical state, 298;
- in plants, 349;
- relation to ethers, aldehydes & acids, 216-18, 219;
- solubility, 37, 112
- Aldebaran, angular diameter, ii, 151;
- Arabic name, 39;
- chemical composition, 114-15;
- color, 297;
- gaseous state, 382
- Aldehydes, viii, 218, 219, 373;
- in sugars, 225
- Alder Flies, xii, 106
- Alder Trees, xiii, 193, 271-2
- Aleutian Islands, blue foxes of, xii, 344;
- former connections, xiii, 351;
- volcanic nature, iii, 106, 139, xiv, 315, 316
- Alexander of Tralles, x, 31, 59
- Alexanderson Generators, vii, 274-5, 290-1
- Alexines, of blood, x, 210-11
- Alfalfa, fertilization, xiii, 138-9;
- in pea family, 198;
- nitrogen fixation by, xiv, 66
- Alfonsine Tables, ii, 39, 44
- Alfred the Great, language of, xv, 156;
- navy of, xiv, 261
- Algæ, xiii, 72-3;
- classification work, xvi, 166;
- curious "showers" of, i, 358-9;
- fossils of, xiii, 303, 304 (illus.);
- found in hot springs, ii, 249, xiii, 299;
- in sea, xii, 16-7, xvi, 147;
- number of species, xiii, 323;
- oldest of plants, 303-4;
- reign of, 314, 323
- Algeria, animals of, xii, 326, 359;
- dust storms, i, 54;
- record temperature, 209;
[Pg 203]
- snowfalls, 210
- Algol, actual magnitude, ii, 321-2;
- secondary minimum, 328;
- type of variables, 325-6
- Algonquin Lake, iii, 149-50
- Alimentary Canal, ix, 233 (fig.);
- foci of infection in, x, 220;
- in infants, ix, 346;
- operation of muscles, xi, 37-8, 69;
- protection against germs, x, 202;
- sterile at birth, 201;
- X-ray examinations of, 373
- Alimentary Disorders, x, 319-38
- Aliphatic, defined, viii, 373
- Alkali Industries, viii, 276-8
- Alkali Metals, viii, 132-47
- Alkalis, defined, viii, 373;
- deposits, 139;
- volumetric analysis, 292
- Alkaloids, viii, 240
- Allbutt, Clifford, xvi, 184;
- Osler and, x, 151;
- quoted, 35
- Allegheny Plateau, xiv, 221;
- coal of, iii, 346-7;
- origin of present relief, 231-2
- Allelomorphs, xvi, 157
- Allergy, x, 216-7
- Alligators, xii, 182, 196-8;
- savage methods of luring, xv, 222
- Allotropic Forms, viii, 43, 87, 373
- Alloys, viii, 272-3;
- aluminum, iii, 369-70;
- antimony in, viii, 169;
- copper, 164;
- electrolytic refinement, vii, 319-21;
- melting point of, iv, 161-2
- Alluvial Cones, iii, 33
- Alluvial Soils, xiv, 63, 70-1
- Almanacs, ancient Greek & Roman, i, 67-8;
- Arabic word, ii, 39;
- weather predictions in, 243-4
- (see also Nautical Almanacs)
- Alpenglow, i, 168, 366
- Alphabet, invention & development of, xv, 175-6, xvi, 60
- Alpha Centauri, magnitude, motion and type, ii, 319;
- parallax and distance, 312, 313, 314-15
- Alpha Lyræ, drift of sun toward, ii, 18, 306;
- parallax, 312
- Alpha Rays, i, 143, viii, 185
- Alpine Glaciers, iii, 60, 62-3
- Alpine Racial Group, xvi, 49-50
- Alps Mountains, Alpenglow, i, 168;
- Arctic species in, xiv, 365-6, 377;
- chamois of, xii, 325;
- foehn wall, i, 105;
- forming of present, iii, 236, xiv, 233;
- Glacial Epoch, lakes from, iii, 146, xiv, 200;
- glaciers and snow line, iii, 59, 60, 62, 240, xiv, 55;
- goats of, xii, 326;
- hanging valleys and electric plants, xiv, 57;
- historical and economic importance, 240-2, 243, 244, 245, xv, 137-8;
- intense folding of, xiv, 36, 230;
- lakes, iii, 143-46;
- marine deposits, 235;
- massif of, xiv, 234;
- Napoleon's passage of, 244;
- passes of, 58, 240-1;
- population and industries, 241-2;
- railways and tunnels, 240-1;
- rainfall effects, 355;
- rivers of, 167;
- rock destruction by frost, 76;
- snowfall measurement, i, 118;
- solar heat at Davos, 210;
- thickness of strata in, xiv, 229;
- winds, i, 131-2, 133;
- youthfulness of, xiv, 96
- Alsace, potash deposits, viii, 279, xiv, 67-8, 209
- Altamira, Spain, cave pictures, iii, 305, xv, 114, 116, 118, 298
- Alternating Currents, iv, 307, vi, 153, 154-5, vii, 361;
- ammeters for, vii, 166, 169-72;
- carbon arcs on, 208-9;
- circuit breakers for, 37-8, 40-1;
- condensers' effects, vi, 304-5;
- conversion to direct, 330-48;
- cycles, 153, 154-5;
- inductance, 166-7, 169 (see Inductance);
- lag and lead phases, vi, 167-9, 171-4, vii, 362;
- lighting and magnetic effects, vi, 155-7;
- measurement of power, 165-9, 172;
- Ohm's Law for, 164-5, 170;
- sonic waves and, v, 108;
- transmission of power by, vi, 159-60, 195-6;
- uses, common and special, 152;
- use in electric furnaces, vii, 305-6;
- use in electrotherapy, 236-7, 244, 248-9;
- use in traction, vi, 161-3, vii, 186, 196;
- use in wireless, iv, 315, vi, 163;
- voltage changed, 159-60 (see Transformers);
- voltmeters for, vii, 154-5, 161-5;
- wattmeters for, 172, 173, 177
- Alternating Current Generators, iv, 307
- (see also Alternators)
- Alternating Current Motors, vi, 240-63
- Alternation of Generations, xiii, 160, xvi, 166
- Alternators, construction, types, and uses, vi, 157-9, 196-216;
- operation in power plants, 357, 374;
- ratings, 192-4;
- synchronizing action, 383-4;
- voltages attained, 159;
- wireless, vii, 290-1
- Altimeter, i, 72, 366
- Altitude, barometric measurement of, iv, 124;
- barometric pressure and, i, 23, 72, 171, 303;
- climatic effects, xiv, 220, 223, 364-6;
- potential variations with, i, 144-5;
- pressure table, iv, 124;
- rock weathering in relation to, xiv, 40;
- sound and, i, 186-8;
- temperature and, 19, 20, 303
- Alto-Cumulus Clouds, i, 100, 101, 103, 298
- Alto-Stratus Clouds, i, 100-3
- Alum, Alums, viii, 312-13;
- in water filtering, 320
- Aluminum, Aluminium, affinity strength, viii, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- chemical activity, 149, 155;
- compounds, unstable, 137, 257;
- density of, iv, 113;
- electrical conductivity, 283;
[Pg 204]
- electrolytic reduction, vii, 320, viii, 271, 284;
- gold plating of, vii, 319;
- in heavy metal group, viii, 126-7;
- melting point and heat, iv, 162, viii, 384;
- occurrence, 19, 129, 148, 154, 198;
- percentage in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 192;
- production and uses, iii, 369-70, viii, 154-5;
- salts astringent, 116;
- sound velocity in, iv, 201;
- specific gravity, viii, 384;
- test for, 287, 288-9
- Aluminum Arresters, vii, 17, 50
- Aluminum Wire, vi, 80, vii, 23
- Amalgam, defined, viii, 373
- Amalgamation, defined, vi, 132;
- in electric cells, 132, 139;
- in gold and silver extraction, viii, 131, 270
- Amaryllis Family, xiii, 188
- Amatus Lusitanus, x, 58
- Amazon River, arapaima fish of, xii, 154;
- arrau turtle of, 193-4;
- Black caiman of, 198;
- electric eel of, 160;
- forests and swamps, xiii, 360;
- jaguars of, xii, 362;
- length and volume, xiv, 189;
- poison of natives on, xv, 228;
- tributaries, connections, xiv, 187;
- water boas of, xii, 216;
- water lily of, xiii, 359-60
- Amazon Stone, iii, 328
- Amber, in varnishes, viii, 265;
- insect remains found in, iii, 16, 280;
- magnetism of, iv, 256, vi, 11, 12
- Ambergris, xii, 299
- Ambrose Channel, dredging of, v, 257-8;
- sediment in, xiv, 269;
- wireless pilot system, vii, 284-5
- America, antiquity of man in, xiv, 149;
- compass needle directions in, iv, 246;
- discovery and settlement of, xiv, 309-11;
- discovery of, effect on botany, x, 45;
- first hospital in, 81;
- plants restricted to, xiii, 320;
- vegetables and fruits originating in, 222-7 (see North and South America)
- American Buildings, dryness and heat in, i, 322-3, xiv, 353
- American Colonies, Appalachian barrier, xiv, 191, 194, 242, 243, 249;
- first hospital, x, 81;
- independence results, 107;
- medicine in, 81, 104;
- ordeals practiced in, xv, 373;
- westward growth by rivers, xiv, 193-4
- American Indians (see Indians)
- American System (Manufactures), v, 48-56, 213-14
- Amethyst, iii, 337;
- oriental, 327
- Amides, viii, 373;
- acid, 230
- Amines, viii, 210, 214, 215, 373
- Amino, defined, viii, 374
- Amino Acids, chemistry of, viii, 230, 309-10;
- physiological origin and use, ix, 279-84, 287-8, x, 204, 277, 278, 279;
- proteins compose of, viii, 230, 351, 352
- Amino Compounds, viii, 236-7
- Amino Derivatives, viii, 210, 214, 215
- Ammeters, iv, 279-80, vii, 165-72, 361;
- automobile, 121;
- galvanometers as, 179;
- hot-wire, 163-4
- Ammonia, viii, 68-70;
- amines from, 215;
- atmospheric, i, 11, 13, ix, 269;
- boiling and freezing points, iv, 173;
- critical temperature and pressure, 173;
- density of, 113;
- discovery, xvi, 120;
- Gay-Lussac's studies, 133;
- in explosives, viii, 74, 75, 253;
- in fertilizers, 147, 253;
- in ice-making, v, 357, 358, 380, viii, 69, 70;
- in nitrogen cycle, 73;
- in sweat, ix, 276;
- metal test, viii, 288-9;
- name, 98;
- production, natural and artificial, i, 13, 35, 36, 153, viii, 46, 47, 68, 74, 75, 252, 253, 276, 278, xvi, 165;
- production and disposition in body, ix, 284-5, x, 279-80;
- refrigeration by, iv, 174, 187-8, viii, 69-70;
- solubility, 111
- Ammonia Water, viii, 68, 147
- Ammonites, iii, 275, xii, 75
- Ammonium, viii, 93, 147;
- test for, 287, 289
- Ammonium Compounds, viii, 147;
- carbonate, 137;
- hydroxide, 70, 121, 147, 288;
- nitrite, 121;
- salts, 147, 280;
- sulphide, 289
- Amorphous, defined, viii, 374
- Ampère, A. M., vi, 20-1;
- current unit named for, iv, 278;
- rule of magnetic deflection, 275
- Ampere, electric current unit, iv, 278, 284, vi, 69, 70, vii, 361
- (see also Electric Currents, Ohm's Law)
- Ampere-turns, iv, 288, vii, 362
- Amphibians, iii, 285, xii, 167-81;
- age of, iii, 20;
- first appearance of, xv, 71;
- in oceanic islands, xiv, 278;
- relations to fishes and reptiles, iii, 284, 286, xii, 165, 183
- Amphibole, iii, 321-3
- Amphitheatres, mountain, iii, 66
- Amphoteric, meaning, viii, 352
- Amundsen, Capt., aeroplanes of, i, 46
- Amyl Acetate, viii, 221
- Amyl Alcohol, viii, 210, 214, 249
- Amylases, viii, 357, x, 326
- Amyloid, viii, 255
- Anacondas, (boas), xii, 216
- Anadromous Fishes, xii, 155
- Anaërobic Bacteria, in peat production, xiii, 313;
- in sewage treatment, viii, 328
- Analytical Chemistry, viii, 285-95
- Analyzers, crystal, iv, 354
- Anamnesis, x, 370
- Anaphylaxis, x, 212-15, 223
- Anatomy, Chinese systems of, x, 13;
[Pg 205]
- development of science of, 24, 30, 41-2, 44-5, 49, 51-2, 81, 116, 117, xvi, 82-3, 179-80
- Anaxagoras, on origin of earth, ii, 366-7;
- theory of matter, xvi, 83, 118
- Anaximander, theory of universe, ii, 367, xvi, 77-8
- Anaximenes, theory of universe, ii, 366-7, xvi, 79
- Andes Lightning, i, 149
- Andes Mountains, glaciers of, xiv, 54;
- impassability, 250;
- lightning, i, 149;
- mineral wealth, xiv, 237;
- rivers, 167;
- snow pinnacles, i, 116-17;
- upraised in Cretaceous Period, iii, 219;
- volcanoes, xiv, 315;
- youthfulness of, 96, 235
- Andrews, Thomas, i, 29, xvi, 175
- Andromeda, nebula in, ii, 135-6, 136-7, 357, 361;
- new stars in nebula, 332-3
- Anel, Dominique, x, 90-1
- Anemia, x, 337;
- blood transfusion in, 338;
- cause and effects, xi, 370-1;
- of adolescence, x, 237;
- pernicious, discovery of, 112
- Anemograms, i, 295, 366
- Anemometers, i, 83-4, 366;
- for gusts, 295
- Aneroid Barometer, i, 71, 72, 366, iv, 123-4, 381
- Anesthetics, discovery and use in surgery, x, 123-5, 148, xvi, 180, 185;
- effect on impulses, xi, 20;
- Hindu use of, x, 13;
- medieval, 41
- Aneurisms, x, 28 note;
- formation and rupture of, 336;
- treatment of, 28, 91-2
- Angel Fish, xii, 164
- Anger, xi, 139, 141;
- basic causes of, ix, 153, 166;
- expression of, by monkeys, xv, 64;
- in various sentiments, xi, 146, 148, 149, 150;
- pain and, 120;
- physical accompaniments of, ix, 240-1;
- self-forgetfulness in, xi, 134
- Angiosperms, xiii, 175-9;
- alternation of generations in, xvi, 166;
- first appearance and spread, iii, 256-7, xiii, 317-18
- Anglers, (fish) eyes of, xii, 138;
- "lure" of, 133
- Angleworms, xii, 51-3;
- power of distinguishing light, ix, 105
- Anglo-Saxon Language, xv, 156-7
- Anglo-Saxons, in Nordic group, xvi, 48;
- use of tea, xiii, 229
- Angular Diameters of Stars, ii, 150-1;
- measurement of, 322-3
- Anhydride, defined, viii, 374
- Aniline, viii, 52, 237
- Aniline Dyes, xvi, 163;
- fluorescence of, iv, 379
- Animalculæ, (see Unicellular Animals)
- Animal Electricity, vi, 16, 17, 19, 23, 64
- (see also Electric Fishes)
- Animal Fats, viii, 246 (see Fats)
- Animal Kingdom, classification, iii, 259-60, xii, 25-9;
- how distinguished, viii, 349, xii, 14, 15, xiii, 13, 14;
- relations to vegetable, viii, 334
- Animal Protein, ix, 279, 280
- (see also Proteins)
- Animals, xii, 270;
- activities of, ix, 20-1;
- adaptation to environment, v, 16-18, 24, xvi, 152;
- admiration unfelt by, xi, 146;
- æsthetic emotions, xvi, 145-6;
- anaphylaxis in, x, 212, 213, 214;
- appendix uses in, xv, 56;
- appetite in, ix, 88;
- arctic, in mountains, xiv, 376-7;
- artificial heat use by, ix, 308, xv, 229-30;
- body heat regulation in, ix, 307, 308, 311;
- brain in, xv, 62-3;
- cannibalism in, ix, 280-1;
- care of skin and coverings by, x, 310;
- care of young, xv, 275-6;
- carnivorous, xii, 332-65;
- cell structure, 25;
- chemistry of body and nutrition, viii, 348-70;
- chromosomes in different species, ix, 46;
- classification, xii, 25-9;
- climatic influences, xvi, 141;
- climatic limitations, xiv, 363-64;
- cold-blooded (see Cold-blooded Animals);
- communication means, xv, 140-1;
- courtship of, 274-5;
- differences of protoplasm in, ix, 278-9;
- direction perception by, 117;
- differences of complexity in, 48-50;
- diseases of, x, 206;
- distribution facilitated by land arrangement, xiv, 21;
- domestication of, xv, 197-8;
- ear movements in, ix, 82, 117;
- educability of, xv, 66;
- embryological development, 54-5;
- evolution, Anaximander on, xvi, 78-9;
- experience, profiting by, ix, 139, 152, xv, 66;
- expressions of emotions by, 63-5;
- face and brain case in, 43;
- fear in various, xi, 136;
- fear and anger effects, ix, 166;
- flesh of, as food, 24, 284-6, xv, 333-4;
- foods of, viii, 349, 350, ix, 24, 29, 30;
- food procuring by, 18-20, 73-4;
- geological history, iii, 12, 259, 306;
- grasping ability of, ix, 67, 68, 82;
- growth of, on what dependent, 287-9;
- hair erection in, 161, 166;
- heredity in, x, 231-2;
- hoofed, xii, 300-31;
- hunger and thirst senses in, ix, 87;
- hunting and trapping of, xv, 222-7, 227-8;
- hypertrophy of heart in, x, 331-2;
- imagination in, xi, 224;
- imitation in, xv, 66;
- impulses instinctive, 273;
- instincts of, 65-6;
- land (see Land Animals);
- later than plants, xiii, 298;
- Latin names, xii, 28-9;
- leadership among, xv, 361;
- light and darkness effects on, x, 253;
- locomotion, v, 215, ix, 73-4;
- luminous, i, 346-7;
- man's lessons from, xv, 206, 208, 220;
[Pg 206]
- man's relation to, 53, 68;
- marine (see Marine Animals);
- "moral standards" applied to, xii, 351;
- mutation in, ix, 342;
- nitrogen uses, viii, 73;
- of continental islands, xiv, 271;
- of oceanic islands, 277-8;
- oldest known remains, iii, 238, (Pl. 13);
- physiology of, remarks on, ix, 305;
- plants and interrelations, viii, 334, 335, 347, 349, 350, xiii, 82;
- power development in, ix, 15, 16, 17, 18;
- protective devices, xv, 16-18;
- qualities, studies of, xvi, 143;
- rate of increase, xv, 19-21;
- reason in, xi, 243-4, xv, 67-8;
- reflex actions in, 65;
- regulatory mechanism in, x, 249-50;
- reproduction from cells, 228, xvi, 155-6;
- salts in body fluids, ix, 175-6;
- seasonal phenomena, i, 254, 256;
- seed dispersal by, xiii, 55, 58, 340, 343;
- sense of sight in, ix, 105;
- sense of smell in, 96-7, xi, 82;
- sex relations among, xv, 274, 276-7;
- smelling motions in, ix, 82-3;
- struggle for existence among, xv, 21-2;
- tool-using by, v, 9-11, x, 67-8;
- touch sense in, 91;
- unicellular, (see Unicellular Animals);
- useful, xii, 324-31;
- variation in, xv, 22-3 (see Variation);
- vitamine needs and stores, x, 256-60;
- warm and cold blooded, ix, 305;
- water scarcity effects, 37-8;
- wild, xii, 332-65;
- young, metabolism in, ix, 38-9
- Animal Starch, viii, 350
- Animal Worship, xv, 333-4, 340-1
- Animists, Animist Theory, x, 84-5
- Anion, defined, iv, 381
- Annuals (plants), xiv, 367;
- garden species, xiii, 289, 297;
- life of, 53, 152;
- roots of, 15, 16
- Anoa, of Celebes, xii, 330
- Anode, defined, iv, 317, 381, vii, 251, 362;
- first defined by Faraday, vi, 23
- Antarctica, blizzards of, i, 133;
- coal deposits, 199;
- extent and elevation, xiv, 20, 22, 26;
- former connection with S. America, 290;
- glaciers of, 55;
- island or continent, 23;
- plateau, 222;
- penguins of, xii, 251;
- rainlessness, i, 109;
- uninhabitability, xiv, 21;
- winds of, i, 128-9
- Antarctic Ice Sheet, iii, 62, 237
- Antarctic Ocean, current of, xiv, 299, 305;
- extent of, 22-3;
- sea elephant of, xii, 335;
- whales of, 298
- Antares, angular diameter, ii, 151, 322-3;
- color, 297;
- former name, 302;
- gaseous state, 382;
- type III star, 115
- Anteaters, xii, 281-3;
- banded, 274;
- scales of, xv, 220-1;
- spiny, xii, 272-3
- Antecedent Rivers, xiv, 164-70, 174
- Antelopes, xii, 326-8;
- fear in, xi, 136;
- hunting of, with cheetah, xii, 365;
- pronghorn, 322-3
- Antennæ, of insects, xii, 100-1
- Antennæ (wireless), iv, 314, vii, 261;
- construction, 264-5;
- effective resistance, 298;
- fundamental wave-lengths, 266, 294;
- of receiving stations, 267;
- types, 295-6
- Antenna Circuit, vii, 263-7;
- energy dissipation, 297-8;
- inductance and capacitance, 294-5, 296-7;
- radiation, on what dependent, 298
- Anthelion, i, 366;
- oblique arcs of, 378
- Antheridia, xiii, 158, 159, 161
- Anthers, of flowers, xiii, 45, 118, 119
- Anthracene, viii, 240, 253
- Anthracite Coal, iii, 344;
- beds in U. S., 347-8;
- constituents, 345, viii, 44;
- graphitic, iii, 345;
- lessening supply, 346;
- loss of heat with, v, 155
- (see also Hard Coal)
- Anthrax, Koch's studies of, x, 149;
- Pasteur's work on, 140-2
- Anthropoid Apes, xii, 381-4;
- primates, 373;
- susceptibility to human diseases, x, 206
- Anthropology, Volume xv, defined, xv, 10, 11, 15, xvi, 36, 47;
- daily interest, 26, 29
- Antibodies, x, 205, 216
- Anticathode, defined, iv, 381
- Antichlor, viii, 140
- Anticline, defined, iii, 377;
- illustrated, 85, 128 (Plate 7), xiv, 95
- Anticrepuscular Rays, i, 169, 366
- Anticyclones, i, 134-5, 366, xiv, 349, 350;
- Siberian, i, 218
- Antigens, x, 205, 217
- Antimony, affinity strength, viii, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- expansion on solidifying, iv, 150;
- fusibility, viii, 384;
- ores, 198, 270;
- specific gravity, 384;
- tests, 287-8;
- uses in industry, 169;
- use of, in medicine, x, 12, 50, 169
- Antinodal Current, vii, 297
- Antinori, Luigi, i, 213
- Antiseptics, viii, 332-3;
- Carrel-Dakin solutions, x, 181-3, 382;
- discovery, 40, 145-6, xvi, 180, 182-3
- Antiseptic Surgery, x, 146-7;
- history of development of, 40, 55, 145-6, 381-2, xvi, 108, 114, 182-4;
- in World War, x, 181-3, 381-2
- Antitoxins, x, 218, 296-8;
- of diphtheria, 197, 212, 213-14, 218, 296-8;
- of tetanus, 218, 299
- Antitrade Winds, i, 366, xiv, 348
- Anti-twilight Arch, i, 167, 366
- Antlers, xii, 316, 317, 319
[Pg 207]
- Ant Lions, xii, 106
- Antony, Mark, speech on Cæsar, xi, 331
- Ants, aphids of, xii, 101;
- appearance in Triassic, 104;
- nest repairing by larvæ, v, 10;
- numbers in tropics, xii, 282;
- "showers" of, i, 357;
- social habits, xii, 124, 125, 126;
- underground rooms of, xv, 266
- Antwerp bombardment, audibility, i, 191;
- harbor of, xiv, 270
- Antyllus, x, 28
- Anuria, x, 344-5
- Aorta, ix, 196, 201 (fig.), x, 334;
- elasticity of, ix, 210;
- ligation of, x, 129-30
- Aoudad, xii, 326
- Apatite, iii, 323, viii, 193
- Apes, anthropoid, xii, 381-4;
- black of Celebes, 379;
- brain of, xv, 62, 90-1;
- embryological development, 54-5;
- imitation in, 66;
- manlike, iii, 301-3, xv, 88-95;
- man's relation to, xv, 56-7;
- nostrils of, xii, 376, xv, 46;
- physical comparison of, with man, iii, 301, (fig.), xv, 57-62;
- reasoning power, 67-8;
- sex relations among, 277-8;
- skull capacity, xv, 89;
- skull shape, 42-3;
- tigers and, xii, 362;
- tool-using by, v, 9;
- working methods, xv, 58
- Aphids, xii, 118;
- ants and, 101
- Aphis Lions, xii, 106
- Aphrodite (sea mouse), xii, 54
- Apian, Peter, ii, 41;
- comet of, 85
- Aplysia, xii, 68
- Apollonius of Perga, ii, 31, xvi, 90
- Appalachia, iii, 195, 205, 210
- Appalachian Mountains, antiquity of, xiv, 96, 235;
- Catskill formation, iii, 195;
- coal beds, iii, 346-7, 204, xiv, 237;
- folding intensity, iii, 86, xiv, 36, 230;
- forests, xiv, 372;
- former elk of, xii, 317;
- geological history, iii, 130, 132-4, 135-6, 140, 191, 205-7, 210, 219, xiv, 97-8, 168-9, 228-9, 235-6;
- "grain" of, xiv, 99;
- historical rôle, 191, 194, 242-3, 249;
- igneous formations absent, 228, 230, 234;
- iron deposits, iii, 358-9;
- length and breadth, xiv, 36-7, 227;
- limestone soils, iii, 27;
- marble production, 371;
- metallic ores of, xiv, 237;
- non-marine deposits in trough, iii, 209-10, 214;
- petroleum fields, 350;
- plateau west of, xiv, 221;
- present relief, origin, iii, 231-2;
- ridges and valleys, 36, 137, 233-4, xiv, 94, 97-8, 234, 236;
- rivers across, iii, 36, 137, 233, xiv, 166-7, 168-9, 180-2;
- site formerly submerged, iii, 12, 130, 168, 181, 184, 187, 194-5, 197, 198;
- springs, thermal and mineral, 128, xiv, 143;
- strata, thickness and composition, iii, 132, 180, xiv, 228-9;
- strata of various periods, iii, 184, 187, 195-6, 203;
- stream capture in, xiv, 180-2;
- thrust faults, iii, 90;
- typical range, xiv, 226;
- wind and water gaps, iii, 39, xiv, 58, 98, 169
- Appalachian Revolution, iii, 205, 208, 210
- Appalachian System, xiv, 227
- Appalachian Valley, xiv, 167
- Appendicitis, asepsis in, x, 147;
- cause of, 224
- Appendix, ix, 233 (fig.);
- as infection center, x, 220;
- in man and animals, xv, 56
- Appetite, ix, 87-8, 299;
- exercise effects, x, 303-4
- Apples, acids of, viii, 223;
- development of, xiii, 54;
- food value, viii, 365, ix, 250-1, 299, x, 268
- Apple Tree, family, xiii, 197-8;
- origin, 224;
- petal arrangement, 190
- Apteryx, xii, 249
- Aquamarine, iii, 325
- Aqua Regia, viii, 174
- Aquatic Animals, mental inertness of, xii, 140,
- (see also Crustaceans, Mollusks, Naids, Polyps)
- Aquatic Plants, first on earth, xiii, 300, 301, 303;
- fertilization, 123, 149-52;
- fossils, 303;
- in lakes, xiv, 210
- Arabia, animals of, xii, 249, 327, 342, 344, 359;
- Danish scientific expedition, xvi, 123;
- plains of, xiv, 217;
- source of coffee, xiii, 231, 283
- Arabian Horses, xii, 307
- Arabian Language, xv, 162;
- words from, in English, 161
- Arabic Numerals, xv, 184, xvi, 62, 103
- Arabs astronomy of, ii, 11, 36-9, 302, xvi, 100;
- bananas known to, xiii, 216;
- mathematical advances, ii, 12, xvi, 54, 103;
- medical science of, x, 31-3, 36, 37-8, 39, 40, 100;
- sciences of, xvi, 54, 100;
- sugar introduced by, xiii, 215
- Arago, discovery of magnetism of rotation, vi, 21;
- lightning studies, i, 146
- Aral, Sea of, depression of, xiv, 203;
- shallowness and salinity, 206-7;
- size of, 204
- Arapaima Fish, xii, 154
- Arara Cockatoo, v, 9-10
- Arcadian Range, xiv, 227
- Arcathagus, x, 25
- Arc Furnaces, vii, 303
- Arc Generators, vii, 291
- Archæopteryx, xii, 239-41
- Archegonia, xiii, 158, 159, 161
- Archeozoic Era, iii, 164-75;
- life in, 262, 263, 265, xv, 71
- Archeozoic Rocks, iii, 164-74;
- graphite found in, 249-50;
[Pg 208]
- iron ores in, 358
- Arches, false and true, xv, 268-9;
- weak in earthquakes, xiv, 342
- Archimedes, iv, 25, 26;
- mathematical and other work, xvi, 89, 90;
- principle of, iv, 30, 102-5, 107;
- screw of, 26-7 (fig.)
- Arc Lamp, Arc Light, iv, 310-11, 352, vi, 279, 280-3;
- Bunsen's carbon rods, xvi, 189;
- compared with sun, ii, 169;
- Davy's experiment with, vi, 19;
- direct and alternating currents on, vi, 332, vii, 208-9;
- graphite electrodes, vii, 300, 308
- Arc Process, i, 36, vii, 323-4
- Arcs of Lowitz, i, 366
- Arctic Archipelago, xiv, 20
- Arctic Current, xiv, 304-5
- Arctic Ocean, copepods of, xii, 84;
- depths, xiv, 22;
- enclosed character, 22, 290, 299
- Arctic Plants, in mountains, xiii, 321, xiv, 365-6, 376-7
- Arctic Regions, conditions of life in, xv, 123-4;
- forests of Coal Age, xiii, 307;
- frozen soil of, xiv, 75;
- growing season in, 375;
- plant conditions in, 365;
- seals of, xii, 335;
- skin canoes of, xv, 264;
- snow line in, 72-3;
- wolves of, xii, 340-1;
- winds, i, 127, 128
- (see also Polar Regions)
- Arcturus, angular diameter, ii, 151;
- decreasing distance, 120;
- displacement lines in spectrum, 119;
- gaseous state, 382;
- origin of name, 302;
- parallax, 316;
- "solar" star, 115
- Arequipa Observatory, ii, 145-6
- Arethusa (plant), xiii, 186 (fig.)
- Argentina, ancient sloths of, xii, 283;
- hail rods, i, 343;
- pampas of, (see Pampas);
- stock-raising, xiv, 384;
- weather service, i, 228-9 (note), ii, 186-7;
- wheat cultivation, xiii, 211
- Argon, discovery and character, i, 10, 11, 12, viii, 67, 181, 309;
- electric lamp filler, i, 33;
- periodic classification, viii, 182-3;
- symbol and atomic weight, 383
- Argonauts, (shellfish), xii, 77-8
- Argonne Forest, xiv, 91
- Arid Regions, alkali deposits, viii, 139;
- dust whirls, i, 60;
- mineral matter in waters, viii, 196;
- plants of, xv, 18-9;
- rainfall of, i, 109, 112;
- rock weathering in, xiv, 41-2, 51-2, 77-9, 124;
- soils of, 68-9, 383
- (see also Deserts)
- Aristarchus of Samos, ii, 10, 27-8
- Aristillus, ii, 28-9, 31
- Aristocracy, changing ideas of, xv, 377
- Aristocratic Type, xiii, 356
- Aristotle, association principles, xi, 197-8;
- authority in Middle Ages, ii, 33, 42;
- conception of cosmos, ii, 367;
- lectures on fossils, etc., xvi, 168;
- medical work of, x, 23, 27, 74;
- meteorological treatise, i, 67;
- monad theory, xvi, 118;
- on falling bodies, ii, 53;
- on knowledge and perceptions, xvi, 87;
- on Mars, ii, 227;
- on origin of earth, xvi, 78;
- on shooting stars, ii, 283;
- scientific methods, xvi, 88-9;
- syllogism invention, 88;
- zoölogical work, 126
- Arizona, arid topography, xiv, 42;
- cactus plants, xiii, 28, 106-7;
- chapparal of, xiv, 379;
- cliff lines of, 88;
- climate of plateau, 222;
- copper mines, iii, 360;
- faults at Bisbee, 90;
- forests of, xiv, 220-1, 373-4;
- Gila monster of, xii, 204, 207;
- mesas, xiv, 82;
- sunniest state, i, 86;
- timber limits, xiv, 373;
- volcanic fields of, 102, 315, 317, 318
- Arkansas, aluminum production, iii, 369;
- hot springs of, xiv, 143, 144;
- malaria campaign in, x, 173-4
- Arkwright, Richard, v, 274, 376
- Armadillos, xii, 282, 283-4;
- scales of, xv, 220
- Armature Reaction, vi, 190, vii, 145-6
- Armatures of Dynamos, iv, 307, vi, 176, vii, 362;
- of direct current generators, vi, 178, 179-86;
- of alternators, 196, 197-8, 202, 205, 207, 210, 212-13
- Armatures of Magnets, iv, 250, vi, 30 (fig.), vii, 362;
- uses of, iv, 291-2
- Armatures of Motors, vi, 223, 224-5, 235-6
- Armies, crowd psychology in, xi, 326-7;
- fatigue in retreat, 275
- Armor, development of, xv, 220-1
- Armored Cable Wiring, vii, 61-2, 362
- Armor Fishes, iii, 281, 282, 284
- Armorican Range, xiv, 96, 235
- Armor Plate, making of, v, 323, 382
- Arms, arteries of, ix, 196-7;
- bones of, 67-8, (fig.), 77, (fig.);
- bones, growth of, 58;
- equal length of, 169-70;
- freedom of movement of, 66;
- grasping organs, 82;
- length as yard measure, iv, 45;
- length in man and apes, xv, 57, 59;
- muscles of, ix, 76-7
- Arnold of Villanova, x, 41
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons, viii, 232-6, 374
- Arrack, from coco palm, xv, 125;
- Indian, xiii, 213
- Arrhenius, on Martian life, ii, 248 on osmotic pressure, xvi, 164;
- theory of life, xii, 9
- Arrows, development, and use of, xv, 213-16;
- Indian, 196 (fig.)
- Arsenic, affinity strength, viii, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- in copper ore, vii, 320;
- ores of, viii, 198, 270;
[Pg 209]
- properties, 169;
- specific gravity, 384;
- tests for, 201, 287, 288
- Art, primitive types of, xv, 110-21;
- science and, iv, 9
- Arterial Blood, ix, 260, 263, 264
- Arterial Pressure, ix, 213-14, x, 334
- Arteries, ix, 191, 196-7, x, 334;
- bleeding from, discovery of, 39;
- caliber changes in small, ix, 215;
- connection with veins, 192-3 (fig.), 197;
- elasticity of, 59, 210-12, 213-14;
- former ideas of, x, 62, 63, 65, xvi, 106;
- hardening of, x, 334-6;
- ligating of, 56, 96;
- "man as old as," ix, 214, x, 335;
- passage of blood along, ix, 211-12;
- systole and diastole of, x, 62, 63-4, 65
- Artesian Wells, iii, 118-19, xiv, 138;
- constancy of, 152;
- of North Dakota, 12, 139;
- warm water from, 144
- Arthropods, iii, 260, 263, 264, 276-80, xii, 81, 126
- Arthur's Seat, Scotland, xiv, 112
- Artichokes, xiii, 206, 222
- Artificial Ice, production, v, 349-50, 354-8, viii, 69, 70
- Artificial Light, colors in, ix, 115;
- gains from, iv, 51
- Artificial Limbs, x, 190
- Artillery, armor versus, v, 368;
- distance audible, i, 188-9
- (see also Guns, Projectiles)
- Artillery Plant, xiii, 56
- Arts, æsthetic, origin and development, xv, 296-325
- Arts of Life, xv, 205-72
- Arum, fertilization of wild, xiii, 153
- Arum Family, xiii, 188;
- flower arrangement, 52
- Aryan Languages, xv, 161, 162, 163
- Aryans, in Nordic group, xvi, 48;
- of India, 53;
- rule of fathers among, xv, 367
- Asbestos, iii, 338
- Ascension Island, xiv, 289
- Ascidians, xii, 19, 20, 129
- Asclepiades, x, 25-6
- Asepsis, in surgery, x, 14, 134, 146-8;
- Lister on, 144-5
- Ash, viii, 374;
- handling in power plants, vi, 356;
- of coal, viii, 44, 45;
- of plants, xiv, 65-6;
- volcanic, 324
- Ash Trees, for gardens, xiii, 271-2;
- leaves, 36-7;
- seed dispersal, 58, 343
- Asia, animals of, xii, (herbivora), 302, 305, 313, 314, 317, 320, 327;
- animals (carnivorous), 336, 339, 344, 345, 352, 356, 357, 365;
- birds of, 263;
- climate changes, results, iii, 75, xiv, 361-2, xvi, 141;
- climate of eastern, xiv, 345;
- crocodiles of, xii, 201;
- drainage system, xiv, 190, 195-6;
- earthquake belts, 331-2;
- eastern coast, 248-64;
- faulted topography of eastern, 124-5;
- food plant regions, xiii, 221;
- forests, xiv, 369-77;
- formerly united with America, xii, 313, xiii, 351, xiv, 30;
- geological history, iii, 216, 235-6;
- grasslands and deserts, xiv, 381;
- monsoon countries, conditions in, 359-60;
- plains, 217;
- plants common with America, xiii, 351;
- plateaus and mountains, xiv, 217-22;
- rodents of, xii, 287-9;
- rubber production, xiii, 248;
- salt lakes, viii, 139;
- snails of, xii, 69;
- snakes of, 218, 226, 229, 231, 232;
- terrestrial leeches, 55-6;
- trees of eastern, xiv, 377;
- vegetables and fruits originating in, xiii, 222-7;
- volcanic fields, xiv, 316-18;
- wind types, i, 131, 134, 136
- Asia, Central (see Central Asia)
- Asia Minor, climate changes in, xiv, 361-2;
- plateau of, 222
- Asiatic Volcanic Belt, xiv, 316
- Asparagus, effects on urine, ix, 274-5;
- green food, 27;
- origin, xiii, 222;
- stem of, 30
- Asps, xii, 230
- Assam Earthquake, iii, 98, xiv, 334
- Asses, xii, 308
- Association of Ideas, ix, 150-1, xi, 197-207;
- in language, ix, 151-2;
- memory and, 149-50;
- in imagination, xi, 219-20, 209, 212, 216-17;
- necessary to attention, 232-3, 234;
- normal and abnormal complexes, x, 355
- Assyria, civilization conditions, xv, 127;
- art of, 301;
- cuneiform writing, 175 (fig.);
- history and civilization, xvi, 51-3;
- skin rafts of, xv, 264;
- sun-worship and astrology, ii, 20-1
- Assyrian Language, xv, 162
- Asteroids, discovery, ii, 254-7;
- in solar system, 163-4;
- life on, 248;
- origin, 258, 371, 373, 374;
- photographic study, 131-2;
- size, shapes, and orbits, 162, 257-8
- Asthma, bronchial, ix, 162, x, 223;
- from adenoids, 342
- Astigmatism, ix, 113-14, xi, 85
- Astonishment, and fear, xi, 131
- Astraphobia, i, 330-66
- Astrolabes, ii, 11, 29, 34, 46-7, 93
- Astrology, astronomy and, ii, 9, 20;
- history in various countries, ii, 20-1, 23, 37, xvi, 58;
- medical progress and, x, 14
- Astronomical Instruments, Bessel on, ii, 93;
- development of, 10, 11, 12-13, 13-14, 16, 161
- Astronomical Photography, ii, 125-38;
- in corona studies, 221-2, 225;
- in parallax work, 314;
- in nebular studies, 358;
- telescopes used in, iv, 372-3
- Astronomy, daily interest of, xvi, 12;
- defined, 37;
[Pg 210]
- exact science, x, 368;
- history of, ii, 9-92, iv, 19, xvi, 56-8, 61, 69, 70, 81-2, 90-1, 100, 101, 102, 103, 124-5;
- mathematical and descriptive, ii, 15, 16;
- meteorology and, i, 7;
- new and old, ii, 113-14;
- personal measurements in, xi, 155-6;
- spherical, ii, 29
- Astronomy Today, Volume ii
- Athletes, "form" in, ix, 159
- Athletic Contests, value to spectators, xi, 139-40
- Atlantic Cables, laying of first, vi, 24;
- Telegraph Plateau and, xiv, 288
- Atlantic Coast, shoal-water belt, xiv, 25, 285
- Atlantic Coastal Plain, xiv, 213-14;
- artesian wells in, iii, 119;
- forests, xiii, 371, xiv, 372-3;
- geological history, iii, 212-13, 216, 221, 231;
- soils and agriculture of, xiv, 218-19
- Atlantic Drainage System, xiv, 189-90
- Atlantic Ocean, airship flights across, iv, 107, v, 228-30, 233;
- birds of, xii, 251, 252, 253;
- climates on opposite coasts, xiv, 345, 346-7;
- clipper's time across, v, 188;
- conformation of floor, xiv, 288-90;
- coral reefs in, 264;
- depths, iii, 51;
- extent of, xiv, 22;
- first steamship, v, 192-3, 378;
- herring fisheries, xii, 156;
- oceanic islands of, xiv, 277;
- salt in, viii, 139;
- temperature of water, xiv, 14, 297;
- trade winds, i, 127, 130;
- tree corals of, xii, 43;
- unchanged for ages, iii, 55;
- weather charts, i, 276;
- wireless weather reports, 280
- (see also North Atlantic)
- Atlantic Seaboard, rainfall, i, 112;
- super-electric zone, vi, 384
- Atlantic Type of Coasts, xiv, 247, 249-50
- Atlantic Volcanic Belt, xiv, 316
- Atmometers, i, 88-9, 366
- Atmosphere, anatomy of, i, 9-23;
- circulation (winds and storms), 123-40, xiv, 347-51;
- composition (gases), 9-16, viii, 66-8, 152;
- dense, effects of, iv, 31-2;
- density decrease upward, i, 16, 17, 171, 173, 303, iv, 108, 124, ix, 267-8, xiv, 354;
- density irregularities, optical effects, i, 171-2;
- disease germs in, 325-6;
- dust and smoke in, 52-65, 325, vii, 216-17, ix, 269;
- effect on colors of stars, ii, 296;
- effect on meteors, 283, 285, 290;
- effect on sunlight and colors, i, 165-6, 167-71;
- electrification, 144, 145, 146, 150, vii, 207, 212-13, 216-17;
- heat absorption by, iv, 194;
- heating of, by sun, i, 123;
- heat retention by, ii, 244, 382, iv, 183-4;
- height, i, 16-18, ii, 244, iv, 116;
- highway, i, 39-51;
- layers (see Stratosphere, Troposphere);
- light of, 164;
- magnifying of, by telescopes, ii, 98, 140, 141;
- meteorology, science of, i, 7;
- nitrogen fixation from (see Nitrogen Fixation);
- oxygen in upper, ix, 267-8;
- radioactive emanations in, i, 143;
- resources in, 24-38;
- theories of origin, iii, 160, 163;
- topographical work of, xiv, 62-79;
- weight, i, 23, ii, 279, v, 222-30
- (see also Air)
- Atmosphere (unit of pressure), iv, 121, 123, 381, viii, 107
- Atmospheric Acoustics, i, 186-96
- Atmospheric Electricity, i, 141-63, vii, 201-19, 362;
- in climatology, i, 211;
- physiological effects, 330
- Atmospheric Engine, Newcomen's, v, 144
- Atmospheric Optics, i, 164-85, iv, 327-9
- Atmospheric Pressure, amount and direction, i, 23, ii, 244, iv, 116-23, v, 222, viii, 107;
- amount at different elevations, iv, 124;
- body regulation to, x, 250;
- boiling point and, iv, 170, viii, 303;
- discovery of, iv, 114-16, 132, v, 112;
- early experiments with, iv, 29-30;
- equalization in ear, ix, 102;
- isobars, i, 125-26;
- life in relation to, ii, 245-48, xi, 53;
- measurement, i, 70-2, iv, 120, 121, 123, 124;
- physiological effect of changes, i, 303, 327-9;
- stratosphere in relation to, 20;
- unit of, iv, 121, 123, 381, viii, 107;
- variations with temperature, iv, 121-3, 124-5;
- weather and, i, 70, 237-8, 241-2
- (see also Pressure Areas);
- winds in relation to, 124, 125-6, 127-9, 134-5;
- work done by, 25, v, 112-15, 137-8
- Atmospheric Refraction, i, 167-74, 380, iv, 327-30;
- early studies of, ii, 32, 41
- Atolls, xii, 41
- Atomic Energy, ii, 384, v, 181, viii, 186-7
- Atomic Numbers, viii, 183, 309
- Atomic Theory, history and deductions, viii, 110;
- in Greek philosophy, xvi, 83-4, 87, 118;
- Leibnitz's, 117-18
- Atomic Volume, determination, viii, 307
- Atomic Weights, viii, 92, 383;
- chemical calculations by, 96;
- classification of elements by, viii, 177-83, 189, xvi, 163;
- determination of, viii, 306-7;
- hydrogen basis, 33;
- introduction, xvi, 134;
- physical state and, viii, 297-8;
- properties dependent on, xvi, 134;
- radioactivity and, viii, 184, 185-6, 188;
- regular increase in similar elements, 132, 176, 179;
[Pg 211]
- specific gravity and, 313;
- specific heat and, 308-9;
- table, vii, 384, viii, 383
- Atomists, school of, xvi, 84-6
- Atoms, viii, 25-7;
- asymmetric, 309-10;
- chromophor groups, 258;
- defined, iv, 21, vi, 110-11, viii, 374;
- vii, 362, disintegration, 185-7, 188;
- dissociated, in ball lightning, vii, 214-15;
- electrification, vi, 122-3;
- energy of (see Atomic Energy);
- Greek theory, xvi, 118;
- laws involving, viii, 110;
- Leibnitz on, xvi, 118;
- magnetic fields of, vi, 117;
- motion within, viii, 309-10;
- of body, Epicurean theory, x, 26;
- size, vi, 112-13, 115;
- stability, vii, 215;
- structure of, iv, 23, 55, vi, 113-15, 120-1, viii, 187-9, 307;
- unchangeableness, 175-6
- Attention, xi, 228-36;
- habit and, 253-5;
- methods of arousing, in advertising, 344-8;
- ordinary meaning, 40
- Attraction, scientific meaning, vii, 362, iv, 96
- Audibility, distances and variations, i, 187-92;
- vibration limits of, iv, 204, ix, 99
- Audion, iv, 315-16, vi, 339 (fig.), vii, 279, xvi, 191-2
- (see also Vacuum Tube)
- Auditoriums, acoustic qualities, iv, 239;
- cooling system, 188;
- echoes in, 238
- Auditory Nerve, ix, 101 (fig.), 142, xi, 30, 102;
- internal and external stimulations, iv, 203
- Auenbrugger, Leopold, x, 98-9, 110
- Augite, iii, 336
- Augustinus, Aurelius, xvi, 99-100
- Auks, xii, 264-5
- Aurelians, xii, 116
- Aureoles, i, 184, 370
- Aurignac Cave, iii, 305
- Aurignacian Implements, xv, 100, 105, 108-9
- Aurochs, xii, 331
- Aurora, i, 158-62, 367;
- altitude, 17;
- magnetic disturbances with, vi, 40;
- ozone from discharges, i, 16;
- sun-spots and, ii, 176, 186
- Ausable Chasm, iii, 44, 243, xiv, 128, 131
- Auscultation, x, 108-10, 371
- Australia, animals of, xii, 204, 249, 272, 274-5, 276-7, 278-80, 285;
- barramundi fish of, 154;
- barrier reef of, xii, 41, xiv, 263;
- big trees, xiii, 26;
- black swan of, xii, 259;
- "bush" of, xiv, 378-9, 380;
- bushmen, iii, 304;
- climate, xiv, 358;
- coasts, coral reefs on, xii, 40, 41;
- desert sounds, i, 196;
- former connections, xii, 277;
- glacial and coal deposits, iii, 203-4;
- grasslands, xiii, 373;
- island or continent, xiv, 23;
- ladybirds and scales, xv, 22;
- landlocked area, xiv, 190, 222;
- mining production, iii, 362, 365, 368, 370;
- monsoons, i, 131;
- mountains in Permian Period, iii, 205;
- parrots of, xii, 266;
- pearl fisheries of, 62;
- plateau and plains, xiv, 218-22;
- rabbit pest in, xv, 20;
- ria coasts of, 257;
- rivers and drainage of, xiv, 197;
- sheep raising, 384;
- snakes of, xii, 214-29;
- temperate forests, xiii, 372;
- timber supplies of, xiv, 382;
- weather effects on history, i, 324;
- wheat cultivation, xiii, 211;
- wild rice, 214
- Australians, xv, 193-5;
- avenging of death by, 368;
- beards, 38;
- bird-catching by, 224;
- boats of, 262;
- body scarring by, 257-8;
- boomerang of, 194, 208;
- chieftains, 364;
- color, 37;
- cooking methods, 195, 233;
- dances and music, 313-14;
- digging sticks of, 235;
- dogs used in hunting, 223;
- dramatic ceremonies and plays, 306, 308-9;
- duck hunting by, 222;
- ideas of white men, 334;
- message sticks, 166-7;
- parrying stick of, 221;
- sand drawings, 296;
- songs of, 319-21;
- spear-throwers of, 212 (fig.);
- use of toes by, 61
- Austria, beet sugar production, xiii, 216;
- forests of, xiv, 238, 382;
- Italy and, xiv, 244-5, 253;
- Lake Dwellers of, xiii, 210;
- loess deposits, xiv, 72;
- Serbia and, 306
- Autogenous Vaccines, x, 218
- Auto-intoxication, ix, 249-52, x, 255, xi, 370;
- in mothers, ix, 343-4
- Automatic Heat Regulators, vii, 87-8
- Automatic Regulation, vi, 101-2, vii, 362-3;
- of motors, vi, 218, 224-9, 232
- Automatic Telegraphy, vii, 112-13
- Automatic Telephones, vi, 87, vii, 92-3, 106-7
- Automobile Industry, v, 213-14, 383;
- machine-tools and, 55-6, 214, 383
- Automobiles, American, v, 213-14;
- benzene fuels, viii, 235-6;
- carburetors, vii, 124-8;
- clutches, 143;
- clutches, magnetic, vi, 104;
- crank shafts, vii, 130-1;
- cylinders, 130-1;
- cylinder test, 128;
- electric systems, 120-50;
- engines, v, 156-61;
- engine operation, vii, 123-33;
- frost around exhaust, v, 128;
- freezing of radiators, prevention, viii, 299;
- future fuels, 209;
- generator output regulation, vii, 144-50;
- high and low speed air mixtures, 126-7;
- history of development, v, 207, 212-13, 377, 383;
- horns, iv, 240-1;
- ignition system, vii, 130-41, 243;
- ignition test, 128;
- ignorance of drivers, 122-3;
- lighting systems, 122, 135, 141-2;
[Pg 212]
- limitations on use, i, 41-2;
- lubrication, vii, 300;
- magnesium parts, viii, 127-49;
- magnetos, vii, 135, 139-41;
- motion pictures of, iv, 349;
- mufflers, v, 165;
- Owen's magnetic, vi, 104;
- power source, ix, 15, 74;
- present attitude toward, vii, 299;
- racing cars, v, 214;
- roads and, 214-15;
- springs air-cushioned, 134;
- starters, vi, 99, 238-9, vii, 120, 127, 135, 142-3;
- steel alloys used in, xiv, 238;
- steering-gear, v, 38;
- storage battery care, vii, 121, 127, 144;
- tires, v, 133-4, 204;
- tires burst by heat, iv, 151;
- unit systems, vii, 135-6;
- voltmeters, 163
- Autonomic Nervous System, xi, 134-5, 137
- Autophytes, xiii, 96-7
- Autosuggestion, xi, 305-10;
- in hypnotism, 311-20;
- in salesmanship, 336-41;
- in sleep, 287-8;
- positive, 278
- Autotransformers, vi, 327-8, 337 (fig.);
- in wireless systems, vii, 266-91
- Autumn, frosts, i, 258;
- leaves in, xiii, 79, 175;
- rate of advance (U. S.), i, 256
- Aviators, altitude effects, i, 303;
- complete rainbow seen by, 175;
- fog effects, 300-1;
- heights attained by, ix, 267-8;
- sense of balance, v, 343;
- sixth sense, i, 292;
- training of, x, 242;
- visibility obstacles, i, 303;
- weather service for, 206, 227, 230, 231, 233, 286, 304-5
- Avicenna, x, 32-3;
- arterial bleeding unknown to, 39;
- books burned by Paracelsus, 47;
- translation of, 38;
- views of fossils, iii, 14
- Avitaminoses, x, 264
- Avocations, importance of, xi, 375-6
- Avogadro's Hypothesis, viii, 108-9, xvi, 133
- Awe, sentiment of, xi, 147
- Axolotl, xii, 173
- Axons, of nerves, ix, 123-4, 125, 126, xi, 19
- Aye-Ayes, xii, 374
- Azaleas, xiii, 202, 203 (fig.), 289
- Azores, xiv, 276, 289;
- ocean depths near, 289;
- rediscovery of, 309;
- volcanic activity in, 316
- Azores Plateau, xiv, 288
- Aztecs, civilization, in temperate climate, xv, 123;
- kings' oath, 366;
- picture writing of, 169-78 (fig.);
- tobacco use among, xiii, 257
- Azurite, iii, 323
- Baal, Phœnician sun-god, ii, 20
- Babakotos, xii, 375
- Baboons, xii, 379-81;
- primates, 373
- Babylon, wind-blown sand over, iii, 75;
- world metropolis, xvi, 61
- Babylonian Language, xv, 162
- Babylonians, astronomy of, ii, 19-21, xvi, 56, 57-8, 61-2;
- cuneiform writing, xv, 174, 175 (fig.), xvi, 60;
- debt of Greeks and Egyptians to, 63, 66, 69, 70, 71;
- Hammurabic code, 63;
- history and civilization, 51-3, 55, 62-3;
- idea of cosmos, 77;
- magic of, 59;
- mathematics, 61, 62, 103;
- medicine of, x, 14, 15;
- science, remarks on, xiv, 96
- Babyroussa, xii, 310
- Bacilli, x, 195;
- of various diseases, 149, 165-6, 292, 295, 296, 298-9
- Backstays of Sun, i, 169, 367
- Bacon, calories in, ix, 299
- Bacon, Francis, evolution known to, x, 136;
- Harvey's small esteem for, 66;
- influence on his times, 67;
- on brontides, i, 196;
- on knowledge, xi, 10;
- scientific work, xvi, 113, 115, 125, 131
- Bacon, Roger, xvi, 100-1
- Bacteria, anærobic, xiii, 312-13;
- atmospheric electricity and, i, 330;
- breeding of, true, x, 195;
- classification of, 195;
- destruction by disinfectants, viii, 332-3;
- destruction in blood, x, 209-11;
- disease-making (see Disease Germs);
- fermentation by, ix, 248;
- flowerless plants, xiii, 13;
- food of, ix, 27, 248;
- in air, i, 61;
- Chicago standards, viii, 332;
- in body, x, 201-2, 204;
- in intestines, ix, 247-9;
- in sea, xii, 16;
- Leeuwenhoek's studies, xvi, 107-8;
- low temperature effects, i, 32;
- luminous, 346, 349, xii, 20;
- nitrogen fixation by, i, 35, viii, 340, 345, 346, x, 193-4, xiii, 98, xiv, 66;
- number of species, xiii, 323;
- origin of, xii, 12;
- Pasteur's studies, xvi, 143;
- preserving foods against, viii, 372;
- sewage treatment by, 325, 327-9;
- single-celled, xiii, 166;
- size, i, 61, xiii, 63;
- soil, xii, 15;
- ultramicroscopic, x, 200;
- useful forms of, 193-4
- Bacteriemia, x, 220
- Bacteriology, x, 194;
- foundations of, 143, 196
- Badgers, xii, 347-8
- Bad Lands, iii, 139-40, 230, xiv, 62, 81-2
- Bagehot, quoted, xvi, 198
- Baglivi, x, 76, 77-8, 155
- Bag-pipes, xv, 317
- Baguio, Philippines, rainstorm at, 1, 110
- Baguios, i, 136, 367
- Bahamas, hurricane grass of, xiii, 344;
- sisal production, 240;
- wild fig tree, 18
- Baikal, Lake, depth of, xiv, 204;
- in rift valley, 123
[Pg 213]
- Bailey's Beads, ii, 87
- Baking Powders, viii, 136-7, 223
- Baking Soda, viii, 135-6, 146, 278
- Balance, sense of (see Equilibrium Sense)
- Balanced Forces, v, 183-6
- Balance Levers, v, 63-4 (fig.) 65
- Balance Spring, invention, v, 65
- Balance Wheels, v, 68-9, 71-2
- Baldness, ancient treatment of, x, 12;
- hats and, 309
- Balearic Basin, xiv, 291
- Balfour, Francis, x, 131
- Ball-bearings, iv, 93, v, 206
- Ballistic Wind, i, 313-67
- Ball Lightning, i, 149-52, vii, 205-6, 213-15;
- as ignis fatuus, i, 347
- Ballon-sonde, i, 21, 367
- Balloons, iv, 107-8, v, 219-30;
- aerological uses and kinds, i, 18, 19, 20-2, 89, xvi, 177;
- dirigible (see Dirigible Balloons), heights attained, i, 18, 22, 303, v, 225;
- hydrogen in, iv, 108, viii, 33;
- sounds heard, i, 188;
- why they rise, 286, v, 221-2
- Baltic Provinces, coasts of, xiv, 247
- Baltic Racial Group, xvi, 48-9
- Baltic Sea, development of trade of, xiv, 308;
- formation of, 287;
- green color, xvi, 147;
- salt in, viii, 139, xiv, 296
- Baltimore, harbor of, xiv, 268
- Bamboo, in grass family, xiii, 179, 181;
- rapid growth, 358;
- stem, 26, 183;
- tropical wood, xiv, 383
- Banana, xiii, 216-18;
- calories in, ix, 299;
- flavor and odor, to what due, viii, 221;
- food value, 365, x, 266-8;
- in tropical forests, xiv, 368
- Banana Oil, viii, 214, 221, 251
- Bandai-san, eruption of, xiv, 324
- Banks, oceanic, xiv, 286
- Banyan Tree, xiii, 16 (illus.), 21
- Bar, pressure unit, i, 70, 367
- Barbados, overpopulation of, xiv, 282
- Barbed Fruits, xiii, 58
- Barbers, as surgeons, x, 35, 41, 54, 105, xvi, 181
- Barberry Bush, xiii, 128-30
- Barisal Guns, i, 195, 367
- Barite, iii, 323;
- gangue mineral, viii, 199
- Barium, viii, 148;
- affinity strength, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- flame color, 301;
- fluorescence of, vii, 254;
- specific gravity, viii, 384;
- test for, 287-89
- Barium Chloride, viii, 290, 301
- Bark Lice, xii, 112
- Barker, Dr., quoted, x, 375-6
- Barley, composition and value, viii, 364;
- malt from, 249;
- ripening time, xiv, 365;
- source, 382;
- vitamines in, x, 262
- Bar Magnets, iv, 242-3, 250, vi, 30-4
- Barnacles, xii, 82, 84-5
- Barns, electricity for, vii, 227-8;
- lightning rods on, i, 156
- Barocyclonometer, i, 280, 367
- Barographs, i, 71-2, 367
- Barometers, i, 70-2, 367, iv, 119-24;
- Torricelli's development of, i, 68, iv, 29, 30, 114, xvi, 109, 177
- Barometer Wells, i, 354, 367
- Barometric Gradient, i, 126, 373
- Barometric Pressure (see Atmospheric Pressure)
- Barometric Tendency, i, 71-2, 367
- Barotaxis, xi, 53, 61
- Barramunda, xii, 154, 165-6
- Barrel Gears, v, 27-8
- Barrier Reefs, xii, 40-1, xiv, 263
- Barton, Prof. W. M., author Medicine, Volume x
- Bars, vibration rate of, iv, 223-4
- Basal Metabolism (see Basic Metabolism)
- Basaltic Lava, defined, iii, 377;
- in Grand Canyon, 177;
- jointing in, xiv, 129-30;
- soils from, iii, 28
- Basalt Rock, magnetized by lightning, i, 152-3
- Base, Bases (chemistry), viii, 374;
- defined by ionization theory, 122;
- electrolytes, 125;
- formation and character, 20, 39, 115, 117-18;
- ionization in solution, 119-25, 300-1;
- litmus effect, 114;
- production, 276
- Baseball, pitching of curves, iv, 67-9
- Baseball Games, crowd psychology at, xi, 327;
- value to spectators, 139-40
- Baseball Players, sensory type, xi, 156
- Base Level of Erosion, defined, iii, 30, 377, xiv, 40;
- form of rivers at, 49;
- of waves, 254
- Base Plugs, vi, 276-7, vii, 72
- Basic Metabolism, ix, 37, 78, x, 271;
- daily amount in calories, ix, 296, x, 271;
- disease effects on, ix, 302-4, x, 272;
- heat production by, ix, 307;
- of obese persons, x, 274;
- protein stimulation of, ix, 301-2;
- protoplasmic wastage by, 282-3;
- temperature and water effects, 37-8
- Basilar Membrane, of ear, iv, 203
- Basin Ranges, formation of, xiv, 117
- Basins, ocean, xiv, 286
- Basket Fish, xii, 49
- Baskets, Indian, xv, 248
- Basques, isolation of, xv, 130
- Bathrooms, lighting of, vii, 71-2
- Baths, Bathing, ix, 313, 321-2, x, 311-12;
- need of, after exercise, x, 304;
- therapeutic uses, 311, 383;
- warm for insomnia, xi, 289-90
- (see also Cold Baths, Hot Baths)
- Bats, xii, 369-72;
[Pg 214]
- in oceanic islands, xiv, 277
- Batteries, electric (see Electric Batteries)
- Battles, crowd psychology in, xi, 326-7;
- rain from, i, 336-8
- Battleships, electrical applications (U. S. N.), vii, 325-35;
- gun-training on, v, 104;
- importance, vii, 325-6;
- radio directing of, 284;
- wireless telephony and, 281-3
- Bauxite, iii, 369;
- in basic refractories, vii, 307
- Bayberry Bush, xiii, 191, 341
- Bayliss, hormones discovery, x, 320;
- secretin discovery, 325;
- quoted, xi, 198-9
- Bays, in irregular coasts, xiv, 252;
- of ria coasts, 257
- Beach, Alfred E., v, 138
- Beach, Prof. Robin, author Electricity, Vols. vi, vii
- Beaches, amphipods of, xii, 85;
- features of, xiv, 246;
- formation of, iii, 58, 81;
- plants of, xiii, 381-2;
- raised, iii, 81, xiv, 209;
- rapid development of, iii, 58
- Beach Fleas, xii, 81-5
- Beach Walls, xiv, 246
- Beachworms, xii, 54
- Beaded Lightning, i, 149
- "Beagle," voyage of, x, 134-5, xiv, 142
- Beam Balance, iv, 101-2
- Beam Warpers, v, 280
- Beans, as food, viii, 365, ix, 34, 36, 299, x, 262-79;
- food-obtaining devices, xiii, 97;
- leaves, 36-7, 113;
- movement of tendrils, 111;
- in pea family, 198;
- origin, 222;
- petals, 47;
- seeds, 56;
- seed-leaves, 176
- Beards, as race character, xv, 38
- Bears, xii, 336-8;
- canine teeth in, 333;
- first cave-dwellers, xv, 206;
- in Great Britain, xiv, 273
- Beasts of Prey, xii, 332-65
- Beats (sound), iv, 219-20, vii, 279
- Beaufort Scale, i, 84, 367
- Beaumont, William, ix, 240, x, 121, xvi, 186
- Beauty, universal appreciation of, xvi, 145-6
- Beaverdam Creek, iii, 38-9
- Beaver-dam Lakes, iii, 157
- Beavers, xii, 295-6;
- first lumberers, xv, 206
- Beckel Process, v, 287-8
- Becquerel, Henri, xvi, 193
- Bedbugs, xii, 114;
- ancient, 104
- Bedded Rock (see Sedimentary Rock)
- Bedford Limestone, iii, 371-2
- Bedrooms, air of, xi, 285;
- furnishings and sleep, xi, 290;
- lighting of, vi, 275-6, vii, 71
- Beds, right, for sleep, xi, 290
- Beebread, xiii, 124
- Beech Forests, carbon used by, i, 14;
- of Chile, xiv, 371;
- of Denmark, xv, 86-7;
- water requirements of, xiv, 377-8
- Beech Trees, family, xiii, 193;
- in landscaping, 271-2;
- leaf-bud protection, 34;
- of U. S., 368, xiv, 372
- Beef, calories in, ix, 299;
- proteins in, 279;
- vitamines in, x, 262
- Beef Extracts, value, viii, 362
- Bees, xii, 125-6;
- appearance in Tertiary, 104;
- jaws and maxillæ in, 100;
- plant visitors, xiii, 123-4, 126-7, 128-30, 137-9
- Beeswax, viii, 221-45;
- melting requirements, iv, 162
- Beetles, xii, 121-4;
- appearance of, 104
- Beets, antiscurvy vitamines in, x, 266;
- origin and antiquity, xiii, 222;
- sugar storage in, ix, 27-8;
- swelled roots, xiii, 19
- (see also Sugar Beet)
- Beet Sugar, viii, 226-7, 242, xiii, 216;
- compared with glucose, ix, 230
- Beginners' Luck, xi, 253
- Begonias, coloring of leaves, xii, 42;
- reproduction, 165-6
- Beheaded Streams, xiv, 182-3
- Behel, Jacob, v, 248
- Belgians, in Alpine group, xvi, 49
- Belgium, fossils found in, iii, 292;
- German invasion, reasons, xiv, 91-2;
- low elevation, 247;
- mistpoeffers, i, 195;
- tobacco consumption, xiii, 256;
- topography of, xiv, 86 (map), 90-1;
- zinc production, iii, 364
- Bell, Alexander Graham, telephone invention, vii, 92, xvi, 188
- Bell, Charles, x, 117
- Bell, John, x, 129
- Bell, Rev. Patrick, v, 246
- Bell-crank Levers, v, 24-5
- Belle Isle Strait, proposed damming, i, 345
- Bells, vibrations of, iv, 221-2
- Bell Telephone System, vii, 92;
- automatic telephones, 106
- Benedictine Order, medical work of, x, 36
- Benguella Current, xiv, 305
- Ben Nevis, rime growth, i, 122;
- St. Elmo's Fire, 158
- Benz, Karl, v, 213
- Benzaldehyde, viii, 239
- Benzene, viii, 51, 234-5, 374;
- derivatives, 236;
- from coal tar, 253;
- freezing and melting points, iv, 163-4
- Benzene Hydrocarbons, viii, 206, 232-6;
- derivatives, 236-40;
- products, 52, 241, 258
- Benzene Ring, viii, 233, 234, 240
- Benzine, viii, 234-5
- Benzoic Acid, viii, 236, 239, 372
- Benzol, viii, 234-5
- Benzyl Alcohol, viii, 239
- Benzyl Bromide, viii, 263
- Berea Sandstone, iii, 372
- Berengario of Carpi, x, 52, 60
[Pg 215]
- Bergman, chemist, xvi, 119, 120, 174
- Bergshrund, iii, 66
- Bergson, philosophy of, xvi, 196
- Beriberi, ix, 35-6, x, 257-9, 264;
- cause of, viii, 369;
- racial susceptibility to, xv, 50-1
- Bering Sea, seal breeding in, xii, 334
- Bering Strait, xiv, 22
- Berkshire Hills, formation, iii, 188, 190
- Berlin, sewage disposal, viii, 327
- Berliner, Emile, gramophone, v, 328-9, 382;
- transmitter, 381
- Bermudas, climate of, xiv, 370-1;
- coral reefs of, xii, 40
- Bernard, Claude, x, 127-8, xvi, 185-6
- Berries, xiii, 54;
- poison in wayside, 252
- Berson, balloon ascension, i, 18, v, 225
- Bertrand, Alexandre, xvi, 185-6
- Beryl, iii, 324-5
- Berzelius, Jacob, xvi, 160-1, 165;
- on fermentation, x, 138
- Bessel, dismissal from Greenwich, xi, 156;
- instruments and methods, ii, 16, 55;
- on genius and instruments, 93;
- prediction of, 124;
- study of stellar parallaxes, 311-12, 313
- Bessemer Converter, v, 319, 320, 322, 380, viii, 159;
- invention, xvi, 175
- Bessemer Steel, ore for, iii, 356
- Besson, Dr. Louis, i, 181;
- nephoscope, 86, 85 (fig.)
- Beta Aurigæ, ii, 123
- Beta Rays, i, 143, viii, 185
- Betelgeuse, angular diameter, ii, 151, 322-3;
- chemical study of, 114;
- color, 297;
- name, 39
- Betel Nut, xiii, 254-5
- Bevel Gears, v, 30-1;
- primitive, 27-8
- Beverages from various plants, xiii, 213, 219, 227-35
- Bharal, xii, 326
- Bianchini, ii, 99, 227
- Bias, psychological effects, xi, 103, 208-9, 216
- Biberthal, Switzerland, xiv, 186
- Bible, account of man in, xv, 69;
- Anglo-Saxon passage from, 157;
- emotions depicted in, xi, 131;
- "Great Sea" of, xiv, 358;
- rice and sugar not mentioned, xiii, 214-15;
- weather proverbs, i, 67
- (see also New and Old Testaments)
- Bicarbonate of Soda, medical uses of, x, 12, 322
- Biceps, ix, 76-7 (fig.)
- Bichat, x, 117
- Bicycle Pump, i, 26-7
- Bicycle Races, energy expenditure in, ix, 297
- Bicycles, equilibrium maintenance on, iv, 62;
- gyroscopic action, v, 343;
- pedal invention, 380;
- riding of, ix, 155-6, 158-9
- Biela's Comet, ii, 280, 286
- Biennials (plants), roots of, xiii, 16, 18
- Bifocal Lenses, ix, 112;
- invented by Franklin, x, 104
- Big Creek Power Plant, v, 79, 81
- Bigelow, Henry J., x, 125
- Big Horn Sheep, xii, 326
- Bigourdan, astronomer, ii, 358-9
- Big Trees, Californian, age and size, xiii, 26;
- branches, 86;
- climatic changes seen in rings, i, 199, 200, xiv, 362;
- former wide distribution, iii, 256, xiii, 352
- (see also Sequoias)
- Bihar, India, hailstorm, i, 120
- Bile, ix, 237, 243, 275-6, x, 325-6, 329-30
- Biliousness, x, 330
- Billfish, xii, 152
- Billings, John Shaw, xvi, 186
- Billroth, Theodor, xvi, 183
- Binary Stars, ii, 122-4, 334-5;
- distance, 319-20;
- orbit eccentricity, 377;
- origin, 378-9;
- periods, 319;
- relation to Galaxy, 327;
- variability, 326-7
- (see also Double Stars)
- Binding Machines, v, 247-8
- Binoculars, principle of, xi, 180
- Binomial Nomenclature, x, 84
- Binturongs, xii, 353
- Biochemistry, viii, 205, 348
- Bioclimatic Law, i, 256, 367-8
- Biology, defined, xvi, 36, 42;
- history of development, 118, 142, 144-58;
- medicine and, x, 369;
- modern, due to Darwin, 134-6;
- remarks on science of, 368
- Biometry, science of, xvi, 153-8
- Biot, balloon flights, i, 18;
- meteor studies, ii, 284-5
- Biotite, iii, 334
- Birch Trees, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5;
- family, 193;
- fertilization, 148;
- in landscaping, 271-2;
- seed dispersal, 343;
- in U. S., 368, xiv, 372
- Bird-catching, by Australians, xv, 224
- Bird-catching Spiders, xii, 97
- Birds, xii, 239-69;
- anatomy of, 239, 247-8;
- appearance in eocene, xv, 71;
- care of young by, 275-6;
- carinate, xii, 250;
- colors of, 245-6;
- courtships of, xv, 274-5;
- embryological resemblances, 54;
- evolution, iii, 286, 295-7, xii, 195, 239-43;
- eyes of, xi, 98;
- fear in, 136;
- feathers of, xii, 243-7;
- flower fertilization by, xiii, 123;
- food of, ix, 24;
- game, xii, 261-3;
- heart of, x, 332;
- infectious diseases of, 206;
- luminous, i, 346-7;
- man's lessons from, xv, 206;
- migrations, cause, xiii, 55;
- monogamy of, xv, 276-7;
- oil-secreting organ of, x, 310;
- orders of, xii, 249;
- passerine, 268-9;
[Pg 216]
- phosphorus in excrement, xiv, 68;
- protective coloration in, xv, 17;
- ratite, xii, 243-49;
- ribs of, 184;
- seed dispersal by, xiii, 55, 58, 59, 340-3;
- sense of smell, xi, 78;
- singing of, iv, 209;
- singing organs, xii, 248-9;
- sleeping habits, xi, 287;
- teaching of young to fly, xv, 66, 275-6;
- temperature regulation in, ix, 306, 307, 308;
- used in hunting and fishing, xv, 223-4;
- various groups, xii, 264-7;
- warm-bloodedness of, ix, 305;
- water, xii, 250-9
- Birds of Paradise, courtships of, xv, 275;
- plumes of, xii, 244
- Birds of Prey, xii, 260-1
- Birmingham Iron Region, iii, 358-9
- Birs River, Jura Mountains, xiv, 94
- Birth, ix, 344;
- body conditions and development at, 345-52;
- bones at, 58;
- freedom from germs at, x, 201;
- heart rate at, 334, ix, 347;
- muscle cells at, 48, 348;
- skull capacity at, xv, 40;
- temperature changes at, xi, 36-7;
- weight at, ix, 31
- Births, male and female, ix, 340
- Biscay, Bay of, depths, xiv, 289;
- sand destruction in, iii, 75
- Bishop's Ring, i, 58, 183, 368
- Bismarck, skull capacity, xv, 40
- Bismuth, affinity strength, viii, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- expansion on solidifying, iv, 150;
- in Rose's fusible metal, 162;
- melting point, viii, 384;
- melting point, pressure effects on, iv, 163;
- occurrence, viii, 131;
- specific gravity, 384;
- tests for, 287-8
- Bisons, xii, 329-30;
- formerly in Europe, xv, 76;
- pictured in Cro-Magnon art, 114-18 (fig.)
- Bitter, taste of, ix, 95, xi, 70, 71, 72
- Bitterns, xii, 254-5
- Bituminous Coal, beds in U.S., iii, 200-1, 346-7, 348;
- elements, 345;
- per cent carbon in, viii,
- (see also Soft Coal)
- Bituminous Strata, origin, iii, 249-50
- Bivalves, xii, 58, 63
- Black (color), absorption of light by, iv, 364, x, 309;
- produced by interference of lights, iv, 377-8;
- sensation of, ix, 115
- Black, Joseph, chemical work, xvi, 119-20, 125, 177;
- discovery of respiration physiology, x, 88-9
- Black Beetles, xii, 107
- Blackberry, aggregate fruit, xiii, 55;
- in rose family, 197;
- origin, 224;
- running, 28
- Blackbirds, xii, 269
- Black Death, x, 163-4
- "Black Earth," of Russia, xiv, 217
- Blackfish, xii, 297
- Black Forest, Germany, xiv, 238-9;
- geology of, 87 (map), 90, 117, 128
- Black Hills, xiv, 93, 227;
- core of, 111;
- former forests of, 373;
- mineral springs of, 145
- Black Hole of Calcutta, i, 321, ix, 268, x, 238
- Black Lead, iii, 331, viii, 43 (see Graphite)
- Black Lightning, i, 148
- Black Powder, viii, 144-5, 260
- Black Race, xv, 32;
- brain and skull capacity, 41;
- disease immunity and susceptibility, 48-9, 50-1;
- facial angle in, 45;
- fitted to tropics, 50;
- jaw angle, 44;
- nose index and nostril shape, 46;
- peoples, 37;
- separate origin theory, 69, 70;
- skull shape, 42;
- type characters of, 35
- Black Sea, hanging valleys on shore of, xiv, 58;
- importance of ports, 267;
- salinity of, 296, viii, 139;
- sturgeons of, xii, 152
- Blacksnakes, xii, 218-19, 229
- Blair, Henry, xvi, 187
- Blanc, Mount, observatory on, ii, 142-9;
- "resurrection," i, 168;
- sound intensity on, 186
- Blankets, warmth of, iv, 178
- Blast Furnaces, v, 317-18;
- air blast of, viii, 158;
- ancient Egyptian, xvi, 74;
- carbon uses, viii, 157;
- cooling of air for, v, 347;
- development of modern, 315-16, xvi, 174, 175, 176;
- oxygen in, i, 33;
- potash from dust, viii, 279
- Blasting, v, 261-2;
- explosives for, viii, 260;
- with compressed air, i, 27;
- with water, v, 100
- Blasting Powders, viii, 137-8
- Bleaching, chemistry of, viii, 86;
- chlorine, 85-6;
- hydrogen peroxide, 41, 86;
- ozone, vii, 354;
- sulphur dioxide, viii, 78, 146;
- of wool, 256
- Bleaching Powder, viii, 86-7, 146, 153, 274
- Bleeders, Bleeding Sickness, ix, 181;
- transmission of, x, 234
- Bleeding, from arteries and veins, x, 39;
- leeches used for, xii, 55;
- stopping of, ix, 179-81
- Blended Inheritance, ix, 334, x, 230-1;
- in animal and plant breeding, ix, 337
- Blériot, flight of, i, 43
- Blight, cause of, xiii, 71
- Blind, optophone reading for, v, 332, 334-5, 384;
- space perception by, xi, 168-9
- Blindness, black seen in, ix, 116;
- cause, xi, 96-7;
- from brain disease, ix, 146;
- from cataract, 112
- Blind Spot, xi, 87-9
- Blish, Commander, v, 367-8
- Blizzards, i, 133-4, 368;
[Pg 217]
- device against, 345
- Block and Tackle, v, 34-5
- Block Mountains, iii, 138-9, xiv, 117, 226
- Block Signal Systems, v, 211, vii, 355-9
- Block Tin, viii, 161
- Blood, absorption of digested food by, ix, 226, 243-6;
- adrenalin effects, 171-2, xi, 137-8;
- aeration of, by lungs, x, 62, 331;
- amount in circulation, 337;
- anemia, 337;
- arterial, ix, 260, 263, 264;
- carbon dioxide in, 190, 262-3;
- effects, 264-7, x, 339;
- carbon monoxide effects, viii, 50-1;
- circulation of (see Circulation of the Blood);
- clotting of, ix, 180, x, 88, 337;
- coagulation after emotion, xi, 138-9;
- coloring matter related to Chlorophyll, xii, 14;
- color of, in relation to oxygen, ix, 259-61;
- composition, 173-90;
- control of vital processes by changes in, 168-72;
- conveyer system, 191, 225;
- corpuscle-forming tissues, growth of, 287;
- distribution efficiency, x, 238-9;
- emergency emotion effects, ix, 166, 171, 293, xi, 136-7;
- fats in, ix, 289;
- flow, how controlled, 215-16, 219-21;
- functions, summarized, 50-1, x, 331-7;
- germ destruction by white corpuscles, 197, 209-11;
- in embryo, ix, 343;
- interchange with tissue, fluids, 51 (fig.), 191, 193-5, 221-2;
- iron and salts in, uses, viii, 354;
- liver action on, x, 329;
- maternal influences through, ix, 343-4;
- mountain-sickness effects, i, 328;
- neutrality or alkalinity of, x, 280-1;
- oxygen supply and transportation, ix, 182-3, 198-9, 253-62, x, 338-9;
- platelets of, ix, 188-9;
- proteins of, 176-7, 194-5, 262-3;
- rate of passage through heart, 210, 211, 212;
- red corpuscles, 181-4 (see Red Corpuscles);
- renewal of, 173;
- sensations, effect on, xi, 68;
- sleep effects, 283-5, 289;
- soul in, Greek idea of, xv, 330;
- sugar in, regulation and excess, ix, 290-3, x, 329, 330;
- sugar increase in excitement, xi, 138;
- temperature, v, 348-9;
- temperature rise, effects, ix, 169, 315-16;
- transfusion of, x, 337-8;
- venous, ix, 263-4;
- waste removal by and from, 271-6;
- water absorption and supply, 247;
- white corpuscles, 182 (fig.), 184-8
- (see also White Corpuscles)
- Blood-destroying Germ, x, 221
- Blood Heat, i, 319
- Blood Pressure, ix, 213-20, x, 334-6;
- color effects, xi, 63, 96;
- in sleep, 283-4
- Blood Rains, i, 358
- Blood Suckers, x, 91
- Blood Vessels, ix, 191-3, 196-8;
- classes and disorders of, x, 334-6;
- climatic effects on efficiency, 238-9;
- control of caliber of, ix, 161, 168, 215-16, 219-20, 311;
- functions of, 50-1;
- injuries, how mended, 180
- Blooms, iron and steel, v, 317, 322
- Blowers, electric, vii, 86
- Blow Guns, xv, 216-17 (fig.)
- Blowing Wells, i, 353-5, 368
- Blowout, magnetic, vii, 37-9
- Blue, complementary color of, iv, 367;
- in birds' feathers, xii, 245;
- in interior decoration, vi, 274;
- of sky, i, 165, penetration of ocean by, xii, 22;
- wave length of, iv, 365
- Blueberries, xiii, 202, 224
- "Blue Coal," v, 174
- Blue Columbine, xiii, 126-8
- Blue-grass Region, xiv, 68
- Blue Grotto of Capri, iii, 81
- Blue Gum Trees, xiii, 26, 94, 350;
- leaves of, 106;
- swamp draining by, xiv, 379
- (see also Eucalyptus)
- Blue Ridge Mountains, metamorphism in, xiv, 234
- Bluffs, formation of, xiv, 84
- Blunderbuss, v, 361
- Boa Constrictor, xii, 215
- Boas, family of, xii, 213, 215-16
- Boats, evolution of, xv, 261-3;
- propulsion of, 265
- Bobcats, xii, 364-5
- Bode's Law, ii, 254-5
- Bodies, of matter, defined, iv, 12, 381
- Body, anatomy and physiology of, ix;
- care of against fatigue, xi, 279-80;
- care of, instruction in, x, 282-5;
- changes in, untransmitted, ix, 326;
- chemical composition, viii, 348, 349, 353, 354-5;
- construction features and units, ix, 12, 13;
- dissection of, x, 30, 41-2, 45, 81;
- efficiency of, viii, 367, ix, 306, x, 238-9;
- electrical conductivity, iv, 259;
- electricity effects, vii, 246-9, xi, 117;
- emergency responses of, ix, 166-7, 171-2, 209, 220, 221, 293;
- exercise effects, x, 303-4;
- fatigue conditions, xi, 270-4;
- fatigue results on resistance, x, 248;
- food needs and utilization, (see Food);
- functional disorders, x, 318-65;
- functional regulation, 346-7, 352-3;
- functions, chemical explanation of, xvi, 142;
- functions, close connection of, xi, 31;
- growth of (see Growth);
- hair on, xv, 38;
- hardening processes, x, 240;
- infection portals, 198, 201-2;
- kinetic system, xi, 57, 60-1;
- living and nonliving parts, ix, 12, 13, 31;
[Pg 218]
- machine parts suggested by, v, 20;
- mechanisms of, 248;
- metabolism (see Metabolism);
- mind and, relations, xi, 13, 14, 61, 369-75;
- motions, different kinds, ix, 82-3;
- mutilations among savages, xv, 257-60;
- painting of, 255-6;
- poisonous effluvia of, ix, 269-70;
- positions of, in relation to health, x, 241-2
- (see also Postures);
- pressures, xi, 53;
- pressure of atmosphere on, i, 23;
- proper clothing of, x, 306-10;
- regulation to environment, 249-51;
- reproduction from cells, ix, 324-5, 332-3;
- resistance to disease germs, 177-9, 185-6, x, 203-12, 240, 248, 289, 292;
- salt requirements, ix, 174;
- seat of life in, 11, 12, 17;
- shame of, xv, 254-5;
- temperature, v, 348-9, ix, 306-7, 312, x, 250-1, 306;
- temperature after hard work, ix, 317;
- temperature equality, advantages of, 78-9;
- temperature in different scales, iv, 137 (fig.);
- temperature in fever, ix, 317-19;
- temperature regulation, i, 316-17, 320-1, 322, v, 348-9, viii, 331, ix, 169, 305-23, x, 310;
- temperature rise from excitement, xi, 140;
- temperature rise in dense atmosphere, iv, 31;
- tissues (see Tissues);
- unstable chemical organization, xi, 134;
- wastage and repair of, ix, 278-86;
- waste elimination in tropics and cold climates, xv, 49, 50;
- water functions in, viii, 355-6, wonders of, vi, 272;
- X-ray effects, vii, 250
- (see also particular parts and functions)
- Body Cells, ix, 13, 41-3, xi, 15, 17, 49;
- development of, ix, 43-8, 324-5, 332-3;
- different kinds, 13, 39, 42-3, 277, 329;
- living and nonliving, 12-17;
- maintenance and growth, 34-6, 38-9, 189, 278-84, 287-9;
- metabolism of (see Cell Metabolism);
- oxygen needs and supply, 182, 199, 253, 254, 260;
- power development in, 16, 17, 22, 36, 40;
- salt needs, 174;
- size of, 12;
- sugar and fat supplies, 289-91;
- supply and renewal system, 49-52, 193-5, 221-2, 262, 271;
- supporting tissue, 71-2;
- waste of, in starvation, 298;
- X-ray effects on, vii, 253
- (see also Muscle Cells, Nerve Cells, Germ Cells, etc.)
- Body Fluids, ix, 50-1, 173-90;
- in connective tissues, 59;
- sugar in, 290, 291
- (see also Blood, Tissue Fluids)
- Boë, Francis de la, x, 69, 70, xvi, 108
- Boerhaave, Hermann, x, 76-7, 87, xvi, 112, 178
- Boer War, kopjes in, xiv, 82
- Boethius, xvi, 101
- Bog Iron Ore, iii, 13, viii, 156
- Bog Mosses, xiii, 68-9
- Bogoslof Islands, xiv, 319
- Bog Plants, xiii, 104, 381-2
- Bogs, formed from filling lakes, xiv, 210-12
- Bohemian Glass, viii, 281
- Boiler Explosions, caused by electrolytic corrosion, vi, 64-6;
- due to scale, xiv, 147;
- violence, v, 140
- Boilers, Steam, v, 139-42;
- boiling point of water in, viii, 303;
- hard water in, 151-2, 323, xiv, 147;
- heat loss, v, 155;
- pressure in, iv, 119, 170
- Boiling, of foods, xv, 233;
- of liquids, iv, 167-75
- Boiling Point, iv, 168;
- chemical composition and, viii, 298, 301;
- in various thermometers, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, 141, viii, 27;
- of various substances, iv, 173;
- pressure effects on, 168, 169-70, v, 354, viii, 303-5
- Boils, causes of, ix, 186, 187, x, 195, 201, 311
- Bolivia, Chilean control of, xiv, 306
- Bologna, University of, xvi, 100;
- medical school of, x, 38
- Bolometers, iv, 301, vii, 363;
- in corona studies, ii, 212, 225
- Bombay Duck, xii, 163
- Bombing Machines, v, 233
- Bombs, aerial, v, 372-3
- Bombs, volcanic, xiv, 323
- Bond, Dr. A. R., author Mechanics, Vol. v
- Bonds (chemistry), defined, viii, 374
- Bone Black, viii, 47
- Bone Fertilizers, viii, 153, 280, 343
- Bones, of body, ix, 59, 71;
- cartilage beginnings of, 58;
- condition of, in infants, 345-6;
- food needed for, 33;
- formation, structure, and growth, 54-7, 58;
- inflammations of, x, 224;
- lime salts in, ix, 57;
- red marrow of, 183;
- used in hearing, iv, 204;
- X-ray pictures of, iv, 320, vii, 253-4, 255
- Bonneville, Lake, iii, 153
- Books, ancient making of, xv, 178-9;
- printing and binding of, v, 306
- Book Scorpions, xii, 90
- Boomerangs, xv, 194, 208;
- principle of, iv, 42
- Bora Winds, i, 133, 368
- Boracic Acid, viii, 89, 90, 372
- Borates, preparation, viii, 117;
- test, 290
- Borax, composition, viii, 141;
- deposits, 89, 90, 197, 275;
- uses, 89, 141, 146, 333, 372
[Pg 219]
- Boredom, in work, xi, 275-6, 277-8, 280
- Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, x, 70, 71-2, 83
- Boric Acid, natural sources, viii, 90, 118;
- preservative, 89, 333, 372;
- solid, 114
- Boring Machines, v, 44, 376
- Boring, deep, xiv, 11, 12
- (see also Wells)
- Borneo, continental island, xiv, 274;
- coconut gathering in, xii, 378;
- orang-utan of, 381;
- rhinoceros of, 306;
- sun bear, 337;
- tattooing in, xv, 259;
- tribal morality in, 374
- Boron, viii, 19, 89, 90;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- in silicates, 193
- Bosphorus, importance to Russia, xiv, 267
- Boston, drumlins near, xiv, 60;
- harbor of, 269;
- sewage disposal, viii, 326;
- water supply, 317, xiv, 140
- Boston Ivy, xiii, 28
- Botany, Volume xiii
- Botany, xvi, 36;
- binomial nomenclature in, x, 84;
- daily interest, xvi, 20-2;
- discovery of America, effects, x, 45;
- history of development, xvi, 112, 116, 165-7;
- public education in (France), 22
- Bothnia, Gulf of, salinity, xiv, 296
- Bow-and-Arrow, evolution of, xv, 213-15;
- fish-shooting with, 227;
- stringed instruments developed from, 317-18
- Bowditch, Henry Pickering, x, 131
- Bowels, care of, x, 316-17;
- "yearning of," xi, 64, 131, 160 (see Intestines)
- Bowfin, xii, 152;
- nests of, 154
- Bowlder Clay, iii, 67, xiv, 59
- Bowlders, glacial, iii, 70, 237, 352 (pl. 20), xiv, 69, 70
- Boyle, Robert, air pressure experiments, iv, 29, 125;
- chemical work, xvi, 110, 111, 112, 115, 119, 177;
- "Sceptical Chemist," quoted, 159
- Boyle's Law, iv, 125-6, 133, 143, 156, viii, 106-7
- Boys, education of, xi, 266-7;
- food consumption by, viii, 367
- Brachiopods, iii, 259, 263, 270-2, xii, 47-8;
- deep sea 23;
- illustration, iii, 256 (Pl. 14)
- Bracken Fern, xiii, 350
- Bracts, xiii, 43, 45, 206
- Bradley, James, astronomical work, ii, 90-2, xvi, 124
- Brahe, Tycho (see Tycho Brahe)
- Braided Goods, v, 276-7
- Brain, ix, 131, 144-7, xi, 15-32, 60;
- areas for different functions, xv, 89-90;
- as seat of life, ix, 11, 14, 17;
- association fibers, xi, 200;
- association region of, ix, 151;
- auditory area, xi, 108;
- blood supply of, ix, 197, 216-17;
- cells of, 14;
- changes caused by shock xi, 59;
- condition of, at birth, ix, 351;
- connections in nervous system, 142-4, 147-51;
- convolutions of, xv, 62-3;
- delayed nervous impulses in, ix, 140, 141-2, 145, 146-7;
- diseases, results of, 146;
- emotional processes in, 154, 200;
- gray matter of, xv, 63;
- in dreams, xi, 301;
- in sleep, ix, 218, xi, 285, 286, 287, 289;
- inflammation of, cause, x, 224;
- insensitive to pain, xi, 118;
- intellectual processes, ix, 147-53, 154;
- magnetism effects, vii, 247;
- mental incapacity from defects, xi, 13;
- motor area, ix, 147;
- of insects, xii, 103;
- of men and lower animals, compared, xv, 62-3, 96;
- of primitive men, iii, 302-3, 304, xv, 89-91, 96;
- various animals of past, iii, 289, 290, 292, 298, 299;
- overuse effects, xi, 288-9;
- protection of, in infants ix, 345;
- Sherrington on, xi, 12;
- skull capacity in relation to, xv, 41;
- stomach and, relations, xi, 370;
- storehouse of past environment, 58;
- tissues unaffected in starvation, ix, 298;
- visual area, xi, 96-7;
- waste of energy of, 377;
- weight in man and apes, xv, 62;
- weight in various men and races, 39-41;
- wounds of, early treatment, x, 55, 56
- (see also Brain Stem, Cerebellum, Cerebrum)
- Brain Case, ix, 61;
- face and, xv, 43, 62
- Brain Power, development of, in man, xv, 190-1;
- racial expressions and, 39, 63-4
- Brain Stem, ix, 144-5, 146 (fig.);
- vital process centers of, 167-9, 257, 315
- Brain Work, energy consumed by, viii, 367;
- fatigue from, ix, 138, x, 247
- Brain Workers, ailments, xi, 371;
- attractive foods for, ix, 242;
- exercise needs, x, 304
- Brakes, air (see Air Brakes);
- electromagnetic, vi, 92, 94;
- friction, iv, 93-4;
- regenerative, vii, 200
- Bramah, Joseph, hydraulic press, v, 98-9, 376;
- planer, 377
- Bran, in diet, x, vitamines in, 261, 266
- Branches of Trees, as leaves, xiii, 378, 379;
- why clear of ground, 86
- Brandes, H. W., i, 215
- Brasher, Philip, v, 124-5
- Brass, alloy of copper, viii, 156, 164, 273;
- electrical conductivity, iv, 283;
- electric welding of, 312;
- expansion and contraction of, 145-6, v, 72
- Brave West Winds, i, 128, 368
- Brazil, bushmaster snake of, xii, 234;
- butterfly orchid of, xiii, 145;
- coasts, xiv, 257;
[Pg 220]
- coffee production, xiii, 232, 233;
- coral reefs on coast, xiv, 305;
- forests, xiii, 365, xiv, 366;
- frogs of, xii, 178, 179;
- glacial and coal deposits, iii, 203, 204;
- interior unexplored, xiv, 26, 250;
- jaguarundi of, xii, 364;
- lizards of, 208;
- matamata of, 193;
- public health scholarships, x, 172;
- rubber production, xiii, 246-7, 248;
- shirt tree of, xv, 256;
- soil depths, iii, 26;
- tea cultivation, xiii, 228;
- wolf of, vii, 342;
- yellow fever in, x, 163
- Brazilian Basin, xiv, 289
- Brazilian Current, xiv, 304
- Brazil Nut, source, xiii, 266
- Bread, chemistry of, viii, 368-9;
- digestion of, x, 326;
- food value of, viii, 364, ix, 34-5, 299, x, 267, 268, 269, 273;
- rising of, due to bacteria, 194;
- yeast action in, ix, 248
- Breadfruit, origin, xiii, 224
- Breadfruit Trees, xv, 124
- Breakwaters, pneumatic, v, 125;
- strength of, xiv, 300, 301
- Breath, holding of, ix, 256-7, 266;
- holding of, in infants, 348;
- shortness of, in heart failure, x, 340-1;
- smell of, ix, 97;
- soul in, savage idea of, xv, 330
- Breathing, action and control of, ix, 256-8, 263-6, x, 339;
- body heat regulation by, 251;
- color effects on, xi, 96;
- deep, value of, ix, 259;
- deep, sensations from, 266-7;
- how learned, xi, 36-7;
- in fatigue, 272;
- in sleep, 283;
- muscles of, in voice production, ix, 83;
- of insects, xii, 103;
- periodic, x, 339-40;
- quickened by exercise, 303;
- rate of, in infants, ix, 347-8;
- rib cage movements in, 65;
- through mouth, effects, x, 341-2
- (see also Respiration)
- Breeding (animal and plant), blended inheritance and pure breeds, ix, 337;
- in ancient Egypt, xvi, 72;
- in captivity, xv, 197;
- selective, ix, 327, xvi, 157-8
- Brennan, Louis, v, 342
- Brenner Pass, xiv, 240-1
- Bretonneau, Pierre, x, 106, 110
- Brewing, chemistry of, viii, 249
- Bricks, invention of, xv, 268;
- making of, in Egypt, 267 (fig.)
- Bridges, steel, electrolysis in, vi, 64, 66;
- strains on, v, 194;
- sympathetic vibration of, iv, 225
- Briggs, Henry, xvi, 104
- Bright's Disease, x, 112, 225, 335, 340-1, 345, 346
- Bristol Channel, tides of, xiv, 293
- British Columbia, fjord coasts, xiv, 258;
- no volcanoes or earthquakes in, 315, 331
- British Gum, viii, 243
- British Meteorological Office, i, 222;
- aeronautical service, 230, 286;
- forecasts, 241;
- in World War, 310
- British System of Units, iv, 46, 69-70, 79, 80
- British Thermal Unit, iv, 154, v, 350-1;
- erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382
- Brittle-stars, xii, 23, 49
- Broadway, N. Y., display lighting vii, 340-1
- Broca, Paul, x, 130
- Brocken Specter, i, 184, 185, 382
- Bromine, a halogen, viii, 18, 84;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- manufacture, 274;
- properties and uses, 84-5, 86, 181, 297-8, 333;
- test, 290
- Bronchial Tubes, as infection center, x, 220, 224;
- defence against germs, 202;
- subdivisions of, ix, 255
- Bronchitis, causes, x, 253, 295
- Brongniart, Adolphe, 167, 169
- Brontides, i, 195-6, 368
- Brontosaurus, xii, 195
- Brooklyn, water supply of, xiv, 140
- Brooklyn Bridge, completion, v, 382;
- corrosion of, vi, 66
- Brooks Comet, ii, 134, 275, 286
- Brook Trout, xii, 159
- Broths, viii, 362, 369
- Brounov, Prof. P., i, 249
- Brown, John, medical work of, x, 89-90
- Brown, Robert, xvi, 166
- Brownian Movements, viii, 314, xvi, 166
- Browning John M., v, 363, 366-7
- Browning Machine Gun, v, 366-7, 384
- Brown Paper, making of, v, 294;
- source, xiii, 240
- Brown Race, xv, 32;
- diseases of, 51;
- peoples of, 37;
- separate origin theory, 70
- Bruce, James, xvi, 123
- Bruce Telescope, ii, 136, 302
- Brush Discharge, vii, 10-11, 363
- Brushes, dynamo, vi, 178, vii, 363
- Brussels Sprouts, xiii, 197, 222;
- mutant nature, 333-4
- Buansuah, xii, 345
- Bubonic Plague, x, 163-7;
- native immunity to, xiv, 357;
- Paré and, x, 153;
- prevention of, 171;
- spread by lice, 311
- Buckwheat, xiii, 56;
- family, 194;
- flower, 46;
- food, viii, 364;
- life of, xiii, 53
- Budapest, deep drilling, iii, 120-1
- Buddhism, development of, xv, 199;
- Nirvana of, 334
- Buds, never on roots, xiii, 22, 23, 29;
- of perennials, 53
- Buenos Aires, harbor of, xiv, 270
- Buffalo, N. Y., electric power system, vi, 377-8
- Buffalo Bugs, xii, 123
- Buffalo Dance, xv, 305-6
- Buffaloes, xii, 328-9;
[Pg 221]
- of Great Plains, xiv, 383
- Buffalo Grass, xiii, 374
- Buffalo Hot Springs, xiv, 145
- Buffon, founder of modern natural history, xvi, 128;
- lightning experiments, vi, 15;
- "Natural History," xvi, 116;
- on evolution of species, 139-40, 148
- Bugles, sounding of, iv, 231
- Bugs, xii, 110-14;
- jaws and maxillæ in, 100
- Buildings, development of, xv, 266-72;
- dryness of air in American, i, 322, 323;
- earthquake construction, xiv, 342, 343;
- electric wiring, vii, 55-65;
- weathering effects, iii, 22, 24
- Building Stones, iii, 370-2
- Bulgaria, long life of peasants, xiii, 172
- Bull Durham Sign, Broadway, vii, 341
- Bullets, form and flight, v, 362, 365
- Bullfrogs, xii, 180-1
- Bumps, in aeronautics, i, 293, 298, 368
- Bunch Grass, xiv, 380
- Bunsen, carbon arc, xvi, 189;
- chemical work, 163;
- solution of spectrum lines, ii, 112
- Bunsen Burner, viii, 60-1
- Buoyancy, law of, iv, 103-4, 105;
- of air, 107, 108
- Burbank, Luther, xvi, 167
- Burdock, seed dispersal, xiii, 58
- Burette, viii, 294, 295 (fig.)
- Burma, elephant of, xii, 302;
- rivers of, xiv, 195-6;
- viper of, xii, 230
- Burning Oils, viii, 209
- Burns, of body tissues, x, 252;
- from X-rays, vii, 250, x, 254
- Burrels, xii, 326
- Burs, chestnut and beech, xiii, 193;
- seed dispersal by, 343
- Bus Bars, vi, 358-9
- Bushland, xiv, 378-9, 380, 381
- Bushmen (African), xv, 133-5;
- art of, 119 (fig.), 120-1, 298-300;
- civilization at collection stage, 196;
- hair of, 38;
- height of, 39;
- ostrich-hunting of, 212, 222;
- use of baboons, in water searching, xii, 380
- Bushmen (Australian), iii, 304
- Bushnell, David, v, 197
- Butane, derivatives, viii, 210
- Butcher's Broom Plant, xiii, 29-30
- Butte Mining District, iii, 361, 368
- Butter, calory value, ix, 299, x, 269, 273;
- composition, viii, 364;
- digestion of, x, 326;
- made by electricity, vii, 226, 227, 228;
- pure food, ix, 300;
- substitutes for, viii, 363, 364, x, 262, 267, 268;
- vitamines in, 259, 261, 267
- Buttercup Family, xiii, 196
- Buttercups, double, xiii, 51;
- petal arrangement, 190
- Butter Fat, viii, 245, 246, 364;
- in milk, 363;
- vitamines in, 369
- Butterflies, xii, 114-18;
- antennæ of, 101;
- earliest appearance, iii, 279, xii, 104;
- evolution of, xii, 106-7;
- jaws and maxillæ in, 100;
- number of species in N. Y., 99, origin of name, xv, 157;
- plant fertilization by, xiii, 123-4, 133-5, 142-3
- Butterfly Orchid, xiii, 145
- Buttes, made by erosion, iii, 140
- Buttonball Tree, xiii, 343-4
- Buttonhole Machine, invention, v, 382
- Butyric Acid, viii, 220, 248
- Buys Ballot's Law, i, 125, 134
- Buzzards, xii, 261
- Buzzards Bay, oysters of, xii, 61;
- tidal race at, xiv, 294
- Byron, skull capacity, xv, 40
- Byssus, xii, 64
- Cabbage, calories in, ix, 299;
- in mustard family, xiii, 197;
- origin and antiquity, 222;
- sport plant, 333-4;
- vitamines in, x, 261, 262
- Cabbage Bug, xii, 114
- Cables (ocean), breaks in, xiv, 284;
- laying of, 283,
- (See also Atlantic Cables)
- Cables, underground, vii, 12-13, 27
- Cabot, John, birth and training, xiv, 310
- Cacao, xiii, 234, 235
- Cachalot, xii, 298-9
- Cactus, characteristics of, xiii, 378, xv, 19;
- leafless forms, xiii, 15;
- leaves of, 378, xiv, 378;
- prickly pear, xiii, 29 (fig.);
- regions of dominance, 355;
- stems of, 31;
- water-storage by, 28, 106, 379
- Cactus Family, xiii, 200;
- restricted area, 320
- Caddis Flies, xii, 106
- Cadmium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383;
- test for, 287, 288
- Cæsar, Julius, scientific reforms, xvi, 98
- Cæsarian Section, ancient practice of, x, 14, 27
- Cæsium, chemical properties, viii, 128, 132, 133, 383;
- spectrum, 302
- Caffeine, composition, viii, 230;
- polyuria induced by, x, 344
- Caffre, xii, 355
- Caimans, xii, 198
- "Cain," picture, xv, 69
- Caissons (pneumatic), iv, 30-2, v, 116-21;
- pressure in, i, 329, iv, 129
- Cake Urchins, xii, 50
- Caladium, leaves of, xiii, 79
- Calamus, of India, xiii, 361
- Calamus Root, xiii, 188, 255
- Calcite, iii, 325-6;
- gangue mineral, viii, 199;
- light polarization by, iii, 319, iv, 354
- Calcium, viii, 148-9;
- affinities, 31-2, 101-2, 128;
[Pg 222]
- atomic weight and
- symbol, 383;
- compounds, 130, 138, 149-53, 195;
- compounds in hard water, 318, 322-4;
- electrolytic production, vii, 320-1;
- fusibility, viii, 384;
- in body tissues, 354;
- in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192, 195, 196;
- in light metal group, 17, 127;
- plant needs of, viii, 337, 341, 344;
- specific gravity, 384;
- test for, 287, 289
- Calcium Carbide, viii, 153;
- acetylene prepared from, 231;
- in nitrogen fixation, 74, i, 36;
- production and uses, vii, 312, xvi, 191
- Calcium Carbonate, viii, 151-2;
- composition, 117;
- deposits of, 195;
- lime from, 149, 150;
- in soil sweetening, 150, 347;
- in water, 40, 151, 322.
- (See also Limestone)
- Calcium Chloride, viii, 152-3, 322-3;
- mixture with snow, iv, 175
- Calcium Group, viii, 148-53;
- spectra, 302
- Calcium Hydroxide, viii, 150, 347
- Calcium Light, compared with sun's, ii, 169
- Calcium Oxide, viii, 149-51. (See Lime)
- Calcium Pentasulphide, viii, 333
- Calcium Phosphate, viii, 89, 153, 279-80, 354
- Calcium Stearate, viii, 143, 323
- Calcium Sulphate, viii, 117, 149, 153;
- in water, 40, 322-3
- Calcium Sulphite, viii, 153, 372
- Calcium Tungstate, color in X-rays, iv, 378
- Calc Spar, iii, 325
- Calculations, mathematical, development of, xv, 181-4, xvi, 61
- Caldwell, Kansas, region, iii, 34
- Calendar, Babylonian, xvi, 57-8;
- Bacon's work, 101;
- clothing in relation to, x, 309;
- Egyptian, xvi, 70;
- reforms of Cæsar, 98
- Calibration, vii, 158, 363;
- of condensers, 293-4
- California, aerial fish patrol, i, 48;
- Big Trees (see Big Trees);
- borax deposits, viii, 89-90;
- climate, xiv, 348-9, 358;
- climatic changes in, 361, 362;
- cretaceous deposits, iii, 216;
- crustal movements in southern, 81-2, 225;
- earthquakes and volcanoes, xiv, 331;
- forests and trees, 374;
- geese of, xii, 258;
- gold production, iii, 226, 365, 367;
- hot springs, xiv, 143;
- live oaks of, 370;
- lemon trees of, xv, 22;
- mercury production, iii, 370;
- ocean waves used for power, v, 174;
- oil fields, iii, 350;
- rainfall, i, 112;
- raisin-drying industry, v, 257;
- record temperature, 209;
- redwood forests, fog drip, 351;
- "road-runners" of, xii, 265;
- sea elephant of, 335;
- sea lions, 334;
- southern, xiv, 42;
- "Sunshine State," 86;
- tin production, iii, 368;
- valley of, xiv, 215
- Callao, harbor of, xiv, 265
- Callina of Spain, i, 96, 368
- Calms of Cancer and Capricorn, i, 129, 368
- Calomel, viii, 170
- Caloric, iv, 47, 154, xvi, 125
- Calories, definition and value, iv, 154, 312, vii, 369, viii, 361, 374, ix, 295, x, 269;
- electrical equivalents, vii, 382;
- food requirements in, ix, 296-7;
- in various foods, viii, 361, 366-7, ix, 299, x, 269;
- major, viii, 361;
- mechanical equivalent, ix, 295;
- use of, in rating food values, iv, 48
- Calorimeter, viii, 360-1, x, 269
- Calumet Copper Mine, heat increase in, xiv, 12
- Calyx, xiii, 44, 45;
- absent in some plants, 46, 182;
- incorporated in fruits, 54
- Camber, of aeroplanes, i, 288
- Cambium, xiii, 24, 26, 177 (fig.)
- Cambrian Period, iii, 181-4, 377;
- animals of, 263, 267, 268, 272, 273, 277;
- climate, 184-5;
- first life in, xv, 71;
- fossils from, iii, 174;
- metamorphism of rocks in, 189
- Cambridge University, founding of, xvi, 100
- Cambyses, burial of army of, iii, 73
- Camels, xii, 313-15;
- hoofs of, iii, 300;
- trypanosome in, x, 168
- Camera, iv, 339-40, ix, 106-9;
- Langley on the, ii, 221;
- power to pierce water, i, 47
- Camphor, viii, 240, 252;
- in celluloid, 255;
- smell, xi, 80;
- source, xiii, 255, 263
- Cams, v. 39-40
- Canada, animals of, xii, 287, 318, 320, 336, 348, 350, 351, 365;
- Atlantic ports closed by ice, xiv, 267;
- forests of, 371, 372;
- French colonization of, 191;
- geology, iii, 165, 167, 219, 231-2;
- Glacial Epoch effects, xiv, 56, 61-2, 170;
- Indian summer, i, 361;
- lakes of, xiv, 200;
- mining products, iii, 360, 365, 368, 376;
- plains of, xiv, 217;
- plutonic formations, 111;
- rainfall of, 360;
- tobacco production, xiii, 258
- Canadian Rockies, formations in, xiv, 229;
- glaciers of, 55
- Canals, lift locks, v, 103
- Canaries Current, xiv, 304
- Canary Islands, xiv, 252, 289;
- dragon tree of, xiii, 183-4
- Cancer, cause, nature, and treatment, x, 119-20, 382, 383-4;
- early knowledge of, 39, 41;
- racial immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 48-9, 50, 51;
[Pg 223]
- spread and cure by surgery, ix, 255
- Candle, Candlepower, iv, 351-2;
- compared with sun, ii, 169
- Candles, blowing out of, viii, 57;
- burning of, in caissons, iv, 31;
- flame of, viii, 58, 59;
- materials of, 247
- Candy, boiling point, viii, 299;
- dextrin in, 243;
- glucose uses, 225
- Cane Sugar, xiii, 83, 214-15;
- chemical properties, occurrence, and use, viii, 226-7;
- extraction and refining, 242;
- fermentation, 225, 227;
- large molecules, 356;
- making of, by plant, 335;
- solutions, freezing point, 299;
- sweetness of, ix, 230;
- testing of, by polarized light, iv, 356
- Canned foods, vitamines lacking in, x, 262, 263, 266, 267-8
- Cannel Coal, iii, 344, viii, 202
- Cannibalism, remarks on, ix, 280-1
- Cannon, Dr., medical work, x, 295, 327;
- quoted, xi, 137-9
- Canoes, primitive, xv, 262-4;
- propulsion of, iv, 33-4
- Canopus, gaseous state, ii, 382;
- parallax and distance, 316
- Canvas Buckets, use of, v, 350
- Canyons, depth dependent on altitude, xiv, 159;
- occurrence in dry climates, 51-2
- (see also particular canyons under river names)
- Caoutchouc, xiii, 245;
- chemistry and manufacture, viii, 257-8 (see Rubber)
- Capacity, electrical, iv, 267-8, viii, 363;
- in overhead transmission, 104, 105;
- in oscillating circuits, 286-7, 289;
- measurement in oscillating circuits, 294-5, 296-7;
- unit of, iv, 284, vii, 368
- Cape Nome, Alaska, iii, 57
- Capella, binary star, ii, 123;
- color, 297;
- solar star, 115
- Cape of Good Hope, climate of, xiv, 358;
- discovery of, 309
- Cape Town, oak trees at, xiv, 370
- Cape Verde Islands, xiv, 252, 289;
- ocean deeps around, 289
- Capillaries, ix, 54, 192-5;
- in circulatory system, x, 63, 334;
- oxygen diffusion through, ix, 260;
- passage of blood through, 210, 212, 214, 215;
- unknown to Galen & Harvey, x, 63
- Capillarity, of soil water, viii, 37, xiii, 92-3
- Capri, level changes at, iii, 81
- Caproic Acid, viii, 220
- Capsules, plant, xiii, 56, 69
- Capuchin Monkeys, xii, 377-8
- Capybaras, xii, 289
- Caracels, xii, 356
- Caraway Seed, xiii, 201, 265
- Carbohydrate Industries, viii, 241-4
- Carbohydrates, viii, 223-9, 374-5;
- body fuels, xi, 271, 278;
- daily consumption, viii, 366-7;
- digestion and utilization of, 356, 357, 358-9;
- food requirements and values, 361, 362, x, 268, 269, 271;
- formation by plants, viii, 219, 335, 349, 350, xiii, 81;
- storing of, in body, x, 272;
- structure and hydrolysis, viii, 217-18;
- use of by animals and vegetables, 246, 348, 349, 350
- Carbolic Acid, viii, 238, 253, 333;
- as antiseptic, x, 145
- Carbon, viii, 18, 42-52;
- affinity for oxygen, 12, 102;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- chemical energy, 186-7;
- colors due to, 258;
- combustion of, 12-13, 308, ix, 26, 190;
- diamonds and graphite pure, iii, 328, 331, viii, 42, 43;
- electrical conductivity, iv, 283;
- electric positiveness, vi, 59, 61;
- ignition of, viii, 53;
- in body, elimination, 353;
- loss in fatigue, xi, 271;
- in hydrocarbons, viii, 205-7, 233, 234;
- in iron, v, 316-17, 319, 320-1, viii, 157, 158;
- in iron preparation, 157;
- in neutral refractories, vii, 307;
- in organic matter, viii, 42, 64, 204, 336-7;
- in proteins, 351;
- in steel, 159, 160;
- luminosity of flame due to, 59-60;
- melting point, iv, 162;
- necessity of, to life, ii, 242-3;
- percentages in coal series, iii, 345;
- plant uses of, viii, 49, 340-1, xiii, 14, 80, xiv, 64-5;
- potential energy in, iv, 82;
- production of pure, xvi, 190
- Carbonaceous Matter, in soils, viii, 340
- Carbonaceous Strata, iii, 249-50
- Carbonated Beverages, viii, 43, 50
- Carbonated Waters, natural, xiv, 142, 146
- Carbonate Group, viii, 93
- Carbonate of Lime, ancient layers of, iii, 250, 251;
- animal shells and skeletons of, 259, 266, 267, 268, 270;
- hard water due to, 126;
- limestone composed of, 25, 308;
- in sandstone, 27
- (see also Calcite, Calcium Carbonate, Limestone)
- Carbonates, formation of, viii, 49;
- in blood, x, 280;
- metal compounds, viii, 130, 147, 198;
- metal extraction from, 131, 271;
- test of, 290
- Carbon Compounds, viii, 42, 48-52, 61;
- optical activity, xvi, 164
- Carbon Cycle, viii, 49-50, 325-6, 334-5, 349-50
- Carbon Dioxide, viii, 42, 48-50;
- atmospheric, i, 10, 11, 13-14, 25, 322, viii, 48, 49, 67-8, 152, ix, 26, 254;
- body production and elimination, ix, 190, 248, 253-4, 262-7, 268, x, 270, 280, 281, 338, 339;
- boiling and freezing points, iv, 173;
- critical temperature and pressure, 172, 173;
- fatigue product, xi, 270-2;
[Pg 224]
- in
- blood, ix, 263, 264-7, x, 331, 339;
- in blood, loss in mountain sickness, i, 328;
- in Carbon cycle, viii, 334, 350;
- in limestone, 42, 49, 152;
- in minerals, 201;
- in water, 40, 111;
- leavening agent, 50, 136, 137;
- plant uses of, 219, 335, 347, 349, ix, 26-7, xiii, 80-1, 82, xiv, 65;
- product of combustion and decay, viii, 12-13, 26, 45, 61, ix, 26, 190;
- produced by fermentation, 248;
- production, commercial, viii, 48, 276;
- rock disintegration by, 194-5;
- thrown off by lungs, 353;
- vitiation of air by, 331, 332, ix, 268, x, 238
- (see also Carbonic Acid)
- Carbon Disulphide, combustion of, viii, 61;
- light refraction by, iv, 331;
- refrigeration by, 174
- Carbonic Acid, viii, 48-9, 101, 115;
- atmospheric content affected by light, x, 253;
- chemical action on rocks, iii, 24, 25, 27, viii, 194;
- critical temperature and pressure, iv, 172;
- early studies, xvi, 119-20;
- elimination in sleep, xi, 283;
- formation in body, x, 280;
- heat absorption by, iii, 248;
- in ground waters, xiv, 142, 146;
- in sea water, iii, 54;
- in sodium compounds, viii, 134-6;
- in urea, 230, x, 279, viii, 61;
- light refraction by, iv, 331;
- refrigeration by, 174
- Carboniferous Period, iii, 197;
- animals of, xv, 71;
- landscape of, xiii, 320;
- length and antiquity, 314, 322;
- plants of, 307-11, 315-17
- Carbon Monoxide, viii, 50-1, 157
- Carbon Tetrachloride, vi, 101, viii, 212
- Carborundum, chemical composition, 90;
- discovery, manufacture, and uses, vii, 300, 301, 309-11, xvi, 190;
- refractory, vii, 308, 311;
- in wireless detectors, 269
- Carboxyl Group, viii, 220, 375
- Carbuncles, cause of, x, 195, 311
- Carburetors, vii, 124-8;
- mixtures in, v, 156
- Caribbean Sea, hurricane reports, i, 282, 309
- Caribe (fish), xii, 159-60
- Caribou, xii, 320;
- horns of, 316
- Carlsbad, Bohemia, xiv, 145, 152
- Carlyle, dyspepsia of, xi, 369;
- on work, 276;
- on shame and clothing, x, 306
- "Carnegie," magnetic survey ship, i, 193, vi, 39
- Carnelian, iii, 337
- Carnivorous Animals, xii, 332-65
- (see also Flesh-eating Animals)
- Carnot, mathematician, xvi, 125;
- on heat, 135
- Carolina Parakeet, xii, 266
- Carolina Poplar, as index plant, i, 255
- Carps, xii, 161
- Carrel, antiseptic methods, x, 146, 181-3, 382
- Carrel-Dakin Solutions, x, 181-3, 382
- Carrion Crow, xii, 260
- Carroll, Dr. James, x, 160, 161, 200
- Carrots, flowers of, xiii, 49;
- origin, 222;
- swelled roots, 19;
- taproot of, 17 (fig.);
- vitamines in, x, 262, 266, 268;
- wild, xiii, 353-4
- Carthage, and Rome, xiv, 307;
- destruction of fleet before, xv, 232
- Carthaginians, elephants of, xii, 302;
- in Iberian group, xvi, 49
- Cartilage, ix, 57-8;
- making of, 54;
- rib connections made of, 71;
- skeletons of, xii, 142
- Cartridges, explosion of, v, 157;
- hydraulic, 100;
- lampblack, i, 33;
- modern, v, 362, viii, 145, xv, 218
- Cartright, power loom, v, 376-7, xv, 246
- Cascade Mountains, cirques of, iii, 66;
- Columbia river canyon, 39, xiv, 165-6;
- former volcanic activity, iii, 226;
- geology of, 106, 139, 213-14, 226, 227;
- glaciers of, 60;
- lakes, 143;
- precipitation on opposite sides of, xiv, 355;
- snowfall, i, 119;
- volcanic cones of, xiv, 100-1, 225, 315
- Casein of Milk, food value, x, 259, 278
- Caspian Sea, area and depth, iii, 154, xiv, 204;
- commercial importance, 212;
- formation of basin, iii, 154, xiv, 203, 205;
- monsoons, i, 131;
- salinity, iii, 154-5, viii, 139, xiv, 206-7
- Cassini, Domenico, astronomical work, ii, 13, 59, 85, 133, 227-8;
- telescopes, 59, 99
- Cassiopeia distortion from sun's motion, ii, 306;
- new star in, 331
- Cassiterite, iii, 326, 369
- Cassowaries, xii, 243, 249
- Castillo, Grotto of, xv, 100 (fig.);
- picture from, 112
- Castings, of different metals, iv, 150
- Cast Iron, v, 316, 319, 320-2, viii, 157, 158
- Catalan Forge, v, 315;
- air compression for, 89
- Catalpa Trees, xiii, 271-2
- Catalyzers, viii, 102-3, 375;
- discovery, xvi, 165;
- effect on speed of reactions, viii, 310, 311;
- enzymes as, 103, 357;
- various applications, i, 36-7, viii, 81, 82, 86, 174, xvi, 165
- Cataphoretic Medication, vii, 247-8
- Cataract, of eyes, ix, 112, 116, x, 41;
- ancient operations for, 27
- Catarrh, germ of, x, 221
- Catastrophism, xvi, 149
[Pg 225]
- Cat Briers, xiii, 188
- Caterpillars, xii, 115-16, 117 (fig.), 118, 119;
- "rains" of, i, 356-7
- Caterpillar Tractors, v, 216-18, 383
- Catapults, xv, 219
- Cat Family, xii, 354-65
- Catfishes, xii, 161-2
- Cathode, defined, iv, 317, 382, vii, 251, 363
- Cathode Rays, iv, 317-18, x, 184;
- discovery and nature, xvi, 193;
- fluorescence from, iv, 380
- Cathode Stream, vii, 252
- Cation, defined, iv, 382
- Catkin-bearing Trees, fertilization of, xiii, 148
- Catkins, xiii, 190, 192, 193-4
- Catnip, flowers of, xiii, 205
- Cats, xii, 354-56;
- body heat, conservation of, ix, 307;
- embryological resemblance to dog, xv, 54;
- hair erection in, ix, 161, 164;
- instincts of, xi, 48
- Catskill Aqueduct, v, 262, 263-5
- Catskill Formation, iii, 195
- Catskill Mountains, formation, iii, 139, xiv, 179, 225;
- New York water supply from, xiv, 140;
- section of, iii, 138 (fig.);
- stream piracy in, xiv, 179-80
- Cat-tails, xiii, 59, 181, 187
- Cattle, domestic, origin of, xii, 330;
- elastic cord in neck, ix, 59;
- hornless, breeding of, 327;
- salt consumed by, viii, 140;
- surra disease of, x, 168;
- tetanus germ in, 298-9;
- tick diseases of, xii, 98;
- ungulates, 300;
- young of, ix, 346
- Cattle Family, xii, 324-31
- Cattle-raising, on grasslands, xiv, 383-4
- Cattle-Raising Stage, xv, 187, 196-9
- Caucasus Mountains, iii, 236;
- Ice Age in, 240;
- recent formations, xiv, 235
- Cauliflower, a modified bud, xiii, 41;
- in mustard family, 197;
- origin, 222;
- sport plant, 333-4
- Caustics, x, 255
- Caustic Soda, viii, 278
- Cauterization, batteries used, vii, 242;
- former use of, x, 38, 55, 56
- Cavalieri, Bonaventura, xvi, 104, 119
- Cave Bear, xiv, 149;
- cave pictures of, xv, 110 (fig.);
- relics of, 79, 82, 100 (fig.)
- Cave Fishes, eyes of, xii, 138
- Cave Lions, xii, 359
- Cave Men, xv, 76-84, 88-102;
- art of, 148-9, xv, 110-20, 298, 299, 300;
- clothing of, 257;
- life of, 188-91;
- tools and weapons, 102-10
- Cavendish, Henry, chemical work, xvi, 120, 121, 177;
- electrical work, vi, 16, 17, xvi, 121;
- experiment to prove gravitation, iv, 98;
- hydrogen discovery, results, x, 89
- Cavendish Experiment, ii, 68
- Caves, Caverns, formation in limestone, iii, 127, viii, 151, xiv, 147-8;
- importance in history of man, 148-9, xv, 266;
- primitive life in, 80-1, 82-3;
- wind-eroded, iii, 73
- Caviar, acquired taste for, xi, 72;
- sources of, xii, 151, 152
- Cavies, xii, 289
- Cavitation, v, 235-6
- Cayuga, Lake, xiv, 203
- Cazorla, Spain, hailstorm, i, 119
- Ceiling, of aeroplanes, i, 303
- Celebes, xiv, 274;
- animals of, xii, 310, 330, 379
- Celery, blanching of, xiii, 76;
- calories in, ix, 299;
- family, xiii, 200-1;
- origin and antiquity, 222
- Celestial Equator, ii, 70
- Cell Metabolism, ix, 37-40;
- oxygen requirements, 182, 199, 253, 254, 260;
- part of cell engaged in, 42-3;
- sugar and fat supplies, 289;
- supply system, 49-52
- (see also Metabolism, Basic Metabolism, Functional Metabolism)
- Cells (electric) see Electric Cells
- Cells (organic), basis of life, ix, 12, x, 119, xii, 10, 14, 25, xiii, 74, xv, 16, xvi, 142;
- dynamics of, xvi, 144-5;
- growth by division of, ix, 43-8, xiii, 166-7;
- living and nonliving, ix, 12-17;
- maintenance and growth, 34-6;
- metabolism of (see Cell Metabolism);
- motions of, ix, 73-4;
- of plants, viii, 337, 338, 352, ix, 26;
- reproduction from, 43, 324-5, 332-3, x, 228, 232, xiii, 166-7, xv, 54, xvi, 155-6, 157-8;
- size of, ix, 49;
- substance of, (protoplasm), 13
- (see also Body Cell)
- Celluloid, composition of, viii, 255
- Cellulose, viii, 223, 227-8, 229, 254-6, ix, 30;
- as food, 30;
- industrial uses, viii, 229, 241, 254-6, 261;
- in plants, iii, 344, viii, 49, 223, 335, 348, 349, ix, 30;
- in wood composition, iii, 345, viii, 44, xiv, 65
- Celsius, thermometer of, iv, 136
- Celsus, A. Cornelius, x, 27, 43;
- on sleeping sickness in Rome, 301;
- rediscovery of "De Re Medicina," 44
- Celtic Languages, xv, 162
- Celts, of Ireland, xvi, 49
- Cement, chemistry of, viii, 280;
- manufacture, iii, 373-4
- Cement Floors, in factories, xi, 361-2
- Cement Gun, v, 136
- Cementite, viii, 160, 273
- Cement Plants, potash from dust, viii, 279;
- smoke precipitation, vii, 347-8
- Cenozoic Era, iii, 20, 377;
- animals of, 284, 293, 295, 298-301;
- birds developed in, 297;
[Pg 226]
- divisions and surviving species, xv, 71;
- in North America, iii, 221-48;
- plants in, 256, 257-8
- Centaurus, "coal sack," ii, 352;
- star cluster, 336-7
- Center of Gravity, iv, 99-101;
- tendency of wheels to turn on, v, 150
- Centers of Action, i, 218, 241-2, 368;
- Iceland area, 361
- Centigrade Thermometer, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, viii, 27;
- comparison with other scales, iv, 137, 141, viii, 27, 384
- Centimeter-gram-second System, iv, 46 (see Metric System)
- Centipedes, xii, 87-8
- Central America, animals of, xii, 198, 208, 276, 289, 349;
- coasts, coral reefs on, 40;
- rainfall and rivers, xiv, 135, 195;
- volcanoes of, 315, 316, 325-6, 338
- Central Asia, antelopes of, xii, 327;
- climatic changes, results of, iii, 75, xiv, 361, 362;
- cradle of human race, xvi, 46;
- desert basins, xiv, 215, 217, 355;
- flowers of, xiii, 202;
- horses of, xii, 306-7;
- manual of, 356;
- marriage custom of, xv, 282;
- migrations from, xiv, 362;
- oases of, 150-1;
- plains of, 215;
- rock weathering in deserts, 79;
- rodents of, xii, 294;
- salt lakes of, xiv, 199
- Central Nervous System, ix, 129-32;
- at birth, 348-9;
- connections with glands and smooth muscles, 159-60, 162-3;
- in the chordata, xii, 128;
- preferred pathways of, ix, 134
- Central Park Obelisk, iii, 23, xiv, 78-9
- Central Sun Hypothesis, ii, 305
- Centrifugal Force, iv, 71-5;
- of earth's rotation, ii, 69, iv, 74-5, 101
- Centrifugal Pumps, vi, 363
- Centrifugal Railroads, iv, 74
- Centripetal Force, iv, 72-3
- Century Plants, single flowering, xiii, 43, 53;
- sisal from, 240-1;
- water-storage by, 41
- Cephalopods, iii, 20, 260, 273-6, xii, 58, 74-80
- Ceraunographs, i, 163, 368
- Cereal Dusts, i, 63
- Cereals, best grown in grasslands, xiii, 373;
- evolution, iii, 257;
- food value, viii, 364;
- fruits for seed dispersal, xiii, 56, 182;
- phosphate requirements, xiv, 67;
- vitamines in, x, 260, 262
- Cerebellum, ix, 144 (fig.), 145, 146 (fig.), xi, 28, 31;
- locomotion control through, ix, 156, 158, 167
- Cerebrospinal Fluid, xi, 29
- Cerebrospinal Meningitis, antiserum treatment, x, 218;
- germ of, 216
- Cerebrum, ix, 144, 145-7, xi, 28, 29, 31-2;
- at birth, ix, 351;
- auditory area, xi, 108;
- locomotion action of, ix, 157, 158;
- seat of thought processes, 167;
- visual area, xi, 86
- Ceres (planet), discovery, ii, 255
- Cerium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383
- Ceylon, animals of, xii, 201, 302, 328;
- chocolate production, xiii, 234;
- cinnamon production, 263, 264;
- coco palm of, xv, 125;
- leeches of, xii, 56;
- pearl fisheries of, 62;
- polyandry in, xv, 286;
- quinine production, xiii, 251;
- tea cultivation, 228, 224 (illus.)
- Chagres River, xiv, 195
- Chahas, xii, 256-7
- Chain Pump, iv, 26
- Chain Reflex, xi, 39;
- in habit formation, 250-1
- Chain Structure, viii, 233, 375
- Chalcedony, iii, 337
- Chalcocite, iii, 326, 360, 361
- Chalcopyrite, iii, 326, 360, 361
- Chaldean Eclipse Cycle (see Saros)
- Chaldeans, astronomy of, ii, 9, xvi, 57, 58
- Chalk, iii, 377;
- deposits of, 216-18, 266
- "Challenger," voyages of, xiv, 283, xvi, 142
- Chambered Nautilus, iii, 273-5, xii, 76, 77 (fig.)
- Chamberlens, obstetricians, x, 79-80
- Chameleons, xii, 204, 207-8, 208-10
- Chamois, xii, 325
- Champlain, Lake, formation, iii, 155
- Champlain Sea, iii, 150, 151
- Change, Albanian story of, v, 251;
- attention attracted by, xi, 229, 344;
- Cardinal Newman on, xiii, 325-6;
- Heraclitus on, xvi, 79;
- in earth's features, xiv, 28-30;
- need of outside influence, viii, 113;
- physical and chemical, 14-15
- Channels, aerial mapping, i, 47;
- dredging of, v, 257-8
- Chaparral, xiv, 379
- Characters, Characteristics, inheritance laws, ix, 333-8, x, 230-2, 233-4, xiii, 332, xvi, 154, 156, 157-8;
- inherited and environmental, x, 228-9;
- racial, xv, 36-52
- (see also Acquired Characters, Heredity)
- Charades, xv, 169
- Charcoal, viii, 44;
- combustion of, 12-13;
- glow of burning, 57;
- heat from, 186;
- heat resistance, vii, 308;
- in gas masks, viii, 47-8, 263, 264;
- in gunpowder, 145
- Charcot, Jean Martin, x, 360, xvi, 184
[Pg 227]
- Charges, Charged Bodies (Electricity), iv, 256-67, vi, 284-302,
- vii, 363;
- chemical production of, iv, 271-2;
- discharge of, 262, 264-5, 267, 269, vii, 209, 366;
- discovery of laws, xvi, 121;
- electrical condition, i, 142;
- electricity on surface, iv, 282;
- induced, 260, vii, 370;
- leakage, 371;
- measurements and units, iv, 260-1
- (see also Electrification, Ionization)
- Charlemagne, clock of, v, 62;
- Vikings and, xiv, 261
- Charles II, founder of Greenwich Observatory, ii, 83, xvi, 124
- Charles's Law, iv, 140, viii, 107-8
- Charleston (S. C.) Earthquake, iii, 95, 97-8
- Charleston (W. Va.) region, iii, 34
- Charts, marine, i, 271-6;
- meteorological, 206-8;
- phenological, 254;
- synchronous and synoptic, 214-15
- Chautauqua, Lake, origin, iii, 145-6
- Chaucer, "Doctor" of, x, 41;
- language of, xv, 156
- Chauliac, Guy de, x, 39, 40-1
- Checkered Adder, xii, 222
- Cheese, calories in, ix, 299;
- composition and value, viii, 363;
- manufacture of, xiii, 71
- Cheeta, xii, 365
- Chellean Implements, xv, 105, 106-7
- Chemical Affinity, viii, 12;
- electrical nature, xvi, 122;
- electromotive series, viii, 127-9;
- intensity measured by heat, 308, 360;
- of metals for nonmetals, 20;
- source of energy, 267, 268
- Chemical Changes, nature of, viii, 9-15, 188;
- signs of, 100-1
- Chemical Compounds (see Compounds)
- Chemical Elements (see Elements)
- Chemical Energy, viii, 12, 186-7, 267, 268;
- electricity from, 167-8
- Chemical Equations, viii, 13, 94-6, 376
- Chemical Industries, viii, 241-84
- Chemical Reactions, viii, 99-105;
- defined, 381;
- equations of, 94-6;
- equilibrium, 103-5, 190-1;
- heat of, 308;
- reversibility, 21, 101;
- of solutions, 36, 37, 119-25, 311;
- speed of, 310-11;
- types, 20-1
- Chemical Warfare, viii, 262-4, x, 186-8
- Chemical Warfare Service, x, 187-8;
- device, viii, 233
- Chemistry, Volume viii
- Chemistry, beginnings of modern, viii, 34;
- concrete science, xvi, 42;
- daily interest of, 13-15;
- defined, viii, 11, xvi, 36;
- difficulties of study, viii, 10-11;
- exact, positive science, x, 368;
- former realm, xvi, 14;
- historical development, 54, 59, 73-4, 109, 110, 112, 115, 119-21, 133-4, 159-65;
- medicine and, x, 81, 369;
- nomenclature, viii, 97-8;
- subjects dealt with in, iv, 12;
- ultimate identity of organic and inorganic, x, 69
- Chemosynthetic Organisms, xii, 15
- Chemotaxis, xi, 50-1, 59, 61
- Chemotherapy, x, 381
- Cherbourg, breakwater at, xiv, 301;
- wave power at, 300
- Cherrapunji, Assam, rainfall at, i, 111-12
- Cherries, drupes, xiii, 54;
- origin and remarks, 224-5
- Cherry Trees, xiii, 271-2;
- lenticels on, 26
- Chert, formation of, iii, 13
- Chesapeake Bay, aerial fish patrol, i, 48;
- drowned valley formation, xiv, 40, 255-6;
- ducks of, xii, 257;
- oysters of, 61;
- ria coast, xiv, 257;
- wave erosion in, iii, 56
- Cheselden, William, x, 92, 123
- Chest, diseases, studies of, x, 110, 112;
- examination methods, 98-9, 108-9, 371, 373;
- fixation of, 304-5
- Chestnut Trees, family of, xiii, 193;
- in American forests, xiv, 373
- Chevrotains, xii, 313
- Chewing, act of, ix, 82;
- importance of, 227-8, 229, 230
- Cheyne-Stokes Respiration, x, 340
- Chiasmodus, xii, 24
- Chicago, growth due to railways, xiv, 219;
- level changes at, iii, 82;
- sewage of, viii, 326;
- terminals, electrification, vi, 162;
- underground trolleys, vii, 12;
- ventilation standards, viii, 332
- Chicago Fire, dust from, i, 56
- Chicago, Lake, iii, 148, 149
- Chickadees, xii, 268
- Chicken Cholera, inoculation for, x, 141-2, 208
- Chicken Pox, immunity to, x, 207
- Childbirth, among savages, xv, 278
- Child Labor, factory system and, x, 244;
- laws, remarks on, vii, 33
- Children, adenoids in, ix, 224, x, 341-2;
- artistic impulse in, xv, 296;
- basal metabolism in, x, 271;
- bones of, ix, 56, 57;
- care in development of, 352;
- care of, by state, xv, 290-1;
- choice importance to, xi, 266-7;
- clothes for, x, 308;
- cold baths for young, 312;
- convulsions in, ix, 133-4;
- cretinism in, x, 349-50;
- darkness effects on, 253;
- dreams of, xi, 293;
- ear troubles in, ix, 104;
[Pg 228]
- education and environment importance, 344, 352;
- exhaustion in, xi, 273;
- foods for, ix, 33-4, 242, 295, x, 314-15;
- grasping reflex, importance, xi, 43;
- growth period, ix, 47-8;
- habit acquisition, xi, 247, 249;
- habit of evacuation in, ix, 252;
- heart rate in, x, 334;
- house-breaking, xi, 251-2;
- imitation in, xv, 66-7;
- language of, 142-3, 153;
- malnutrition causes, ix, 228;
- objection to sour tastes, 95;
- relationships under polyandry, xv, 286, 294;
- resemblance to parents (see Heredity);
- savage attitude towards, 135, 195, 198;
- skull growth in, 40;
- soaps desirable for, x, 311;
- suggestibility, xi, 307;
- teeth, care of, ix, 228, x, 312-16;
- transmission of nonhereditary characters to, ix, 343-4;
- walking of, on what dependent, 351
- Chile, Bolivia and, xiv, 306;
- climate of, 358, 371;
- coasts, 258, 265;
- deserts of northern, xiii, 377;
- nitrate fields, i, 34, 35, viii, 64, 72, 197, 280, xiv, 66;
- temperate forests, xiii, 372
- Chilled Iron, v, 241
- Chilling, of body, x, 252-3, 306, 311;
- effects, ix, 323
- Chimborazo, Mount, formation, xiv, 225;
- observatory site, ii, 149-50
- Chimpanzees, xii, 383-4;
- brain of, xv, 62 (fig.), 96;
- expression of passion by, 65;
- hand and foot in, 58-60;
- mandible of, 94;
- reasoning power in, 67-8;
- skeleton compared to man's, 59
- China, agriculture in north and south, xiv, 72-3;
- ancient civilization, x, 13, xv, 123, 127;
- beriberi in, ix, 35;
- bubonic plague in, x, 165;
- Cambrian deposits, iii, 184;
- coal, in, 345;
- coasts, xiv, 248, 251, 257;
- corn growing, xiii, 212;
- David's deer, xii, 316;
- dust whirls, i, 60;
- famines, xiv, 73;
- fault-blocks of north, 125;
- fishing with cormorants, xv, 223-4;
- ginkgo tree, xiii, 315;
- goral of, xii, 325;
- gunpowder invention, v, 361;
- hookworm in, x, 174;
- influence on West, xiv, 357;
- Jesuit survey, xvi, 123;
- loess formations, i, 53-4, iii, 74, xiv, 63, 72-5;
- medical education and Rockefeller Fund, x, 172;
- medicine of ancient, 13;
- meteorological service, i, 223;
- mountain valley conditions, xv, 131;
- opium and, xiii, 253;
- plains and mountains, xiv, 217;
- population distribution, 219;
- rice-growing, xiii, 213, 214;
- rivers of, xiv, 196;
- shark's fins as food in, xii, 147;
- smallpox inoculation in, x, 100, 207;
- storm signals, i, 283;
- sugar in, xiii, 215;
- tea in, 227, 228;
- temple orientation, ii, 26;
- trees of, xiv, 377;
- wheat in, xiii, 210
- (see also Chinese)
- China (pottery), viii, 283
- China Clay, iii, 333
- Chinch Bug, xii, 114
- Chinchillas, xii, 289
- Chinese, ancestor worship of, xv, 341;
- ancient agriculture, xiii, 210;
- ancient civilization, x, 13, xvi, 53, 54, 62;
- ancient knowledge of cloves, xiii, 262;
- ancient knowledge of lodestone, iv, 52, vi, 28;
- calculating machines, xv, 183, xvi, 61;
- finger nails of, xv, 260;
- ideas of future life, 336;
- ideas of eclipses, ii, 209;
- in tropics, xiv, 356;
- opium use, xiii, 253;
- paper invention, v, 290;
- prepotency in crosses, x, 230;
- printing invention, v, 300-1, xv, 179;
- use of feet by, 61;
- veneration for writing among, 164;
- well-water boiling, xiv, 140;
- women, feet of, xv, 254-5, 260, 261 (fig.);
- women, hairdressing of, 261
- Chinese Astronomy, ii, 21-2, 331, xvi, 56-7
- Chinese Language, xv, 170-1
- Chinese Writing, xv, 169-72
- Chinooks, i, 133, 369
- Chipmunks, xii, 293-4
- Chitin, xii, 39, 69
- Chitons, xii, 58, 67
- Chloramin, x, 181, 183
- Chloramine T., x, 382
- Chloride of Lime, viii, 333
- Chlorides, halogen derivatives, viii, 210;
- metal occurrence in, 130, 198
- Chlorine, viii, 18, 22, 84-5, 181, 297-8;
- as antiseptic, 333;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- bleaching by, vii, 354, viii, 86, 146, 256, 274;
- gold reaction with, 174;
- in body tissues, 354;
- in silicates, viii, 193;
- manufacture and uses, 274, 284;
- molecular speed, 24;
- obtained from salt, 138, 140, 275;
- plant uses, 337, 341;
- solubility, in water, 111;
- tests, for, 286, 287, 290;
- use in chemical warfare, 262-3, x, 186;
- water disinfection by, viii, 86, 274, 319, 321
- Chlorine Derivatives, viii, 210, 211-12, 231
- Chlorite, iii, 326-7
- Chloroform, viii, 52, 212;
- as anesthetic, x, 125
- Chlorophyll, ix, 26, 27, xii, 11-12, 14, xiii, 79-80, 81, 84;
- absent in saprophytes, 99, 100;
- action in plants, viii, 335
- Chocolate, calories in, ix, 299;
[Pg 229]
- history and production, xiii, 233-5
- Choice, power and importance, xi, 260-3, 265-7;
- power of, in muscular responses, ix, 95, 121, 140
- Choke Coils, vii, 17, 50
- Cholera, discovery of germ of, x, 149, xvi, 184;
- former ideas of, x, 286;
- from water pollution, viii, 318;
- germ of, x, 195;
- immunity to, 207;
- inoculation against, 208;
- racial susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51
- Choleric Temperament, xi, 153
- Cholesterin, ix, 275
- Chordates, xii, 127-9;
- coelom in, 27
- Chords, major and minor, xi, 106-8
- Chorea, epidemic of, in Europe, x, 60;
- rheumatism and, 224;
- Sydenham on, 74
- Christianity, Locke's "rational," xvi, 115;
- Roman and medieval development, 99-100
- Christian Science, attitude toward pain, xi, 116;
- source of power, 306
- Christmas Trees, electric lighting, vii, 342
- Chromatic Aberration, ii, 99-100
- Chromatin, ix, 41, 42, 44-7, 328
- Chrome Yellow, viii, 162
- Chromium, viii, 154;
- affinity strength, 128;
- alloys of, 273;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- extraction from ores, 271;
- specific gravity, 384;
- test for, 287, 288-9;
- use and occurrence, xiv, 238
- Chromophor Group, viii, 258, 259
- Chromosomes, ix, 46;
- arrangement in pairs, 329, 330;
- heredity controlled by, 328-41, x, 232-3;
- human varieties, 233;
- likeness in all cells, ix, 329;
- number of, 46, 329, 339;
- origin of energies, xvi, 145;
- sex, ix, 339, x, 234, xvi, 156;
- splitting of, in cell division, ix, 45 (fig.), 46-7, 332, 333
- Chronic Diseases, wasting process of, x, 214
- Chronometers, v, 65-7;
- regulation to temperature changes, iv, 148
- Chrysolite, iii, 334
- Church, Prof. J. E., i, 118
- Chyme, x, 325, 326
- Cicadas, xii, 112
- Cider, making of, viii, 249;
- turning to vinegar, 218
- Cigarette-smoking, dust particles from, i, 62
- Cilia, of bronchial tubes, x, 202;
- of simple animals, ix, 73-4
- Cinchona, use of, in medicine, x, 154-5, xvi, 109
- Cinchona Plantations, xiii, 251-2
- Cincinnati, early growth, xiv, 219;
- water supplies, viii, 318, 322
- Cinder Cone, eruption, iii, 226
- Cinder Cones, xiv, 100, 102
- Cinematograph, in astronomy, i, 162, ii, 212
- Cinnabar, iii, 327, 370
- Cinnamon, xiii. 263-5
- Circles, appearance of circumscribed, xi, 186;
- divisions invented by Ptolemy, xvi, 94;
- regarded as perfect curves, ii, 34, 49
- Circuit Breakers, vi, 101-3, vii, 36, 37-48
- Circuits, Electrical, kinds defined, vii, 364;
- overloading of, vi, 9, 72;
- primary and secondary, 9, 308;
- proportioning of partial, iv, 300-1;
- protection against overloaded, vii, 34-50
- Circular Mils, iv, 282-3, 382
- Circular Reflex, xi, 42;
- in habit formation, 252-3
- Circulation of Blood, ix, 195-200, 51 (diagram), x, 331, 337;
- discovery, ix, 192, x, 61, 63-6, 69, xvi, 106-7;
- discovery prepared by Vesalius, x, 51, 52;
- efficiency, climatic effects on, x, 238-9;
- former ideas of, 62-3, 65-6
- Circumcision, among early Jews, x, 15;
- untransmitted, 230
- Circumzenithal Arc, i, 178, 180, 181, 369
- Circues, iii, 66, xiv, 58
- Cirro-Cumulus Clouds, i, 100, 103, 298
- Cirro-Stratus Clouds, i, 99-100, 103, 179
- Cirrus Clouds, i, 97, 99, 103, 179;
- false, 102, 104, 372
- Cirrus Haze, i, 100
- Cities, aeroplanes to relieve congestion, i, 41-2;
- climate, 333;
- dependence on farms, vii, 221;
- importance of lighting, vi, 279-80;
- sewage disposal, viii, 324-9;
- sites, favorable to, xiv, 219;
- snow removal, i, 117, xiv, 140-1;
- transportation facilities, vii, 198;
- water supplies and purification, viii, 317-24;
- white ways of, vii, 339-41
- Citric Acid, viii, 222, 223;
- formed by plants, 336;
- solubility, 112
- Citrus fruits, acids of, viii, 223
- Civet (oil), xii, 353
- Civets, xii, 351, 352-3, 354
- Civilization, American, xv, 12, 131-2, 203;
- arts and sciences in, iv, 9, 10;
- climate and, xiv, 344, 357-62, xv, 31, 123-7, 383, xvi, 141;
- clothing, shelter, and fire in, ix, 308-9, xv, 229;
- conditions necessary to, 127-32;
- development of, 3-4, 13-14, 28-31, 187-204;
- dominant human impulses in, 185, 383;
- earliest seats, xvi, 47;
- evolution in, xv, 382, 383-4;
- foresight and, 383;
- geographic factors, xiv, 10, 31, xv, 122-3, 128-39;
[Pg 230]
- government and,
- 380;
- historic and prehistoric periods, xv, 167, 322;
- influence of environment on, 122-39;
- labor and, 125-6;
- measured by timepieces, v, 57;
- medicine and, x, 31;
- moral laws and, xvi, 45, 47-8;
- natural laws and, xv, 47-8, 382-3;
- specialization in, 131-2, 203;
- stages of, 187-204;
- struggle to establish high associations, xi, 204;
- transportation and, v, 18;
- various machines and, 300
- (see also Progress)
- Civilized Races, facial angle in, xv, 45;
- feet of, 60-1;
- jaws in, 43;
- monogamy of, 289, 290, 295;
- natural selection in, 47-8
- Civil War, Appalachian mountaineers in, xiv, 243;
- captive balloons in, v, 225;
- improvement of weapons in, 362, 380;
- medical service in, x, 180;
- scurvy in, 265;
- Selfridge's periscope, v, 200;
- Virginia weather, i, 308, 338;
- western rivers in, xiv, 194
- Clams, xii, 58-60, 66-7;
- shells of, iii, 272
- Clam Shell Cove, Staffa, xiv, 130
- Clans, formation of, xv, 362-3
- Clarinet, iv, 234
- Clark, Alvan, telescopes, ii, 106, 109, 143
- Clarksburg, W. Va., deep well at, iii, 120
- Clausius, xvi, 135
- Clavichord, xv, 318
- Claw Hammers, v, 25
- Clay, composition and properties, viii, 90, 282;
- composition, origin and uses, iii, 25, 372-3;
- elasticity of, iv, 36;
- imperviousness to water, xiv, 137;
- in soils, iii, 27-8;
- red, on sea bottom, 54;
- residue of primary rock, viii, 195;
- rock formed from, iii, 13 (see Shale)
- Clay Worm, xii, 54
- Cleanliness, bathing for, ix, 313;
- health and, x, 311;
- in war against tuberculosis, 290;
- ventilation factor, ix, 270
- Cleansing, action of soap in, viii, 141-2;
- chemicals used in, 135, 141, 146, 147, 208-9
- Cleavage, of crystals, iii, 318, viii, 202;
- of various minerals, iii, 321-41
- Cleistogamous Flowers, xiii, 120
- Clematis, as index plant, i, 255;
- family of, xiii, 196
- "Clermont," steamboat, v, 192, 377
- Cleveland, Ohio, water supply system, v, 260-1;
- water supplies and typhoid rate, viii, 322
- Cliffs, formed by faulting, iii, 87-8, xiv, 38;
- in inclined strata, xiv, 84-5, 88;
- loess, iii, 74;
- of jointed rocks, xiv, 133;
- sea, 251;
- undercut by wind, iii, 73
- Climate, Climates, i, 197-211;
- altitude effects, xiv, 220, 223;
- carbon dioxide effects, viii, 49;
- changes of, i, 199-202, xiv, 29-30, 360-2, xv, 72, 73, 74;
- changes affecting drainage systems, xiv, 188;
- changes, artificial, i, 345;
- changes, extinction of races by, xv, 99;
- changes in relation to plant distribution, xiii, 320, 321;
- civilization, and, xiv, 344, 357-62, xv, 123-7, 383;
- classification, i, 208;
- data and statistics, 202-8, 214;
- definitions, 199;
- determining elements of, xiv, 344-56;
- earth's internal heat and, 13;
- effects, historical and biological, xvi, 141-2;
- forest and prairie types, xiii, 348-9;
- forest effects on, xiv, 379;
- Gulf Stream effects, viii, 37;
- hot, unhealthfulness of, x, 251;
- human effects of, i, 316, 323-4, 327, 331;
- human efficiency and, xiv, 357;
- of past ages, iii, 172-4, 178, 184-5, 202, 203, 204, 220, 241, 246-8, xiii, 307-8, xv, 72, 73, 74, 76;
- of plateaus, xiv, 222-4;
- plant societies determined by, xiii, 381-2;
- rugged, effects on circulation, x, 238-9;
- therapeutic value of, 383;
- topographical effects of, xiv, 41-2, 51-2, 124;
- vegetation determined by, 363-79, 380-1;
- zones of, (see Zones)
- Climatic Charts, i, 206-8, 212-13
- Climatography, i, 208, 369
- Climatology, in therapeutics, x, 383;
- present state, i, 211, 369
- Climbing Plants, xiii, 27, 65;
- in tropical forests, xiv, 368
- Climographs, i, 324, 369
- Clinton Iron Deposits, iii, 358
- Clione, xii, 19
- Clippers, old Atlantic, v, 188
- Clocks, balance wheels of, v, 68;
- Chaldean, xvi, 58;
- electric regulation, v, 74;
- first conceived in cathedral, 109;
- historical development, 58-65;
- Jerome's standardized, 50-1;
- pendulum escapement, 73-4
- Closed Circuits, defined, vii, 364
- Cloth, making of, v, 268-83
- (see also Weaving)
- Clothes, Clothing, body heat regulation by, v, 348, ix, 308-9, 311-12;
- civilization in relation to, ix, 308-9;
- colds in relation to, x, 240, 253;
- "habit" in, xi, 247;
- hygiene of, x, 306-10;
- infants, ix, 351-2;
- origin and purposes of, x, 306, xv, 252-5;
- primitive, v, 14, xv, 256-7;
- touch sensations of, ix, 92;
- warmth dependent on air insulation, iv, 178;
- working, xi, 279, 362
[Pg 231]
- Clothes-driers, centrifugal, iv, 73
- Clotting of Blood, ix, 180, 189
- Cloud Banners, i, 104-5, 369
- Cloudberry, spread, xiii, 342
- Cloudbursts, i, 109, 110, 111, 369, vii, 218;
- destruction effected by, xiv, 41
- Cloud Caps, i, 104-5, 369
- Cloudiness, measurement, i, 85
- Clouds, i, 90-105;
- aviation in, 300-2;
- Brocken specters in, 185;
- earth heat retention by, iv, 183, 184;
- electrical discharges, vii, 18, 207-10, 213;
- electrification, i, 150, 151, vii, 206, 207, 217;
- electrification of earth by, iv, 269, 270;
- formation and kinds, i, 90-105;
- formation, cause of rapid, viii, 304;
- formed by forest fires, i, 333;
- heights, 17-18, 103-4;
- light diffraction by, 183, 185;
- noctilucent, 17-18, 58, 377;
- none in stratosphere, 20;
- observation at weather stations, 85-6;
- paintings of, 105;
- pictures, where obtainable, 103;
- self-luminous, 149;
- snow and rain without, 119;
- thunderstorm, vii, 217
- Clouet, steel experiment, xvi, 174
- Cloven-footed Animals, xii, 310
- Clover, fertilization, xiii, 138;
- nitrogen fixation, by, viii, 74, xiv, 66;
- sleeping of leaves, xiii, 113
- Clover Seed, method of gathering, v, 240
- Cloves, Clove Trees, xiii, 262-3
- Club Mosses, fixity and variation, xiii, 326, 327;
- history, 305-6, 307, 314, 317, 323;
- number of species, 323;
- present and former species, iii, 254, xiii, 306, 308
- Clutches, automobile, vii, 143;
- electromagnetic, vi, 104
- Cnidus, School, of, x, 22-3
- Coagulation, by cooking, viii, 368;
- of colloids, 315;
- of proteins, 352
- Coal, "Blue," v, 174;
- carbon dioxide from, amount, i, 13;
- conversion to electric power, vi, 216;
- deposits in mountains, xiv, 237;
- deposits in U. S., iii, 345-8;
- excavating by machine, v, 262;
- formation, iii, 198-201, 253-4, 343-5, viii, 44-5, xiii, 10, 68, 311-13;
- handling in power plants, v, 353-4, 357;
- heat measurement, viii, 360-1;
- heat value, iv, 193;
- importance, iii, 343, 345-8;
- kinds, 344;
- not a mineral, 307;
- Permian deposits, 204;
- specific gravity of, iv, 112;
- supply, use, and waste, iii, 346, v, 171-2, vi, 352, viii, 283;
- water power and, xiv, 191;
- "white," v, 76;
- work value, how estimated, iv, 189-90, 193-4
- Coal Age, iii, 202;
- insects of 279;
- landscape of, 272 (Pl. 15);
- length and antiquity, xiii, 314;
- plants, iii, 253-4, xiii, 307-11, 315-16
- (see also Pennsylvanian Period)
- Coal Dust, as engine fuel, v, 156, 212;
- explosions, i, 63
- Coal Gas, in balloons, v, 223;
- liquefaction of, iv, 171
- Coal Gas Engines, v, 155
- Coal Mines, compressed air uses, i, 26
- (see also Mines)
- Coal Series, iii, 344-5;
- carbonization in, viii, 44
- Coal Tar, production and products, viii, 252-4;
- saving of, 47
- Coal Tar Hydrocarbons, as motor fuels, viii, 209
- Coastal Plains, xiv, 213-14, 215
- Coast Range Mountains, geology of, iii, 89, 94-6, 130, 224, xiv, 127-8, 229
- Coast Range Revolution, iii, 224
- Coasts, xiv, 246-71;
- Atlantic and Pacific types, 247-50;
- compound, 254, 264;
- cycles of development, 254-5;
- economic importance, 264-5;
- emerged, iii, 56-7, xiv, 253, 262-3;
- hanging valleys on, 57-8;
- historical effects of, 249-50;
- neutral, 248, 254, 263-4;
- photographic mapping, i, 47-8;
- regular and irregular, iii, 56-7, xiv, 250-3, 255;
- submerged, iii, 57, xiv, 253, 255-62;
- wave destruction of, iii, 55-8, xiv, 44-7, 216, 301-3
- Coatzacoalcos, harbor of, xiv, 266
- Cobalt, viii, 154;
- affinity strength, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- classification place, 178, 183;
- magnetic susceptibility, iv, 251;
- ores, viii, 198, 270;
- specific gravity, 384;
- test for, 287, 289
- Coblenz, Roman name, xiv, 89
- Cobras, xii, 226-9;
- mongooses and, 352
- Cocaine, an alkaloid, viii, 240;
- history and uses, xiii, 254-5;
- taste sensations reduced by, xi, 72
- Cocci, (bacteria), x, 195
- Cochineal, source, xii, 112
- Cockatoos, xii, 266;
- Arara, v, 9-10
- Cocklebur, xiii, 57 (fig.), 343
- Cockroaches, xii, 107;
- ancient, iii, 279, xii, 104
- Cocoa, xiii, 235;
- American origin, xiv, 382;
- source, 383;
- polyuria induced by, x, 344
- Cocoa Butter, viii, 246
- Coco de Mer, xiii, 60, 154
- Coconino Forest, xiv, 373-4, 378
- Coconut Oil, ix, 28, xv, 125
- Coconut Palm, xiii, 219-20, 244, xv, 125;
- chatties, intoxication from, xii, 371;
- on coral islands, 42;
- fossil found in France, xiii, 319;
- seed dispersal by, 59, 346
- Coconuts, character, uses, and production, xiii, 219-20;
- double, of Seychelles Islands, 60;
- gathering of, by monkeys, xii, 378;
- source and uses, xv, 125;
[Pg 232]
- unaffected by sea water, xii, 42
- Cocoons, xii, 118
- Coction, x, 21, 40
- Cod (fish), xii, 163-4;
- eggs of, 141
- Cod Liver Oil, vitamines in, x, 261
- Coefficient of Expansion, iv, 145, vi, 265
- Coelenterates, iii, 259, 266-7, xii, 26, 33-43
- Coelom, xii, 27, 48
- Coeur d'Alene Mining District, iii, 362-3, 368
- Coffee, history and production, xiii, 231-3;
- insomnia from drinking of, ix, 219;
- polyuria induced by, 274-5, x, 344
- Cog Wheels, v, 29;
- screw and, iv, 92, 93 (fig.)
- Coils, electromagnetic, vi, 92, 93, 98-9;
- form-wound, 202, 223;
- induction, vii, 364;
- primary and secondary, iv, 304, 383, vi, 308, vii, 364;
- resistance, 364
- Coins, chemical analysis of, viii, 286, 291;
- copper alloys in, 164, 171;
- gold and silver, making of, iv, 150
- Coke, discovery, v, 315-16;
- manufacture and use, viii, 46-7, 252
- Col (meteorology), i, 238, 369
- Cold, body regulation to, x, 250;
- clothing as protection against, 306;
- comparative degree of, v, 345;
- physiological effects of, ix, 37, 78-9, 319-20, x, 239, 252-3, 271;
- "production" of, v, 345-7;
- sensation of, ix, 93-4, 319-21, xi, 109, 112-13, 114;
- skin defense against, 113
- Cold Air Machines, v, 352-3
- Cold Baths, ix, 313, 321-2, x, 240, 253, 312, 383
- Cold-Blooded Animals, ix, 305;
- diseases of, x, 206;
- heart of, ix, 84;
- temperature changes and, 78-9, 306-7, x, 250
- Colds, air during epidemics of, viii, 332;
- catching of, ix, 322-3, x, 239, 252-3, 306;
- diseases from, 253;
- ears affected by, ix, 103;
- from uncleanliness, x, 311;
- head, 341;
- infectiousness, i, 326;
- susceptibility of men and women to, x, 240;
- taste sensations in, xi, 73
- Cold Storage, iv, 187-8, viii, 371;
- effect on vitamines, x, 263;
- electrical, vii, 229-30
- (see also Refrigeration)
- Cold Sweat, xi, 131, 132
- Cold Waves, i, 370;
- prediction of, 239
- Coleus, xiii, 42, 79, 205
- Collectors, electrical, i, 144, 370
- Collection Stage, xv, 187, 188-91
- College Students, study habits, xi, 212, 289
- Collodion, making of, viii, 255
- Colloids, viii, 314-16, 375;
- origin of life from, xii, 11-12;
- relation of water to, viii, 355-6
- Colonnaded Spectrum, ii, 115
- Color—Colors, chemistry of, viii, 85-6, 258, 259, 312;
- complementary, iv, 366-7, xi, 91-4;
- contrast, ix, 95;
- determined by vibration rate, 114, 115;
- distance effects, xi, 182;
- flame, viii, 301;
- heat absorption by, x, 309;
- hue, tint, and saturation, xi, 90;
- illusions of, in different lights, iv, 323, 324, 370, 379-80;
- induction of, xi, 94-5;
- in interior decoration, vi, 273, 274-5;
- memory, xi, 220-1;
- mineral identification by, viii, 201-2;
- mixtures, iv, 369, xi, 92-3;
- neutralization, 91-3;
- of glass, viii, 282;
- of objects, iv, 364, xvi, 119;
- of pigments, iv, 369-70;
- perception and sensation of, 360-1, 364-5, 366, vi, 282, ix, 114-17, xi, 89-90, 91-2, 95-6;
- physical effects, 63, 96;
- primary, iv, 366, xi, 90;
- psychological effects, vi, 273, 274-5;
- racial classification by, xv, 32-34, 36-7;
- rainbow, i, 175, ix, 115;
- spectrum, iv, 357-9;
- sunrise and sunset, i, 166, 167-8;
- temperatures for different, iv, 361;
- wave lengths of, 359, 360, 365, xi, 90;
- white light, (see White Light)
- Colorado, arid topography of, xiv, 42;
- glaciers of, 54;
- Jurassic strata of, xii, 165;
- mining products, iii, 362, 363, 364, 366
- Colorado Plateau, iii, 140, 229-30
- Colorado River, navigability, xiv, 195;
- Salton Sink and, iii, 156-7, xiv, 205;
- superimposed character, 173;
- water supply of, 182
- (see also Grand Canyon of the Colorado)
- Color Blindness, ix, 116, xi, 93;
- inheritance of, ix, 340-1, x, 234;
- in men and women, ix, 340-1
- Colored Hearing, xi, 222
- Color-Index of Stars, ii, 297-8
- Color Photography, iv, 368-9
- Color Printing, iv, 370-1;
- in newspapers, v, 304
- Color Vision, iv, 364-5;
- inheritance of, ix, 340;
- limits of, iv, 360-1;
- theory of, x, 96
- (see also Colors)
- Colt Gun, v, 363-4
- Columbia Plateau, iii, 105, 181, 227-8, xiv, 104, 164, 170, 172, 188
- Columbia River, xiv, 174-5;
- canyon of, iii, 39, 226, 228, xiv, 165-6;
- navigability, 195;
- salmon of, xii, 157
- Columbine, fertilization, xiii, 126-8;
- flowers, 196
- Columbium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383
- Columbus, compass troubles of, iv, 52-3, vi, 27;
- debt to early scientists, ii, 12, 13, 40;
[Pg 233]
- discovery of America, xiv, 309;
- Genoese birth, 310;
- in Sargasso Sea, xiii, 73;
- on rubber balls in Haiti, 245;
- potatoes found by, 218, 219;
- syphilis introduced by sailors of, x, 60;
- tobacco-using seen by, xiii, 256;
- trade winds on voyage, i, 128-9
- Columnar Structure, iii, 111, 212
- Combustion, iv, 138;
- chemistry of, viii, 11-13, 53-63, 100;
- heat of, 308;
- oxygen and, i, 10;
- oxygen and, viii, 35-6, 61;
- power developed by, ix, 15-16
- Comets, ii, 273-82;
- asteroids and, 258;
- dangers to earth, 279-80;
- disintegration, 286-7, 288;
- families related to planets, 270-1;
- first scientific studies, 40, 41, 57;
- former ideas, 83-4, 85;
- habitability, ii, 250-1;
- in relation to solar system, 164;
- Newton's views, 85;
- orbits discovered, 85;
- orbits and meteor streams, 287;
- photographic study, 134;
- Seneca on, 85;
- solar corona and, 224;
- various particular, 280-1, 286
- (see also Halley's Comet)
- Commensalism, xii, 32
- Commerce, ocean, development of, xiv, 305-11
- Commercial Meteorology, i, 261-70
- Common Salt, composition and properties, iii, 332, vi, 109-10, 111, viii, 84;
- deposits, iii, 332, 374-5, viii, 139-40, 196, xiv, 141;
- deposits from atmosphere, i, 59-60;
- in body fluids, ix, 174, 175;
- in diet, x, 256;
- in ground water, xiv, 142;
- in protoplasm, ix, 32;
- in sea and inland waters, iii, 51-2, 152-3, 154-5, 332, 374, viii, 138-9, 195-6, xiv, 206, 295-7;
- mixture with ice, temperature resulting, iv, 175;
- physical and chemical divisions, 21;
- plants and, xiv, 364;
- production, iii, 374, 375, viii, 140, 275;
- refining of, for table, xiv, 296;
- size of molecules, vi, 112;
- taste of, xi, 70, 71, 72;
- uses, iii, 332, viii, 138, 140, 276-7
- (see also Sodium Chloride)
- Commutators, electrical, iv, 308, vi, 159, 177-9, 344-5;
- use and construction, vii, 364-5
- Como, Lake, iii, 146
- Comparisons, measuring by, vii, 341
- (see also Contrasts)
- Compass, (Gyroscopic), iv, 254-5, v, 201, 340, 384
- Compass (Magnetic), vii, 365;
- compensation on iron ships, iv, 254, v, 340, vi, 42;
- development, xvi, 102;
- deviation, defined, iv, 247, vi, 42;
- disturbances accompanying aurora, i, 161;
- electric current effects, vi, 20, 88;
- invention, 29;
- magnet effects, 27, 32, 42-3;
- modern improvements, 41-2;
- needle, pointing and declination of, iv, 246-7,
- (see also Magnetic Needle);
- sun disturbances, vi, 40;
- variation, defined, iv, 247;
- variations on voyage of Columbus, 52-3, vi, 27
- (see also Mariner's Compass)
- Compensators, electrical, vi, 253-5
- "Complete Recall," xi, 378
- Complexes, mental, x, 355-6;
- in hysteria, 361, 362
- Composing Machines (see Linotype, Monotype)
- Composition of Forces, iv, 75-7
- Compostella, Spain, shrine at, xii, 65
- Compounds, Chemical, viii, 16, 100, 375;
- analysis of, 285-95;
- colors of, 312;
- combustion of, 61;
- constancy, 110, xvi, 160;
- contrasted with mixtures, viii, 15;
- decomposition, 101-2;
- electrical balance, 121;
- formation types, 20, 100;
- formulæ, 91;
- metallic, 130, 146;
- molecular weights, 92;
- multiple proportions law, 110;
- nomenclature, 97-8;
- organic (see Organic Compounds);
- substitution in, 102;
- unstable, 66;
- with water, 20, 38-9
- Compound-Wound Dynamos, vi, 187, 188-9, 191-2
- Compound-Wound Motors, vi, 233-5
- Comprehensive Terms, xi, 191
- Compressed Air, applications and uses, i, 25-6, 27-9, iv, 30-2, 106, 129-31, v, 111-38;
- discovery, 109-11;
- expansion effects, cooling by, iv, 191, v, 128-9, 351-3, xiv, 14;
- heat of, v, 126-8, 161, 351;
- methods of compression, 89-93, 126-7, 174;
- physiological effects, i, 329, iv, 31-2, v, 119-21;
- pressures used, i, 27
- Compressed Air Locomotives, i, 26, 27, iv, 129, v, 133
- Compression, heat of, i, 90, v, 126-8, 161, 351
- Compressors, Air, v, 89-93, 127, 351
- Compte, on sciences, x, 368
- Comstock Mines, Nevada, iii, 366, 368;
- temperature in, 121
- Concentration, chemical, viii, 310-11;
- mental, xi, 235-6, 378-9
- Conchs, xii, 72-3, 73-4
- Concordant Coasts, xiv, 248, 249
- Concrete Buildings, value in earthquakes, xiv, 343
- Concrete Dams, expansion joints, v, 71
- Concrete Sciences, xvi, 42
- Concrete Ships, v, 194-5
- Concubinage, xv, 289, 290
[Pg 234]
- Condensed Milk, scurvy from, x, 266
- Condensers, electrical, iv, 265-7, vi, 170-4, 301-5, vii, 365;
- applications, vi, 285-6;
- capacity of, iv, 267-8;
- dielectric, vii, 366 (see Dielectric);
- discharge methods, iv, 267, vii, 366;
- in automobiles, vii, 138-9;
- oscillating currents, 373-4;
- plate, vi, 170, 293-4, 295;
- purpose, vii, 363;
- synchronous, vi, 262;
- use in wireless communication, iv, 314, vii, 263, 264, 266, 267
- Condensers, Steam, v, 145, vi, 354-6
- Condiments, as foods, viii, 362, 366;
- effects on stomach, ix, 243-4;
- sources, xiii, 265
- Conditioned Reflex, xi, 198-201, 204;
- in advertising, 348;
- in habit formation, 251-2;
- in hypnotism, 321-2
- Condors, xii, 260
- Conduct, rules of, how enforced, xv, 374-5
- Conduction, of heat, iv, 138, 177, 178-9
- Conductors (electrical), iv, 259, vi, 77, 294;
- acids and bases as, viii, 122, 123;
- air, i, 144-5;
- copper, viii, 164;
- discovery, vi, 13;
- for radio currents, vii, 296;
- resistance of, iv, 281-2 (see Resistance);
- tabular information, vii, 377-84;
- temperature effects on, iv, 301;
- various materials as, 283
- Conductors, (heat), iv, 176, 177, 179
- Conduit Wiring Systems, vii, 55-60, 365
- Condyle, xii, 239
- Confectionery, poppy seed used in, xiii, 250, 254;
- pure food law on, viii, 370-1
- Confidence, psychological effects, xi, 212-13
- Conglomerate, iii, 13, 377;
- sedimentary rock, xiv, 18
- Congo River, connections with Nile sources, xiv, 186-7;
- furrow of, 287;
- ocean slope at mouth of, 24;
- varied course, 155
- Congo River Basin, hippopotamus of, xii, 310;
- okapi of, 321
- Congo Tribes, habits of, xv, 225, 370
- Conies, xii, 288, 304
- Conifers, xiii, 174, 178;
- American forests of, xiv, 371, 372, 374;
- ancestors of modern, xiii, 310;
- first appearance, iii, 256;
- number of species, xiii, 323;
- transitional form, 318
- (see also Gymnosperms)
- Conjugated Proteins, viii, 352
- Connecticut, drainage studies, xiv, 131;
- oyster industry, xii, 61
- Connecticut River, course, iii, 234;
- preglacial valley, xiv, 60
- Connecticut Valley, down warping of, iii, 210;
- igneous rock formations, xiv, 107, 111;
- lava deposits, iii, 212;
- origin, 232;
- rocks under, 213 (fig.);
- tracks of extinct animals in, 16, 291;
- volcanic action in, xiv, 318
- Connecting Nerve Cells, ix, 127, 128 (fig.), 129, 130;
- of brain, 148-9, 150-1
- (see also Connector Neurones)
- Connective Tissue, ix, 13, 58-9;
- growth of, 287;
- in muscles, 75, 79;
- ligaments formed of, 71;
- making of, 54;
- scars formed by, 48, 287
- Connective Tissue Skeleton, ix, 71-2
- Connector Neurones, xi, 21;
- in brain, 31-2, 200;
- in spinal cord, 26;
- development in embryo, 35
- (see also Connecting Nerve Cells)
- Conscious Life, parts concerned in, ix, 21-2
- Consciousness, in mental life, xi, 47;
- habit and, 253-5;
- motor response and, 27-8, 123-4, 202;
- psychology as science of, 10-11;
- "stream" of, 193
- Consequent Streams, xiv, 157, 174
- Conservation, technical meaning, iv, 382
- Conservation of Energy, iv, 40-1, vi, 128;
- establishment of doctrine, xvi, 131;
- remarks on doctrine, iv, 9
- Conservation of Resources, coal, v, 172, viii, 283;
- forest, vi, 366, xiii, 9, 371-2, xiv, 382;
- petroleum supply, vii, 309;
- soil, xiv, 64
- Constantinesco, George, v, 107-8
- Constantin Metal, vi, 77
- Constipation, causes and treatment, ix, 250-2;
- chronic, x, 316-17, 328-9;
- hyperacidity caused by, 322
- Contact Catalysis, viii, 82-3, 103, 316
- Contact Senses, ix, 86, 91-5;
- connections with brain, 142
- Contempt, sentiment of, xi, 148
- Continental Climates, i, 208, 370, xiv, 346, 347
- Continental Islands, xiv, 271-6, 278-81
- Continental Platforms, major relief features, xiv, 9, 27;
- margins and slopes, 25, 287-8
- Continental Rivers, xiv, 153
- Continental Shelves, iii, 52, xiv, 287;
- area covered by, iii, 52, xiv, 26;
- breadth of, 25, 285;
- cutting of, by waves, iii, 55-6, xiv, 46-7;
- deposits on, iii, 53, xiv, 284-5
- Continental Slope, xiv, 287-8;
- deposits on, iii, 53
- Continents, average elevation of, xiv, 26-7;
- climate on opposite sides, 346;
- distinction from islands, 23;
[Pg 235]
- drainage systems,
- 190;
- former connections, xiii, 320, xiv, 290;
- former submergence, iii, 216, xiv, 19-20;
- present, never covered by deep sea, iii, 55;
- rate of wearing away, xiv, 41;
- tides modified by, 292
- Continuity, of action, xi, 264-5;
- of training, 257
- Contrast, association by, xi, 197;
- attention aroused by, 344;
- effect on tastes, 72;
- illusions of, 189
- Convection, iv, 139, 178-9, 185
- Converters, electrical, vi, 162, 332-48, vii, 365;
- speed-limiting devices, 48;
- in traction systems, 199, 365
- Convolutions of Brain, xv, 62, 63, xi, 29
- Convulsions, production of, ix, 133-4
- Cook, Capt. James, xvi, 123;
- story of Polynesian, xv, 124
- Cooke, Dr. R. P., x, 161
- Cooking, chemistry of, viii, 367-9;
- development of art of, xv, 13, 195, 232-3;
- effect on vitamines, ix, 36, x, 263, 266;
- frying habit, ix, 286;
- good, advantages to digestion, 241-2;
- "pressure cookers," iv, 171;
- use and advantages, xv, 229
- Cooking (electric), vii, 89;
- special rates for, 174;
- in U. S. Navy, 332-3
- Cooking Utensils, aluminum, viii, 155;
- copper, 164
- Coolidge Tube, x, 185
- Cooling, contraction by, iv, 134-5, viii, 107-8;
- dynamic, i, 90
- (see also Expansion, cooling by);
- use of water in, viii, 37;
- water changes in, iv, 149, 150-1, viii, 38
- (see also Refrigeration)
- Coon Bear, xii, 338
- Cooper, Astley, x, 129-30
- Coordinates, iv, 16
- Copal, in varnishes, viii, 265
- Copepods, xii, 18, 84
- Copernican Theory, ii, 43-4;
- aided by Pythagorean teachings, xvi, 82;
- establishment of, iv, 95;
- Galileo and, ii, 54, 56;
- Kepler, and, 49;
- not accepted at once, 45, 46, 60, 311
- Copernicus, ii, 42-4, iv, 19, xvi, 102;
- as astrologer, ii, 21;
- "De Revolutionibus," 12, 43;
- ideas of motion, 63;
- on speed and orbits of planets, 49;
- studies in Italy, 12
- Copper, affinity intensity, viii, 128, 164;
- alloys, 164, 171, 273;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- density of, iv, 113;
- electrical conductivity, iv, 283, vi, 77, 79, 80, viii, 164;
- electrical positiveness, vi, 59;
- electric welding of, iv, 312;
- electrochemical analysis, viii, 295;
- extraction methods, 270-1;
- fungicide uses, 170;
- formerly mined in New Jersey, xiv, 112;
- heat conductivity, iv, 176, 179;
- melting point and requirements, 162, viii, 384;
- name, origin of, xv, 157;
- native, iii, 327;
- occurrence and production, 360-2, viii, 129, 130-1, 163, 198, xiv, 237, 288;
- refining of, vii, 319-20, viii, 166-7, 272;
- specific heat of, iv, 155;
- specific gravity, viii, 384;
- tests for, 286, 287, 288;
- uses, iii, 359-60, viii, 126-7, 163-4, 167;
- valences of, 94, 189
- Copper Bromide, color, viii, 123
- Copper Chloride, color, viii, 123;
- electrolysis of, 124
- Copperhead Snakes, xii, 233
- Copper-Plating, vii, 314-15, 317-18, viii, 165-6
- Copper Pyrites, iii, 326
- Copper Smelting, smoke precipitation, vii, 347
- Copper Sulphate, color, viii, 123;
- electrolysis of, 125;
- uses, 146, 332;
- used in Egyptian medicine, x, 12;
- water and, mixture of, iv, 131
- Copper Wire, for electrical transmission, vi, 77, 79, 80, vii, 20, 22-3, 104;
- standard tables, 378-80;
- table of carrying capacities, 381
- Copra, xiii, 220, xv, 125
- Coquina Rock, viii, 152
- Coral Reefs, xii, 40-2, xiv, 263-4;
- formed in shallow water, iii, 53, xiv, 276;
- oceanic islands built of, 276, 277;
- temperature limitations, 263-4, 305, xii, 40
- Corals, iii, 259, 266, 267-8, xii, 38-43;
- calcium carbonate in, viii, 151;
- false, xii, 47
- Coral Snakes, xii, 213, 225-6
- Corbeil, Gilles de, x, 37
- Corcovado Peak, xiv, 112
- Cordage, sources, xiii, 238-41
- Cordaitales, xiii, 310, 317
- Cordaites, iii, 255, 256
- Cordova, university of, xvi, 100
- Cores, in electric machines, vii, 365
- Cork, specific gravity of, iv, 109, 112
- Cormorants, xii, 253;
- fish-catching with, xv, 223-4
- Corn, American origin, xiii, 182, 211, 212, 221, 222;
- economic importance, 208;
- food value, viii, 364, 365, x, 262, 278, 279;
- grains of, fruits, xiii, 56;
- in grass family, 179;
- leaves of, 32, 176;
- monocotyledon, 178;
- stalks, glucose from, ix, 230;
- stalk structure, xiii, 26;
- starch manufacture from, viii, 243;
- time to plant, i, 255;
- tryptophane in, viii, 351;
- weather best for, i, 245-8
- (see also Indian Corn)
[Pg 236]
- Corn Crakes, xii, 262
- Cornea, of eye, ix, 109, 110 (fig.), xi, 84, 85;
- astigmatism of, ix, 113-14;
- no warm spots in, xi, 112
- Cornets, iv, 231
- Corn Flour, vitamines in, x, 267
- Corn-Harvesting Machines, v, 249
- Corn Syrup, as food, ix, 292;
- vitamines in, x, 262
- Corolla, xiii, 45;
- absent in some plants, 46, 182;
- evolution of, 201
- Corona Discharge (electricity), vii, 10-11, 23
- Corona of Sun, ii, 219-26, 184;
- appearance in eclipses, 213-14;
- comets and, 281;
- photographic studies, 128, 129;
- rotation, 121;
- study of, proposed method, 225-6;
- study in various eclipses, 211-12, 214, 218
- Coronas, atmospheric, i, 183-4, 370
- Coronium, discovery, ii, 211, 223
- Corposants, i, 157-8
- Corrasion, defined, iii, 29;
- by ice, 63-4;
- by sand, 72;
- in Grand Canyon, 40;
- potholes formed by, 39-40
- Correlation, mathematical, i, 253
- Correlation of Energy, iv, 40
- Corries, of Scotland, xiv, 58
- Corrigan, John, x, 112
- Corrosion, chemical, viii, 10, 13, 100;
- Electrolytic (see Electrolytic Corrosion)
- Corrosive Sublimate, viii, 170
- Cort, Henry, v, 316
- Corti, Organ of, xi, 102
- Corundum, iii, 327-8
- Corvisart, x, 110
- Corymb, flower-form, xiii, 50
- Coryza, x, 295, 341
- Cos, School of, x, 21-2;
- influence in middle ages, 37
- Cosmogony, defined, ii, 362;
- theories, ancient and modern, 366-84, xvi, 58, 76-9, 80, 81-2, 84
- Cossacks, bows and arrows of, xv, 214
- Cotopaxi, Mount, xiv, 225
- Cotton, as clothing material, ix, 311, x, 307, 308, 309;
- cultivation, xiii, 238;
- dyes for, viii, 259;
- fiber, 229, 254, ix, 30, xiii, 237;
- fiber to fabric, v, 269-83;
- humidity effects, i, 78;
- importance, xiii, 208, 235, 236;
- kinds, v, 269, xiii, 236;
- Mediterranean origin, xxiv, 382;
- mercerized, viii, 255;
- preparation for manufacture, xiii, 237-8;
- removal of, from wool, viii, 255;
- vegetable silk from, 255-6
- Cotton Cloth, making of, v, 269-83
- Cotton Crop, forecasts, i, 251
- Cotton Gin, Macarthy's, xiii, 238;
- Whitney's v, 269-71, 376
- Cotton Plant, xiii, 236-7
- Cotton Seed, uses, xiii, 238
- Cottonseed Oil, viii, 246;
- solidified, 232, 247
- Cottrell, Dr., vii, 216
- Cotyledons, xiii, 60;
- classification by, 176
- Cougars, xii, 363
- Coughing, reflex action, ix, 135, 258, xi, 20
- Coulomb, electric quantity unit, iv, 280, 284, vi, 17, 69, 82, vii, 365, 374
- Coulomb, C. A., electrical work, vi, 17-18, xvi, 122;
- quantity unit named for, iv, 280
- Countertrade Winds, i, 130, 366
- Counter Voltage, vii, 365;
- in motors, vi, 226-8, 232, 233, 236
- Counting (see Numbers)
- Country Rock, definition and character, xiv, 105
- Courage, motor origin, xi, 61
- Courtship, among animals and birds, xv, 274-5
- Cows, domesticating qualities, xv, 197;
- fat production by, ix, 298;
- milking by electricity, vii, 222, 226-7
- Cow's Milk, for infants, ix, 33-4, 346
- Cowries, xii, 73
- Coyote, xii, 340
- Crabs, iii, 260, 276, 279, xii, 85-7;
- deep sea, 23;
- hard and soft-shelled, 83;
- "no-body," 89;
- sponges and, 32
- Cramps, from cold baths, ix, 313;
- significance, xi, 120
- Cranberry, bogs, xiii, 382;
- origin, 225;
- ovary, 202
- Cranes, (birds), xii, 262
- Cranes, hydraulic, v, 101-2, 106
- Cranial Nerves, ix, 131, 132, 142, xi, 29-31, 76;
- doggerel verse on, 214
- Crater Lakes, iii, 155, xiv, 101, 203
- Craters, formation of, xiv, 101-2;
- of Hawaiian volcanoes, iii, 104, 105, xiv, 322;
- of Mount Katmai, iii, 101, (fig.)
- Crawfish, xii, 87
- Creation, ancient conceptions, ii, 366, xvi, 77
- Creative Imagination, xi, 225-7
- Creepers (birds), xii, 268
- Creeping Speedwell, xiii, 28
- Creodonts, xii, 332, 339, 366, 375
- Creosote, constituents, viii, 333;
- source, xiii, 255
- Crepuscular Rays, i, 169, 370
- Cress, xiii, 197, 222
- Cresylic Acid, viii, 238, 253, 333
- Cretaceous Peneplain, iii, 232
- Cretaceous Period, iii, 214-20;
- animals and plants of, 20, 256-7, 266, 295-6, 292, 297, xii, 154, 202, 210, 242-3, 275;
- first mammals in, xv, 71
- Crete, ancient meteor in, ii, 284;
- early civilization of, xiv, 281;
- elevation changes, 33;
- Phaestos disk, xv, 176 (fig.)
[Pg 237]
- Cretinism, x, 350
- Crevasses, formation, iii, 63;
- cirques from, 66
- Crex Rugs, xiii, 188, 236
- Cribo, (snake), xii, 219
- Crickets, xii, 110
- Crile, Dr. George W., on emotion effects, xi, 135-6;
- on fear in animals, 136;
- on kinetic system, 57-60;
- on laughter, 355, 356;
- on pain, 119, 120;
- on suppressed desires, 141-2
- Crime, hypnosis and, xi, 320;
- of crowds, 329-31;
- punishment of, among primitive peoples, xv, 369-75, 379-80;
- street lighting and, vi, 279
- Crinoids, xii, 23, 49
- Cripple Creek Gold District, iii, 367
- Crisis, in diseases, Hippocratic doctrine, x, 21
- Critical Period, of crops, i, 248-50, 370
- Critical Pressure, iv, 171-3
- Critical Temperatures, i, 29, iv, 171-2, viii, 303-4;
- of various substances, iv, 173
- Crocker Land, i, 173
- Crocodiles, xii, 182, 196, 198-202;
- resemblance to tuatera, 184;
- sleeping sickness due to, x, 169;
- ziczacs and, xii, 263
- Cro-Magnons, xv, 99-102, xvi, 50;
- art of, xv, 110-21;
- implements of, 109
- Crompton, mule-spinner of, v, 274, 376
- Cromwell, sea captain, v, 305
- Crookes, Sir William, cathode ray studies, x, 184, xvi, 165, 193;
- on nitrogen needs, i, 34;
- theory of fourth state of matter, iv, 54-5, xvi, 193;
- vacuum tubes named for, iv, 317
- Crookes Tube, iv, 317, vi, 114, vii, 251;
- electron study in, xvi, 193;
- fluorescence in, iv, 380;
- phenomena of, 50;
- X-ray discovery and uses, x, 184, 185
- Crop Forecasts, i, 250-2
- Crops, critical period, i, 248-50, 370;
- rotation of, viii, 342-6;
- sun spots and, ii, 186;
- weather and, i, 245-50, 252-3
- Crossbows, xv, 215
- Crosses, inheritance of characters in, ix, 333-7, x, 231-2, xiii, 332
- Crossfell, helm and bar of, i, 105, 374
- Cross Fertilization (plants), methods to insure, xiii, 120-54;
- variations due to, 331-3
- Croton Bugs, xii, 107
- Croton Dam, iv, 119, 120 (fig.)
- Croup, antitoxin in, x, 298
- Crowberry, spread of, xiii, 342
- Crow Blackbird, coloring of, xii, 245
- Crowd-poisoning, i, 321
- Crowds, psychology of, xi, 323-33;
- leaders of, 332-3;
- legal responsibility, 329-31
- Crucibles, graphite, viii, 43;
- platinum, 173
- Crucible Steel Process, vii, 312
- Cruickshank, William, electrical work, xvi, 122
- Cruickshank, Wm. Cumberland, medical work, xvi, 179
- Crusaders, coffee not known to, xiii, 232;
- heroic crowds, xi, 326;
- paper introduced by, v, 290
- Crusades, effect on medicine, x, 37;
- horse improvement by, xii, 307
- Crust of Earth, xiv, 16;
- chemical constituents, iii, 308, viii, 19, 90, 118, 129, 138-9, 148, 190-1, 192;
- chemistry of, 190-203;
- layers in, 191-2;
- movements, iii, 76-98, xiv, 31-2, 33-9, 341
- (see also Earth Movements);
- rocks in iii, 12-14, 110-12, xiv, 17-19;
- settling, cause of brontides, 196;
- specific gravity, xiv, 11;
- theory of formation, iii, 160;
- thickness, 17, viii, 191-2;
- waters in, iii, 113-29
- Cryptograms, xiii, 63;
- cycads and, 309;
- earliest plants, 303;
- forests of, of Silurian, xv, 71;
- in coal age, xiii, 310;
- numbers, 168;
- reproductive process, 154-65;
- spore-dispersal by wind, 344;
- water necessary to fertilization, 300 (see Flowerless Plants)
- Crystalline Form, iii, 309-11, viii, 203, 312-13;
- solidification in relation to, iv, 163
- Crystalline Rocks, iii, 378;
- of oldest eras, 169, 170-1, 189
- Crystals, Crystallization, iii, 309-20, 377-8;
- cleavage, 310, 318, viii, 202;
- electrification by cleavage of, iv, 260;
- growth, iii, 311, 316;
- growth of alum, viii, 313;
- light polarization by, iii, 319-20, iv, 354;
- Mitscherlich's studies, xvi, 161;
- Pasteur's studies, 163-4;
- snow and ice, i, 115-16;
- water of, viii, 38;
- X-ray studies, iii, 311, viii, 313
- Ctesibius, discovery of compressed air, v, 109-11;
- ignorant of atmospheric pressure, 112;
- inventions and theories, xvi, 91-2;
- water clocks, v, 59-62
- Cuba, almiquis of, xii, 367;
- American occupation, x, 160;
- earthquakes in, xiv, 331;
- jute production, xiii, 241;
- sugar production, 215;
- tobacco production, 258;
- yellow fever eradication, x, 160-2, xiv, 356;
- zoölogy of, 274-5
- Cuckoos, xii, 255-6
- Cucumbers, as food, viii, 365;
- origin, xiii, 223
- Cud Animals, xii, 311-12
- Cugnot, Joseph, v, 207
[Pg 238]
- Culinary Paradox, iv, 168-9
- Cullen, Dr., refrigerating machine, v, 350, 354-6
- Cullen, William, x, 88
- Cultivated Plants, birthrate in, xiii, 51;
- original sources, 221-7, xiv, 381-2
- (see also Garden Plants)
- Cultivation (soil), reason for, xiii, 92
- Cultural Advance, requisites of, x, 107
- Cumberland Plateau, xiv, 221;
- height, 27
- Cumberland Valley, xiv, 167
- Cumene, viii, 235, 253
- Cumulo-Nimbus Clouds, i, 102, 103-4
- Cumulus Clouds, 1, 98, 101-2, 103-4;
- air currents and, 293;
- formation of, 93
- Cuneiform Writing, xv, 174, 175 (figs.), xvi, 60
- Curassows, xii, 261
- Curie, Madame, radium discovery, xvi, 193
- Curiosity, instinct of, xi, 55;
- of crowds, 328
- Curlews, xii, 262
- Currents (water) power of, iii, 30-1, xiv, 39, 52-3
- Current Transformers, vii, 44
- Current Wheels, v, 76
- Curtis, on spiral nebulæ, ii, 362
- Curtis Turbines, v, 151, 152, 382
- Curved Motion, forces producing, iv, 72-3
- Curves, pitching of, iv, 67-9
- Cusa, Nicolas de, xvi, 102
- Custom, Cicero on, x, 135;
- modesty and, xv, 254-5;
- morality and, 286;
- obedience to, how enforced, 374-5;
- crowd psychology in, xi, 333
- Customs Examinations, by X-rays, vii, 256-7
- Cut-off, of steam engine, v, 146-7, 208
- Cutting of Metals, v, 46-7, 54-5, 383;
- by oxygen jet, i, 33
- Cuttings, (plants) propagation by, ix, 337, xiii, 166, 167
- Cutting Tools, of ancient Egypt, xvi, 66-7
- Cuttlebone, xii, 79
- Cuttlefish, iii, 260, 275-6, xii, 58, 78-9
- Cuvier, biological works, xvi, 139, 148;
- work on paleontology, 168
- Cyanamide Process, i, 36, viii, 74, 153
- Cyanide Solution, vii, 317
- Cyanogen, xvi, 160
- Cycads, iii, 251, 255, xiii, 309, 316, 317
- Cycles, chemical, viii, 334-5, 349-50
- (see also Carbon, Hydrogen, nitrogen Cycles)
- Cycles, geographical and geological, xiv, 29
- (see also Cycles of Erosion)
- Cycles, of alternating currents, vi, 153, 154-5;
- degrees of, 204
- Cycles of Erosion, in land surfaces, iii, 33-6, xiv, 30, 34-5, 47-9, 155-64;
- in mountains, iii, 135-6;
- in shore lines, 56-7, xiv, 254-5
- Cyclones, i, 135-8, 370, xiv, 349-50;
- electrification by, vii, 212-13;
- handling of ships in, i, 277-8
- Cyclonic Thunderstorms, i, 138, 151
- Cyclonopathy, i, 330, 370
- Cyclonoscopes, i, 279, 370
- Cyclops, (crustacean), xii, 84
- Cygni, 61, measurement of distance, ii, 16, 315;
- parallax, 311-12
- Cygnus, nebulæ in, ii, 360;
- new star in, 332
- Cylinders, boring of, v, 44-5;
- cooling, 159-61, 166-7;
- in internal combustion engines, 157-61, 166-7;
- of steam engine, 147;
- pressure in, iv, 119
- Cyme, flower form, xiii, 50
- Cynodictis, xii, 346-7
- Cypress Trees, in landscaping, xiii, 270;
- in southern forest, xiv, 372
- Czecho-Slovakia, public health fellowships, x, 172;
- stone age remains in, 108 (fig.)
- Daboia, xii, 231
- Daddy Longlegs, xii, 90
- Da Gama, Vasco, xiv, 309, 351
- Daggers, development of, xv, 212
- Daguerre, ii, 125
- Daimler, Gottlieb, v, 213, 382
- Dairies, electricity in, vii, 226-7
- Dairy Products, drain on farm of, viii, 342-3
- Daisies, flowers of, xiii, 49-50;
- introduction to America, 353-4;
- seed dispersal, 58-9;
- stems, 23
- Daisy Family, xiii, 206;
- fertilization in, 144;
- flower forms, 44 (fig.);
- fossil species, 324;
- in New Zealand, 380;
- in pampas, 376;
- original home and spread, 350, 353;
- petal arrangement, 190;
- seed dispersal, 344, 345
- Dakin, antiseptic solutions of, x, 181-3, 382
- Dakota Sandstone Formation, iii, 114, 115 (fig.)
- Dalmatia, coast of, xiv, 252, 257;
- harbors of, 268
- Dalton, John, xi, 93, xvi, 133, 160, 162
- Daltonism, inheritance of, ix, 340
- Damaraland, desert plant of, xiii, 380
- Damascus, swords of, v, 315
- Damped Waves, vii, 264, 273, 286-8, 290
- Dampier, William, i, 130, xvi, 114
- Damping, in meters, vii, 159
- Dams, beaver, xii, 295-6;
- use of, v, 76, vi, 361, 364
[Pg 239]
- Damsel Flies, xii, 105
- Dances, Indian, xv, 305-6;
- primitive, 310-12, 313, 316
- Dandelion, family of, xiii, 206;
- flower of, 49;
- origin, 223, 353-4;
- roots, 16;
- seed dispersal, 58-9, 344
- Daniell Cell, viii, 167
- Dante, skull capacity, xv, 40
- Danube River, delta of, xiv, 185;
- historical importance, xv, 138-9;
- longitudinal character, xiv, 154;
- varied course, 155
- Danzig, Poland and, xiv, 306
- Darby, Abraham, v, 316
- Dardanelles, important to Russia, xiv, 267
- Dardanelles Expedition, i, 308
- Dark Days, i, 56-7, ii, 211
- Darkness, distinguishing of, by primitive animals, ix, 105;
- effect on plants, xiii, 72, 76, 77, 84-90;
- effects on plants, animals, and man, x, 253;
- from interferences of light, iv, 377-8;
- horrors of world of, 51;
- periodic seeking of, xi, 52-3;
- sleep and, 282, 288;
- tuberculosis germ and, x, 290, 291
- Dark Segments, i, 167, 371
- Darning Needles (flies), xii, 105
- Darwin, Charles Robert, x, 134-6, xv, 15;
- book on fertilization of orchids, xiii, 145;
- book on restless plants, 110;
- epigenesis theory, xvi, 118;
- experiment on destruction of seedlings, xv, 21;
- experiment with tendrils, xiii, 112;
- naturalist on "Beagle," 224, x, 134-5, xvi, 142;
- on descent of man, xv, 56;
- on emotions, xi, 131-3;
- on expression of emotions by animals, xv, 64-5;
- on fossil record, xiii, 302;
- on Madagascar orchid, 48;
- on self-fertilization, 135;
- on sexual selection, xv, 274;
- on variations, 334;
- "Origin of Species," x, 135, xiii, 334, xvi, 148, 167, 181-2;
- skull capacity, xv, 40
- (see also Darwinian Theory)
- Darwin, Erasmus, x, 134, xvi, 148
- Darwin, George H., tidal friction theory, ii, 375-6, 377, 156-7
- Darwinian Theory, x, 135, 136, xv, 15, 24-5, 56, xvi, 149-51, 152;
- Bagehot on changes wrought by, xvi, 198;
- Greek anticipation of, 79;
- horror first caused by, xv, 53;
- naturalism and, xvi, 111;
- philosophical effects of, 195
- Dassies, South African, xii, 304
- Dasyures, xii, 278
- Date Palm Tree, xv, 125
- David's Deer, xii, 316
- Davos, health resort, i, 210, 325
- Davy, Edmund, xvi, 190
- Davy, Sir Humphry, electrical work, vi, 16, 19, xvi, 122, 189;
- heat studies, iv, 43, xvi, 131;
- laughing gas discovery, x, 123-4, 125
- Day, divisions of, v, 57, xvi, 57;
- mean solar, iv, 15-16;
- periods of high and low temperatures, i, 76, xiv, 347-8;
- periods of highest energy, xi, 277
- Day and Night Breezes, i, 131
- Dayflies, xii, 104
- Dead Reckoning, v, 65-6
- Dead Sea, formation of basin, iii, 151, xiv, 118, 120-1;
- level and level changes, iii, 151-2, xiv, 121, 205, 362;
- salinity, iii, 152, viii, 139, xiv, 207
- Deaf and Dumb, sign language of, xv, 148, 150
- Deafness, ix, 103-4;
- from brain disease, 146
- Death, correlative of life, xii, 13;
- "irritability" theory of, x, 86, 87;
- James on phenomena of approaching, 242;
- physiological meaning, ix, 17;
- primitive conceptions of, xv, 327-9, 331-8;
- vital knot in relation to, ix, 257
- Death Adders, xii, 229
- Debtors, treatment of, in African tribes, xv, 370
- De Candolle, plant classification, xvi, 165-6;
- vegetable table, xiii, 221
- Decay, air and, xiii, 312-18;
- carbon dioxide from, viii, 49, 61;
- humus produced by, 340;
- nitrogen from, 73, 346;
- phosphorescence from, i, 346, 349, xii, 20
- Deccan of India, lava fields, iii, 105, 228, xiv, 103
- Deciduous Trees, xiii, 175, 269, 271-2;
- of temperate forests, xiv, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374
- Decimal System, xv, 181
- Declination, of compass needle, iv, 247
- Declination of Stars, ii, 299
- Decomposition, (chemical), viii, 12, 101;
- contrasted with dissociation, 121;
- double, 104-5;
- of salts, 117
- Decrement, of oscillating currents, vii, 286, 287-8
- Deeps, ocean, iii, 52, xiv, 9, 23, 286;
- volcanoes and, 316
- Deep Sea, animal life in, xii, 21-4;
- animals, luminosity of, 139;
- conditions of life in, 21-2;
- darkness of, 22, xiv, 298;
- density of, xii, 21;
- deposits, iii, 54-5, xiv, 285, 286;
- fish of, xi, 53, xii, 20, 23-4, 136, 138-9, 163, xvi, 146;
- ground sharks of, xii, 143, 147;
- movement of water in, xiv, 284, 298-9;
- never over present continents, iii, 55;
- ooze, xii, 18, 19;
- plants of, 16-17;
- seaweeds not found in, xiii, 72;
- soundings of, xiv, 284;
- temperature, 297, 298, 299;
- topographical features, 284, 286-7, 288-90;
[Pg 240]
- unknown to us, v, 202
- Deer, xii, 317-20;
- evolution of hoofs, iii, 300;
- fear in, xi, 136;
- heart in, x, 332
- Deer Family, xii, 315-20
- Deer-hunting, in India, xv, 223
- Defectives, human, increase in, xv, 27
- De Forest, audion detector, xvi, 191
- Degrees, electrical, vi, 204
- De Haen, x, 77
- Dejection, emotion of, xi, 146;
- posture and, 337, 338-40
- (see also Despondency)
- DeLaval Steam Turbine, v, 148-50, 382
- Delaware Indians, prayer song of, xv, 346-7
- Delaware River, estuary of, xiv, 40;
- geological history, 40, 60, 168-9, 171;
- heterogeneous course, 155;
- rapids of, 159;
- shad season in, xii, 155;
- superimposed stream, iii, 233;
- transverse characters, xiv, 99, 154, 167;
- valley and gap, 50-1, 52, 169
- Delaware Water Gap, iii, 233, xiv, 50-1, 167, 169;
- rock weathering at, 76
- Delco Automobile System, vii, 137
- Delco Power Sets, vii, 232
- De Lesseps, Ferdinand, Saharan proposal, xiv, 205
- Deliberation, after contact and distance sensations, ix, 95, 121, 140;
- nervous delays in, 140, 141, xi, 20, 21;
- value of, 139
- Delirium, Brown on, x, 89;
- hot baths in, 311
- Delta Connections (electric), vi, 210-11, 318, 325
- Delphi, Oracle of, xv, 351-2
- Deltas, iii, 32, xiv, 53;
- alluvial soil of, 70;
- coasts formed by, 53, 263;
- in lakes, 202, 210-11;
- lakes formed by, 203;
- rivers joined by, 185
- Delusions, x, 358-9
- Demagnetization, vi, 37-8, 117, vii, 366;
- by heat, iv, 253;
- test, vi, 43
- Dementia Precox, x, 237
- Democritus, on knowledge, xvi, 87;
- on matter, 83;
- on origin of earth, ii, 366-7
- Demosthenes, timed speeches, v, 62
- Denatured Alcohol, viii, 250
- Dendrites, xi, 18, 19;
- receptors for pain, 117
- Denmark, antiquity of man in, xv, 86-7;
- föhrden of, xiv, 259;
- forests and peat bogs, xv, 86-7
- Density, absolute, iv, 110-11;
- methods of determining, 111-12;
- of liquids, how measured, 113, vi, 147;
- of various substances, iv, 113;
- specific, 111;
- standard of, 149
- Densmore, James, v, 312
- Dental Arches, xv, 98 (fig.)
- Dentistry, hypnosis in, xi, 316;
- protection against pain, 121
- Denudation (see Erosion)
- Denver, boiling temperature in, iv, 170
- Deodorants, inhibition in, xi, 81
- Department Stores, Christmas lighting, vii, 342;
- pneumatic tubes in, iv, 130;
- rain and business, i, 265
- Deperditometer, i, 319, 371
- Depolarization, of electric cells, vi, 137, 139, vii, 366
- Depression, of land and sea areas, (see Subsidence)
- Depressions, (geological) in land, xiv, 204-5;
- in ocean floor, 286
- Depressions (meteorological), i, 135, 371 (see Lows)
- Depth, perception of, ix, 119-20, xi, 173-85
- Derborence, lakes of, xiv, 202
- Derived Proteins, viii, 352-3
- Derived Units, iv, 46, xvi, 131
- Dermographism, xi, 317
- Dermoid Cysts, x, 120
- Desault, Pierre, x, 91-2
- Descartes, influence of, x, 67;
- mathematical and scientific work, ii, 15, xvi, 113-14, 118-19;
- theory of vortices, ii, 60
- Descriptive Astronomy, development of, ii, 15-16, 113-14, 119, 139
- Deserts, density of air over, i, 171;
- dust whirls, 60;
- evaporation in, 323;
- in trade wind belts, xiv, 355-6, 380;
- irrigation by sun-power, v, 178;
- lizards of, xii, 206;
- mirages, i, 172-3, 174, iv, 328-9;
- rainfall, i, 112;
- rainfall and plants, xiii, 377-81;
- rock weathering in, iii, 23, 71-3, xiv, 42, 77, 79;
- salt deposits, viii, 197;
- "stretching" of, xi, 173;
- water-storing plants, xiii, 28, 30, 41-2, 104, 106-7, 336 (illus.);
- wind action in, iii, 71-5
- (see also Arid Regions)
- Desert Sounds, i, 196, 371
- Desert Topography, xiv, 41-2
- Design, elements of (prehistoric), xv, 299
- Designs, enlargement of by lanterns, iv, 342
- Desires, suppression of, xi, 140-2
- (see also Suppressions)
- Despondency, indigestion and, xi, 370
- (see also Dejection)
- Detectors, wireless, iv, 315-16, vii, 261, 268-70, 278-80;
- to guide ships, 284-5
- Determiners, inheritance, ix, 329-42, x, 233-4, xiii, 330, xvi, 156
- Detonation, of explosives, viii, 262
- Detroit, steamers passing, xiv, 212
- Devilfish, xii, 78, 148-50
[Pg 241]
- Devil's Tower, Wyoming, iii, 111, 176 (Pl. 10), xiv, 129-30
- Devil Whirlwinds, i, 60, 371
- Devonian Period, iii, 20, 194-6, 378;
- "Age of Fishes," 283, xv, 71;
- animals and plants in, iii, 252, 271, 277, 278, 282-4, 285;
- extension of sea in, 192 (fig. 37)
- De Vries, variation studies, xvi, 153
- Dew, i, 120-1, 371, xiii, 108;
- former belief about, i, 119;
- not formed on cloudy nights, iv, 183
- Dewar, liquid air inventions, i, 31, vii, 323
- Dewar Flask, viii, 68
- Dew Bow, i, 177
- Dew Point, i, 78, 79, 371
- Dew Ponds, i, 352-3, 371
- Dextrin, viii, 227-8;
- in bread crust, 368;
- molecules of, 356;
- production and uses, 241, 243, 244
- Dholes, xii, 345
- Diabetes, ix, 290, 293-4, x, 276, 330
- Diablerets, peaks of, xiv, 202
- Diagnosis, art and science of, x, 366-79;
- Brown's system, 89;
- chest, 99, 371;
- Egyptian study of, xvi, 70;
- of infectious diseases (serum method), x, 215-17;
- X-rays in, vii, 251, 254, 255, 256, x, 185-6, 372-4
- Diamond Drills, v, 263, 264, 380;
- in ancient Egypt, xvi, 67
- Diamonds, iii, 328, viii, 42-3;
- artificial, vii, 301, 311, xvi, 190;
- cathode ray effects, 193;
- cutting of, vii, 300, 309;
- electrification, vi, 12;
- in meteorites, ii, 292;
- X-ray tests, vii, 257
- Diana of the Ephesians, ii, 284
- Diarrhea, ix, 249, x, 253, 307, 328
- Diastole, arterial, x, 62, 63-4, 65;
- of heart, 65
- Diathermanous Bodies, iv, 182
- Diatoms, deposits of, iii, 257-8, xiii, 67-8;
- in tripolite, iii, 335;
- in sea, xii, 17;
- oil from, iii, 349;
- oil storage by, ix, 28
- Diatonic Scale, iv, 207
- Dichloramin-T., x, 183, 382
- Dicotyledons, xiii, 60;
- antiquity, 207;
- leaves and flowers, 176, 178;
- leaves and stems, 177 (fig.);
- subdivisions, 180, 189-90;
- various families, 189-205
- Dictation, memory after-images in, xi, 220
- Dieffenbach, Johann Friedrich, x, 130
- Dielectric, of condensers, iv, 264, vi, 302, 305, vii, 366;
- in lightning, 206;
- losses due to imperfect, 297-8;
- strain, 366
- Diesel Engines, v, 161-2, 382;
- efficiency, 164;
- fuel, 156;
- in submarines, 199
- Diet, bile in relation to, ix, 275;
- deficiency of, diseases from, x, 255-68, 276;
- fads of, ix, 285-6;
- fats and proteins in, 300-1;
- for reducing weight, 301-2;
- mixed, man adapted to, 246, 285-6;
- natural regulation of, 301, x, 255, 257;
- need of amino acids in, 278;
- nutrients in daily, viii, 366-7;
- starch foods in ordinary, ix, 290, 300
- (see also Foods, Nutrition)
- Difform Motion, ii, 80
- Diffraction of light, iv, 326, 378;
- optical phenomena, i, 183-5
- Diffraction of sound, iv, 52, 236-7
- Digestion, ix, 226-46, x, 319-30, 353;
- benefited by savory food, ix, 98, 241-2;
- chemistry of, viii, 356-8;
- color effects, xi, 96;
- emotion effects on, ix, 165, 241;
- enzymes in, viii, 103, 357 (see Enzymes);
- excitement effects, xi, 374-5;
- exercise and, 339;
- fried foods and, ix, 286;
- fruit stimulation of, viii, 365;
- glucose in, 225-6;
- historical studies of, ix, 239-40, x, 121, 128;
- hot baths and, ix, 313;
- in men and plants, xiii, 109;
- of proteins, x, 204;
- sleep in relation to, ix, 219, xi, 285;
- soups as aid to, ix, 241, x, 320
- (see also Indigestion)
- Digging with water jets, v, 88
- Digitalis, source, xiii, 256;
- use of, in heart diseases, x, 333, 383
- Dikes (geological), iii, 13, 110-11, 378, xiv, 106-8;
- columns in, 130;
- illustrations, iii, 102, 160 (Pl. 9);
- veins and, 383-4
- Dilated Stomach, ix, 85
- Dimension, illusions of, xi, 186, 188, 189;
- perception of, 162, 165, 171-2, 172-83
- Dining rooms, lighting, vi, 275-6, vii, 69-70
- Dinosaurs, iii, 288-93, 304 (Pl. 17), xii, 182, 194-5
- Diœcious Plants, xiii, 47
- Dionysus, worship of, xv, 352
- Diophantus, xvi, 95
- Dioptra, of Ctesibius, xvi, 91
- Diphenyl, viii, 240
- Dipper (constellation), moving clusters in, ii, 343
- Diphtheria, x, 296-8;
- antitoxin of, 197, 212, 213-14, 218, 296-8;
- immunity to, 207, 298;
- named by Bretonneau, 110;
- toxin of, 196, 197
- Direct Current Generators, iv, 307-8, vi, 159, 175-94, 344;
- commutators on, vii, 364-5;
- employment, vi, 215;
- voltages, 159
- Direct Current Motors, vi, 217-39;
[Pg 242]
- in traction, vii, 182-3, 198-200;
- on farms, 224;
- speed flexibility, vi, 224-6, 229, 230, 232, 240-1
- Direct Currents, vi, 152, 153-4, vii, 365;
- ammeters for, vii, 166-72;
- circuit-breakers for, 37, 39, 40;
- conversion from alternating, vi, 330-48;
- generation (See Direct Current Generators);
- inductance in, 166;
- lighting and magnetic effects, 155, 156-7;
- open-circuited by condensers, 170, 304;
- power consumed by, 165;
- transformers unusable, 309;
- transmission by, 160, 161, 195, 332;
- uses, 152, 332;
- used in electric furnaces, vii, 305-6;
- used in electrochemistry, vi, 163;
- used in electrotherapy, vii, 244;
- used in smoke precipitation, vi, 164;
- used in traction, 161-2, vii, 182, 186, 195;
- value of current flow, vi, 164-5 (see Ohm's Law);
- voltages, vii, 164;
- voltages, production of high, 349-50;
- voltmeters for, 154-65;
- wattmeters for, 172, 173, 175
- Direct Lighting, xi, 277, 373
- Direction, perception of, ix, 117-18, 120, xi, 165, 167-71
- Directional Wireless, i, 291, 302
- Dirigible Balloons, iv, 107-8, v, 226-30, 382;
- in forest service, i, 49
- Disaccharides, viii, 224, 226-7, 375;
- enzyme of, 357
- Discomfort, atmospheric, i, 318, 320, 322;
- senses of, in infants, ix, 351
- Discordant Coasts, xiv, 249
- Discouragement, conquering of, xi, 337-40
- (see also Dejection, Despondency)
- Discoveries, accidental, xv, 212-13, 232, 241-2;
- great, usual way of, x, 40;
- priority in scientific, 122
- Disease Germs, x, 193-226, xiii, 71;
- body resistance to, ix, 177-9, 185-7, x, 197-8, 203-12, xi, 34;
- campaign against, x, 285-315;
- discovery of, x, 194, 381, xvi, 143;
- identification of, x, 150, 215-17;
- in air, danger from, i, 325-6;
- in sewage, viii, 326, 328;
- in water supplies, 41, 318, 319;
- man's struggle with, xv, 25-6;
- "portals of entry," x, 198, 201-2.
- (See also Infectious Diseases)
- Diseases, anciently ascribed to spirits, x, 12;
- atmospheric electricity and, i, 330;
- "atom" theory of, x, 26;
- Brunonian theory of, 89;
- causes and factors other than infection, 227-81, 283;
- causes of infectious, 193-226;
- causes of, historical conceptions, 380;
- climatic treatment, i, 331, x, 383;
- diagnosis, (see Diagnosis);
- electric treatment (see Electro-therapeutics);
- habit in, xi, 248;
- Hoffmann's nervous fluid theory, x, 85-6;
- Humoral Doctrine of, 21;
- hypnotic treatment, xi, 319;
- infectious (see Infectious Diseases);
- James on, x, 244;
- lesion differentiated from, 98;
- living causes, 193-226;
- Locke on curing of, 75;
- manifestations of, in organs, 318-65;
- mechanical theory of, 23, 70, 71;
- mental, 354-65;
- mental factors in, 242-4;
- metabolism, effects of, ix, 179, 302-4;
- nature in cure of, x, 21, 73, 75-6, 84-5, 367;
- occupational, 244-6;
- Paracelsus on causes of, 48-9;
- pneumatic theory, 26-7, 29;
- prevention of, 282-317, xv, 49;
- Pythagorean theory of, x, 18;
- racial susceptibility to, xv, 47-52;
- recognition of, x, 366-76;
- savage conceptions and treatment, xv, 352-3, 359;
- solidistic theory, x, 25-6;
- specific, 196;
- sthenic and asthenic, 89;
- spread by tainted water, xiv, 140;
- suppressed emotions and, xi, 140, 141;
- Sydenham on meaning of, x, 73;
- Sylvius's chemical theory of, 69;
- thirst unimpaired in, ix, 89;
- treatment of, x, 379-84
- (see also Therapy);
- tropical, xiv, 356-7, xv, 49-50;
- Van Helmont's conception of, x, 68;
- (see also Disease Germs)
- Disgust, in various sentiments, xi, 146, 148
- Disinfectants, viii, 332-3;
- chlorine, 86, 274, 333;
- formaldehyde, 219, 333;
- hydrogen peroxide, viii, 41;
- mercuric, 170, 333;
- ozone, vii, 354;
- sulphur dioxide, viii, 78, 333
- Dismal Swamp, coal-forming conditions in, iii, 199
- Displacement Currents, vi, 302, 305
- Display Lighting, vi, 280, vii, 339-43;
- colors in, iv, 51;
- psychology of, xi, 344, 345, 346
- Dispositions, sour and sunny, xi, 55
- Dissection of human bodies, x, 30, 41-2, 45, 81
- Dissociation, chemical, viii, 120, 121, 122, 375
- Dissociation of Ideas, xi, 206, 209;
- in mental troubles, x, 355, 360-1, 365
- Distance, method of measuring, ii, 197-8;
- perception of, ix, 118-19, 120, xi, 165-9, 173-89;
- units of, iv, 283
- Distance Senses, ix, 86, 96-121;
- choice in relation to, 121, 140;
[Pg 243]
- connections with brain, 142
- Distillation, alcoholic, viii, 249-50;
- apparatus, 213 (fig.);
- fractional, i, 32, iv, 168
- Distillation of coal, vii, 252-3
- Distractions, fatigue from, xi, 277
- Distress Signals, vii, 284
- Ditch Grass, fertilization, xiii, 151-2
- Ditching Machines, v, 216, 253, 254-5
- Divers, compression and decompression, v, 120-1;
- pressure on, i, 329
- Diversion, need of, in brain work, ix, 138
- Diving Bells, v, 115-16, 121
- Divining Rods, iii, 123-4
- Division of Labor, first form of, xv, 279;
- in plants, xiii, 61-2
- Divorce, xv, 290-1
- Dizziness, from over-ventilation of lungs, ix, 266-7;
- sensation of, xi, 64
- "Doctor" Winds, i, 131, 371
- Dodder, plant, xiii, 100, 101 (fig.)
- Dodo, xii, 265
- Dog Family, xii, 338-46
- Dogfish, xii, 143, 146;
- eggs of, 140;
- name changed, i, 224
- Dogs, xii, 344-6;
- baboons and, 380;
- canine teeth of, 333;
- cat's hatred for, origin of, 355;
- domestication of, xii, 345-6, xv, 197, 198;
- embryological resemblances, 54;
- employment in hunting, 223;
- expression of emotions by, 64;
- heat-loss regulation by, ix, 307-8;
- hyenas and, xii, 351;
- imitation in, xv, 66;
- language methods of, 141;
- mode of attack, xii, 354;
- reasoning power in, xv, 68;
- sense of smell in, ix, 97, 117;
- wild, xii, 344-5;
- zoölogical interest, xvi, 16
- Dogwood, xiii, 271;
- flowering, 45;
- index plant, i, 255
- Doldrums, i, 127, 129, 136, 371, xiv, 348, 349
- Dollond, telescopes, ii, 100, 103, xvi, 125
- Dolomite, viii, 149;
- in refractories, vii, 307
- Dolphins, xii, 297
- Domestic Animals, development of, xii, 345-6, xv, 197-8
- Dominants, in crosses, ix, 334, 335, x, 231, 233
- Donati's Comet, ii, 275, 277, 280-1
- Donkeys, xii, 308
- Door-checks, pneumatic, v, 134
- Doppler's Principle, ii, 119, iv, 209-10;
- astronomical applications, ii, 123, 129, 133, 363
- Dormice, xii, 291
- Double Decomposition, viii, 104-5, 375
- Double Images, xi, 175-81
- Double Stars, ii, 122-4, 334-5;
- colors, 296;
- connections, 340;
- proportion of, 320;
- telescopes required for, 97-8;
- theory of origin, 377
- (see also Binary Stars)
- Doubt, reasoning and, xi, 239-40;
- retardization of impulses in, 20
- Douglas Fir, forests, xiii, 340, xiv, 374
- Dover, England, breakwater, xiv, 301
- Doves, mating of, xv, 276;
- plumage of neck, xii, 245
- (see also pigeons)
- Down, character of, xii, 244;
- warmth of, x, 309
- Downs of England, dew ponds, i, 352-3
- Dowry System, xv, 285
- Dragon Flies, xii, 105-6;
- ancient, iii, 279, xiii, 308;
- eyes of, xii, 102
- Dragon Tree, xiii, 183-4
- Drainage Systems, continental, xiv, 189-90;
- development stages, iii, 33-4, xiv, 48, 49, 155;
- earthquake effects, 335;
- Ice Age changes, iii, 243-5, xiv, 60-1, 170-1;
- joints and, 131
- Drake, Daniel, x, 116
- Drama, origin and development of, xv, 303-10, 322, 325;
- sentiment in, xi, 151
- Draper, Dr. Henry, astronomical work, ii, 17, 114, 116, 126, 130, 134, 135, 307, 358;
- reflectors of, 103, 106
- Draper Catalogue of Star Spectra, ii, 116-18, 146, 307, 309, 310
- Dravidians, of India, xvi, 53
- Drawing, development of art of, xv, 296, 298-9
- Drawing Rolls, Arkwright's, v, 273-4, 376
- Dreams, xi, 292-302;
- images of, 221;
- primitive conception of, xv, 328-9, 358;
- psychoanalysis of, x, 364-5
- Dredges, modern, v, 255-9, 381;
- walking-machine, 216
- Dried Foods, viii, 371;
- antiscurvy vitamines in, x, 262, 266
- Drift, Glacial, iii, 378 (see Glacial Debris)
- Drills, ancient Egyptian, xvi, 67;
- core, v, 263;
- diamond, 263, 264, 380;
- metal-cutting by, 47;
- multiple, 53 (see Multiple Drills);
- oil, v, 265-7;
- pneumatic, i, 27, iv, 129, v, 129-30, 261-2, 263, 380, 381;
- rock, 129, 261-2;
- sonic-wave, 108;
- spiral chisels, 46
- Dropsy, polyuria in disappearance of, x, 344;
- Van Helmont's idea of, 68
- Droughts, i, 79, 371;
- financial panics and, 263;
- records of, in tree rings, xiii, 25;
- springs and wells in, xiv, 136, 138
- Drowned Valleys, iii, 37, 378, xiv, 40, 164, 255-6;
[Pg 244]
- as harbors, 268
- Drugs, blood riddance of, ix, 274;
- coal tar, viii, 253;
- in mother's blood, effects, ix, 343-4;
- plant sources, xiii, 249-55;
- pure food law on, viii, 370;
- taste deadening by, xi, 72;
- use of, in medicine, x, 21-2, 22-3, 30, 44, 45, 75-6, 77-8, 380-1, xvi, 109, 186-7
- Drumlins, iii, 69, xiv, 60
- Drums, xv, 316;
- African, 313 (fig.)
- Drupes, xiii, 54, 194
- Dry Cells, iv, 297-8, vi, 59, 126, 127, 138, 143-4
- Dry Docks, floating of ships in, v, 95
- Dry Fogs, i, 96, 371;
- of 1783, 57, 58-9
- Dry Fruits, xiii, 54, 55-6, 57
- Drying Machines, iv, 73
- Dry Steam, v, 140
- Duckbills, xii 272, 273
- Ducks, xii, 257-8;
- darkness effects on, x, 253;
- primitive methods of hunting, xv, 222
- Duckweed, xiii, 31
- Ductless Glands, x, 346-53;
- secretions used in therapy, 382
- Dufrausne, x, 181
- Duluth, Lake, iii, 149
- Dunes, i, 53, iii, 71, 74
- Duplex Telegraphy, vii, 112, 114-17, 376
- Dupuytren, Guillaume, x, 130
- Duralumin, v, 228
- Duryea, Charles E., v, 213
- Dust, atmospheric, i, 52-65;
- atmospheric, elimination methods, ix, 269;
- body handling of, 223-4;
- deep sea deposits, iii, 54-5;
- effects on light, i, 165, 183;
- electric precipitation, vii, 216, 301-2, 347;
- in cloud formation, i, 91;
- in fog formation, viii, 304;
- in stratosphere, i, 20, 144;
- meteoric (see Meteoric Dust);
- methods of measuring, i, 61-3;
- physiological effects, i, 325;
- volcanic (see Volcanic Dust);
- wind-carrying of, i, 52-5, iii, 71, 73, 75, xiii, 344
- Dust Count, Chicago standard, viii, 332
- Dust-counter, i, 62, 371
- Dust Whirlwinds, i, 60
- Dusty Trades, i, 325
- Dutch Language, relations of, xv, 160, 162
- Dutchman's-pipe Vine, xiii, 131-3
- Dyes, Dyeing, ancient Egyptian, xvi, 72-3, 74;
- antiquity of use, xiii, 210;
- chemistry of, viii, 258-60, xvi, 163;
- coal tar, viii, 253-4;
- importance of industry, 253-4;
- purple, sources of, xii, 68, 72
- Dynamic Electricity, vii, 367
- Dynamic Heating and Cooling, i, 90
- Dynamic Meteorology, i, 123, 371
- Dynamite, viii, 261;
- blasting with, v, 100;
- invention, 380
- Dynamo-Electric Machines, defined, vii, 367
- Dynamometer, iv, 102, vii, 367
- Dynamos, iv, 306-8, vi, 49-56;
- discovery of principle, 22, 50;
- function, 72;
- Gramme's, 26;
- interchangeability with motors, discovery of, iv, 54;
- invention and development, xvi, 189;
- parts, vii, 367;
- pole pieces, 374;
- separate and self-excited, vi, 186-7;
- source of energy, 129;
- submarine, double uses, v, 199;
- voltage, on what dependent, vi, 131
- (see also Generators)
- Dynamotors, vii, 136-7
- Dyne, unit of force, iv, 69-70
- Dyrenforth, Gen. Robert, i, 338
- Dysentery, amoebic, x, 195, 199;
- from water pollution, viii, 318;
- in tropics, x, 251, xv, 50;
- overheating and, x, 307
- Dyspepsia, from tight lacing, x, 309;
- mental effects, xi, 369-70
- Dysprosium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383
- Eads, Captain, Mississippi River jetties, xiv, 270
- Eagles, xii, 260, 261;
- bald-headed, unions among, xv, 277
- Earache, in children, ix, 104
- Ear-mindedness, xi, 222
- Ears, ix, 100-3, xi, 98-102;
- basilar membrane of, iv, 203;
- cartilage in, ix, 57;
- direction perception by, 117, xi, 167-9;
- disorders and care of, ix, 103-4;
- equal size of, 169-70;
- equilibrium organs in, 89-90;
- hearing by, iv, 203-4 (see Hearing);
- infections of, ix, 61-2, x, 219;
- limits of hearing power, iv, 204, ix, 99, 100;
- liquids of inner, iv, 203;
- movements of, in animals, ix, 82, 117;
- mutilations of, by savages, xv, 259;
- nerve connections, ix, 124, 142, 143 (fig.);
- origin, xi, 109;
- outer, in hearing, ix, 117;
- reddening of, in cold, 311;
- receptor organs, attunement, xi, 62;
- ringing in, iv, 203;
- sensitiveness of, 204, 211-12, 360;
- static sense organs in, xi, 126;
- temperature of, ix, 93
- Ear Trumpet, iv, 239
- Earth, agonic lines of, iv, 246;
- ancient ideas, xvi, 58;
- antiquity, iii, 21, 43, 201, 218, xiii, 306, 314, 322, xiv, 29,
- (see also Geological Ages);
- axis mutation, discovery, xvi, 124;
- center of universe, ii, 9 (see Geocentric Theory);
- centrifugal force of, iv, 75;
[Pg 245]
- changeableness of features, iii, 9-12, xiv, 3-4, 15-16, 28-30;
- changes in historic times, xv, 72;
- chemistry of, viii, 190-203;
- climate in past ages (see Climate);
- comets in relation to, ii, 279-80;
- crust (see Crust of Earth);
- density and specific gravity, iv, 98, 164, xiv, 11;
- diameter, ii, 64, 192, iii, 51;
- diameters, equatorial and polar, iv, 101, xiv, 9;
- electrification, i, 144, 145-6, iv, 269, 270, vii, 207, 209-10, 212-13;
- energy sources and losses, ix, 25-6;
- geological history, iii, 164-248, xv, 70-1, 72-6;
- gravity of, iv, 98-9, 101;
- heat from sun, amount of, 194;
- heat radiation and protection, 183-4;
- Hindu conception, ii, 36;
- interior, heat and condition, iii, 107-8, 120-1, 160, 162, iv, 164, xiv, 11-17, 312;
- internal heat utilized, v, 178-81, ix, 25, xiv, 15;
- internal waters, 151;
- land and water distribution, 20-7;
- life on, antiquity of, xv, 71;
- life on, beginnings, xiii, 298-304;
- life on, conditions necessary, ii, 242-5;
- life on, origin of, xii, 9-13;
- magnetic axis, iv, 250;
- magnetic field and lines of, 252-253;
- magnetic poles, 246, vi, 29-30;
- magnetism, ii, 178, 186, iv, 248-50, vi, 12, 29, 39-40;
- magnetism and internal iron, xiv, 11;
- magnetism in relation to aurora, i, 159-61;
- man's machining of, v, 251-67;
- mass of, iv, 98;
- motions (see Revolution, Rotation);
- origin, ancient ideas, ii, 366-7, xvi, 77, 78;
- origin, modern theories, ii, 373, iii, 158-63;
- rigidity, 107-8, xiv, 17;
- sciences of, xvi, 36;
- shadow in space, ii, 206;
- shape, 59, 69, 71, iv, 101, xiv, 9;
- shape, ancient ideas, ii, 10, 28, 30, 34-5;
- shrinking of, iii, 83-4, 108, 160, 162;
- size, ii, 162, 163;
- surface features, xiv, 9-11;
- temperature layers, 13-15;
- temperature ranges and control, ii, 243-4;
- temperature regulation by atmosphere, iv, 183-4;
- water circulation and supply, xiv, 134-5, 151;
- waters, past and future, ii, 244;
- waters within, iii, 109-10, 113-29;
- weight, ii, 68-9, 76, iv, 98, 164;
- wind and pressure belts, i, 128-9
- Earth-Air-currents, i, 145, 371
- Earth Movements, xiv, 32, 33-9;
- importance to human life, 341
- Earthquakes, iii, 92-8, xiv, 330-43;
- faulting in, 39, 115, 128;
- lakes formed by, 203;
- submarine effects, 284;
- water table affected by, 136
- Earthquake Waves, transmission of, xiv, 17, 332-3
- Earthworms, xii, 51-3;
- power of distinguishing light, ix, 105
- Earwigs, xii, 107
- East Africa, ancient dinosaurs of, xii, 195;
- clan ceremonies in, xv, 363;
- development of, 136;
- glaciers in, xiv, 54;
- Great Rift Valley, 118-20, 121;
- lava fields and volcanoes, 103, 317
- East Indies, animals of, xii, 145, 288, 352, 353, 359, 362, 370;
- beriberi in, x, 257;
- chocolate growing, xiii, 234;
- land and sea breezes, i, 131;
- nautilus of, xii, 75;
- nutmeg production, xiii, 261-2;
- Portuguese and Dutch in, xiv, 310;
- rattan palm of, 368;
- smallpox inoculation in, x, 207;
- spices from, xiii, 259;
- wild arum of, 153
- East River, pipe-thawing under, vii, 338-9
- Eastport, Maine, tide at, xiv, 293
- Eating, effect of excitement during, xi, 374-5;
- kinaesthetic sensations in, 127;
- metabolism increased by, x, 271;
- obesity and, 273
- Eccentric, of steam engine, v, 40-1
- Echidnas, xii, 272-3
- Echinoderms, iii, 259, 268-70, xii, 48-50
- Echoes, iv, 237-9;
- aerial, i, 190, 193
- Eclipses, ancient studies of, ii, 9, 32, 37;
- annular or ring, 214;
- elements of, 216;
- of Jupiter's moons, 263;
- of moon, 206-8;
- of sun, 209-18
- (see also Solar Eclipses)
- Ecliptic, ii, 162, 350;
- plane of, 70, 163;
- poles of, 92;
- trepidation of, 38
- Ecology, xiii, 354-7
- Economic Botany, xiii, 208-66
- Economic Geology, iii, 342-76, xvi, 172-4
- Ectoderm, xii, 26
- Ecuador, glaciers in, xiv, 54;
- yellow fever in, x, 160, 172-3
- Eddies, wind, i, 292, 294, 371
- Eddington, astronomer, ii, 17, 330, 341, 342, 347, 348-9, 354, 356, 382;
- quoted, 151, 320, 344, 384;
- "Stellar Movements," 319
- Eddy Currents, vi, 192, vii, 365-6;
- in various machines, vi, 213, 225, 316
- Edinburgh University, medical school, xvi, 179
- Edison, carbon lamp, v, 381;
- carbon lamp filaments, xvi, 189;
- carbon microphone, v, 381;
- early dynamos, xvi, 188;
- electrical work, vi, 26;
- father of electric lighting, vi, 265;
- first incandescent lamp, xvi, 188;
[Pg 246]
- kinetoscope, v, 330;
- phonograph, 328, 381;
- quadruplex telegraph system, vii, 112;
- storage battery, vi, 149-51;
- vacuum tube discovery, vii, 276;
- Edison Closed Circuit Cell, vi, 137
- Edison Electric Company, load factors, vi, 381-2;
- storage battery reserves, 382-3;
- tied with Interborough System (N. Y.), 384
- Edison-Lelande Cell, vi, 139-40
- Edison Storage Battery, vi, 130, 149-51
- Education, association principle in, xi, 200-1, 203, 204;
- botanical, xvi, 22;
- environment in, xi, 249;
- grasping reflex, importance, 43;
- hygienic, x, 282-5;
- imitation in, xv, 66-7;
- importance of choices in, xi, 266-7;
- language and, xv, 145-6;
- modern, a summary of past, 145-6, 164;
- modern, beginnings, xvi, 111;
- necessity of, ix, 344, 352;
- progress in relation to, xv, 30-1, xvi, 47;
- reaction speeds, xi, 158, 159;
- sensation as, 68;
- Spencer on, x, 282, 284;
- waste of time in spelling, xv, 177;
- (see also Learning Processes)
- Eelgrass, fertilization, xiii, 150-1
- Eels, xii, 162-3;
- vinegar and paste, 45
- Effector Neurones, xi, 21, 22, 26;
- in embryo, 34
- Efficiency, human, viii, 367, ix, 296, 306;
- climatic effects, x, 238-9, xiv, 357, xi, 369-82;
- temperature effects, i, 323-4
- Efficiency, industrial, xi, 360, 362, 363
- Efficiency of Machines, iv, 192, vi, 214, vii, 367;
- electric lamps, vi, 268;
- generators, 357, 379;
- heat engines, highest attainable, iv, 192;
- motors, vi, 228;
- power plants, 380-3;
- transformers, 317-18;
- various kinds of engines, v, 155, 161, 164, 170, 172
- Egg Cells, production and development of, ix, 332-3, 335, 339, 343-4
- Eggs, albuminuria from eating of, x, 345;
- amino acids in, 278;
- boiling of, viii, 368;
- boiling of, on mountains, iv, 170;
- calories in, ix, 299;
- composition and use, viii, 364;
- poisoning from, x, 212;
- vitamines in, viii, 369, ix, 33, x, 260, 261;
- white of, composition, ix, 176;
- white of, digestion of, 233
- Egrets, xii, 244, 255
- Egypt, antiquity of civilization in, xiv, 196, xv, 84;
- bats of, xii, 371;
- buffaloes in, 329;
- cats of, 355;
- geographical changes in, xiv, 33;
- lions of, xii, 359;
- locust plagues, 109;
- Nile inundation, xiv, 70-1;
- Nile valley fertility, 53, 71, 219;
- Pyramids (see Pyramids);
- rock weathering in, xiii, 23, xiv, 78-9;
- snowfall in Lower, i, 210;
- storks of, xii, 255;
- ziczac of, 263
- Egypt (Ancient), agriculture, xiii, 210;
- astrology and astronomy, ii, 21, 23-6, xv, 269-70, xvi, 69, 70, 71;
- baboons in, xii, 380-1;
- brick-making in, xv, 267 (fig.);
- calendar, xvi, 70;
- civilization conditions, xv, 123, 127;
- crocodile in, xii, 199;
- dogs of, 346;
- donkeys in, 308;
- duck-hunting in, xv, 222;
- hairdressing in, 255 (fig.);
- history and civilization, xvi, 53, 65-75;
- humped cattle of, xii, 330;
- hunting dog of, 345;
- irrigation methods, iv, 27 (fig.), v, 18-19, 178, xv, 240;
- machines, v, 42;
- medical science, x, 11, 12, 31, xvi, 82;
- monuments and temples, ii, 24-6, 165;
- musical instruments, xv, 314, 317, 318, 319;
- papyrus, v, 289-90;
- peoples, xvi, 64-5;
- plague of blood, i, 358;
- poppy cultivation, xiii, 253;
- pottery-making in, xv, 249-50, 251 (fig.);
- sacred ibis of, xii, 255-6;
- sacred ichneumons of, 352;
- sailing vessels, v, 182;
- sciences, xvi, 54-75, 77, 96;
- scribes of, xv, 177 (fig.);
- slavery in, 378-9;
- spinning and weaving in, 243, 244, 245, 246 (figs.);
- stone-cutting in, 271 (fig.);
- stone-moving in, 270-1;
- sun-worship, ii, 20, 23, 24, 25-6;
- tops, v, 339;
- water clocks, 58-62;
- weapons of, xv, 211 (fig.);
- wheat in, xiii, 210;
- wheel in, v, 18-19
- Egyptian Art, xv, 300-2;
- no perspective in, xi, 181
- Egyptian Comet, ii, 134
- Egyptians, ancient and modern, xvi, 65;
- ideas of cosmos, 77;
- ideas of insanity, x, 356;
- in Mediterranean group, xvi, 49;
- not seamen, xiv, 265, 306-7;
- scarabs of, xii, 123
- Ehrlich, Paul, "atoxyl" of, x, 169;
- chemotherapy founded by, 381;
- immunity theory, 209, 211-12
- Eiffel Tower, hail rods, i, 342, 344;
- horizontal rainbows seen from, 177
- Einstein Theory, ii, 79-82, xvi, 196-8;
- æther constitution and, vii, 368;
- anticipations of, xvi, 85;
- Newtonian system and, iv, 18
- Elands, xii, 327
- Elasmosaurus, xii, 202
- Elastic Cords, vibrations, iv, 216
- Elasticity, iv, 35-6, 156-9;
- molecular, perfect, viii, 24;
[Pg 247]
- temperature effects on, iv, 198;
- vibration dependent on, 198, 213, 215, ix, 98, 100-1
- Elation, in various sentiments, xi, 140, 150
- Electrical Capacity, iv, 267-8
- Electrical Conductors (see Conductors)
- Electrical Machinery, remote and automatic control, vi, 99-101;
- ratings, 192-4, 212, 317
- Electrical Protective Devices, vii, 32-50
- Electrical Terms, vii, 361-76
- Electrical Units, iv, 284-5
- Electric Arcs, direct currents best, vi, 332;
- extinguishing of, 102;
- Faraday's experiments, xvi, 189;
- heat of, iv, 312, vi, 348;
- heat and light, 280;
- on alternating circuits, vii, 208-9;
- used in nitrogen production, 323-4 (see Arc Process)
- Electric Batteries (cells), iv, 271-3, 295-300, vi, 58-62, 126-51, vii, 363;
- chemical action, viii, 167-9;
- defined, iv, 381, 382;
- depolarization, vii, 366;
- direct currents, vi, 154;
- direction of currents, 59;
- function, 72;
- invented by Volta, 18-19;
- local action, vii, 361;
- polarization of, iv, 296, 298, 383;
- primary and secondary defined, iv, 383;
- used in electrotherapy, vii, 241-4
- (see also various kinds of batteries and cells)
- Electric Bell, iv, 290-2, vi, 99, 127, 138, 144, 306
- Electric Breeze, vii, 238-9
- Electric Cars, circuit-breakers in, vi, 101-2;
- construction, types, and operation, vii, 182-6;
- former and present feeling about, 75-6;
- growth and improvement, 180;
- movement on hills, vi, 232-3 (see Electric Traction)
- Electric Clocks, v, 74
- Electric Currents, vi, 67-85;
- alternating and direct, 152-3 (see Alternating, Direct Currents);
- attracting and repulsion of, 20-1;
- cause of, iv, 265, 271, 273, vi, 46, 72;
- detection, 91;
- direction, 54-7, 59, 124;
- distribution (see Power Transmission);
- effects on human body, vii, 246-9;
- electron theory, vi, 123, 152, vii, 366;
- flow, vi, 46, 47, 67-9;
- follow least resistance, 96;
- Galvanic Faradic, and Franklinic, vii, 242, 243, 245;
- heat and light production by, iv, 310-12, vii, 337-8;
- induced, iv, 303-8, vi, 22 (see Induced Voltages);
- intensity, vii, 370;
- leakage, 371;
- magnetic effects of, iv, 273-9, 286-7, vi, 20-1, 88-91;
- measured by ammeters (see Ammeters);
- overloading lines, vi, 9, 72;
- production, 46, 72
- (see also Dynamos, Electric Batteries, Thermal Couples);
- protection against overloading, vii, 34-50;
- selenium control valve, v, 332;
- surges, vii, 16-18;
- units and measurements, iv, 277-85, vi, 69-76, 82, 84-5;
- values, effective and maximum, 346-7;
- value in oscillating circuits, vii, 289-90;
- velocity, Watson's study, xvi, 123;
- wire capacity table, vii, 58
- Electric Discharges, iv, 264-5, 267, 269, vii, 366;
- atmospheric, i, 157, 158-62;
- fog dispersal by, 94;
- in vacuums, iv, 317-18;
- nitrogen fixation by, viii, 73, 74, 346;
- rain-making by, i, 340;
- through gases, vii, 216, 301-2
- Electric Eel, vi, 16, 64, xii, 160-1
- Electric Energy, vii, 368;
- conversion into heat, 89, 303-5;
- due to difference of potential, iv, 263, 264, 265;
- equivalents, vii, 382;
- transmission (see Power Transmission);
- unit of, vi, 82;
- unit (joule), iv, 284, 294, 310, 312, vii, 370
- Electric Fans, vii, 76-7, ix, 317
- Electric Fishes, catfishes, xii, 161;
- electric eel, 160-1;
- torpedo fish, 149-50
- Electric Furnace, iv, 312, vii, 302-12;
- history and uses, xvi, 189-91;
- invented by Acheson, vii, 301;
- operation and products, viii, 283-4
- Electric Hammer, vi, 94
- Electricity, iv, 256-321 vols. vi, vii;
- advantages in home and industry, vii, 51-2;
- animal (see Animal Electricity);
- atmospheric, i, 141-63, vii, 201-19, 362;
- attraction and repulsion law, iv, 256-8, 261, vi, 18, 122;
- basis of matter, iv, 23, vi, 107-8, 113, 118 (see Electron Theory);
- battleship applications, vii, 325-35;
- chemistry and, viii, 164 (see Electrochemistry);
- commercial units, iv, 312;
- conductors and nonconductors, 258-9, vi, 294-5 (see Conductors, Nonconductors);
- daily applications, xvi, 19, 20, 26-7, 30;
- defined, vii, 367;
- disadvantages in mines, v, 129;
- farm uses, vii, 220-34;
- flow, vi, 46, 67, 292-3;
- flow, direction of, iv, 265, vi, 56-7;
- frictional (see Frictional Electricity);
- history of development, iv, 52-5, vi, 9-26, xvi, 121-3, 188-92;
- home applications, vii, 73-90;
- identity of kinds, vi, 23;
[Pg 248]
- importance of understanding,
- 9-10, 64-6;
- late discovery and use, vii, 235;
- lightning and, vi, 10-11, 13-16;
- magnetism and, iv, 257, 276, vi, 12, 19-20, 21, 27-8, 86;
- "messenger" of physics, iv, 50;
- miscellaneous applications, vii, 336-59;
- name, origin of, iv, 256, vi, 12;
- not made, but moved, 46, 49, 72, 128;
- origin, latest views of, 105-25;
- physical effects of, x, 250, 254, xi, 117;
- popular applications of, iv, 10;
- positive and negative, i, 141, 142, iv, 258, 265, vi, 287;
- precise measurements, vii, 152;
- production of (see Electric Batteries, Generators, Power Plants);
- production by wind power, i, 38, v, 173;
- quantity unit, iv, 261, 277, 280, vii, 365, 374;
- science of power, xvi, 36-7;
- single-fluid theory, vi, 11, 288-93;
- static (see Static E.);
- transmission (see Power Transmission);
- uses and power, vi, 10;
- use in medicine (see Electro-therapeutics);
- wave lengths and frequency, vii, 260;
- wide familiarity with, 152-3;
- widespread interest in, vi, 330-1 (see further Electric Currents, Electric Power, Electromotive Force, etc)
- Electric Lamps, iv, 310, vi, 265-8;
- candlepower of, iv, 352, xvi, 189;
- detonation on breaking, vii, 211;
- Edison's inventions, xvi, 188, 189;
- energy requirements, iv, 311;
- light and heat, vi, 268;
- neon and argon fillers, i, 33;
- number used, vii, 51;
- short-circuiting by burning out, 35
- Electric Lighting, vi, 264-83;
- advances in applications of, iv, 50-1, vi;
- direct and alternating current effects, 155-6;
- due to glowing of a solid, viii, 60;
- farm uses, vii, 231, 232, 233;
- fire hazard reduced by, vii, 51;
- history, xvi, 122-3, 188, 189;
- homes and interiors, vi, 275-8, vii, 68-72, 75;
- leading inventors, vi, 26, 265;
- meter units, iv, 312;
- outdoor, vi, 278-80, 283, vii, 339-4;
- small fraction of power used in, vi, 381;
- wide use and advantages, vii, 51, 52
- Electric Locomotives, v, 212, vi, 161, 162, vii, 182;
- induction motors in, vi, 249;
- motors and currents, vii, 195-6, 200;
- power and efficiency, 193-4;
- regenerative brakes, 200
- Electric Meters, vii, 151-79;
- for alternating currents, vi, 346-7;
- screening of, 32;
- units used in, iv, 312, vi, 82-3
- Electric Power, costs, on what dependent, vi, 380-2;
- costs for farm work, vii, 224-6;
- extra charges for peak hours, vi, 301, vii, 177-8;
- measured in watts, iv, 310, 312, vi, 84-5;
- transmission (see Power Transmission);
- water power and, viii, 283
- Electric Pumps, vii, 86-7;
- remote control, vi, 99-100
- Electric Ranges, vii, 88-9;
- special rates for, 174
- Electric Traction, vii, 180-200;
- block signals, 355;
- converters used, vi, 342;
- current used, 161-3;
- motors used, 231, 241
- (see also Electrification of Railroads)
- Electric Waves, discovery of, iv, 55, 313
- (see also Electromagnetic Waves)
- Electric Wiring (see Wires, Wiring)
- Electrification, iv, 256-62, vi, 11, 12, 13, 286;
- degree of, 17;
- methods of, iv, 265-7;
- of atmosphere, vii, 207, 212-13, 216-17;
- of earth and air, i, 144-6, 150
- (see also Charged Bodies)
- Electrification of Railroads, v, 212, vi, 162, 249, vii, 181-2, 193-6;
- block signal system, vii, 359;
- brake system, 200;
- smoke relief by, i, 64;
- trolley and third rail systems, vii, 197-8
- (see also Railroad Terminals)
- Electrochemical Analysis, viii, 294-5
- Electrochemistry, vii, 299-324, viii, 164-9, 283-4, 312;
- organic, 266;
- use of direct current in, vi, 163;
- water power and, viii, 267
- Electrodes, iv, 297, 317, 382, vi, 60, 129, 130-5, 367;
- graphite, vii, 308, 309
- Electrolysis defined, iv, 382, vii, 367, viii, 375;
- industrial applications, vii, 312-24, viii, 164-7, 271, 272, 284;
- ionic hypothesis of, viii, 123-5;
- of organic compounds, 266;
- of water, 30-1
- Electrolytes, iv, 382, vi, 23, 58, viii, 376;
- acids, bases, and salts called, 125;
- action of currents in, vi, 131-5, vii, 247;
- don'ts about, vi, 149;
- double-fluid, 137;
- in primary and secondary cells, 130
- Electrolytic Cells, vii, 313, 367
- Electrolytic Corrosion, vi, 65-6, vii, 189;
- alternating currents and, 305
- Electrolytic Dissociation, viii, 123-4, xvi, 164-5
- Electromagnetic Units, iv, 278-82
- Electromagnetic Waves, form and lengths, vii, 371;
- length and frequency, 259, 260;
[Pg 249]
- transmitted by æther, vi, 119, 269
- (see also Radio Waves)
- Electromagnetism, Electromagnets, iv, 286-94, vi, 30, 31, 86-104, vii, 367, 372;
- Einstein theory and, ii, 80-1
- Electromotive Force, defined, iv, 271, 294, 382, vi, 46-9;
- dangers of uncontrolled, 64-5;
- generation, 49-66 (see Electric Batteries, Generators, Thermal Couples);
- induced and generated, vii, 370;
- measured in volts, iv, 280-1, 284, vi, 53-4, 57;
- phase relations, 167-9, 171-4, 242;
- self-induction, vii, 375;
- uses, vi, 56
- (see also Voltage)
- Electromotive Force Waves, vi, 198-200, 208
- Electromotive Series, viii, 127-9, 376
- Electrons, vi, 113-15, vii, 367;
- beta rays, viii, 185, 186;
- from sun in upper air, i, 144, 146;
- in charged bodies, 142, 143;
- in sun, ii, 177-8;
- knowledge of, from radioactivity, viii, 307;
- motions in light, heat and electricity, vii, 371;
- nature, vi, 118, 120;
- negative electricity, viii, 187-8;
- original study, xvi, 193;
- size and weight, i, 141-2, viii, 187;
- speed in cathode rays, iv, 318
- Electron Theory, iv, 321, vi, 26, 122-5, vii, 366, 367, 371, viii, 187-8;
- compared with Franklin's theory, vi, 288, 292;
- in various electrical actions, 133-4, 152, 153, 284, 288, 302, 338-9, 340;
- Larmor's proposal, xvi, 193
- Electroplating, vii, 314-19, 374, viii, 164-6, 284
- Electro-Refining, vii, 319-21, viii, 166-7, 284
- Electrostatic Fields, iv, 261-2, vii, 368;
- intensity of, 370
- Electrostatic Generators, vi, 298-301
- Electrostatics, defined, iv, 259;
- importance of, 271
- (see also Charges, Charged Bodies)
- Electro-Therapeutics, vii, 235-57, 368
- Electrotyping, vii, 313-14
- Elements, vi, 108-9, viii, 12, 16, 376, 383;
- atomic numbers, 183, 309;
- atomic weights (see Atomic Weights);
- classification, metals and nonmetals, 17-19, 126, 175-7;
- discoveries through Mendeléeff's tables, 180, 181, 182, xvi, 163;
- Greek idea of primary, 81, 83;
- in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 190-1, 192, 194;
- in heavenly bodies, 302;
- in meteorites, ii, 292;
- in sea water, xiv, 295;
- in stars, ii, 115-18;
- in sun, 114, 128, 185, 211;
- isotopic and isobaric, viii, 189;
- made up of molecules, 26;
- number, 16, 183, 309;
- only things man cannot produce, vii, 310;
- origin in silicates, viii, 193;
- origin, remarks on, 84;
- periodic classification, 177-83;
- physical state and chemical properties, 297-8;
- potentials against hydrogen, vii, 383;
- properties dependent on atomic weights, xvi, 134;
- Prout's hypothesis of hydrogen basis, viii, 177;
- radicals or groups, 93;
- radioactive, 184-9;
- spectra of, ii, 113, viii, 302;
- symbols, 91, 383;
- tests of, 285-91;
- transmutation of, 188-9, xvi, 14-15;
- union types, viii, 20-1, 99-100;
- valency, vii, 384, viii, 93, 122
- Elephants, xii, 301-4;
- breeding and domestication of, xv, 197;
- breeding rate, 20;
- evolution, iii, 300;
- fearlessness, xi, 136;
- formerly in Europe, xv, 76, 92;
- strength of, 18;
- trapping of, 225, 226 (fig.), 227;
- trypanosome in, x, 168
- Elevation (geological), denudation increased by, xiv, 39, 40;
- effects on streams, 163, 164-70, 187-8;
- instances of, 33-4;
- of coasts, 253, 262;
- of ocean floor, xiv, 286
- (see also Level Changes, Rejuvenation)
- Elevators, air cushioning, v, 134-5;
- first passenger, 380;
- hydraulic, 102-3;
- motors used, vi, 231, 234;
- power for fast and slow, 83, 85;
- sense of giddiness in, xi, 126-7
- Elk, xii, 317, 318
- Elm Trees, xiii, 194, 271-2
- Embroideries, machine-made, v, 285-7
- Embryo, development in man and animals, xv, 54, 55;
- development of human, ix, 343-4;
- development of nervous system in, xi, 34-6;
- flexed form of hand, 42-3;
- gill slits and notochord in, xii, 128;
- of mammals, 273;
- of marsupials, 274;
- past stages of race seen in, xv, 53-4;
- semiaquatic conditions, xi, 36
- Embryo, of plants, xiii, 60
- Embryological Development, x, 228 (see Embryo)
- Embryology, history, xvi, 107, 156
- Emeralds, iii, 325;
- oriental, 327
- Emergencies, body responses in, ix, 166-7, 171-2, 209, 220, 221, 293
- Emerson, metaphor of, i, 187;
- on common mind, xi, 152;
- on narrowness of men, 376
- Emery, iii, 327-8
- Emmet, Thomas, x, 122, xvi, 186
- Emotional Glycosuria, xi, 138
- Emotions, xi, 129-42;
[Pg 250]
- associations
- determined by, 205-6;
- brain processes in, ix, 154;
- classes of, 153-4;
- combinations in sentiments, xi, 146-50;
- expression of, in men and animals, xv, 63-5, 152;
- fatigue and, xi, 274-6;
- hypnotic suggestion of, 317-18;
- in crowd psychology, 331-2;
- not localized in body, 62;
- pain and, 119, 120;
- physiological effects of, ix, 163-7, 171-2, 200, 209, 240-1, 348, x, 339, 353;
- primary varieties, xi, 55-6;
- suppression of, 140-2
- (see also Suppressions)
- Empathy, xi, 172-3, 186;
- in advertising, 346-7;
- in salesmanship, 335
- Empedocles, atomic theory, xvi, 87;
- malaria prevention by, x, 154;
- on matter, xvi, 83, 118
- Empiric Doctrine (medicine), x, 24, 28
- Emu, xii, 243, 249, xv, 194
- Emulsions, colloidal state, viii, 314, 316, 356;
- defined, ix, 289
- Encke's Comet, ii, 280;
- used to find Mercury's weight, 77
- End Buds, of fishes, xii, 137
- Endless Screw, v, 38, 37 (fig.)
- Endocarditis, x, 195, 332
- Endoderm, xii, 26
- Endoskeleton, xii, 127
- Endothelial Cells, x, 197, 210
- Energy, conservation of, iv, 40-1 (see Conservation of Energy);
- defined, 13-14, 37-9;
- equation of, 78;
- force contrasted with, 41;
- forms and transformations, 81-8;
- future sources of, v, 171-81;
- heat equivalent (see Mechanical Equivalent of Heat);
- kinetic and potential, iv, 79, 81-5, vii, 368;
- matter and, iv, 13-14;
- of plants and animals, viii, 334, 335, 336, 347, 349, 350
- (see also Human Energy);
- physics as science of, iv, 12, 13-14, 50;
- power differentiated from, 80;
- radiant (see Radiant Energy);
- sources in nature, viii, 267-8, ix, 25-6, xiv, 31-2;
- sun as source of, v, 177, viii, 267, 334, 350, ix, 25-6, xiv, 32;
- transference and transformation of, iv, 37-41, 81-88, vi, 128-9;
- units of, iv, 79-80, ix, 295;
- unit equivalents table, vii, 382;
- universality of, iv, 13-14;
- work and, 37-40, 78-88;
- (see also Atomic E., Chemical E., Electrical E., Human E., Molecular E., Power)
- Engines, air and water cooled, v, 160-1;
- Clausius's principle, xvi, 135;
- heat, efficiency of, iv, 192;
- reciprocating and rotary, v, 148;
- two-cycle and four-cycle, 157-9;
- (see also Gas Engines, Gasoline Engines, Internal Combustion Engines, Steam Engines, etc.)
- Engines of Destruction, v, 359-75
- England, Alpine Invasion, xvi, 49;
- beet cultivation in, xiii, 216;
- "Blackthorn winter," i, 363;
- chalk deposits, iii, 266;
- climate of, xiv, 345;
- coal supply, v, 172;
- coast destruction, iii, 56, xiv, 47, 301;
- coffee consumption, xiii, 232;
- early criminal justice in, xv, 372;
- first recorded eclipse, ii, 210;
- former connections with Europe, xiv, 271-3, xv, 76;
- grass snake of, xii, 217-18;
- insular position and results, xiv, 279-81, xv, 137;
- iron industry, v, 316;
- jute manufacture, xii, 243;
- lakes of, xiv, 200;
- landscape gardening, xiii, 267, 268;
- maritime supremacy, xiv, 262, 280-1, 307-8, 310;
- oak-hazel copses, xiii, 369-70;
- primitive inhabitants, xv, 83, 92-3;
- rainfall and verdure, xiv, 352;
- recent restrictions on power vehicles, v, 212-13;
- smallpox inoculation in, x, 207;
- sugar in, xiii, 215;
- surgery made a profession, x, 105;
- tea in, xiii, 228-9;
- tobacco introduction, 256;
- trees in, xiv, 375
- English Alphabet, xv, 176
- English Channel, first aeroplane flight, i, 43;
- historical importance, xiv, 279-80, xv, 137;
- impassable to quadrupeds, xiv, 273;
- tidal power system, v, 175-6;
- tides of, xiv, 294
- English Language, changes in, xv, 156-7;
- double meanings of words, 158-9;
- foreign words in, 161;
- imitative words in, 153-4;
- origin of various words, 157, 161;
- relationships, 160, 162;
- spelling and pronunciation, 176-8
- English People, characteristics, xiii, 172;
- insularity of, xiv, 280
- English Sparrow, increase in U. S., xv, 21
- Entada Scandens, xiii, 347-8
- Enterokinase, x, 326
- Entropy, iv, 193, xvi, 135
- Environment, adaptation to (see Adaptation to Environment);
- change of, to relieve fatigue, x, 247;
- changes of, new species from, xv, 24-5;
- defined, x, 228;
- geographical, influence on civilization, xiv, 30-1, xv, 31, 122-39;
- habit and, xi, 249;
- health and disease factor, x, 237-44, 249-55, 303;
- heredity and, ix, 344, x, 228-30, xvi, 47;
- instincts as response to, xi, 49-53;
- man creature of, 57-8;
- man's conquest of, xv, 25-6;
- man's regulation to, x, 249-51;
- man the product and molder, of, xi, 33;
[Pg 251]
- mental effects of, x,
- 354;
- mind as response to, xi, 12, 24, 58;
- plant response to, xiii, 355-7;
- selection of, xi, 257;
- will and, 265
- Envy, sentiment of, xi, 148
- Enzymes, viii, 376, ix, 227, xiii, 83;
- in digestive processes, viii, 103, 226, 228, 357, 358, ix, 227, 228, 229-30, 235, 242;
- in infants, ix, 346;
- in tea, xiii, 230;
- in tobacco curing, 257
- Eocene Period, animals of, xii, 306, 366;
- birds of, xv, 71
- Eolithic Period, xv, 103-5
- Epic Poetry, development of, xv, 321
- Epicurus, atom theory, x, 26
- Epicycles, ii, 35-6
- Epidemics, Sydenham on, x, 74;
- tainted water and, xiv, 140
- Epigenesis, xvi, 118
- Epileptics, multiplication of, x, 235-6;
- primitive ideas of, xv, 350, 353
- Epiphytes, xiii, 185, 362-3, 366;
- in tropical forests, xiv, 368
- Epithelial Cells, x, 201, 202
- Epsom Salts, viii, 149
- Epyornis, eggs of, xii, 249
- Equator, altitude of stratosphere at, i, 20;
- bulging at, ii, 69, 71;
- magnetic, xiv, 246;
- of wind system, xiv, 347;
- solar eclipses seen at, ii, 215;
- upper air temperatures, i, 20;
- weight of bodies at, ii, 69, iv, 75, 101;
- winds at, i, 127, xiv, 351
- Equatorial Belt, winds and weather of, xiv, 348, 349
- Equilibrium of Chemical Reactions, viii, 103-5, 190-1
- Equilibrium of Forces, v, 183-4;
- science of, iv, 25
- Equilibrium Sense, ix, 89-90, 156, x, 126, xi, 64, 126, 127;
- in infants, ix, 350
- Equinoxes, defined, ii, 70-1;
- observed in Egypt, 25, 26, xv, 269-70;
- precession of (see Precession of Equinoxes)
- Eras, Geological, iii, 19-21, 378
- Erasistratus, x, 23-4
- Eratosthenes, ii, 10, 30
- Erbium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Erg, energy unit, iv, 80;
- table of equivalents, vii, 382
- Ericsson, air engine, v, 380;
- Monitor, 380;
- solar engine, ii, 169;
- steam fire engine, v, 378
- Erie Canal, importance to New York, xiv, 267-8;
- through Mohawk Valley, 194
- Erie, Lake, salt in, viii, 139;
- water constituents, 40;
- water supplies from, v, 260-1
- Ermines, xii, 349-50
- Eros (asteroid), ii, 191;
- distance, 132, 259
- Erosion, iii, 28-9, 378;
- agents and processes, xiv, 39-79
- (see also Glaciers, Ocean Waves, Streams, Wind);
- bad lands and canyons due to, iii, 139-40;
- base level, 30, 377 (see Base Level);
- by ground water, xiv, 141, xvi, 173;
- cycles (see Cycles of Erosion);
- earth movements and, xiv, 39, 40;
- final effect of, 80;
- illustration of recent, iii, 64 (Pl. 3);
- in deserts, 72;
- in Ice Age, 242;
- of faulted areas, xiv, 127;
- of folded areas, 94-6;
- of mountains, iii, 135, 139, 140-1, 188, 190-1, xiv, 233-4;
- present relief due to, iii, 32;
- rate of, xiv, 41;
- unequal operation of, 35
- Erosion Surface (see Unconformity)
- Errors, fatigue and, xi, 274;
- of memory, 215-17;
- in space perceptions, 183-90
- (see also Mistakes)
- Erysipelas, germ of, x, 195;
- immunity to, 207;
- puerperal fever and, 114
- Eskers, iii, 70, 352 (Plate 20), xiv, 59-60
- Eskimos, conditions of life, xv, 123-4;
- customs concerning dead, 338;
- ideas of future life, xv, 333, 335;
- kayaks of, 264 (fig.);
- language lacking in abstract words, 144;
- leadership among, 363;
- meat eating by, ix, 284, 309;
- polar bear catching by, xv, 224-5;
- reindeer uses, xii, 320;
- weapons of, xv, 209 (fig.), 210-12
- Esophagus, functions and connections, ix, 230, 231;
- heartburn in, 232;
- operations of, xi, 37-9
- Esparto Grass, v, 292
- Espy, James P., i, 215, 345
- Essential Oils, viii, 251-2, 336, 349
- Esters, viii, 221, 245, 248, 376
- Estuaries, formation of, iii, 37, xiv, 255, 256
- Eta Argus, ii, 324
- Eternity, real meaning, xi, 196
- Ethane, derivatives, viii, 210
- Ether, composition and properties, viii, 216-18, 376;
- density of, iv, 113;
- explosibility, viii, 62;
- refrigeration by, iv, 174;
- use as anesthetic, discovery of, x, 123-5, xvi, 185
- Ether of Space (see Æther)
- Ether Structure, viii, 217, 224
- Ethyl, defined, viii, 376;
- derivatives, 210
- Ethyl Acetate, viii, 221
- Etna, Mount, xiv, 100, 225, 316-17;
- flashing arcs, i, 194;
- water from eruption, iii, 107
- Etruscans, vase decorations of, xv, 251
- Eucalyptus Tree, xiii, 358;
- fertilization of, xii, 266-7;
[Pg 252]
- used in draining swamps, xiv, 379
- Euclid, ii, 29, xvi, 81, 89, 95
- Eudoxus, ii, 31, 300
- Eugenics, x, 235-6, xvi, 157, 158
- Euler, scientific work of, ii, 15, xvi, 125
- Euphrates River, union with Tigris, xiv, 185
- Europe, aeroplane routes, i, 44-5;
- after-summers, 362;
- Alpine invasions, xvi, 49;
- ancient animals, xii, 275, 310, 359;
- animals (carnivora), 336, 340, 348, 349, 350, 355, 356;
- animals, (herbivora), 307, 317, 318, 329, 330-1;
- aristocracies of, xv, 377;
- Asiatic invasions, xiv, 74-5, 362, xv, 138-9, xvi, 141;
- beet sugar production, xiii, 216;
- birds of, xii, 255, 261, 262, 263, 266, 268-9;
- Black Death in, x, 163-4;
- cave period in, xiv, 148-9;
- civilization in northern, 359;
- climate of, 346-7, 359;
- coast, western, 249;
- coffee introduction, xiii, 232;
- continental slope, xiv, 287;
- cretinism in, x, 350;
- Cro-Magnons in, xv, 99, 102, xvi, 50;
- dowry system in, xv, 285;
- drainage systems, xiv, 190;
- earthquake belt, 332;
- forests, 375-6, 377-8, 380-1;
- former connection with America, 290;
- geological history, iii, 180, 198, 216, 235-6;
- glacial topography, xiv, 3, 30, 43, 61-2, 200;
- gunpowder introduction, xvi, 101;
- hail prevention devices, i, 340-3;
- Ice Age in, iii, 62, 236-7, 239, 240, xv, 74, 75, 76, 102;
- languages of, 161, 162;
- map discrepancies, xiv, 10;
- mediæval astronomy in, ii, 39-41;
- meteorological statistics, i, 203;
- monkeys of, xii, 378;
- moor fires, i, 56;
- mussel-eating in, xii, 65;
- Nordic invasion, xvi, 50;
- nutmeg introduction, xiii, 261;
- paper introduction, v, 290;
- paper making, 292;
- plains of, xiv, 217;
- population increase, xv, 27;
- potato in, xiii, 218;
- primitive man types found in, xv, 88, 92-102;
- rainfall distribution, xiv, 352;
- rainfall stations, i, 79;
- revival of learning (see Renaissance);
- rice in, xiii, 214;
- rodents of, xii, 287, 288;
- snails of, 69, 70;
- snakes of, 218, 220, 231;
- snow removal in cities, i, 117;
- sugar introduction, xiii, 215;
- syphilis in, x, 60;
- tea introduced, xiii, 228;
- telegraph systems, vii, 108;
- tobacco introduced, xiii, 256;
- trees of, xiv, 363, 375-6;
- vegetables and fruits originating in, xiii, 222-7;
- volcanic belts, xiv, 316-17;
- weather observations, i, 217-18;
- windmills, 37
- European Races, classification and history, xvi, 48-50
- Europeans, comparative measurements of, xv, 57;
- hair of, 38;
- northern and southern, color of, 37
- European Sleeping Sickness, x, 301-2
- Europium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Eustachian Tube, ix, 101 (fig.), 102, xi, 101;
- adenoid effects on, x, 341-2;
- deafness from closing of, ix, 103-4;
- discovery, xvi, 82
- Eutheria, xii, 271, 273-4, 281
- Evaporation, body heat regulation by, i, 317, 318, ix, 316, 317;
- by trees, xiv, 377-8, 378-9, 379;
- (see also Transpiration);
- cooling by, iv, 174, viii, 69, ix, 316;
- electricity, caused by, vii, 212;
- ice made by, v, 349-50;
- measurement of, i, 88-9;
- of liquids, iv, 167;
- of terrestrial waters, xiv, 135;
- water table affected by, 136
- Evaporimeter (see Aumometers)
- Everglades, Florida, draining of, v, 255
- Evergreen Trees, deciduous, xiv, 370, 371;
- in landscape gardening, xiii, 269, 270, 271
- (See also Conifers)
- Evesham Experiments, vii, 352
- Evil Spirits, savage belief in, xv, 234, 304-5, 336, 339-40, 348, 352
- Evolution, animals the main proof of, iii, 259, 260;
- Buffon on, xvi, 139-40;
- climatic, iii, 174;
- Darwinian theory, x, 135, 136, xvi, 149-52;
- Greek theories, 78-9, 139;
- human, xv, 26-31, xvi, 47;
- laws of, xv, 15-25, 381-2;
- laws and goal of, xiii, 325-36;
- Le Conte on, iii, 164;
- social, xv, 29-31, 382, 383-4;
- universality of, ii, 366, xv, 29, xvi, 152;
- Wolff's theory, xvi, 118
- Exaggeration of Parts, iii, 277
- Excavating, air pressures in, v, 120;
- through quicksands, 115-18, 123;
- under river-beds, 121-4;
- with water jets, 88
- Excavating Machinery, v, 252-9;
- for swampy ground, 216
- Excitement, blood changes in, ix, 293, xi, 137, 138;
- insomnia from, ix, 219;
- pain and, xi, 119;
- recovery period, 21
- Exclusive Inheritance, x, 230-1
- Exercise, effects, needs and rules, x, 303-6;
- effects on breathing, ix, 256, 258;
- effects on heart rate, 168-9, 207, 208-9, 261-2, x, 334;
- effect on lymphatics, ix, 223;
- effects on sweat glands, 169, 315-16;
- for constipation, 251, x, 317;
[Pg 253]
- heat produced by,
- 270, 306;
- obesity and, 273-4, 275;
- oxygen consumption in, ix, 261;
- psychological importance, xi, 339, 371-2;
- pulse rate after, x, 334;
- tuberculosis preventative, 292;
- violent, albuminuria from, 345
- Exfoliation, iii, 24, 378
- Exhaust, of engines, v, 164-5
- Exhaust Fans, vii, 86
- Exhaustion, kinetic theory, xi, 59-60;
- mental and physical, 135-6;
- nervous system in, 274;
- pain in, 119;
- unlike sleep, 286
- Exoskeleton, xii, 127
- Expansion, by heat, iv, 134-5, 138, 140, 145, 151, v, 71, viii, 25, 107;
- coefficient of, iv, 145;
- cooling by, i, 30, 90, iv, 188, 191-2, vii, 323, viii, 68;
- of fused quartz, vii, 311-12;
- of water and other substances on solidifying, iv, 149-51, viii, 38
- Experience, ability to profit by, ix, 139-40, 152-3;
- accumulation and results, xi, 33;
- contradictions of, 11;
- learning and, viii, 269;
- learning by, in man and animals, xv, 66;
- psychology science of, xi, 10-11;
- sensations as, 68;
- subconscious storing of, 47;
- Sylvius's test of truth, x, 69
- Explanations, slower than events, xi, 210
- Exploration Drilling, v, 262-5
- Exploratory Laparotomy, x, 147
- Explosions, boiler (see Boiler Explosions);
- cause of detonations, vii, 211;
- chemical and physical processes, viii, 61-3;
- dust, i, 63;
- gunpowder, viii, 62, 145;
- hydrogen in air, 33, 36, 62;
- speed of sound in, i, 187
- Explosives, viii, 63, 260-2;
- detonation, 262;
- history of development, xvi, 163;
- nitrogen compounds in, viii, 66, 71-2, 74, 75, 237, 253, xiv, 66;
- nitrogen waste in, viii, 345-6;
- sulphuric acid in, 80;
- weather making by, i, 335-9
- Exposure (outcrop), iii, 381
- Extemporaneous Speeches, xi, 245
- Extension, perception of, xi, 166, 171-2, 183-9
- Extensor Muscles, ix, 76-7, xi, 54, 166
- Exteroceptive Senses, xi, 63
- Extrusive Rocks, xiv, 105
- Eye-and-ear Method (astronomy), xi, 155
- Eyeglasses, benefits of, iv, 51
- (see also Glasses)
- Eye-mindedness, xi, 222
- Eye of the Storm, i, 136, 372
- Eyes, vi, 270-3, ix, 109-11, xi, 83-97;
- abuse of, mental effects, 373-4;
- color, inheritance of, ix, 335-6;
- color in different races, xv, 37, xvi, 48, 49, 50;
- color perception by, ix, 116-17;
- color perception limits, iv, 360-1;
- comparable with camera, ix, 108;
- connection with brain, 124, 142;
- controlling nerves, xi, 30;
- depth perception by, ix, 120;
- diseases and defects, 112-14;
- distance of distinct vision, iv, 342, 343;
- distance perception by, ix, 118-19;
- double images, xi, 175-81;
- fatigue from, 279;
- fear effects, 132;
- fixation, how learned, 39-40;
- inflammation due to lack of vitamines, x, 260;
- in infants, ix, 350, 351, xi, 39, xv, 61;
- in sleep, xi, 282, 283, 286;
- muscles around, ix, 77;
- of various animal forms, xii, 67, 101-2, 138-9, 205-6, 209;
- origin, xi, 109;
- persistence of vision, iv, 346-7;
- position in attention, xi, 232;
- pupil size, iv, 343;
- receptor organs, xi, 30, 62;
- regulation to light, x, 254;
- sensibility to light waves, iv, 360;
- smooth muscles of, ix, 161-2;
- soul in, savage idea of, xv, 330-1;
- space perception by, xi, 169-70, 171-2, 173, 174-83, 186-90;
- winking and watering of, 19, 23, 63
- (see also Sight, Vision)
- Eye Sockets, ix, 62
- Eyestrain, ix, 113, 114, 239;
- Behan on, xi, 374
- Eyra, xii, 364
- Fabre, J. H., xvi, 143-4
- Fabrics, making of, v, 268-88;
- manufacturing processes, viii, 256;
- Philippine fiber, xiii, 236, 239;
- warmth of different, ix, 311-12, x, 309
- Fabry, Wilhelm, x, 78-9
- Face, anthropological measurements, xv, 43-5;
- brain case and, 43, 62;
- in infants, ix, 345;
- pallor and flushing of, 161, 165, 166;
- brain power expressed in, xv, 39, 63-4;
- color in different lights, iv, 364-5;
- painting of, xv, 256
- Facial Angle, xv, 44-5
- Facial Expressions, xv, 63-4;
- dejection and, xi, 337, 339;
- man's trained control, 82, 350-1;
- smell and, 82;
- smiling, 357;
- taste and, 74, 75, 76;
- tone of voice and, xv, 144
- Factor Differences, xiii, 330, 331-2
- Factories, fatigue reduction, xi, 277;
- importance of conditions, 361-2;
- instruction of beginners, 363-5;
- lighting importance, 361;
- rest periods, 363;
- warm floors, importance of, ix, 320
- (see also Industrial Plants, Industrial Psychology)
- Factory System, beginning of, x, 244;
[Pg 254]
- occupational diseases in, 245
- Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, iv, 135-6
- Fahrenheit Thermometer, i, 73, viii, 27;
- compared with other scales, iv, 137, 141, viii, 27, 384;
- invention, i, 69;
- scale, how prepared, iv, 135-6, 137
- Fainting, cause and relief, ix, 217;
- due to weakness, x, 89;
- low blood pressure in, 336
- Fairmont, W. Va., deep well at, iii, 120, v, 265
- Faith Healing, Barton on, x, 76;
- effectiveness, xi, 374
- Falcons, xii, 260, 261;
- hunting with, xv, 223
- Falkland Islands, groundsel of, xiii, 345
- Falling Bodies, Galileo's studies of, iv, 19, 28, 97;
- laws of, 96-7, xvi, 31-3;
- velocity of, ii, 64, iv, 65;
- velocity on sun and earth, ii, 168
- Falling Stars (see Meteors, Meteorites)
- Fall Line, xiv, 28, 214
- Fallopius, x, 51, 53
- Fallowing, viii, 341-2
- Fall Winds, i, 132-3, 372
- False Cirrus, i, 102, 104, 372
- False Coral, xii, 47
- Family, origin and evolution of the, xv, 273, 278-85, 360-1, 362
- Fancy, pictures of, xi, 202
- Fanning, benefits of, ix, 316-17
- Farad, electric capacity unit, iv, 284, vii, 368
- Faraday, chemical work, xvi, 160, 162, 163;
- discovery of anesthetics, 185;
- dynamo invention, 189;
- electrical work, vi, 16, 21, 22-3, 50;
- farad named after, iv, 284;
- metallurgical work, xvi, 174;
- on lines of force, iv, 252;
- on philosophers, x, 376;
- suggestion of fourth state of matter, xvi, 193
- Faradic Currents, vii, 243, 248-9
- Fargo, N. D., region, iii, 34
- Farmers, ancient and recent methods, v, 239-40;
- motor machines, 214;
- past injustice and hardships, vii, 220-1;
- small, and machinery, v, 249-50
- Farms, cost of horse work, vii, 224-6;
- electricity on, iv, 10, vii, 220-34;
- migration of boys from, 221;
- motor machines on, v, 214, 215-18
- Far-sightedness, ix, 112-13, xi, 85
- Fata Morgana, i, 172, 372
- Fatigue, xi, 268-80;
- adrenalin effects, 137;
- cure for, x, 247-8;
- disorders and diseases due to, 246-9;
- from muscles, xi, 124;
- from posture, ix, 83, 84;
- habit and, xi, 253;
- insomnia from, 289;
- mental and physical, relations, x, 247, xi, 135-6;
- mental effects, 13;
- mental effects illustrated, xvi, 18;
- muscular, cause and effects, ix, 80-1;
- nervous, 137-8;
- no sense organs of, 91;
- physical effects of, x, 246-7;
- rest periods and, xi, 363;
- retardation of impulses in, 20;
- sleep in relation to, ix, 219;
- smooth muscles free from, 84-5;
- stimulation to change, xi, 338-9;
- suggestibility in, 307
- Fatness, (obesity), x, 272-5;
- adipose tissues in, ix, 298;
- reduction of, 301-2
- Fats, amount in daily diets, viii, 366-7, ix, 300-1;
- animal, viii, 246, 348, 349, 350, x, 260;
- animal, vitamines in, ix, 33;
- calories in, viii, 361, x, 269;
- composition, viii, 221, 245, 247, 335-6, 376;
- digestion and utilization, 356, 357, 359, ix, 242-3, 244-5, 289-90, 294, 298-9, x, 326, 330;
- extraction of, viii, 246;
- food value and requirements, 335, 336, 362, 363, ix, 33, 300-1, x, 256, 260-2, 268, 269, 271;
- identification of, viii, 310;
- indigestibleness of, ix, 286;
- in human body, viii, 348, 349;
- lipins, 350-1;
- liquid and solid, 232, 244, 247
- (see also Oils);
- metabolism of, x, 270;
- molecular structure, viii, 217-18;
- not antigens, x, 205;
- preserving of, viii, 371;
- skin excretions, x, 310;
- soap effects on, viii, 141-2;
- soap made of, 141, 221, 246;
- tastelessness, 366;
- uses, 246-7;
- vegetable, 246, 335-6, 349, 350;
- vegetable, lack of vitamines in, x, 259, 260-1, 262
- Fatty Acids viii, 220;
- butter percentage, 245, 364;
- candles made from, 247;
- in fats and oils, 221, 244, 245;
- soap made from, 221, 246
- Faults, Faulting, iii, 86-92, 378, xiv, 37-8, 114-28;
- coasts formed by, 264;
- earthquakes and, iii, 87, 90, 93, 94-6, 97, 98, xiv, 39, 115, 128, 334-5, 339-41;
- greatest displacement, 39;
- hot springs in relation to, 143;
- lakes formed by, iii, 151, 152, 153;
- mountains formed by, 138-9, xiv, 226, 229, 230
- Fault Scarps, iii, 378, xiv, 38;
- denudation of, 115-16;
- persistency of, 122, 123, 124
- Fault Valleys, xiv, 127-8
- Fear, cause and accompaniments of, ix, 153, 166, xi, 131-3, 136, 138;
- dominant human impulse, xv, 185;
- dreams from, xi, 293, 294, 299-300, 301-2;
- expression of, in animals, xv, 64;
- in various sentiments, xi, 146, 147, 148;
- pain deadened by, 120;
[Pg 255]
- subconscious processes and, 212-13, 214
- Feathers, of birds, xii, 243-7
- Feeble-mindedness, inheritance of, x, 234, 235-6;
- reflex action in, xi, 36
- Feelings, brain processes in, ix, 154;
- classes of, 153-4;
- essentials of, xi, 25;
- expression of, xv, 143;
- motor response and, xi, 43 (see Consciousness, Emotions, Sensations)
- Feet, bones of, ix, 68-9, 70 (fig.);
- care of, x, 312;
- Chinese women's, xv, 260, 261 (fig.);
- cold or warmth felt in, ix, 320, 322;
- custom of covering, xv, 254;
- equal size of, ix, 170;
- mental impairment by troubles with, xi, 373;
- of ape and men, compared, iii, 301 (fig.), xv, 57, 60-1;
- of infants, 61;
- of Tertiary mammals, iii, 298, 299-300;
- proper shoeing, ix, 69-70, x, 306;
- relative lengths, xv, 57;
- soles of, nerve connections, ix, 132, 135;
- uses of, by men and monkeys, xv, 60-1;
- wetting of, and colds, x, 239, 306, 341
- Feldspar, iii, 308, 328-9;
- chemical composition, viii, 90, 193;
- clay from, iii, 25, 27, 28, 373;
- disintegration, viii, 194;
- potash in, 201
- Felt, making of, v, 289
- Fer-de-lance, xii, 234
- Ferdinand II of Tuscany, i, 69, 213
- Fergusson, William, x, 130
- Fermat, Pierre de, xvi, 105, 114, 119
- Fermentation, alcoholic, viii, 248-9;
- of sewage, 328;
- of sugars, 225, 227;
- on what dependent, xiii, 66, 71;
- Pasteur's studies in, x, 137, 138-9, 141, 143 (see Alcoholic Fermentation)
- Ferments, viii, 357, 376;
- as catalyzers, 103
- Ferns, xiii, 63-6;
- classification, iii, 251;
- cycad-like, xiii, 309;
- evolution, iii, 252, 254, 256, xiii, 303, 317;
- fossils, iii, 272 (Pl. 15), xiii, 324;
- in tropical forests, xiv, 368;
- mosses and, xiii, 69;
- number of species, 323;
- power of roots, 19;
- reproductive processes, 155-60
- Ferrel's Law, i, 124-5
- Ferrets, xii, 349
- Ferric Compounds, viii, 161
- Ferrite, viii, 160, 273
- Ferrous Compounds, viii, 161;
- action of oxygen on, 194
- Fertilization of Plants, xiii, 118-65;
- devices to insure, 48-53;
- of yucca plant, xvi, 152-3
- (see also Cross Fertilization)
- Fertilizers, viii, 278-80, 342-6;
- ammonium, 147;
- garbage, 330, 343;
- natural, 327, 342-4;
- natural, in southern China, xiv, 73;
- nitrogen, i, 34, viii, 72, 74, 75, 137, 280, 345-6, xiv, 66;
- phosphate, viii, 89, 153, 279-80, 344-5, xiv, 67, 68;
- potassium, viii, 134, 146, 278-9, 344;
- potash, xiv, 67-8;
- primitive knowledge of, xv, 202
- Festoon Clouds, i, 104, 372
- Fetal Anlage, x, 120
- Fetishes, xv, 348-9
- Fevers, cause, temperature, and treatment, ix, 317-19;
- cooling of skin in, iv, 174;
- explanation of phenomena, x, 214;
- heart rate in, 334;
- improvement of treatment, xvi, 184-5;
- inanition in, x, 276;
- racial immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51;
- Sydenham's treatment of, x, 73;
- use of antipyretics in, 381
- Fibers, cellulose, viii, 254-6;
- sources, uses, and kinds, xiii, 235-45
- Fibrin, ix, 180
- Fields, electrostatic and magnetic, vii, 368 (see Electrostatic Fields, Magnetic Fields)
- Field Strength or Intensity, vii, 368, 370
- Figs, for constipation, ix, 251;
- origin, xiii, 225
- Fig Trees, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5;
- of Bahamas, 18;
- of Brazil, 365;
- of India (illus.), 16;
- of West Indies, 21
- Filled Space, xi, 187
- Filled Time, xi, 194
- Filterable Viruses, x, 200
- Final Common Path, xi, 22-3;
- in acquired tastes, 73;
- in association of ideas, 199;
- in attention, 230;
- preoccupation of, 119, 120, 121
- Finches, coloring of, xii, 245-6
- Fingal's Cave, jointed rocks in, xiv, 129
- Fingers, bones of, ix, 67, 68, (fig.);
- curling of, in infants, ix, 349;
- flexed position, xi, 42-3;
- muscles for operating, ix, 76;
- of men and apes, xv, 60
- Finland, coast of, xiv, 247, 259;
- lakes of, 200
- Finland, Gulf of, salinity, xiv, 296
- Fiords, (see Fjords)
- Fire, Civilization in relation to, ix, 308, 309, xv, 229;
- discovery of, v, 349;
- possibility of life in, ii, 251;
- production and sources, viii, 89, xv, 229-32;
- production by air compression, v, 128;
- production of, by friction, iv, 48-9;
- religious associations of, xv, 234
- "Fire Animal," xii, 20
- Firearms, v, 361-8, 379;
- ignition systems, viii, 145
- Fire Balloons, v, 223
[Pg 256]
- Fire Damp, iii, 354
- Fire Engine, Ericsson's steam, v, 378;
- Hero's, xvi, 92-3
- Fire Extinguishers, carbon tetrachloride in, v, 212;
- chemical and electric, vi, 101, 102
- Fireflies, xii, 124;
- as ignis fatuus, i, 346;
- light of, vi, 268
- Fire Hazard, electricity and, vii, 51-2, 223, 224;
- in rural districts, 231;
- reduced by lightning rods, i, 156
- Fire Proof Type of Construction, vii, 55
- Fire Pumps, v, 114
- Fire Underwriters, Board of, vii, 53-4
- Fires, caused by overloaded circuits, vii, 34;
- cause of "spalling" in, iii, 24;
- crowd psychology at, xi, 327-8;
- dust from, i, 56-7;
- extinguishing of, viii, 56-7;
- prairie, xiii, 374, 375;
- rain control by, i, 345;
- records in tree rings, xiii, 25
- Fire-Weather Warnings, i, 240
- Fireweed, seed dispersal, xiii, 343-4
- Fir Trees, dominance in north, xiii, 350;
- forests of U. S., 367-8;
- in landscaping, 270-1
- (see also Conifers)
- Fish, as food, ix, 24;
- calories in, 299;
- food value, viii, 362-3;
- vitamines in, x, 262
- Fishes, Age of, iii, 20, 21, 283, xv, 71;
- anatomy and physiology of, xii, 132-6;
- bony, 151-3;
- breeding habits, 140-1;
- carelessness of offspring, xv, 275;
- cartilage skeletons of lowest, ix, 58;
- catching of, by savages, xv, 227-8;
- catching of, with cormorants, 223-4;
- classification, iii, 260, xii, 142;
- deep sea (see Deep Sea);
- eggs, 140-1, 155, xv, 21, xvi, 116;
- evolution, iii, 282-5;
- food of, ix, 24;
- intelligence in, xii, 139-40;
- leeches and, 56;
- migrations in relation to plankton, xvi, 147-8;
- modern, xii, 154-66;
- number of species, xvi, 146-7;
- of oceanic islands, xiv, 278;
- oxygen supply of, viii, 35, ix, 182;
- rate of increase in, xv, 20;
- regeneration in, xii, 170;
- reproduction in, 140-1;
- sense organs, 137-9;
- "showers," of, i, 355;
- temperature variations, 317;
- temperature variations, effects, ix, 78
- Fish-eye Views, iv, 374
- Fishhawks, xii, 260
- Fish Patrol, Aerial, i, 48
- Fission, xii, 26
- Fissures, defined, iii, 378;
- ore deposits in, viii, 199
- Fissure Springs, xiv, 138, 152
- Fitch, John, steamboat, v, 189
- FitzRoy, Admiral Robert, i, 224-5, 282, 363
- Fiume, importance to Jugoslavs, xiv, 268, 306
- Fixation (sight), how we learn, xi, 39-40
- Fixed Stars, ancient idea of, ii, 350;
- motions of, 46, 86-7, 121-2, 304-5 (see Stars)
- Fjords, Fjord Coasts, xiv, 258-62;
- Norwegian, formation of, iii, 79;
- Norwegian, frost smoke, i, 95
- Flagellate Cells, xii, 30-1
- Flame, viii, 57-61;
- colors as metal tests, 133, 134, 144, 289, 301;
- heat production by, iv, 138, 144
- Flamingos, xii, 256
- Flammarion, books on Mars, ii, 238;
- on curious showers, i, 355;
- on lightning pranks, 153-4
- Flamsteed, astronomer, xvi, 124;
- star numbering, ii, 302-3
- Flannel, heat conductivity, iv, 179
- Flannelette, x, 308
- Flashboards, vii, 40
- Flash Boiler, v, 213
- Flashes, electric, vi, 91;
- extinguished by electromagnets, 102
- Flashing Arcs, i, 194, 372
- Flatfish, eyes of, xii, 138
- Flatulence, sleeplessness from, ix, 219
- Flatworms, xii, 18, 44-5
- Flavors, ix, 95, 97;
- chemistry of, viii, 251-2;
- food value, 366, ix, 98, 240, 242;
- in plants, viii, 349;
- perception of, ix, 97-8
- Flax, retting of, xiii, 243;
- spinning of, in ancient Egypt, xv, 243, 244 (fig.)
- Flax Plant, products and origin, xiii, 235, 244, xiv, 382
- Flesh-eating Animals, as food, ix, 24;
- bile color in, 275;
- intestine length in, 246;
- protein surplus in, 284-5
- Flexner, medical work of, x, 200, 218, 302
- Flexor Muscles, ix, 76-7;
- strength, xi, 41, 43;
- withdrawing reactions by, 54
- Flies, xii, 120;
- appearance in Jurassic, 104;
- buzzing of, 103;
- claws of, 102-3;
- evolution and varieties, 104-6;
- plant fertilizers, xiii, 131-3;
- typhoid fever spread by, x, 287, 288;
- wings of, xii, 103
- Flight, bodily preparations for, ix, 166;
- instinct of, xi, 55, 132, 136
- Flint, iii, 13, 337;
- fire production by, iv, 48;
- flaking of, xv, 103, 104, 107 (fig.), 109
- Flint and Steel, xv, 232
- Flint Implements, ancient, xv, 79, 81, 82, 87, 104, 105, 109
- Flintlock, viii, 145, xv, 217, 218 (fig.)
- Floating Bodies, v, 95, 195-6;
- laws of, iv, 103-4, 107
[Pg 257]
- Flood Lighting, vi, 283
- Flood Plains, iii, 379, xiv, 53;
- alluvial soils of, 70, 71;
- embankments and slopes, 161-2;
- illustration, iii, 80, (Pl. 4);
- in old and new areas, 33, 34;
- plant societies of, xiv, 372
- Floods, power of, iii, 31;
- rainfall and, i, 110-11
- Flood Warnings, i, 240
- Floors, warm, importance of, ix, 320
- Flora, defined, xiv, 363
- Florida, alligators of, xii, 197;
- coal forming conditions, iii, 199;
- coasts of, xiv, 251;
- co-, xii, 40, 42;
- crocodiles of, 198;
- frosts in, xiv, 370;
- serpula quina rock, viii, 152;
- coral reefs, tubes, xii, 55;
- shad fishing in, 155;
- snakes of, 226, 236;
- tarpon of, 154;
- wolves of, 341;
- youthful topography and drainage system, xiv, 157-8, 199-200, 201
- Florissant, Colorado, insect remains at, iii, 279-80
- Flour, calories in, ix, 299;
- Graham, ix, 35;
- vitamines in various kinds of, x, 262, 267
- Flourens, Dr., x, 126, xvi, 185
- Flowering Plants, beginnings and development, iii, 20, 252, 255, 256-7, xiii, 318-19;
- classification, 60-1, 173-81;
- classification place, iii, 251;
- culmination of plant life, xiii, 73-4;
- description of parts, 15-62;
- families and relationships, 168-207;
- in relation to animal life, iii, 257;
- none in earliest ages, xiii, 303;
- number of species, 168, 319, 323;
- origin of present, 323-5;
- reproductive methods, 117-54, 167
- Flowerless Plants, iii, 251, xiii, 13, 14, 43;
- evolution, iii, 252, 253;
- ferns, xiii, 63-6;
- nonvascular, 66-73;
- numbers, 168;
- reproduction, 62-4, 154-65
- (see also Cryptogams)
- Flowers, annuals and perennials, (tables), xiii, 289-97;
- coloring and fragrance, 124-5;
- colors in various shrubs, (table), 274-88;
- family groups determined by, 184;
- fertilization devices, 48-51, 117, 123-48;
- fertilization the climax of life, 152;
- highly cultivated, 51;
- largest, 363-4;
- love in, 115;
- matings of, remarks, 116-17;
- male and female, 46-7;
- motion pictures of growth of, iv, 348;
- of monocotyledons and dicotyledons, xiii, 176, 178, 189-90;
- parts of, 43-6;
- purpose, 46, 52-3, 61;
- various forms and colors, 47-53, 181-207
- Flu, (influenza), x, 294-5
- Fluctuating Variations, xiii, 328
- Flue Gases, electric clearing, vii, 216, 343
- Fluids, distinguished by pressure and diffusibility, iv, 22-3;
- elasticity of, 158;
- osmosis, xiii, 90-1 (see Osmosis);
- pressure of, iv, 116-19;
- pressure on moving inclined planes, i, 287-8;
- principles applicable to, iv, 126 (see Gases, Liquids)
- Flukes, sea, xii, 44
- Fluorescence, iv, 379-80;
- produced by X-rays, 318, 320
- Fluorescent Screen, iv, 320, vii, 254-5, viii, 184
- Fluorine, a halogen, viii, 18, 84, 85, 87;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- in apatite, 193;
- in tissues, 354
- Fluorite, iii, 329-30
- Fluoroscope, iv, 320
- Flushing, of skin, ix, 161, 162, 163, 215
- Flute, development of, xv, 316, 317 (fig.);
- Egyptian, 314 (fig.)
- Fluxing, of ores, viii, 270
- Fly-Catcher (plant), xiii, 40-1
- Flying Dragons, xii, 206
- Flying Fish, order of, xii, 163;
- wings of, 134
- Flying Mice, xii, 278
- Flying Reptiles, iii, 293-4, 320 (Pl. 18), xii, 202, 203 (fig.)
- Foci of Infection, x, 198-9, 218-26
- Focus, defined, iv, 335;
- of cameras, ix, 108-9;
- of eye, 110-11;
- of lenses, iv, 338;
- real and virtual, 335
- Foehn Sickness, i, 328
- Foehn Wall, i, 105, 372
- Foehn Winds, i, 133, 372
- Fog, i, 93-7, 372;
- aviation effects, 300-2;
- costs and dispersion, 94, 302;
- dust nuclei, x, 62, viii, 304;
- dry (see Dry Fog);
- light diffraction by, i, 183, 185;
- rime formed from, 121-2;
- sound transmission by, 190
- Fog Bows, i, 176, 372
- Fog Drip, i, 351, 353, 372
- Fog Hiccups, i, 195
- Fog Signals, audibility, i, 189-91;
- sirens, iv, 205
- Folded Mountains, iii, 131-8, 190-1, xiv, 36-7, 226-34;
- ridges in, 93-4, 95-6
- Folding of Rocks, iii, 84-6, 349 (fig.), 379, xiv, 36;
- theories of process, 231-2;
- topography made by, 38, 93-9
- Food, Foods, adulteration of, viii, 370-1;
- amount consumed, 366-7;
- artificially prepared, x, 257, 267-8;
- benzenes and paraffins as, viii, 234;
- calories in various, 361, ix, 299, x, 269;
- calories, valuation in, iv, 48;
- chemistry of, viii, 348-72;
- children's, x, 314-15;
[Pg 258]
- cold storage of, iv, 187, 8;
- constituents all in air and water, i, 25;
- cooking of, viii, 367-9, x, 263, 266 (see Cooking);
- deficiency of, diseases from, x, 255-69, 276;
- digestion and utilization, viii, 356-9, ix, 226-52, 277-304, x, 268-71, 319-20;
- fat-producing, x, 273;
- infants', ix, 346-7;
- kinds needed during exertion, xi, 278;
- methods of obtaining, importance of, xv, 186-7;
- nitrogen importance, viii, 66, 229;
- of animals and plants, 349, 350, xii, 15;
- procuring of, by animals, ix, 18-20
- (see also Chemotaxis);
- requirements, viii, 362-7, 369-70, x, 255-68, 278-9;
- selection of, viii, 369, ix, 300-1;
- sources of, 24-30;
- storing of, by animals, xii, 292-3;
- taste and smell of, ix, 94-5, 97-8, 240, 241-2;
- use of, for energy development, 15-16, 24, 36-40, 289-301;
- use of, for growth, 31-4, 38-9, 286-9;
- use of, for tissue repair, 34-6, 278-84
- (see also Diet, Nutrition)
- Food-poisoning, indigestion from, ix, 239
- Food Plants, xiii, 209-27
- Food Preserving, viii, 371-2;
- chilling and refrigeration, v, 346, 353;
- X-ray sterilizing, vii, 257
- Food Supply, its making by plants, xiii, 77-84, 95, 96;
- of tropics, 359
- "Fool's Gold," iii, 335
- Foot Candle, iv, 352, vii, 368
- Foot-pound, iv, 79, vi, 82;
- erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382;
- equivalent in watt-hours, iv, 312;
- heat equivalent, v, 350-1
- Foot-pound-second System, iv, 46 (see British System)
- Foot-poundal, unit of work, iv, 79
- Foraminifers, iii, 54, 259, 261, 266;
- in pelagic plankton, xii, 17-18
- Force (mechanics), iv, 33-4, 41;
- centrifugal and centripetal, 71-5;
- defined, v, 182-3;
- law of, in machines, iv, 90, 92;
- Leibnitz's theory, xvi, 117;
- magnetic, vii, 369;
- measurement and units of, iv, 46, 58, 63-5, 69-70;
- momentum and, 66-7;
- motion and, 56-69, 71-2, 78;
- Newton's and Huygens' studies of, 11;
- primary forms of, 25;
- static and kinetic measures of, 33;
- work in relation to, 37-8, 78-9
- Force Pump, v, 113-14
- Forces, composition and resolution of, iv, 75-7;
- parallel, 99;
- parallelogram of, v, 184-6
- Forecasts, i, 224 (see Weather Forecasts, Crop Forecasts)
- Foreign Languages, advantages of learning, xv, 146;
- jabbering sound, xi, 103;
- difficulty of learning, 201
- Foreign Plants, importation forbidden, xiii, 272, 289;
- introduction aided by phenology, i, 254
- Foreign Trade, meteorology in, i, 268-9
- Forest Fires, aeroplane lookouts, i, 48-9;
- dust from, 56-7;
- losses by, xiii, 371-2;
- number and losses, i, 48-9;
- rain and, 333-4;
- records in tree rings, xiii, 25
- Forests, ancient, iii, 252, 253-4, xiii, 10, 307-10, 312, 313;
- branching of trees in, 86;
- burial by sand dunes, iii, 74;
- climate affected by, xiv, 379;
- climax, xiii, 370;
- conservation of, xiv, 238-9, 382-3
- (see also Conservation);
- earthquakes in, 333;
- European, 238-9;
- grasslands and, xiii, 348-9, 368 (illus), 374-5, xiv, 380-1;
- importance to industry, vi, 366;
- leaving of trees in, xiii, 86-7;
- migration of, xiv, 375-6;
- mountain, 239-9;
- northern limit, 375;
- park, 374;
- products, 382-3;
- rainfall and, xiii, 372, xiv, 377-8;
- soil protection by, 42, 379;
- squirrel planting of, xiii, 340;
- temperate, 366-73, 272 (illus), xiv, 370-1;
- trees in American and European, 363, 375-6;
- tropical, xiii, 358-66, xiv, 366-70;
- types of, xiii, 357-8;
- United States, xiv, 239, 372-4;
- United States national, xiii, 371-2;
- water supply and, 371-2, 9, xiv, 239
- Forgetting, process of, xi, 209;
- rate of, 216
- Forked Lightning, vii, 205, 206-11;
- sinuous character, i, 146
- Form, athletic, ix, 159
- Formaldehyde, viii, 219, 333, 335, 372
- Formic Acid, viii, 220
- Formosa, rice paper tree of, xiii, 214;
- continental island, xiv, 274
- Form-wound Coils, vi, 202, 223, 245
- Fortin's Barometer, iv, 119-20
- Fossane, xii, 353
- Fossil Botany, xvi, 167
- Fossil Record, extent, iii, 13-14;
- imperfectness, xiii, 302-3, 306-7, 323-4, 325;
- of various geological strata, iii, 165, 174, 179, 180, 263-5, 268
- Fossils, defined, iii, 13, 379;
- formation, 15-17;
- formation of plant, xiii, 301-2;
- former views of, iii, 14-15;
- geological strata determined by, 15, 18-19, xvi, 126, 169;
- of earliest animals, iii, 261-2, 263, 265-6;
- of earliest birds, xii, 239-43;
- of herbs and woody plants, xiii, 319, 324;
- of sharks' teeth, xii, 142;
- of water plants, xiii, 303;
- of worms, iii, 270;
- oldest known, 250;
[Pg 259]
- some remarkable, 286-8, 291, 292, 295, xiii, 306, 347
- Four-Cycle Engines, v, 159, vii, 123-4
- Fourdrinier Paper Machine, v, 291, 295-8, 377
- Four o'Clock (flower), colors in crosses, ix, 334, 336
- Foussa, xii, 353, 354
- Fowls, white meat of, xii, 247
- Foxes, xii, 342-4;
- excavators, xv, 206;
- storing of food by, xii, 292
- Fox Fire, i, 346
- Fractional Distillation, i, 32, iv, 168
- Fracto-Cumulus, i, 102
- Fracto-Nimbus Clouds, i, 101
- Fracto-Stratus Clouds, i, 102
- Fractures, Pott's, x, 92;
- X-ray locating of, vii, 254, 255, x, 185
- France, aluminum production, iii, 369;
- ancient fossils found in, 252, 263, xiii, 319;
- botanical education, xvi, 22;
- chalk deposits, iii, 266;
- coasts, xiv, 46, 47, 257;
- Cro-Magnons in, xv, 102;
- early civilization of, xiv, 359;
- first balloons, v, 219-21;
- forestry in, xiv, 239, 382;
- hail devices, i, 341, 342-3, 343-4;
- harbors of north coast, xiv, 270-1;
- invasions of, course taken, 92;
- mistral winds, i, 133;
- Northmen in, xiv, 261;
- oyster culture in, xii, 62;
- Paleolithic remains in, iii, 304-5;
- rainfall of northern, i, 338;
- river changes in, xiv, 184;
- standard gun-manufacturing, v, 49;
- tidal power plants, 176-7;
- surgery made a profession, x, 104-5;
- topography in World War, xiv, 86 (map), 88-93;
- tuberculosis campaign in, x, 175-6
- Franco, Peter, x, 57, xvi, 108
- Franklin, Benjamin, cold season theory, i, 58-9;
- climatic changes paper, 200-1;
- electrical work, vi, 10-11, 13-16, xvi, 121, 188-9;
- lightning experiments, i, 141, iv, 269-70, vi, 11, 14-16, vii, 204-5, xvi, 121;
- lightning rods, vii, 218-19;
- medical work of, x, 104;
- meteorological work, xvi, 177;
- on "magnetic sleep," 185;
- single-fluid theory, vi, 11, 288
- Franklinic Currents, vii, 245
- Fraunhofer Lines, ii, 112, iv, 362, viii, 302
- Frazer, Sir J. G., i, 334
- Frederick Barbarossa, medical interest of, x, 38
- Freeze, defined, i, 372
- Freezing, expansion of water on, iv, 149-51;
- heat production by, 161
- Freezing Mixtures, iv, 175;
- known to ancients, v, 349
- Freezing Point, in various thermometers, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, 141, viii, 27;
- of solutions, 299-301;
- of various substances, iv, 173;
- pressure effects on, 163-6
- Freiberg, School of Mines, xvi, 126, 127
- Freight Engines, modern, v, 210
- French, in Alpine group, xvi, 49;
- in America, xiv, 31, 191-2, 242, 310, 311
- French Language, descent from Latin, xv, 160, 162
- French Revolution, causes and results, xvi, 128;
- crowds of, xi, 326;
- metric measures adopted in, iv, 136;
- results on cultural advance, x, 107
- Frende, Gabriel, i, 244
- Fresnel, light studies, xvi, 137
- Freud, Sigmund, on dreams, x, 364;
- on hysteria, 361;
- psychoanalysis of, 363
- Freudian School, work of, xi, 142
- Friction, iv, 92-4, v, 203-7;
- fire obtained by, viii, 89;
- heat production by, iv, 48, 138;
- in tubes, ix, 215
- Frictional Electricity, iv, 257-8, 260, vi, 11, 12, 13, 286-7;
- discovery, xvi, 122;
- electron theory, vi, 122-3;
- identical with other kinds, 23;
- single fluid theory, 288
- Frictional Machines, iv, 265, vii, 236, 245
- Friction Matches, iv, 49, 138, viii, 88
- Fried Foods, ix, 286
- Frigate bird, xii, 253-4
- Fright, physiological effects of, ix, 161, 165, 221, 240-1
- Fringed Gentian, a biennial, xiii, 16;
- corolla of, 44 (fig.)
- Fringing Reefs, xii, 41, xiv, 263
- Frisian Islands, coast destruction in, xiv, 46
- Frogs, iii, 285, xii, 169, 174-6, 177-81;
- evolution of, 167;
- heart of, ix, 84;
- regeneration in, xii, 170;
- sense organs in, 169, 174;
- "showers" of, i, 355;
- temperature effects on, ix, 78-9, 306
- Frostbite, x, 252
- Frosts, i, 257-60, 373;
- insurance, 270;
- rock weathering by, iii, 24, xiv, 62, 75-7, 233
- Frost Smoke, i, 95, 373
- Fructose, viii, 226
- Fruit, defined, xiii, 53-4;
- development, 54-5;
- dry and fleshy, 54-5;
- family groups determined by, 184;
- flavors due to esters, 221;
- food value, 365, ix, 34, 300, x, 262, 266, 268, 273, 317;
- in grasses and sedges, xiii, 179, 182;
- purposes of, 61;
- seed dispersal, 55-9
- (see also Seed Dispersal);
- sugar storage in, ix, 27-8
- Fruit Trees, as index plants, i, 255-6;
- frost danger points, 258
- Fuels, future motor, viii, 209;
[Pg 260]
- heat
- measurement, 360-1;
- our waste of, v, 172;
- power from oxidation of, ix, 15-16, 24
- Fuel Value, viii, 360-1
- Fuji-san, Japan, xiv, 100, 320
- Fujiyama, Japan, as observatory site, ii, 145, 149;
- shadow in sky, i, 170
- Fulgurites, i, 153, 373
- Fuller Cells, vi, 137, 142-3
- Fully, Lake, water drop, v, 81
- Fulminating Mercury, viii, 262
- Fulton, Robert, steamboat, v, 192, 377;
- steam war vessel, 378;
- submarine, 197-8
- Functional Metabolism, ix, 39;
- control of, 39-40, 77-8, 170;
- daily amount in calories, 297;
- food requirements dependent on, 295;
- heat production by, 307;
- no tissue wastage by, 282-3;
- of glands, 159;
- of muscle cells, 74, 77-9;
- of nerve cells, 122-3;
- of posture, 84;
- of vital processes, 295-6
- Fundamental Tones, iv, 213;
- of bells, 222;
- of organ pipes, 228-30;
- of vibrating strings and rods, 223-4
- Fundy, Bay of, tides, v, 175, xiv, 293
- Fungi, xiii, 70-1;
- in coal formation, 312;
- luminous, i, 346;
- reproductive processes, xiii, 164;
- in rotten plants, 99;
- species, 323;
- spores in atmosphere, i, 61
- Fungicides, viii, 77, 333
- Funk, Casimer, x, 259
- Furs, source of costly, xii, 346-51;
- warmth of, iv, 178, ix, 311, x, 309
- Furrows, of continental shelves, xiv, 287
- Fusel Oil, viii, 214
- Fuses, purpose and construction, vii, 34-7, 369;
- inverse time features, 37, 39
- Fusibility, of minerals, viii, 202, 384
- Fusion, latent heat of, iv, 152, 160, 161;
- table, 162
- Fusions, of odors, xi, 81;
- of tastes, 73;
- of tones, 106;
- of touch, 111
- Future, a habit of thought, xi, 192;
- predictions of, xv, 354, 355
- Future Life, primitive conceptions of, xv, 332-6, 339, 340, 345, 358
- Gadflies, xii, 120
- Gadolinium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Gailey, James A., v, 383
- Galactose, viii, 226
- Galagos, xii, 375
- Galapagos Islands, xiv, 276;
- turtles of, xii, 187, 192
- Galaxy, ii, 350-6;
- as basis of star distribution, 350, 353, 354, 364-5;
- globular clusters and the, 339, 343;
- nebulæ and the, 363, 364-5;
- solar system and, 353-4;
- spectra of stars, 116;
- star streams and, 346;
- studies at Mt. Wilson, 158-9, 160;
- type of stars, 122;
- variable stars and, 327, 328, 330, 332
- Galen, x, 28-31;
- anatomical ideas disputed by Vesalius, 51, 52, 53;
- arterial bleeding unknown to, 39;
- authority in Middle Ages, 32, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 51, 52;
- classification of minds, xi, 152-3, 155;
- classifying tendency of, x, 83;
- Locke, on, 75;
- medical works, xvi, 98;
- on circulation of blood, x, 22, 62-3, 65-6;
- on convulsions, fainting, etc., 89;
- on occupational diseases, 244;
- Paracelsus on, 47, 48;
- revival of writings, 44, 45
- Galena, iii, 330, 362, 363, 368
- Galilee, Sea of, formation, iii, 156;
- level, xiv, 121
- Galileo, astronomical work, ii, 14, 53-6, iv, 27-8;
- astronomical and other work, xvi, 103;
- discoveries, ii, 83, 94, 96, 262;
- falling bodies demonstration at Pisa, iv, 28, 97, 101;
- medical advances due to, x, 67;
- motion studies of, iv, 19, 28, 35, 61;
- on Galaxy, ii, 351;
- on Gilbert, xvi, 109;
- on laws of motion, ii, 63;
- on Mars, 227;
- pendulum discovery, v, 63-5;
- pendulum clocks suggested, 65;
- studies of nebulæ, ii, 357;
- telescopes, 12, 94, 95;
- thermometer invention, i, 68, 69, x, 71;
- Torricelli pupil of, iv, 114
- Gall Bladder, inflammations of, x, 220, 224
- Galley Worms, xii, 88-9
- Gallium, discovery of, viii, 180;
- symbol and atomic weight, 383
- Gallon, cubic inches in, iv, 46
- Galls, on plants, xii, 125;
- on roots, xiii, 98
- Gall Stones, ix, 276
- Galton, Sir Francis, eugenic work, xvi, 157;
- on ancestral heredity, x, 231;
- on fatigue, xi, 275;
- on sun's corona, ii, 222;
- statistical methods, xvi, 153
- Galvani, electrical work, vi, 16-17;
- electrical work, xvi, 122, 189
- Galvanic Batteries, vii, 369
- Galvanic Cells, vii, 236, 241-2
- Galvanic Currents, vii, 242, 244, 248
- Galvanism, discovery, xvi, 122
- Galvanized Iron, vii, 318-19, viii, 155-6, 273
- Galvanometers, iv, 279, vii, 179, 369;
- invention, vi, 23, 24
- Galveston, harbor of, xiv, 269;
- hurricanes, i, 136;
- hurricane of 1900 and rebuilding, xiv, 302-3
- Game Birds, xii, 261-3
[Pg 261]
- Games, athletic, advantages from, x, 304
- Gamma Rays, i, 143, viii, 185
- Gamopetalae, xiii, 47, 190, 201-5
- Ganges River, crocodiles of, xii, 201;
- delta, iii, 32, xiv, 53;
- erosion by, iii, 31;
- furrow of, xiv, 287
- Ganglia, of nerves, xi, 26
- Gangue Minerals, viii, 199;
- handling of, 269, 270
- Gannets, xii, 253
- Ganoids, iii, 283 (fig.), 284, xii, 152-3
- Ganoid Scales, xii, 134
- Garbage, as fertilizer, xv, 280, 343, 344;
- disposal of, 330, 346
- Garda, Lake, formation, iii, 146;
- in rift valley, xiv, 123
- Garden Plants, xiii, 267-97;
- origin of, xiv, 382
- Garfield, James A., speech of, xi, 323
- Garnet Group, iii, 330
- Gar Pikes, xii, 134, 152, 153
- Garua, Peruvian fog, i, 95, 373
- Gas Carbon, electrical conductivity, iv, 283
- Gas Constant, iv, 142
- Gas Engines, v, 155-6, 381;
- efficiency, on what dependent, iv, 192;
- ignition, vii, 369;
- in submarines, vi, 239;
- operation in automobile, vii, 123-33;
- starting of, vi, 235
- Gases, adiabatic change in, iv, 158-9;
- atmospheric, i, 9-16;
- Boyle's Law, iv, 125-6, 133, 143;
- Boyle's and Mariotte's researches, xvi, 110;
- buoyant effect, iv, 30;
- Charles's Law, 140;
- chemical properties, viii, 297-8;
- combinations, Gay-Lussac's studies, xvi, 133;
- compressibility variations, iv, 143;
- condition at absolute zero, 142-3;
- conversion of liquids into, 152-3, 173-4;
- cooling by expansion, i, 30, 90;
- critical temperature, 29, iv, 171-3;
- diffusibility of, iv, 23, 131, viii, 22-3, 23, 108;
- distinguished by pressure and diffusibility, iv, 22-3;
- elasticity of, 158-9, 198;
- electric discharges through, 54-5, vii, 216, 301-2;
- electrolytic separation, 321-4;
- electrical conductivity of, iv, 259;
- expansion by heat, 135, 151;
- expansion coefficient, 145;
- flame due to burning, viii, 57;
- gram-molecular volume, viii, 109;
- heat absorption, 309;
- heat convection in, iv, 178;
- heat effects on, 139-40;
- heat from compression, i, 90, v, 351;
- heat non-conductivity, iv, 177, 178;
- ignition, viii, 54;
- interchanges of molecular energies, xvi, 134;
- ionization of molecules, i, 142, 143;
- isothermal changes in, iv, 156;
- latent heat of, 153, 173-4, v, 353, 354 (see Latent Heat);
- laws not inflexible, iv, 142-3;
- liquefaction of, 143, 153, 191-2 (see Liquefaction);
- Mariotte's law, 141;
- mechanical energy of, 142;
- molecular velocity in, 133;
- molecules in, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131, 132-3, 152-3, viii, 23, 24, 106, 305-6;
- molecules, number in, iv, 133, viii, 108-9, xvi, 133;
- monatomic, viii, 309;
- pressure of, v, 223, viii, 24-5, 109-10;
- pressure, to what due, iv, 30, 132-3;
- pressure, volume, and temperature laws, iv, 125-6, 139-43, v, 347, viii, 106-8;
- Regnault's constant, iv, 142;
- solidifying of, i, 32, iv, 153, 192;
- solubility in water, viii, 40, 111, 112;
- sound velocity in, iv, 155-6, 198, 199;
- specific heat ratio, 155-6, 159;
- spectra of, ii, 112-13, iv, 361-3;
- suspended change of state, viii, 113, 304, 305;
- vibration of, iv, 215;
- volume taken at atmospheric pressure, v, 223
- Gas Lighting, vi, 195, 264;
- fire hazards, vii, 51
- (see also Illuminating Gas)
- Gas Mantles, viii, 60, 252
- Gasoline, combustion of, viii, 13, 52;
- explosiveness, vii, 124, viii, 23, 54, 62;
- production and uses, 208, 209, 235
- Gasoline Engines, v, 156-61;
- in aeroplanes, 231;
- efficiency, 155;
- compared with motors, vii, 223;
- operation, 123-33
- Gas Plant, xiii, 136-7
- Gas Shells, i, 308, 314, viii, 263
- Gastric Digestion, ix, 234-6, x, 319-25
- Gastric Glands, control of, ix, 162, 240-2
- Gastric Juice, viii, 358, ix, 234-8, x, 319-20;
- control of secretion of, ix, 240-2;
- conveyance of, 189-90;
- disorders of, x, 321-3;
- historical studies of, ix, 239-40;
- indigestion from failure of, 239-41
- Gas Warfare, viii, 262-4, x, 186-8
- Gatling Guns, v, 362-3, 364, 380
- Gatun Lake, Panama, xiv, 195
- Gaurs, xii, 330
- Gay-Lussac, balloon ascensions, i, 18;
- chemical work, xvi, 133, 160, 162
- Gazelles, xii, 327
- Gearing, in turbine-driven ships, v, 105, 153-4, vii, 329
- Gears, v, 25-31;
- hydraulic, 104-6;
- spiral, 38-9;
- toothed, disadvantages, 104;
- worm, 37 (fig.), 38
- Geckos, xii, 205-6
- Geese, xii, 257, 258
- Gelatine, colloidal state, viii, 314, 315, 356;
[Pg 262]
- food value, ix, 288
- General Electric Company, autotransformers, vi, 337;
- bulletin on motor costs, vii, 224-6;
- machinery for Niagara Plant, vi, 374, 375, 376, 377;
- Mazda lamps, 267;
- radio engineering work, vii, 274;
- small power sets, 232
- Generators, vi, 49-56, vii, 369;
- alternating current, vi, 158-9, 196-216
- (see also Alternators);
- armature reaction, vii, 145-6;
- direct current, vii, 175-94
- (see also Direct Current Generators);
- efficiency, vi, 192-4, 214-15, 357, 379;
- electrostatic, 298-301;
- induction motors as, 249-50;
- neutral points, vii, 373;
- operation in power plants, vi, 357-8, 362;
- of Niagara Plant, 374-5;
- principal parts, 176;
- purpose and parts, vii, 367;
- radio, 274-8, 282-3, 290-1;
- ratings, vi, 192-4, 214-15;
- regulation of output, vii, 144-50;
- short-circuit protection, 49;
- size of units, vi, 378-9;
- slow and high speed, 182;
- turbine-driven, v, 151, 154;
- use in therapeutics, vii, 236-7, 241-5
- (see also Dynamos)
- Genetics, xvi, 157-8
- Geneva Lake, filling of, by Rhone River, xiv, 53;
- former connections, 185;
- slow movement of water, 210
- Genital Organs, foci of infection in, x, 220, 221
- Genius, Bessel on, ii, 93;
- obstacles and, xvi, 30;
- reflex action of, xi, 36;
- Titchener on, 225-6
- Genoa, growth of, xiv, 308;
- sea captains of, 310
- Gentians, xiii, 190, 205
- Genus, Genera, defined, xii, 28, xiii, 170, 171
- Geocentric Theory, ii, 9-10, 34-5 (see Ptolemaic System)
- Geo-Chemistry, viii, 190-203
- Geocoronium, i, 192, 373
- Geographical Change, agents of, xiv, 31-2, 33-79
- Geographical Cycles, xiv, 29, 34-5, 48 (see Cycles of Erosion)
- Geographical Distribution, science of, xvi, 140
- Geography, changes since prehistoric times, xiv, 29-30;
- civilization and, xv, 122-3, 128-39;
- defined, iii, 9-10, 379, xvi, 36;
- development of science of, 94, 98, 114, 123-4;
- genetic conception of, xiv, 3-4;
- history and, 10, 30-1, 191-7, 239-45, 249-50, 261-2, 279-82, 305-11
- Geological Ages, iii, 19-21, xv, 71;
- determined by fossils, iii, 15, 18-19;
- estimate of lengths, xiii, 314, 322;
- length seen in coal formations, iii, 201;
- length seen in chalk deposits, 218;
- length shown by mosses, xiii, 306
- Geology, Volume iii
- Geology, daily interest, xvi, 22-5;
- definition and scope, iii, 3, 9, 11, 12, 378, xvi, 37;
- history of development, 126, 168-73;
- mineralogy and, iii, 309
- Geometry, of Greeks and Hindus, xi, 239-40;
- history of, xvi, 54, 68, 81, 89, 90
- George, Lake, iii, 145;
- stream changes around, 243
- Georgia, aluminum production, iii, 369;
- cotton of, xiii, 237;
- glacial period in, xiv, 376;
- soil of, 218
- Georgian Planet, ii, 267
- Geotropism, xiii, 85
- Geranium Family, xiii, 200
- Geraniums, fertilization, xiii, 136;
- killed by hot water, 299;
- multiples of five in, 176;
- turning to light, 85;
- petal arrangement, 190
- Germanium, discovery, viii, 180;
- symbol and atomic weight, 383
- Germans, in Alpine group, xvi, 49;
- grouped as Huns, xi, 22
- German Silver, copper alloy, viii, 164;
- resistance, vi, 76, 77
- Germany, aeronautical weather service, i, 304;
- barley growing in, xiv, 365;
- beet sugar production, xiii, 216;
- coal deposits, iii, 345;
- coasts of, xiv, 247;
- early surgery, xvi, 181;
- earthquakes of, xiv, 128;
- forest policy, xiii, 372, xiv, 238-9, 382;
- geological works, xvi, 170;
- hail insurance, i, 344;
- in World War (see World War);
- loess deposits, xiv, 72;
- medicine of, Muller's influence, x, 118;
- meteorological establishments, i, 222-3;
- meteorology in World War, 309, 310;
- military aviation development, 40;
- mining products, iii, 362, 364;
- moor fires in old, i, 56;
- mountains of, xiv, 96, 235;
- nitrogen fixation in, i, 36-7, xiv, 66;
- plains of, 217;
- potash deposits, viii, 130, 143, 144, 344, xiv, 67-8, 209;
- salt beds of north, iii, 204, xiv, 141;
- "sheep-cold", i, 363;
- topography of western, xiv, 87 (map), 90;
- unke toad of, xii, 176
- Germ Cells, ix, 324-5, 327, 332, 339, x, 232, xvi, 156, 157-8;
- in reproduction, x, 233;
- source of, xii, 27
- (see also Germinal Tissue, Germ Plasm)
- Germinal Tissue, ix, 324-5;
- chromosomes of, 328, 329, 339;
- development of germ cells in, 332, 339;
- heredity dependent on, 325-8;
- independence of, 325
- (see also Germ Plasm)
- Germination of Seed, after low temperatures, i, 32;
[Pg 263]
- acacia plant
- of Natal, xiii, 375;
- ancient wheat grains, 211, ix, 16-17;
- bird-carried seed, xiii, 340, 341;
- seed in sea water, 346, 348
- Germ Plasm, x, 228, 229;
- immortality theory, 230;
- origin of energies, xvi, 145;
- theory of inheritance, x, 233-4, 235, xvi, 156
- (see also Germinal Tissue)
- Germs, disease-producing, (see Disease Germs);
- in body, ix, 177;
- universal presence of, x, 193-4
- Gestures, language of, xv, 146-52, 167-8
- Geyserite, iii, 335
- Geysers, iii, 128-9, xiii, 299;
- artificial, in Michigan, v, 92
- Gharials, xii, 199, 201
- Ghizeh, Pyramid of, xiv, 78, xv, 270;
- temples of, ii, 26
- Ghor, of Syria, xiv, 120-1
- Ghosts, as visual hallucinations, xi, 91
- Giant and Dwarf Stars, ii, 153, 294, 309, 310, 382-4
- Giant's Causeway, Ireland, xiv, 104;
- columnar structure, iii, 111, xiv, 129
- Gibbons, xii, 381-2;
- reasoning power in, xv, 67;
- skeleton compared with man, 59
- Gibbs, James E. A., v, 285
- Gibbs, J. W., xvi, 136, xvi, 169
- Gibraltar, apes of, xii, 378
- Gibraltar, Strait of, depth, xiv, 299
- Giddiness, sensation of, xi, 126
- Giffard, Henri, v, 227
- Giffard Injector, v, 140-2, 380
- Gila Monster, xii, 204, 207
- Gilbert, Dr. William, electrical work, vi, 11-12, xvi, 109, 111, 188
- Gilbertus Anglicus, x, 41
- Gills, of fishes, xii, 128, 135;
- functions and structure of, ix, 253, 254
- Gills (plant), of mushrooms, xiii, 163
- Ginkgo Tree, xiii, 315-16, 326
- Ginseng, antiquity, xiii, 324-5;
- distribution, 351;
- origin, 255
- Giraffes, xii, 320-1;
- trapping of, xv, 224 (fig.)
- Giralda Observatory, xvi, 100, ii, 38
- Girls, education of, xi, 266-7
- Givler, Prof. R. C., author "Psychology," Vol. xi
- Glacial Bowlders, iii, 70, 237, 352 (Pl. 20), xiv, 69, 70
- Glacial Deposits, iii, 66-70, xiv, 59, 60;
- in U. S. and Canada, 170-1;
- lakes formed by, iii, 144-6, xiv, 200-2
- Glacial Epoch, iii, 236-48;
- distribution of plants and animals, xiv, 375-7;
- drainage changes, 30, 52, 164, 170-1;
- fjords due to 259-61;
- lakes formed by, iii, 143-51, xiv, 200-2;
- topographical changes, 3, 30, 59-62, 158, 170
- (see also Ice Age)
- Glacial Periods, theories of, i, 58, iii, 247-8
- Glacial Plants (see Arctic Plants)
- Glacial Soil, xiv, 63, 69-70
- Glacial Valleys, xiv, 56-8
- Glacier National Park, cliff glaciers in, iii, 60;
- Swift Current Valley, Plate 5, p. 96;
- thrust faulting in, 90
- Glaciers, iii, 59-62, xiv, 54-5;
- "autographs of," 56;
- cirques of, 58;
- cracks and fissures in, iii, 63;
- defined, 379;
- deposits of, 66-70, xiv, 59-60;
- erosion by, iii, 63-70, xiv, 55, 56, 57-8, 60-2, 233;
- falls formed by, iii, 48;
- flow, 62-3, 68, 240-1, iv, 165-6;
- lakes formed by, iii, 142-51;
- occurrence, xv, 72-3;
- topography produced by, xiv, 42-3, 44, 55-62;
- valleys cut by, iii, 64, 65, 66
- (see also Plates 4, 5, and 6);
- valleys "overdeepened by," xiv, 259-60
- Gland Cells, functions, ix, 39, 43, 59;
- number unchanging, 48
- Glanders, germ of, x, 195;
- immunity to, 207
- Glands, activity and blood supply, ix, 220-1;
- adrenalin effects on, 171;
- control of, 159-69, x, 346-7;
- ductless, x, 346-53;
- energy release by, xi, 24;
- fatigue effects, xi, 272;
- nerve connections, ix, 159-60;
- reflex responses by, xi, 23;
- with ducts, x, 347
- Glare, direct and reflected, vi, 277-8
- Glasgow, soot-fall, i, 65
- Glass, antiquity of, viii, 269, 280-1, xvi, 73-4;
- coloring of, viii, 282;
- colors in X-rays, iv, 378;
- composition and properties, viii, 281, 304-5;
- effects on light and heat waves, iv, 183;
- electrification of, 257, 258, 259;
- ground by sand blast, 130;
- heat conductivity, 179;
- light decomposition by, ii, 100-1;
- light deviations in strained, iv, 330;
- light refraction by, 327;
- sodium compounds in, viii, 137, 146
- Glasses (lenses), for various eye defects, ix, 111, 112, 113, 114
- Glazed Frost, i, 108, 121, 373
- Glidden, Carlos, v, 312
- Glisson, Francis, x, 86, xvi, 178
- Globefishes, xii, 164
- Globigerina Ooze, xii, 18
- Globular Clusters (Stars), ii, 336-40;
- Hyades as, 342;
- studies of, at Mt. Wilson, 159-60
- Globular Lightning, i, 149, vii, 205-6, 213-15
[Pg 264]
- Glory (meteorology), i, 184-5, 373
- Glowworms, i, 346;
- Fabre's studies, xvi, 144
- Glucinum, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 180, 383;
- in calcium group, 148
- Glucose, viii, 225-6, 377, ix, 230;
- converted from cellulose, viii, 255;
- fermentation of, 225, 248;
- formula, 219, 225, 229;
- in human body, 359;
- manufacture and uses, 228, 243-4;
- production by plants, 335;
- use of, by body, ix, 230, 243, 244, 245
- Glutton (weasel), xii, 348, 349
- Glycerine, viii, 215, 247-8;
- base of fats, 221, 245;
- boiling point, 299;
- melting requirements, iv, 162;
- production in wine-making, x, 138
- Glycogen, xi, 136-7, 138;
- chemistry of, viii, 228-9, 350;
- production and storage in liver, 359, ix, 291, 292, 297, 298, x, 329;
- reconversion into sugar, ix, 293
- Glyptodon, xii, 283-4
- Gnawers, xii, 285-96
- Gneiss, iii, 379;
- formation, 169, xiv, 19;
- jointing of, 133
- Gnomons, ii, 24, 25, 300
- Gnus, xii, 327
- Goats, xii, 325-6;
- horns of, 328;
- usefulness, 324
- Gobar, of Nile region, i, 96
- God, conceptions of, xv, 344;
- ideas of, in Old Testament, 374
- Goddard Rocket, i, 22-3
- Godman, John, x, 116, xvi, 185
- Gods, evolution of belief in, xv, 341-4, 347-8, 357
- Goethe, evolution known to, x, 136;
- on cloud forms, i, 98
- Goethals, Panama Canal Zone work, x, 162
- Goitre, ix, 303;
- exophthalmic, x, 272, 276-7, 351-2;
- removal of thyroid gland in, 349
- Gold, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383;
- California mines, iii, 226, 365;
- chemical inactivity, viii, 127-8, 163, 174;
- contraction on solidifying, iv, 150;
- density of, 113;
- electrolytic refinement, vii, 301, 320;
- extraction methods, viii, 131, 141, 170, 174, 269, 270;
- fusibility, 384;
- in sea water, 197, xiv, 295;
- melting point, iv, 162;
- metallurgy, development of, xvi, 176;
- occurrence, iii, 330-1, 365-7, viii, 131, 198;
- "parting" of silver from, 272;
- positiveness, vi, 59;
- production, iii, 365;
- profitable ores, viii, 197;
- properties, 126-7, 174, iii, 330-1;
- recovered in copper refining, vii, 319, 320;
- specific gravity, viii, 384
- Golden Age, x, 18, 20;
- of Greek science, xvi, 86-96
- Golden Gate, formation, xiv, 258;
- furrow of, 287
- Goldenrod, bracts, xiii, 43;
- stems, 23;
- in the pampas, 376
- Golden Showers, i, 61
- Goldfish, family of, xii, 161;
- in liquid air, i, 32
- Gold Leaf, color between glasses, iv, 324
- Gold Mining, dredges in, v, 256-7;
- water jets in, 88
- Gold-Plating, of aluminum, vii, 319
- Goldschmidt Generators, vii, 274
- Goldschmidt Method, of welding, viii, 155
- Golf, as exercise, x, 317;
- report of match, xi, 161
- Goodwin, Rev. Hannibal, v, 330
- Goodyear, Charles, xiii, 245
- Goose Barnacle, xii, 84-5
- Gooseberry, origin, xiii, 225
- Goose-Flesh, ix, 161, xi, 112-13, 123
- Gophers, xii, 290, 294;
- badgers and, 348
- Gopher Snake, xii, 219
- Gopher Turtle, xii, 191
- Gorals, xii, 325
- Gordius (hairworm), xii, 45
- Gorgas, William C., yellow fever work, x, 162, 172
- Gorges, formation of, xiv, 50-1, 51-2;
- in old and new areas, iii, 33, 34;
- of New York and New England, 44, 242-3
- Gorham, Marquis L., v, 248, 381
- Gorillas, xii, 382 (fig.), 383-4;
- brain weight of, xv, 62;
- physical comparison with man, 57-8;
- family groups among, 276, 360-1;
- use of stones and clubs, v, 9
- Gorner Grat, boiling temperature at, iv, 170
- Gouffre, i, 196, 373
- Gourd Seed, growth of, x, 229
- Gout, uric acid and, x, 343
- Government, beginnings of, xv, 360-74, 379-80;
- cultivation and, 380
- Grackle, coloring of, xii, 245
- Gradients, meteorological, i, 373 (see Barometric, Potential Gradients)
- Graduated Flask, viii, 294, 295
- Graham Flour, ix, 34
- Graham's Law, viii, 108-9
- Grain Cradles, v, 240-1
- "Grain of the country", xiv, 99;
- in river classification, 153
- Grains, fruit of grasses, xiii, 56, 182;
- milling of, xv, 237-9;
- proteins in, ix, 34;
- "showers", i, 357;
- storing of, viii, 371
- Gram, unit of force, iv, 70;
- unit of mass, iv, 46, 69, viii, 28;
- value in pounds and poundals, iv, 70
- Gram-Molecular Volume, viii, 109
- Gramophone, v, 328-9, 382
[Pg 265]
- Grampuses, xii, 297
- Grand Banks, dogfish of, xii, 146;
- petrels of, 252;
- scallop fisheries of, 65
- Grand Canyon of the Colorado, iii, 40-3, 140, 230, xiv, 83;
- conical fragments in, 81;
- outer and inner gorges, 173;
- plateau of, 124, 159, 220;
- Proterozoic strata in, iii, 177;
- rock pyramids in, xiv, 224-5
- Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, iii, 44, and Pl. 2, p. 48;
- color of rocks in, 26;
- youthful valley type, 33;
- relief model of, xiv, 10
- Grand Point Tobacco, xiii, 258
- Granite, composition, iii, 308, 326, viii, 192-3;
- disintegration of, 194;
- igneous nature, iii, 112;
- jointing of, xiv, 133;
- mountain cores of, 110-11;
- occurrence and production, iii, 371;
- plutonic rock, 13, xiv, 18;
- weathering of, iii, 22, 27-8, 32 (Pl. 1), xiv, 78-9;
- wells in, 137
- Grapes, acids of, viii, 223;
- origin and antiquity, xiii, 225, 324-5;
- true berries, 54;
- water content, viii, 365
- Grape Sugar, viii, 224-5;
- polarization of light by, iv, 356
- Grapevines, xiii, 27, 28
- Graphite, iii, 331, viii, 43;
- in Archeozoic rocks, iii, 173, 249-50;
- Rhode Island beds, 345;
- use and production, vii, 308-9, xvi, 190
- Graptolites, iii, 259, 266 (fig.), 267
- Grasp, in infants, ix, 349, xv, 61;
- of man, ix, 67-8;
- grasping importance and organs of, 82;
- reflex processes in, 157, 349
- Grasping Reflex, xi, 40-5, 59
- Grass, blue-eyed, xiii, 189;
- leaves of, 176;
- monocotyledon, 178;
- veins, 32
- (see also Grass Family)
- Grasses, dominant on prairies, xiii, 350, 374;
- evolution, iii, 251, 257;
- fertilization, xiii, 148;
- first appearance, 319;
- true and incorrect, 179, 180;
- water requirements, xiv, 381
- Grass Family, xiii, 179, 181-3
- Grasshoppers, xii, 108-10;
- jaws of, 100
- Grasslands, xiii, 373-7;
- contests with forests, 348-9, 368 (illus.), 374-5, xiv, 380-1;
- distribution of, 380, 381;
- economic importance, 383-4;
- vegetation of, 380, 381
- Gratitude, sentiment of, xi, 147
- Graupel, i, 107, 373
- Gravel, rocks formed from, iii, 13, 53 (see Conglomerate);
- sedimentary rock, xiv, 18
- Grave Sacrifice, custom of, xv, 336
- Graves, Robert, x, 112
- Graves Disease, x, 351-2
- Gravitation, universal, discovery and laws, ii, 63-72, iv, 20, 95-8, xvi, 115-16;
- Einstein theory, ii, 79-82;
- magnetic force compared with, iv, 249-50;
- nature of, ii, 78;
- things unexplained by Newton's laws, 73-4, 78-82;
- various applications of Newton's laws, 77, 78, 375, 380
- (see also Gravity)
- Gravitation Units, iv, 64, 70
- Gravity, ii, 63-4, 69, iv, 65, 109;
- acceleration of, 65;
- center of, 99-101;
- direction of earth's, 98-9;
- force in falling bodies, 42, 65, xvi, 32;
- gyroscope and, v, 335, 336, 337-9;
- Huygens's studies, ii, 58;
- on asteroids, 257;
- on moon, 199, 204;
- on sun, 168;
- Richer's observations, 59;
- water-power due to, v, 76-7, 139;
- weight due to, iv, 58, 74, 109
- Gravity Battery, iv, 297, vi, 137, 140-1
- Gravity Faults, xiv, 115
- Grayfish, i, 224
- Graylings (fish), xii, 159
- Gray Matter, ix, 124;
- of brain, xv, 63
- Great Auk, xii, 265
- Great Basin, block mountains in, iii, 138-9;
- drainage changes in, xiv, 188;
- faulting in, iii, 89, 229, xiv, 117, 127;
- formerly submerged, iii, 181;
- not being worn down, 32;
- saline lakes of, xiv, 206;
- streams, base level of, 164;
- wind-eroded materials of, iii, 73
- Great Britain, aerial travel statistics, i, 50;
- aeronautical research, 51;
- animals of, xiv, 272-3;
- coal supply, iii, 345;
- coast destruction, xiv, 46;
- empire of, 279;
- geology related to continent, 271-2;
- manufacturers, American System in, v, 50;
- manufacturing future, 173;
- rainfall of, xiv, 41;
- recent separation from continent, 30, 271-3;
- serpents of, xii, 218;
- soot studies, i, 65;
- standard units in, iv, 45-6;
- storm signals, i, 282;
- thermometer scale in, iv, 136;
- tides of, xiv, 293-4
- "Great Eastern," steamship, v, 193
- Greater Antilles, geological history of, xiv, 274-5
- Great Indian Earthquake, xiv, 333, 334, 335, 336 (fig.);
- cause, 340
- Great Lakes, commerce on, xiv, 62, 212;
- fish of, xii, 156, 159;
- former drainage farther north, iii, 46;
- level changes in region, 82;
- origin and history, 146-51, xiv, 61, 62, 201-2, 203;
- recentness of formation, iii, 12;
- recessional moraines near, 67;
- sewage disposal in, viii, 325;
- sizes and depths, xiv, 204;
- water supply of Lake cities, 140
- Great Plains, elevation of, xiv, 27, 213;
- evaporation in, 135;
[Pg 266]
- geology of, 215;
- grasses of, xiii, 181, 374, xiv, 380, 381;
- horses of, xii, 306, 307;
- pronghorns on, 322-3;
- red beds, iii, 208;
- rejuvenation, 230;
- rodents of, xii, 294;
- stock-raising on, xiv, 383-4;
- trees in, xiii, 372-3, 374, xiv, 372;
- volcanic action in, 318;
- wind-fertilization of plants, xiii, 149
- Great Rift Valley, xiv, 117-21;
- lakes in, 203;
- volcanoes of, 317
- Great Salt Lake, crustal warping at, iii, 82;
- history and formation, 152-3, xiv, 207-8;
- mirages, i, 172;
- plain of, xiv, 215-16;
- salt in, iii, 374, viii, 139, 140, 275
- Great Sea Waves, xiv, 337-343
- Grebes, xii, 250-1
- Greece, earthquakes of, xiv, 332, 333-4;
- geographical changes in, 33;
- rainfall of, 358;
- rift valleys in, 123
- Greece (ancient), astrology in, ii, 21;
- Babylonian influences, xvi, 63;
- civilization conditions, xv, 123;
- civilization pictured in Odyssey, 324;
- copyists of, 178-9;
- foreigners called barbarians, xi, 22;
- Golden Age, x, 20, xvi, 86-96;
- musical instruments, xv, 316, 317 (fig.);
- northern invasion, xiv, 281;
- religion and science associated, xvi, 44;
- slavery in, xv, 378-9;
- timing of orators, v, 62;
- weather records, i, 67-8
- Greek Astronomy, ii, 10-11, 27-36, xvi, 81-2, 90-1
- Greek Language, xv, 162
- Greek Medicine, x, 16-25, xvi, 95-6;
- preservation and revival of, x, 31, 36, 43-4, 45
- Greek Philosophers, remarks on, ii, 27, 30;
- on origin of earth, 366-7
- Greeks (Ancient), boiling of foods unknown to, xv, 233;
- degeneration of stock, xvi, 96;
- gods of, xv, 343, 352;
- idea of insanity, x, 356, 357;
- idea of soul, xv, 330;
- in Mediterranean group, xvi, 49;
- intellectual height, 50;
- knowledge of loadstone, vi, 28, 29;
- monsoons used in navigation, i, 130;
- oar-propelled ships, xiv, 265;
- plants known to, xiii, 215, 216, 253;
- sacrifices of, xv, 347-8;
- scientific bent, xvi, 54;
- superstitions of, xv, 355;
- surveying inventions, xvi, 68-9;
- trade and colonies of, xiv, 307
- Greeks (modern), in Alpine group, xvi, 49
- Greek Science, xvi, 75, 76-96;
- debt to Egypt, 75;
- influence on Copernicus, 102;
- Roman development of, 99;
- spread and continuation of, x, 23, 25
- Greek Sculpture, xv, 302
- Greek Vases, xv, 251, 253 (fig.)
- Green, complementary color of, iv, 367;
- effect on blood pressure, xi, 63;
- in interior decoration, vi, 274;
- primary color, iv, 366;
- seeing of, in color-blindness, ix, 116
- Green Flash, i, 170-1, 373
- Greenhouses, effects of glass on heat, i, 59, iv, 183;
- electric lighting, xiii, 76
- Greenland, climate, xiv, 345;
- discovery, 261;
- fjord coasts, 258, 259;
- foxes of, xii, 344;
- glaciers of, xiv, 55;
- ice sheets, iii, 61-2, 237;
- marriage customs in, xv, 282-3;
- mirages, i, 173;
- ocean colors near, xvi, 147;
- rainlessness, i, 109;
- winds, 128, 129
- Greenland Ranch, Cal., i, 209
- Green Mountains, iii, 188
- Green River, Uinta Mts., xiv, 166, 168, 175
- Greenwich Observatory, founding of, ii, 83, xvi, 124;
- publications, 125
- Grenville Strata, iii, 165-8
- Grew, biologist, xvi, 112, 116, 126
- Greylock, Mount, iii, 232
- Grief, exhaustion from, xi, 135-6;
- expression of, by monkeys, xv, 65
- Ground Sharks, xii, 143
- Grinders, invention, v, 48, 381
- Grip, disease, x, 294-5
- Grison, xii, 349
- Ground Moraines, iii, 67
- Ground Pines, iii, 254
- Groundsel, seed disposal, xiii, 345
- Ground Water, iii, 113-29, xiv, 135-52;
- how plants absorb, xiii, 91-3;
- landslips facilitated by, xiv, 233;
- mineral concentration by, iii, 126, xvi, 173;
- petrifaction by, iii, 15, 126-7;
- rivers and, xiv, 157
- (see also Soil Water)
- Ground Wires and Plates, vii, 369
- Groups, Chemical, viii, 93, 377;
- interchange principle, 211;
- ionization, 121-2;
- nomenclature, 97;
- valences of, 94
- (see also Radicals)
- Groups (human), formation of, x, 9, xv, 361-3
- Grouse, xii, 261
- Growing Season, i, 373
- Growth, age in relation to, ix, 47-8, 288-9;
- by cell division, 43-8;
- chemical regulation of, 169-70;
- food requirements for, 31-4, 286-8, 295;
- life and, xii, 13;
- metabolism of, ix, 38-9, 295;
- of bones, 56, 58;
- of skin, 312;
- of various tissues, 47-8, 286-7;
- of skull, xv, 40;
- rate of, in man, ix, 32 (diagram);
- vitamines necessary to, x, 261, 262
[Pg 267]
- Gruener, Prof. H., author Chemistry, Vol. viii
- Guam, ocean depths near, iii, 51
- Guango Tree, i, 350
- Guatemala, Santa Maria eruption, xiv, 328-9
- Guava, xiii, 196, 225
- Guayaquil, sanitary measures, i, 327;
- yellow fever campaign, x, 173
- Guericke, Otto von, iv, 29, 116, xvi, 110
- Guillemots, xii, 264-5
- Guinea Pigs, xii, 289;
- anaphylaxis in, x, 213
- Gulf Coastal Plain, xiv, 214;
- chalk deposits, iii, 266;
- Cretaceous deposits, 216;
- geological history, 222, 231
- Gulf Stream, climatic influences of, viii, 37, xiv, 304;
- meeting with Labrador current, 305;
- origin and course, 304;
- "paper sailors" of, xii, 78;
- plan for protecting, i, 345;
- Portuguese man-of-war in, xii, 37;
- seed dispersal by, xiii, 346
- Gull, Sir William, xvi, 180, 184
- Gulls, xii, 264
- Gum Arabic, source, xiii, 226
- Gumboils, ix, 56, 187
- Gums, composition of, viii, 223, 229;
- electrical conductivity, iv, 259
- Gums (mouth), chilling of, by ether, iv, 174;
- germ infection through, x, 202, 219, 222
- Guncotton, composition and action, viii, 63, 255, 261;
- discovery, xvi, 163
- Gunite, v, 136
- Gunnison River, Colorado, xiv, 172-3, 175
- Gunny Sacks, xiii, 241
- Gunpowder, viii, 144-5;
- explosion, v, 156-7, viii, 62, 145;
- introduction, v, 361, 368, xvi, 101
- Guns (big), v, 368-71;
- locating of, by sound velocity, i, 313, iv, 201-2;
- making of, v, 323-5;
- operation on battleships, v, 104, vii, 333-4;
- phenomena in World War, i, 193-4
- (see also Artillery, Projectiles)
- Guns (small), development of, v, 361-2, xv, 213, 216-19;
- kick, v, 143;
- kick utilized in Maxim gun, 363;
- machine, 362-8;
- percussion lock invention, 377;
- standardization in manufacture, 49-50
- Gunshot Remedies, vii, 241, x, 76
- Gunter, Edmund, xvi, 104
- Gushers, oil, iii, 353-4
- Gusts, i, 295, 373
- Gutenberg, Johann, v, 300;
- printing invention, xv, 179
- Guttation, of plants, i, 350-1
- Guyon, Felix, xvi, 184
- Gymnarchus Fish, xii, 154
- Gymnastic Exercises, x, 304-5
- Gymnosperms, xiii, 174, 175, 178;
- alteration of generations, xvi, 166;
- first appearance, iii, 252, 255
- (see also Conifers)
- Gynecology, development of, x, 80-1, 122, xvi, 180
- Gypsum, iii, 331-2, 375-6;
- composition, viii, 153;
- deposits and use, xiv, 209;
- in sea water, 295
- Gyro-compass, iv, 254-5, v, 201, 340, 384
- Gyroscope, iv, 254-5, v, 335-44, 384;
- in torpedoes, 373
- Gyroscopic Action, of bullets and shells, v, 362
- Haber Process, i, 36-7, viii, 74, 105, xvi, 165
- Habit, xi, 247-58;
- autosuggestion and, 306;
- in physical functions, ix, 81, 88, 251;
- slaves of, xi, 263;
- will and, 261
- Habits of Thought, xi, 198, 203-4, 247
- Habitual Images, xi, 222
- Hackberry Tree, xiii, 194
- Haeckel, Ernst, biological work, x, 136, xvi, 182;
- on phosphorescence of sea, xii, 18-19
- Hail, i, 106-8, 373-4;
- formation, 120;
- storms and stones, 119-20
- Hail clouds, i, 102
- Hail Insurance, i, 269, 344
- Hail Rods, i, 341, 342-3, 374
- Hail Shooting, i, 341-2, 374
- Hailstorms, devices to avert, i, 340-4
- Hair, cells of, ix, 13;
- color and form in different races, xv, 37-8, xvi, 48, 49, 50;
- cutting of by electricity, iv, 10;
- dyeing of, x, 58;
- emotion effects on, xi, 142;
- erection of, ix, 161, 162, 166, xi, 113;
- of mammals, xii, 270-1;
- on face and body, xv, 38
- Hairdressing, among savages and Chinese, xv, 260-1;
- ancient Egyptian, 255 (fig.)
- Hairsprings, v, 70, 71-2
- Hairworms, xii, 45
- Hags (fish), xii, 130, 131
- Haiti, gouffre of, i, 196;
- rubber growing, xiii, 245;
- words derived from, xv, 161;
- yellow fever of, x, 160;
- zoölogy of, xiv, 274
- Hakemite Tables, ii, 38, 39
- Hale, Prof. George E., ii, 147, 148, 177, 178, 225, 241;
- spectroheliograph of, 129, 183
- Hales, Stephen, x, 88, xvi, 112
- Halite, iii, 332
- Haller, Albrecht von, x, 77, 87-8, 97, 98;
- medical works, xvi, 178
- Halley, Edmund, comet and other discoveries, ii, 83-9;
- discovery of moon's deviations, 73;
- discovery of star motions, 304;
- on Eta Argus, 324
- Halley's Comet, ii, 84, 85-6, 273-4, 275, 281;
- tail of, 134
- Hallucinations, definition and kinds, x, 358;
- of crowds, xi, 328-9;
[Pg 268]
- visual, 91
- Hallucinatory Images, xi, 221
- Halogenation, viii, 266, 377
- Halogen Derivatives, viii, 210, 211-12, 236
- Halogens, viii, 18, 84-7, 377;
- similarity of, 176
- Halos, i, 177-183, 374;
- circumscribed, 181, 369;
- tangent arc, 383
- Haly, "Royal Canon," of, x, 32, 37
- Hamadryad, xii, 228-9
- Hamburg, Deutsche Seewarte, i, 223, 276;
- harbor of, xiv, 270
- Hamilton Mill, vi, 296, vii, 209
- Hamilton, Mount, ii, 142
- Hammers, measurement of blows of, iv, 67;
- pneumatic, i, 28
- Hammurabic Code, xvi, 63;
- on medical practices, x, 15
- Hands, ape's and human compared, xv, 57, 58-60;
- bones of, ix, 67-8;
- cold or warmth felt in, 320;
- color in different lights, iv, 364-5;
- deftness of human, v, 248;
- evolution of, xii, 167-8;
- grasping reflex of, ix, 349, xi, 40-5;
- importance in child's education, 43;
- origin of flexed position, 42-3;
- reciprocal innervation, 86;
- tools resembling, 44-5;
- temperature of, ix, 93;
- X-ray pictures of, iv, 55
- Hangars, i, 43
- Hanging Glaciers, iii, 60-1
- Hanging Valleys, iii, 65, xiv, 57
- Hanks, of yarn, v, 272
- Hanseatic League, xiv, 28, 308
- Harbors, xiv, 266-71;
- necessity of, to modern ships, 265;
- photographic mapping of, i, 47-8
- Hard Coal, combustion process, viii, 45;
- flames from, 57;
- origin, xiii, 10 (see Anthracite Coal)
- Hardening of Arteries, x, 334-6, 340
- Hardening Processes, (health), x, 240
- Hardness, defined, viii, 377;
- scale of, iii, 320, viii, 202;
- sensation of, xi, 128
- "Hard Shell," xii, 83
- Hard Water, cause, iii, 126, viii, 151, 322-3, 377;
- effects of, 143, 151-2, 323;
- effects, xiv, 147;
- occurrence in nature, ii, 147;
- softening of, viii, 323-4;
- taste of, 40
- Hares, xii, 286-8
- Hargreaves, spinning jenny, v, 273, 376, xv, 246
- Harmattan, i, 134, 374
- Harmonica, iv, 235
- Harmonics, iv, 213
- Harmony, due to tonal fusion, xi, 106
- Harney's Peak, xiv, 227
- Harpoons, xv, 209 (fig.), 210-12
- Harps, development of, xv, 318
- Harpsichord, xv, 318
- Harrisburg, Pa., topography near, iii, 36
- Harrison, John and William, v, 66-7
- Hartness, telescope of, ii, 101
- Harun-al-Raschid, astronomy under, ii, 37
- Harvard Classification of Stars, ii, 116-18, 146, 310
- Harvard College, first eclipse expedition by, ii, 211
- Harvard Football Team (1913), excitement effects, xi, 138
- Harvard Observatory, Arequipa station, ii, 145-6, 148;
- photographic work, 116, 118, 127, 130, 136, 137, 301-2;
- star spectra studies, 307
- Harvard Photometry, ii, 297
- Harvesting Machines, ancient, v, 240;
- modern, 244-9
- Harvestmen (scorpions), xii, 90
- Harvest Moon, ii, 196
- Harvey, William, x, 61-2, 66-7, 97;
- discovery of circulation of blood, ix, 192, x, 22, 61, 63-6, 69, 81, xvi, 106-7, 142;
- other work, 107, 111
- Hashish, xiii, 239
- Hate, emotion of, xi, 139;
- motor character, 58;
- sentiment of, 148-9
- Hats, hygiene of, x, 240, 309;
- renovation by electricity, iv, 10
- Havana, harbor of, xiv, 268;
- sanitary measures, i, 327, x, 162;
- water supply, xiv, 140
- Havemeyer, Dr. L., author Anthropology, Vol. xv
- Havre, port of, xiv, 271
- Hawaii, geological formation, xiv, 101;
- paper in sugar-growing, v, 291;
- radio station, vii, 281;
- screw pine of, xiii, 354
- Hawaiian Islands, lava formations, iii, 28, 103;
- oceanic character, xiv, 276;
- rainfall on Mt. Waialeale, i, 112;
- trade wind effects, xiv, 356;
- volcanic soils, 329;
- volcanoes, iii, 103-5, xiv, 322-3
- Hawaiian Music, xv, 315
- Hawk Moths, xii, 119-20;
- facets of, 102
- Hawks, xii, 260, 261;
- man's lesson from, xv, 206
- Hawksbee, Francis, xvi, 122-3
- Hay Fever, cause of, x, 212, xiii, 118
- Haze, atmospheric, i, 374;
- dry fog, 96;
- dust (African coast), 55;
- from smoke, 56, 57;
- in distance perception, xi, 182
- Hazel Copses, xiii, 370
- Hazelnut Tree, xiii, 193
- Head, binding of, among savages, xv, 260;
- blood supply of, ix, 197;
- bones of, 61-3;
- motions and position, how sensed, 90;
- saving heels by, xi, 376-7;
- shape in race classification, xv, 42-3;
- washing of, x, 312;
[Pg 269]
- word, various uses of, xv, 158-9
- Headaches, electrical treatment, vi, 285, vii, 238-9;
- eyestrain and, ix, 113;
- hypnosis and, xi, 315;
- significance of, 120-1
- Head of Water, v, 94;
- high and low, 79-81
- Health, care of, instruction in, x, 282-5
- (see also Personal Hygiene);
- dependent on kinetic system, xi, 61;
- emotions and, 129;
- mental efficiency and, 369;
- regulation to environment, x, 249-50;
- resistance to disease strengthened by, ix, 185-6;
- Science of, vol. x;
- worry and, ix, 167
- Health Resorts, i, 331
- Hearing, iv, 203-4, 211-12, ix, 98-103, xi, 98-108;
- "arrival platform" for, ix, 146;
- colored, xi, 222;
- direction perception by, ix, 117, 120;
- distance perception by, 121;
- ear movements and, 82;
- in fishes, xii, 137-8;
- in insects, 101;
- limits (vibration rates) of, iv, 204, ix, 99, 100;
- nerve of, 30;
- organ of, position, ix, 61;
- sense of, in infants, 351;
- space perception by, xi, 163, 167-9
- Heart, anatomy and operation of, ix, 200-12;
- of, x, 332, 333-4;
- as seat of affections, ix, 200;
- emotion effects on, ix, 200, xi, 135, 136-7;
- emotions attributed to, 130-1;
- examination methods, ix, 205;
- exercise effects, 261-2, x, 303, 304-5;
- fatigue effects, xi, 272;
- fear and terror effects, 131, 132;
- high temperature effects, x, 251;
- hypertrophy of, 331-2;
- motions, Harvey on, 64-6;
- nerve centers and control, ix, 168;
- part in maintenance of life, 21-3;
- passage of blood through former ideas, x, 52, 62, 65-6;
- removed from body, beating of, ix, 84;
- rest and sleep needs (eight-hour day), 209-10;
- septum of, x, 66, 113;
- sleep effects, xi, 283;
- sounds, how listened to, ix, 205-6, x, 108-9;
- supposed "pores" of Galen, 52, 62, 65-6;
- systole and diastole, 64-5, 109;
- valves of, ix, 202, 204, 206-7, x, 332;
- work of, how measured, ix, 213-14
- Heart Beat, ix, 202-3;
- adrenalin effects, 171, 172, 209;
- chemical theories of, x, 84;
- control through nerve centers, ix, 168;
- disturbances of, x, 333;
- emotion effects, ix, 166, 209;
- exercise effects, 168-9, 207, 208-9, 261-2;
- rate of, 203, 204-5, x, 334;
- rate increased by heat, 251;
- rate in infants, ix, 347;
- sounds of, 205-6;
- variations in rate and vigor, 207-10
- Heartburn, ix, 232
- Heart Disease, atmospheric conditions best for, x, 241;
- digitalis in, 333, 383;
- early ignorance, xvi, 180-1;
- modern therapy of, x, 382-3;
- rheumatism and, 224;
- valvular, 332
- Heart Failure, x, 333;
- symptoms accompanying, 340-1, 344
- Heart Muscle, ix, 74-5, 84, x, 333-4;
- "eight-hour day" of, ix, 210;
- hypertrophy of, x, 331-2, 335;
- nervous control of, ix, 207-335;
- nervous control of, ix, 207-9
- Heartwood, xiii, 24, 25, 26, 177 (fig.)
- Heat, absorbers of, iv, 182;
- absorption by colors, x, 309;
- absorption by gases, viii, 309;
- absorption by mixtures, iv, 175;
- artificial, man's dependence on, ix, 308;
- available supply in universe, iv, 193;
- bacteria destroyed by, viii, 332;
- "caloric" or "imponderable" theory, iv, 47, xvi, 125;
- capacity, iv, 154-5;
- change of state by, 151-3, 192-3;
- chemical reactions and, viii, 12, 15, 53, 62, 95-6, 100, 308, 360;
- chemical reactions hurried by, 310;
- "closeness" due to, ix, 268-9, 270;
- compression and, i, 26-7, 90, v, 126-8, 161, 351;
- conduction and conductors of, iv, 138, 176-7, 178-9, x, 307, 308, 309;
- convection of, iv, 139, 177-8;
- demagnetization by, 253, vi, 34-5, 38, 117;
- direction of flow of, iv, 190, v, 351, xvi, 135;
- effects of, on bodies, iv, 144-59;
- electrical production of, iv, 310-12, vii, 89, 337-8, 303-5, viii, 283-4;
- electricity generated by, vi, 340
- (see also Thermal Couples);
- electromagnetic theory, vii, 371;
- energy form, iv, 138, 140, 189;
- "engineer" of physics, 50;
- entropy, iv, 193;
- expansion by, i, 27, iv, 134-5, 138, 140, 145, 151, viii, 25, 107;
- forms, ii, 383;
- from charcoal, viii, 186-7;
- from foods, 361, 367, x, 269, 271;
- from infrared waves, iv, 366;
- from moon, ii, 200;
- from radium, viii, 186-7;
- from sun, ii, 169-71, iv, 181-2, 183, 194, ix, 25-6;
- insulators, iv, 178, 184-5, vii, 307-8;
- kindling temperature, viii, 53-4;
- latent (see Latent Heat);
- measurement for fuels and foods, viii, 360-1;
- measurements, physico-chemical, 307-8;
- measurement of quantity of, iv, 154;
- mechanical equivalent of, (see Mechanical Equivalent);
- mechanical (dynamical) theory of, iv, 48-9, 140;
- molecular activity and, iv, 138-9, 140, viii, 25, 37-8;
[Pg 270]
- motive power,
- xvi, 135;
- of earth's interior, iii, 108, 120-1, 160, 162, v, 178-81, xiv, 11-16, 31-2, 312;
- of electric arc, iv, 311, vi, 280;
- of electric lamp, vi, 268;
- of volcanoes, iii, 106;
- power from, v, 139-54, 351;
- pressure of gases increased by, iv, 140;
- production, electrical, 310-12;
- production of, by friction, iv, 48-9;
- production by mixtures, 174-5;
- production by solidification, 160, 161;
- radiant energy, vibration rate, ix, 114, 115;
- radiation of, iv, 180-4;
- reflectors of, 182-3;
- resistance of charcoal, vii, 306;
- rolling friction and, v, 204;
- scientific meaning of, iv, 139-40;
- sensation of, ix, 93, xi, 109, 113-14;
- shrinkage in relation to, ii, 170 (see Lane's Law);
- solvent action and, viii, 112;
- specific, iv, 155-6, viii, 308-9;
- "stuffiness due to", i, 321, x, 237-8;
- temperature and, iv, 14-45;
- thermodynamic laws, 189-90;
- transmission through bodies, 176-9;
- transmission through space, 180-4;
- units, iv, 154, 189-90, vii, 369, viii, 374, x, 269;
- universal presence, v, 345;
- vacuums, v, 345-58;
- wastage in engines, v, 155, 161, 165-6, 351
- (see also Heat Waves, Temperature)
- Heat Engines, iv, 192, 193-4, xvi, 135
- Heat Equator, xiv, 347
- Heating, dynamic, i, 90
- Heating Systems, iv, 185-7;
- dryness from, xiv, 353;
- water advantages in, iv, 162
- Heat Lightning, i, 148, vii, 205, 213
- Heat Prostrations, ix, 316
- Heat Regulators, vii, 87-8
- Heat Stroke, x, 251-2, 274
- Heat Thunderstorms, i, 138, 151, vii, 217
- Heat Waves, vi, 119, 269, 270, vii, 371;
- length and frequency, 260;
- transmission of, iv, 180-4;
- volcanic dust effects, i, 59
- Heath Family, xiii, 202;
- shrubs of, 274
- Heavier-than-air Machines, v, 230-8;
- principles, i, 286-9;
- remarks on, vii, 76
- Heberden, William, x, 104
- Hebrew Language, xv, 162;
- religious words from, 161
- Hebrews, hemp fiber unknown to, xiii, 239;
- ideas of insanity, x, 356;
- unclean animals of, xii, 311
- Hedgehogs, xii, 366, 367
- Heidelberg Man, xv, 92, 93-5;
- period of, 102
- Heidelberg Race, xv, 96-7
- Height, human, at morning and night, ix, 65;
- rate of growth, 32;
- of various races, xv, 38-9
- Heights, oceanic, xiv, 286
- Helicopter, i, 42
- Heligoland, coast destruction, iii, 56
- Heliocentric System, ii, 43-4;
- known in Egypt, xvi, 69;
- taught by Aristarchus, ii, 28
- (see also Copernican System)
- Heliometer, ii, 311
- Helioscope, ii, 172-3
- Heliotaxis, xi, 52-3, 61
- Heliotropism, in hydroids, xii, 34
- Helium, atmospheric, i, 11, 12, ii, 232;
- boiling and freezing points, iv, 173;
- critical temperature, 173;
- density of, 113;
- discovery, i, 12, viii, 302, xvi, 194;
- frozen, v, 345;
- liquefaction, i, 32, xvi, 194;
- liquefaction temperature, v, 348;
- molecular velocity in, iv, 133, viii, 185, 186;
- monatomic, viii, 309;
- production by disintegration, i, 12;
- specific heat ratio for, iv, 156;
- symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383;
- use of, in balloons, iv, 108
- Hellbenders, xii, 171-2
- Hell Gate, tidal race of, xiv, 294
- Hellgrammite, xii, 106
- Helmets, modern, xv, 221
- Helmholtz, chemical work, xvi, 142;
- "Conservation of Energy," 181-2;
- contraction theory, ii, 380;
- medical work of, x, 131;
- on Young, 97;
- pupil of Muller, 118, 128;
- sound studies, iv, 52, 233;
- theory of life, xii, 9;
- thermodynamic studies, xvi, 136;
- theory of color vision, x, 96
- Heloderma, xii, 207
- Hematite, iii, 332, 356, 358, viii, 47, 156
- Hemlocks, in class of conifers, xiii, 174;
- foliage, 270-1;
- planting conditions, 270;
- poison, 250;
- roots, 17;
- in northern forests, xiv, 372
- Hemoglobin, ix, 181-3, 184, 258-9, 275, x, 337;
- deficiency in anemia, 337
- Hemorrhages, blood transfusion in, x, 338;
- low blood pressure in, 336;
- prevention of, in surgery, 14, 148;
- stopping of, ix, 179-81
- Hemostat, x, 148
- Hemp cellulose composition, viii, 254;
- sources, xiii, 238
- Hemp Plant, xiii, 238-9
- Henna Dye, of Amatus, x, 58
- Henry, induction unit, iv, 285
- Henry, Prof. Joseph, i, 189, vi, 24, xvi, 191;
- induction unit named for, iv, 285
[Pg 271]
- Henry I, (England), arm's length of, iv, 45
- Henry the Navigator, xiv, 309
- Henry Mountains, iii, 139, xiv, 109, 227
- Hens, language methods of, xv, 141
- Heraclitus, on change, xvi, 79
- Herbivora, xii, 300-31;
- intestine length in, ix, 246
- Herbs, antiquity, xiii, 319, 310;
- in American summer forests, 368, 369;
- as class of plants, 175;
- fossil and existing species, 324;
- garden, 289;
- hairy covering, 104-5;
- none among gymnosperms, 175;
- planting table of annuals and perennials, 290-7;
- stems, 23;
- in temperate forests, 366
- Hercules (constellation), star clusters in, ii, 336, 340;
- stars moving from, 305
- Herd-Instinct, x, 9
- Hereafter, primitive conceptions of, xv, 332-6, 339, 340, 345
- Heredity, x, 227-8;
- diseases and, ix, 103, 181, 304, x, 234-5, 292, 303;
- importance in human evolution, xvi, 47;
- importance of knowledge of, x, 236;
- laws and facts of, ix, 325-44, x, 228-34, xiii, 326-7, 331-4, xv, 22-3, 24, 27, xvi, 153-8;
- social, xv, 30-1
- Hering, Prof. D. W., author Physics, Vol. iv
- Hering's Illusion, xi, 189
- Hermit Crab, xii, 85
- Hernia, operations for, x, 14, 41, 57
- Hero, Greek scientist, inventions, xvi, 91, 92, 93;
- mathematical work, 95;
- steam turbine, v, 142-4, 148, xvi, 92, 93
- Herodotus, Barton on, x, 20;
- on fossil shells, iii, 14;
- on Egyptian geometry, xvi, 68;
- on Nile River, xiv, 71
- Heroism, in crowds, xi, 326-7, 330
- Herons, xii, 254-5
- Herophilus, x, 23-4
- Herring, xii, 154, 156;
- limacina and, 19
- Herschel, Caroline, ii, 104
- Herschel, Sir William, astronomical work, ii, 15-16, xvi, 124-5;
- discovery of Uranus, ii, 267;
- father of descriptive astronomy, 139;
- ideas of nebulæ, 368-9, 380;
- knighting of, 254;
- on habitability of sun, 252;
- on proper motion of stars, 305;
- picture of solar system, 162-3;
- reflectors of, 103, 104;
- studies of Galaxy, 352;
- studies of Mars, 227;
- studies of nebulæ, 358
- Herschel, Sir John, dismantling of telescope by, ii, 104;
- on spectrum lines, 112;
- on Galaxy, 352;
- studies of nebulæ, 358-9;
- studies of star clusters, 336-7
- Hertz, Heinrich, vi, 25, vii, 258, xvi, 191
- Hesperornis, xii, 242
- Hesperus, ancient name of Venus, ii, 191
- Hessian Fly, i, 256
- Hetchy-Hetchy Canyon, iii, 225
- Heterodyne Receivers, vii, 278-9
- Heterogeneous Rivers, xiv, 154-5
- Heteromecic Numbers, xvi, 80
- Hevelius, astronomer, ii, 57, 85;
- telescopes of, 48, 99;
- halo of, i, 374
- Hewson, William, x, 88, xvi, 179
- Hexane, viii, 206, 224
- Heyl, Henry, v, 330
- Hi and Ho, Chinese astronomers, xvi, 56-7, ii, 22
- Hicetas, Greek astronomer, xvi, 81, 102
- Hickory Trees, in American forests, xiv, 373;
- in apetalae group, xiii, 190;
- family, 191;
- fertilization, 148;
- leaves, 36-7;
- leaf-bud protection, 34;
- roots, 17;
- sexes in, 46, 191
- Hides, drying and tanning of, viii, 257
- Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, xv, 172-4
- High Blood Pressure, ix, 214, x, 334-6, 340
- Highbrow, xv, 43
- High Cost of Living, results in disease, x, 268
- High Frequency Circuits, vii, 263
- High Frequency Generators, vii, 290-1
- Highlands, and lowlands, xiv, 213
- Highlands-of-the-Hudson, iii, 188, 189
- Highs, High Pressure Areas, i, 135-6, 137, 374;
- movements, 134-5, 237;
- weather significance, 236, 237;
- winds in relation to, 125
- (see also Pressure Areas)
- Hill, James J., quoted, xi, 377
- Hill, Prof. Leonard, i, 319, 320, 321, 322
- Himalayas, animals of, xii, 288, 322, 325, 330, 337, 357;
- forming of, iii, 236, xiii, 319;
- glacial erosion in, xiv, 233;
- height and importance, xv, 137;
- impressiveness of, xiv, 9;
- rainfall, i, 111;
- rainfall on opposite sides, xiv, 355;
- rhododendrons and azaleas in, xiii, 202;
- rivers of, xiv, 167;
- site formerly submerged, iii, 235;
- sky line from Tibet, xiv, 234;
- snow pinnacles, i, 117;
- youthfulness, xiv, 96, 235
- Hinds, xii, 317
- Hindu Language, words from, xv, 161
- Hindus, animal worship of, xv, 334;
- astronomy, ii, 21, 26;
- belief concerning trances, ix, 11, 17, 266-7;
- cloud classifying by ancient, i, 97;
[Pg 272]
- conception of earth, ii, 36;
- crocodile veneration by, xii, 201;
- geometry of, xi, 239;
- in brown race, xv, 37;
- marriage ceremonies of, 292, 293;
- medicine and surgery of, x, 13-14, 57, 100, 123;
- monkeys revered by, xii, 379
- Hip Joint, dislocation of, ix, 67, 71
- Hipparchus, ii, 10, 30-2, xvi, 90-1;
- data gathered by, 94;
- discoverer of precession, ii, 70;
- novae observed by, 331;
- star catalogue of, 300
- Hippocrates, x, 18-22, 97, xvi, 95-6, 106;
- aphorism of, x, 192, 379;
- description of diseases by, 17;
- humoral doctrine, 21, 98;
- influence in Middle Ages, 31-2, 34, 36, 37;
- "Oath" of, 18-19;
- references to teachings, 55, 78, 154, 244, 289;
- revival of teachings of, 44, 47, 48, 72, 73, 74
- Hippopotamus, xii, 310;
- trapping of, xv, 225
- Hiqua, xii, 74
- His, Wilhelm, x, 131
- Histology, defined, xiii, 75
- History, beginnings of, xv, 322, xvi, 51;
- climatic influences, xiv, 29, 357-9, 361-2, xv, 123;
- crowds and individuals in, xi, 333;
- emotions in, 130;
- geographical influences, xiv, 10, 30-1, 191-7, 239-45, 249-50, 279-82, 305-11, xv, 122-3, 136-9;
- poetry and, 323-4;
- sentiments the moving force, xi, 150;
- suggestibility and records, 310;
- warriors and artisans in, v, 15
- Hoang-ho, shifting of courses, xiv, 184
- Hoarfrost, i, 121, 258, 374
- Hoatzin, xii, 241
- "Hobble-Skirt" Cars, vii, 184
- Hoe Printing Press, v, 301, 379, 381
- Hoffmann, Friedrich, x, 85-6
- Hogs, descent of, xii, 310;
- embryological development, xv, 54, 55;
- feeding garbage to, viii, 330
- Hohenbergia, leaves, xiii, 106
- Hohenheim, Aureolus von (see Paracelsus)
- Hoists, in power plants, vi, 353
- Holland, commercial history, xiv, 262, 280-1, 310;
- low elevation of, 247;
- rain-deposited salt, i, 60;
- vaccination in, x, 103;
- windmills, i, 37;
- Zuider Zee of, xiv, 45-6
- Holland Submarine, v, 382
- Holly, American, xiii, 367
- Holmes, Dr. Oliver Wendell, x, 114;
- anesthetics named by, 125;
- "goodly company" of, 134;
- puerperal fever studies, 114-15, 122;
- quoted, on therapeusis, 75
- Holmium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Holothurians, xii, 23
- Holyoke, Mount, xiv, 111
- Home, electrical appliances in, iv, 10, vii, 73-90;
- electric wiring, 67-8;
- lighting and lighting systems, vi, 274-8, vii, 68-72, 75
- Homer, historic value of poems, xv, 323-4;
- medical references in, x, 16-17;
- on blood showers, i, 55;
- on the loadstone, vi, 29
- Hominy Block, xv, 238-9
- Homogeneous Rivers, xiv, 154
- Honey, as food, ix, 292;
- purpose in flowers, xiii, 124, 126, 142-3, 184;
- "showers" of, i, 357
- Honeydew, on plants, i, 351-2, 357
- Honeysuckle, Italian, fertilization, xiii, 142-3;
- leaf arrangement, 38;
- tendril movement, 111
- Hood, Mount, beauty of, xiv, 315;
- cone of, iii, 226, xiv, 100-1, 225
- "Hoodoo Country," xiv, 105
- Hoofed Animals, xii, 300-31;
- evolution, iii, 299, 300
- Hooke, balance spring invention, v, 65;
- geological work, xvi, 126;
- light theory, 137;
- microscope invention, x, 67;
- microscopic work, xvi, 112;
- on protoplasm, 166
- Hooker Telescope, ii, 148, 156, 157-8, 159-60
- Hookworm, campaign against, x, 171, 174-5;
- parasite of, 199, 201;
- in tropics, xiv, 357
- Hookworm Anemia, x, 337
- Hoosac Tunnel, drills in building, i, 27
- Hope, physical effects, xi, 339
- Hopkins, Dr. A. D., i, 255, 256, 367
- Hop-vines, xiii, 27, 111
- Horizontal Rainbows, i, 177
- Hormones, ix, 170, 171, 189, 303, x, 320, 331, 347;
- disease poisons as, ix, 178
- Hornbeam, family, xiii, 193;
- European, 271-2
- Horneblende, iii, 321;
- chemistry of, viii, 193
- Horned Screamers, xii, 256-7
- Horned Toad, xii, 204, 206
- Horner, William, x, 116
- Horn Gaps, vii, 17-18
- Horns, in cattle family, xii, 324-5, 328;
- of deer, 316
- Horns (musical), from shells, xii, 74;
- origin of, xv, 317;
- sound production by, iv, 239-41
- Horrocks, Jeremiah, ii, 58
- Horseback Riding, as exercise, x, 304, 317
- Horsechestnut Tree, dense shade, xiii, 86;
- in landscaping, 271-2;
- leaf-bud protection, 34;
- stipules absent, 34
- Horse Latitudes, i, 129, 374, xiv, 349
- Horsepower, defined, iv, 80, vi, 83, 84, vii, 369;
[Pg 273]
- electrical equivalent, vi, 84-5;
- erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382;
- men's labor in, iv, 311;
- thermal equivalents, v, 350-1
- Horsepower-hours, iv, 80
- Horseradish, aconite and, xiii, 252;
- in mustard family, 197;
- origin, 223
- Horses, xii, 306-7;
- automobiles and, v, 215;
- class of, xii, 300;
- cost of work, vii, 224-6;
- diphtheria antitoxin from, x, 297;
- domestication of, xv, 197;
- ear movements, of, ix, 82, 117;
- fear in, xi, 136;
- geological history, iii, 299-300;
- pictured in ancient art, xv, 112, 114, 116;
- surra disease of, x, 168;
- young of, ix, 346
- Horseshoe Magnets, iv, 250, vi, 34, 45, 333
- Horsetail Plants, iii, 251, 254, 256, xiii, 308-9, 314, 317, 323
- Hoses, force, vi, 47-9;
- rate of flow, 70-1
- Hospitals, disease germs of, i, 325-6;
- rise of modern, xvi, 184;
- "Sunday temperatures" in, xi, 140
- Hospital Tanks, v, 120
- Hot Air Heating System, iv, 185
- Hot Baths, ix, 322, x, 311-12, 383;
- after eating, ix, 313;
- cold sensation on entering, 93;
- therapeutic uses of, x, 311, 383
- Hot Climates, clothing for, x, 307, 308;
- oiling of skin in, 311
- Hot Springs, occurrence and explanation, iii, 128, xiv, 143-5;
- plant life in, xiii, 299;
- proof of earth's internal heat, xiv, 12;
- travertine deposits, 146
- Hottentots, hair of, xv, 38;
- marriage by purchase among, 284
- Hot-water Bottle, iv, 162-3
- Hot Water Heating System, iv, 185-6, 187
- Hot Water Plants, xiii, 299, 300, 301
- Hot Waves, i, 374
- Hot Winds, i, 134, 374
- Hotchkiss Machine Gun, v, 365
- Hotels, color lighting, vi, 274-5
- House-breaking, of children, xi, 251-2
- House Meters, vii, 174-7
- Houses, dry air of, xiv, 353;
- electric wiring, vii, 65-8;
- evolution of, xv, 266-8
- Howard, Luke, i, 97-8
- Howe, Elias, sewing machine, v, 284, 379
- Howitzers, v, 368-9
- Huanacos, xii, 313
- Huckleberry, growth of, x, 229
- Hudson River, course, iii, 234, 245;
- estuary of, xiv, 40;
- locating rock under, v, 263-4;
- mouth, xiv, 25, 270;
- Palisades (see Palisades of Hudson);
- sediment in channel, 268;
- submerged channel, iii, 37 (fig.), 78, 234, xiv, 25, 287;
- superimposed stream, iii, 233
- Hudson River Valley, drowned character, iii, 38, 77-8, xiv, 25, 40, 255;
- origin, iii, 232;
- section of, 138 (fig.)
- Hue, of colors, xi, 90
- Hughes, D. E., vi, 26;
- coherer of, xvi, 191
- Human Energy, consumption in life processes and work, viii, 367;
- daily expenditure in calories, ix, 297;
- efficiency in use of, 296, 306;
- food sources and requirements, viii, 334, 349, 350, 359, 361, ix, 289-301;
- from foods, calculation of, x, 269-70;
- per cent used, xi, 264;
- Ostwald's imperative, 257;
- production in kinetic system, 60-1
- Humanists, "medical," x, 45
- Human Life, temperate zones most favorable, xi, 51;
- temperature limits, v, 348, ii, 243
- (see also Life)
- Human Race, cradle of, xvi, 46-7;
- grouping tendency of, x, 9;
- improvement by selection, xvi, 157
- Humanistic Period, xvi, 86
- Human Voice, range of, ix, 99 (see Voice)
- Humboldt, Alexander von, discovery of orchid insect, xiii, 48;
- geological work, xvi, 170, 171;
- on the Ghor of Syria, xiv, 121;
- on thunder at sea, i, 193;
- studies of electric eel, vi, 16
- Humboldt Current, xiv, 305
- Humboldt Range, iii, 214
- Humidifying Systems, i, 78
- Humidity, i, 76, xiv, 353-4;
- absolute and relative, i, 76-7, 375, xiv, 352-3, 354;
- atmospheric, viii, 67;
- body heat and, i, 317, v, 348-9, ix, 316, 317, x, 237, 251, xiv, 354;
- danger in thunderstorms, i, 156;
- heat prostration from, ix, 316;
- measurement of, i, 78-9;
- practical importance, 77-8;
- ventilation and, 321, viii, 331, 332, ix, 268-9, 270, x, 237
- Hummingbirds, xii, 269;
- colors of, 245;
- family of, 267;
- plant fertilization by, xiii, 144
- Humor, psychology of, xi, 350-7
- Humoral Doctrine, x, 21, 28-9, 69, 98, 380
- Humped Cattle, xii, 330
- Humphreys, Dr. W. J., i, 58, 59, 113, 152, 153, 155, 172
- Humus, formation of, viii, 340, 341, 346-7
- Hungary, loess deposits, xiv, 72;
- plains of, xiii, 373, xiv, 217;
- stone implements of ancient, xv, 109
- Hunger, "best sauce," ix, 242;
- food regulation by, 299;
[Pg 274]
- impulse of, in civilization, xv, 185-204, 273;
- sensation of, ix, 87-8, 231, xi, 65-6, 67, xv, 65;
- sense of, in infants, ix, 349-50;
- sleep and, xi, 290
- Hunger Strikes, water in, x, 275
- Hunt, T. Sterry, xvi, 190
- Hunter, John, x, 93-6, 97;
- electric eel studies, vi, 16;
- Jenner pupil of, x, 94, 99;
- Virchow compared to, 129
- Hunter, William, x, 92-3, 94
- Hunter's Moon, ii, 196
- Hunting, primitive methods and devices, xv, 222-8
- Hunting Dog, African, xii, 345
- Hunting Dogs, heart in, x, 332
- Hunting Stage, xv, 187, 192-6;
- equality of members in, 376;
- leaders in, 366;
- polygamy in, 287
- Hurdy-Gurdy Wheel, v, 77
- Huron, Lake, size, xiv, 204
- Hurricane Cliffs, xiv, 124
- Hurricane Grass, xiii, 344
- Hurricanes, i, 136, 375;
- electrification by, vii, 212-13;
- handling of ships in, i, 277-8;
- warnings in Caribbean Sea, 282, 309
- Hurry, modern spirit of, xv, 12
- Hussey, Obed, v, 244-5, 246, 247, 249, 379
- Hutton, Dr. James, geologist, xvi, 126, 169-70
- Huxley, gorilla studies of, xv, 57;
- on herring, xii, 156;
- work of, x, 136, xvi, 140-1, 142, 182
- Huygens, as astrologer, ii, 21;
- Kepler's Laws and, 61;
- light theory, xvi, 119;
- mechanical method of, iv, 11;
- micrometer invention, ii, 58;
- on planetary pull, 63;
- on rings of Saturn, 54, 57;
- pendulum clock invention, v, 65;
- studies of Mars, ii, 227, 228;
- studies of nebulæ, 357;
- telescopes, 13, 57, 99
- Hyacinth, xiii, 120, 184
- Hyacinth Stone, iii, 341
- Hyades, ii, 341-3
- Hyalite, iii, 335
- Hybrids, defined, ix, 334, xiii, 147;
- transmission of characters, ix, 334-7, x, 231-2, 233, xiii, 332, 333
- Hydra, fresh water, xii, 33-4
- Hydraulic Jets, v, 88 (see Water Jets)
- Hydraulic Machinery, v, 97-108
- (see also special heads, as Cranes, Elevators, etc.)
- Hydraulic Press, v, 97-100, 376;
- mechanical gain in, iv, 41
- Hydraulic Ram, v, 84-6
- Hydriodic Acid, formation of, viii, 95-6
- Hydro-acids, viii, 98, 114, 377
- Hydrocarbons, and derivatives, viii, 51-2, 205-40;
- molecular complexity and physical state, 298;
- oxygen affinity for, 36;
- substitution phenomena, xvi, 162
- Hydrochloric Acid, viii, 86-7, 115;
- action on cellulose, 255;
- in gastric juice, x, 320, 325, ix, 234-5, 236, 237-8;
- metal tests by, viii, 288;
- production, 87, 105, 275, 277;
- solubility in water, 111;
- test for, 285
- Hydroelectric Plants, v, 79, 83, vi, 351-2, 361-78;
- on farms, vii, 233-4;
- use of alternators, vi, 215;
- (see also Power Plants)
- Hydroelectric Power, called "white coal," v, 76;
- in Switzerland, xiv, 242
- Hydrogen, viii, 18, 29-33;
- affinity strength, 128;
- affinity for halogens, 85, 86;
- atmospheric, i, 11, 192, ii, 232;
- atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383;
- atomic weights based on, 33, 92;
- basic element, Prout's hypothesis, 177;
- boiling and freezing points, iv, 173;
- compressibility and volume, 143;
- critical temperature and pressure, 173;
- density of, 110, 113;
- diffusibility of, viii, 108;
- discovery, xvi, 120;
- elimination from body, viii, 353;
- explosions of, 33, 62;
- flame of, 57, 58, 59-60;
- increasing demand for, vii, 321;
- in acids, viii, 114;
- in organic compounds, 64, 204;
- in plants, 336-7, 340-1;
- in proteins, 351;
- in water, weight and volume, 39-40;
- liquefaction of, iv, 171, 191;
- melting point, 162;
- molecular speed, viii, 24, iv, 133;
- percentage in coal series, iii, 345;
- plant uses and sources, xiv, 64-5;
- positive ionization, viii, 122;
- preparation, 30-3, 102;
- sound speed in, i, 192;
- uniqueness of, viii, 182-3;
- use of, in balloons, iv, 108;
- valence basis, viii, 93;
- valences to, 178, 179-80;
- weight, iv, 110
- Hydrogen Compounds, viii, 29, 36, 41, 51-2, 68-70, 205-40
- Hydrogen Cycle, viii, 334, 350
- Hydrogen Peroxide, viii, 41, 97;
- bleaching by, 86, 256
- Hydrogen Sulphide, viii, 77-8;
- in metal tests, 288;
- solubility in water, 111
- Hydrogenation, viii, 232, 247, 377
- Hydroids, xii, 18, 23, 33-7;
- regeneration in, 170
- Hydrology, problems, vi, 365-7
- Hydrolysis, viii, 39, 217-18, 377;
- by enzymes, 357, 358;
- in cement setting, 280;
- ionization and, 120
- Hydrometers, iv, 113, vi, 147
- Hydrophobia, Pasteur's work on, x, 142-3;
[Pg 275]
- reduction of mortality in, 217
- Hydroplanes, v, 192;
- of submarines, 197-8
- Hydrostatic Pressure, v, 95-6
- Hydrotherapy, x, 383
- Hydroxides, viii, 93, 377;
- bases as, 115;
- commercial preparation, of, 276;
- metals found as, 130, 131, 198
- Hydroxyl Derivatives, viii, 210, 212-14, 215, 218
- Hydroxyl Group, viii, 377;
- in bases, 115;
- boiling point raised by, 299;
- negative ionization, 122;
- solubility, 112
- Hyenas, xii, 351-2
- Hygiene, among early Jews, x, 15;
- daily applications, xvi, 15;
- instruction in, remarks on, x, 282-5;
- mental, xi, 368-82;
- personal, disease prevention through, x, 302-17
- Hygrometers, i, 78-9, 375;
- invention, 68-9
- Hygroscope, i, 375
- Hymenoptera, xii, 124-6
- Hyperfunction, defined, x, 348
- Hyperopia, ix, 113
- Hypersensibility, x, 212-15
- Hypnotism, xi, 311-22;
- use in medicine, xvi, 185-6
- Hypo, of photography, viii, 140, 172
- Hypofunction, meaning, x, 348
- Hypophysis, (gland), x, 347, 352
- Hysteresis, vi, 192, 213-14;
- in motors, 225;
- in transformers, 316
- Hysteria, x, 360-3
- Ianthena, xii, 19
- Iatrochemical School, x, 69-70
- Iatrophysical School, x, 69, 70-2
- Iberian Racial Group, xvi, 49
- Ibervillea, xiii, 106-7
- Ibexes, xii, 325-6
- Ibises, xii, 254, 255-6
- Ibn-Yunos (Jounis), ii, 38, 210
- Ice, ancient use in refrigeration, v, 349;
- artificial, iv, 188, v, 349-50, 354-8, viii, 69-70;
- color of, 40;
- comparative heat, v, 345;
- cooling by, iv, 178, v, 346;
- density of, iv, 149;
- disadvantages in refrigeration, vii, 230;
- erosion by, (see Glaciers);
- expansion of water in, viii, 38;
- heat conductivity, iv, 179;
- keeping of, v, 346, 349;
- melting point and requirements, iv, 152, 161, 162;
- melting point, pressure effects on, 163, 164, 164-6;
- mixture with salt, temperature resulting, 175;
- mixture with water, temperatures obtained, 160-1, v, 353-4;
- regelation of, iv, 164-6;
- specific gravity, iii, 321;
- specific heat of, iv, 155;
- temperatures at different pressures, v, 345;
- transformation of snow into, iii, 59-60;
- warming of, iv, 151-2
- Ice Age, Great Quaternary, iii, 236-48, xv, 72-6;
- antiquity of, xiii, 209, 322;
- lakes formed, iii, 143-51;
- man during, 302, 303, xv, 102;
- Mississippi Valley remains, iii, 35;
- moraines left by, 67-8;
- sea level in, 83;
- subsidence of land in, 80;
- Yosemite Valley formed in, 48, 64
- (see also Glacial Epoch)
- Ice Age, Permian, iii, 203-4
- Ice Ages, theories of, iii, 247-8;
- volcanic dust theory, i, 58
- Icebergs, submergence of, iv, 149
- Ice Breakers, gyroscopes on, v, 342
- Ice Caps, iii, 60, 61;
- of Greenland and Antarctica, xiv, 55
- Ice Clouds, i, 92-3, 103;
- halos produced by, 177
- Ice Dam Lakes, iii, 143-4, xiv, 201
- Ice Crystals, i, 115-16;
- halos from, 177, 178, 182-3
- Ice Fogs, i, 95-6
- Ice Houses, insulation method in, iv, 178
- Iceland, discovery and settlement, xiv, 261;
- fault displacement in, 39;
- foxes of, xii, 344;
- future manufacturing center, v, 173;
- ice caps, iii, 61;
- low pressure area, i, 361;
- volcanic eruptions, 57, 59;
- volcanic formation, xiv, 277, 289, 316
- Icelandic Language, xv, 162
- Iceland Spar, iii, 325;
- effect on light, 319, iv, 354
- Ice Needles, i, 92-3, 96
- "Ice Pavement," xiv, 56
- Ice Rain, i, 107, 375
- Ice Saints, i, 363, 375
- Ice Sheets, iii, 60, 61-2;
- of Great Ice Age, 237-42, xv, 74-6
- Ice Storms, i, 108
- Ice Water, drinking of, ix, 229;
- temperature of, viii, 38
- Ichneumon Flies, xii, 125
- Ichneumons, xii, 352
- Ichthyornis, xii, 243
- Ichthyosaurs, iii, 286-8, xii, 182, 202
- Idaho, lava formations, xiv, 102, 103, 318;
- mining products, iii, 362-3, 368
- Idaho Fire (1910), i, 57
- Ideal Metal, resistance, vi, 77
- Ideas, psychological meaning, xi, 201-2
- (see also Association of Ideas, Dissociation, Repression)
- I-em-hetep, x, 11
- Igneous Rocks, iii, 13, 379, xiv, 17-18;
- common modes of occurrence, iii, 102 (fig.);
- illustrations (Pl. 8, 9, 10);
- intrusive and extrusive, xiv, 105;
- intrusions in mountain ranges, 228, 230, 232-3, 234;
- jointing in, 129-30;
- land forms in, 44, 99-113;
[Pg 276]
- oldest by nebular theory, iii, 160;
- soils from, 28;
- volcanic and plutonic, 106, 110, xiv, 99-100
- Ignis Fatuus, i, 346-9, 375
- Ignition, electric, vii, 369;
- in automobiles, 130-41, 369;
- in firearms, viii, 145;
- temperatures of, 53-4
- Iguanas, xii, 207;
- boas and, 216;
- color of, 204;
- spiny crest of, 204
- Ilkhanic Tables, ii, 39
- Illinois, coal beds, iii, 199;
- prairies of, xiv, 373, 383
- Illinois River, sewage effects, viii, 326
- Illuminating Gas, acetylene, viii, 60, 231;
- burning of air in, 55, 56;
- flame of, 57-9;
- production, 46, 47, 252;
- requisites, 60;
- transfusion of blood in, poisoning from, x, 338
- (see also Gas Lighting)
- Illumination, art of, vi, 273;
- measurement of, iv, 350-2;
- unit of intensity, vii, 368
- (see also Lighting, Lighting Systems)
- Illusions, x, 358
- (see also Hallucinations)
- Illusions, Optical (see Optical Illusions)
- Ilopango, Lake, draining of, xiv, 198
- Images, formed by reflection, iv, 335-7;
- formed by refraction, 337-9;
- formation of, ix, 106-9;
- real and virtual, iv, 335, 338, 339
- Images (psychology), xi, 218-22
- (see also After-Images)
- Imagination, xi, 218-27;
- due to conditioned reflexes, 202-3;
- in science, xvi, 58-9
- Imbeciles, reflex action in, xi, 36
- Imhoff Tanks, viii, 328
- Imitation, education by, xv, 66-7;
- in language, 153-4;
- instinct of, xi, 56;
- suggestion and, 304
- Immunity, against disease, ix, 179, x, 204-12;
- racial, xv, 48-52
- Impedance, in alternating currents, vi, 170, 171;
- in oscillating circuits, vii, 289
- "Imponderables," iv, 47
- Impressions, first, xi, 211-12
- Impulsiveness, of motor type men, xi, 157, 158-9;
- will and, 264
- Inanition, x, 275-7, 279
- Inattention, xi, 25, 236
- Inbreeding, in plants, xiii, 119-20
- Incandescent Bodies, spectra of, ii, 112-13, iv, 360-3
- Incandescent Lights, iv, 311
- Incas of Peru, civilization in temperate climate, xv, 123;
- corn in tombs, xiii, 212;
- hunts of, xv, 222;
- quipus of, 165, 166, (fig.)
- Inclined Plane, iv, 90, v, 35-41;
- primitive use of, iv, 24
- Index of Refraction, in chemical analysis, viii, 310
- Index Plants, i, 255
- India, aborigines in black race, xv, 37;
- aconite used as poison, xiii, 252;
- adjutant bird of, xii, 255;
- aerial photographic service, i, 46;
- ancient astronomy, ii, 25, 26, xvi, 57;
- ancient meteorology, i, 68, 213;
- ancient science, xvi, 54, 62;
- ancient sun-worship, ii, 23-4;
- animals (carnivora), xii, 337, 340, 344, 345, 359, 365;
- animals (herbivoral), 302, 303, 305, 308, 320, 327, 328, 330;
- artificial ice in ancient, v, 349;
- banana plants, xiii, 216;
- betel nut, 254;
- brontides, i, 195;
- bubonic plague in, x, 164, 165;
- Catalan forges in, v, 315;
- cinnamon growing, xiii, 264;
- civilization and climate, xv, 123;
- coco palm of, 125;
- copra production, xiii, 220;
- cotton production, 237, 238;
- cradle of human race, xvi, 47;
- crocodiles of, xii, 199, 201;
- deer-hunting in, 365, xv, 223;
- dust whirlwinds, i, 60;
- earthquake of, xiv, 333 (see Great Indian Earthquake);
- famines, xiii, 214;
- forests, government-controlled, 372;
- former trade routes, xiv, 307, 309;
- glacial deposits, iii, 203;
- hailstorms, i, 120;
- Himalayas as protection to, xv, 137;
- ideas of eclipses, ii, 209;
- jungle fowls of, xii, 261;
- jute production, xiii, 241, 243;
- monkeys of, xii, 379;
- monsoons, importance, i, 66-7, 131, 218, xiv, 350-1;
- monuments and records, ii, 24;
- music of, xv, 314
- native marriage customs, 282;
- peoples and civilization, xvi, 53-4;
- pipal tree, xiii, 108;
- plains of, xiv, 47, 217;
- polyandry in, xv, 286;
- poppy growing, xiii, 253;
- quinine production, 251;
- rainy seasons, xiv, 352;
- rattan palm, xiii, 27, 361;
- religious cults, ix, 266;
- religious philosophy, xi, 116;
- rice in, xiii, 213;
- rivers of, xiv, 195-6;
- rubber growing, xiii, 247, 248;
- serpents of, xii, 214, 219, 228-9, 231;
- smallpox inoculation in, x, 100;
- sugar production, xiii, 215;
- Suttee in, xv, 335;
- tarpon of, xii, 154;
- tea cultivation, xiii, 228;
- telegraph plant, 114;
- tobacco production, 258;
- tortoises of, xii, 191;
- weather conditions, distant causes, i, 241;
- wine palm, xiii, 53
- (see also Hindus)
- Indiana, glacial drift in, xiv, 69, 170;
- limestone quarries, iii, 371-2;
- prairies of, xiv, 373
- Indian Corn, American origin, xiv, 382;
- history and uses, xiii, 211-13;
- prop roots, 20 (fig.);
- stem, 183
- (see also Corn)
[Pg 277]
- Indian Meteorological Dept., i, 241
- Indian Ocean, extent of, xiv, 22;
- monsoons of, 350-1;
- salt in, viii, 139;
- sharks of, xii, 146;
- tortoises on islands of, 192
- Indian Pipe Plant, xiii, 99, 202
- Indians, American, acuteness of vision, vi, 272-3;
- arrows of, xv, 196 (fig.);
- basket-weaving of, 248;
- bows of, 214 (fig.);
- canoe-making, 262;
- cattle-raising stage absent, 187, 199;
- chiefs, 364;
- color of, 37;
- corn-growing, xiii, 211-12, 212-13, xv, 201 (fig.);
- dogs used in hunting, 223;
- domestic animals lacking to, 199;
- dramatic ceremonies and plays of, 305-6, 306-7, 308;
- fear of pogonip, i, 96;
- fertilizing method of, xv, 202;
- guardian spirits, 348-9;
- hair of, 37;
- Happy Hunting Grounds of, 333;
- "hiqua" money of, xii, 74;
- language deficiencies, xv, 144;
- lodgepoles of, xiv, 374;
- long houses of, xv, 267;
- marriage practices, 283-4, 284;
- measles and, 48;
- mineral springs used by, xiv, 145;
- note to Jenner, x, 103;
- painting of faces by, xv, 256;
- pottery of, 250 (fig.), 252 (fig.);
- prairie firing, xiii, 374;
- prayers of, xv, 346-7;
- religious beliefs, xvi, 44;
- signal fires, xv, 165-6;
- sign language, 148-51;
- sign writing, 172, 173 (fig.);
- stone pestles of, 238 (fig.);
- tents of, 266;
- tomahawks of, 208;
- tree-felling by, 262;
- tribal morality of, 374;
- tribes in mountains, 129-30;
- unions among, 363;
- weaving of, 247 (fig.), 301 (fig.)
- (see also South American Indians)
- Indian Summer, i, 361-2, 363, 375
- India-rubber, elasticity of, iv, 36;
- low temperature effects, i, 31
- Indicators, chemical, viii, 114, 294, 378
- Indigestion, causes and results, ix, 238-42;
- from worry, 165, 167;
- mental effects, xi, 369-70
- Indigo (color), ix, 115;
- changed to indigo white, viii, 259
- Indirect Lighting, vi, 277, vii, 70
- Indium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Individuals, differences in, ix, 327, xi, 152-9;
- influence of, in history, 333;
- inheritance of extreme characters, xvi, 154;
- moral control, 48;
- new species from variations of, xiii, 325, 328-9;
- psychology in crowds, xi, 324, 325-30;
- transmission of acquired characters, ix, 325-6
- Indo-China, food plant source, xiii, 221;
- python of, xii, 214
- Indo-Chinese, in yellow race, xv, 37
- Indo-European Languages, xv, 161, 162
- Induced Currents, iv, 303-9
- Induced Voltages, vii, 370
- Inductance, defined, vi, 91, 166;
- in direct and alternating currents, 166-7, 169;
- flashes caused by, 102, 312;
- in induction motors, 248;
- in telephone lines, vii, 104;
- in wireless communication, 264, 286-7, 289, 293-5, 296-7
- Inductance Coils, vii, 105, 264, 266, 267
- Induction, charging by, vi, 290-2, 297-301;
- discovery, 22, 23;
- electrification by, iv, 260;
- electrodynamic and static, vii, 370;
- law of, vi, 313;
- Lenz's Law, vii, 371;
- magnetization by, iv, 243;
- self, vii, 375;
- unit of, iv, 285
- Induction, Proof by, xi, 242
- Induction Coils, iv, 265, 303-5, vii, 364, 370;
- in automobiles, 133-4;
- in electrotherapy, 242-4, 245;
- in wireless telegraphy, iv, 313, 314
- Induction Machines, vi, 292, 298-301, vii, 245
- Induction Motors, vi, 241, 242-56;
- in motor-generator sets, 332, 342
- Induction Regulators, vi, 328-9, 346
- Inductivity, vi, 293-4
- Industrial Plants, advantages of electricity, vii, 51-3;
- lighting, 52;
- wiring, 57
- Industrial Psychology, xi, 358-67
- Industry, electricity in, vi, 195-6, 381;
- energy sources, viii, 267-8;
- metals of, 154;
- motors most used, vi, 241;
- science in, xvi, 9-10;
- water power and, vi, 352
- Inertia, defined, vi, 90-1, vii, 370;
- examples of, iv, 35, 62, 66, 67, v, 148, 234, 336-9;
- in electrical currents (see Inductance);
- in perception errors, xi, 184, 189;
- law of, ii, 62, iv, 19-20, 61-2;
- of æther, vi, 120;
- of ear, xi, 105;
- of sense organs, 71
- Infancy, period of, x, 283, xvi, 79
- Infantile Paralysis, germ of, x, 200, 202;
- immunity to, 207
- Infants, ape-like structures in, xv, 61;
- bodily condition and care of, ix, 345-52;
- clothing of, x, 309;
- grasping reflex, xi, 40-3;
- heart rate in, x, 334;
- learning to breathe, xi, 36-7;
- learning to fixate, 39-40;
- learning to swallow, 38;
- milk modifications, viii, 363;
- nervous system in, ix, 344, 348-9;
- new-born, free from germs, x, 201;
- new-born, weight of, ix, 31;
- periodic breathing in, x, 340;
[Pg 278]
- skull capacity in, xv, 40;
- space perceptions, xi, 162-3, 166
- Infections, ix, 177-8, x, 193;
- by germs, x, 193, 204;
- body resistance to, 197-8, 203-12;
- body resistance to, ix, 177-9, 185-6;
- exhaustion from, ix, 59-60;
- focal, x, 198-9, 218-26;
- in surgery, prevention of, 14, 123, 145-7, 181-3;
- local and general, 198;
- "portals" of, 198, 201-2;
- pus, ix, 186-8
- Infectious Diseases, x, 193-226;
- atmospheric electricity and, i, 330;
- danger from, 326;
- heredity and, x, 234-5;
- immunity to, 204-12, ix, 179;
- infants' susceptibility to, ix, 352;
- pain in, 87;
- Pasteur and Koch's work, xvi, 184;
- prevention and treatment, x, 217-18, 285-302
- (see also Antitoxins, Inoculation, Vaccination);
- ticks as cause of, xii, 98;
- transmission and history of various, x, 153-70
- Infinity, meaning, xi, 191, 196
- Inflammations, germ-produced, x, 195;
- terms used to define, 30
- Influence Machines, vi, 292, 298-301, vii, 372;
- in therapeutics, 236
- Influenza, x, 294-5;
- from chilling, 306;
- immunity to, 207;
- present knowledge of, 153, xv, 48
- Infra-red Rays, iv, 365, 366
- Ingersoll, Dr. E., author Zoölogy, Vol. xii
- Ingots, steel, v, 322;
- "pipes" in, 323
- Injections, subcutaneous, ix, 59
- Injectors, of boilers, v, 140-2, 380
- Ink, Acheson's, vii, 301
- Innominate Bone, ix, 63 (fig.), 66-7
- Inoculation, early practice of, x, 207;
- for anthrax and rabies, 141-2;
- for smallpox, 100-3
- (see also Vaccination)
- Inorganic, defined, viii, 378
- Inorganic Chemical Industries, viii, 267-84
- Inorganic Compounds, colors of, viii, 312;
- solubility in water, 37, 111-12
- Inorganic Matter, plant use of, viii, 339, 349, xiii, 14, 79, 81
- Inorganic Nature, chemical inactivity, viii, 267
- Insanity, definition and symptoms, x, 357-9;
- former ideas and treatment, 11, 356-7;
- increase of, xv, 27;
- increase prevention, x, 235-6;
- Pinel's treatment, 110-11;
- primitive conceptions of, xv, 350, 353
- Insecticides, arsenic, viii, 169
- Insectivora, xii, 366-8;
- lemurs and, 376
- Insects, xii, 99-126;
- capture of, by plants, xiii, 39-41;
- classification, iii, 260, 276;
- cold effects on, ix, 306;
- evolution, iii, 20, 257, 279, xii, 104-7;
- flower fertilization by, xiii, 48, 123-46, 318, xvi, 152-3;
- fossil remains, iii, 16, 279-80;
- hearing of sounds by, iv, 204;
- jaws in, xii, 106;
- larvæ affected by light, x, 253;
- musical, xii, 109-10;
- number of species, 99;
- popular definition, 90;
- primitive groups, 104-7;
- protective coloration in, xv, 17-18;
- reproduction in, xii, 104;
- respiration in, 103;
- structure of, 99-103;
- studies of, xvi, 143-4;
- tool-using by, v, 10-11
- Inside Passage, xiv, 258-9
- Insomnia, xi, 288-91;
- caused by vasoconstrictor activity, ix, 218-19;
- exhaustion from, xi, 59-60
- Inspiration, as intuition, xi, 245;
- Titchener on, 226
- Instincts, defined, xi, 46-8;
- fundamental, 49-56, xv, 185;
- in man and animals, 65-6;
- reflex nature, xi, 48-9;
- self-preserving, x, 9-10, 282-3
- Instrument-Shelter, i, 375
- Instrument Transformers, vii, 44, 165
- Insular Climate, xiv, 347
- Insulation, importance, vi, 9-10;
- in dynamos, 192, 211-12;
- types of wire, vii, 58
- Insulators, electrical, iv, 259, vi, 294-5, vii, 370;
- pin and suspension types, 15-16
- Insulators, heat, iv, 178, vii, 307-8
- Insults, emotions from, xi, 150
- Insurance, weather, i, 269-70, 344
- Intake-Output Test, x, 379
- Intellectual Processes, in brain, ix, 147-53, 154
- Intelligence, artificial selection of, xvi, 154;
- mental economy and, xi, 377;
- instinct and, 46, 47, 50;
- nervous organization and, 13
- Intelligence Tests, xi, 359-60
- Intemperance, arteries injured by, ix, 214
- Intensity, electric, vii, 370
- Intensity, of sounds, iv, 211
- Interborough Rapid Transit Company, great alternators, vi, 216, 378-9;
- synchronized plants, 384
- Interchangeable System, v, 48-52, 53-4, 55-6
- Interest, advertising value, xi, 345-6;
- associations determined by, 203, 205-6;
- attention and, 235-6;
- fatigue and, 275;
[Pg 279]
- in salesmanship, 341-2
- Interference of Light, iv, 376-8
- Interference of Sounds, iv, 218-22
- Interferometer, ii, 151, 323
- Interior Lighting Systems, vi, 275-8, vii, 68-72
- Interior Wiring, vii, 51-72;
- insulators in, 370
- Interlaken, Switzerland, lakes at, xiv, 202
- Internal Combustion Engines, v, 155-70;
- in aeroplanes, 231;
- in automobiles, 213;
- in submarines, 199;
- efficiency, securing of, xvi, 135;
- Joule's equivalent and, 132-3
- Internal Senses, ix, 86-91
- Interoceptive Senses, xi, 63
- Interpoles, of dynamos, vi, 190-1
- Interurban Traction, vii, 181;
- automatic substations, 192-3;
- cars and motors, 186;
- voltage drop, 189
- Intestinal Stasis, x, 220
- Intestines, ix, 233 (fig.);
- development in black and white races, xv, 50;
- emotion effects on, xi, 135, 137;
- functions of, viii, 356-7, 358;
- functions, operations, and disorders of, ix, 232-4, 236-8, 242-52, x, 325-9;
- germs in, ix, 247-9, x, 193, 194, 201, 287-8;
- infections through, x, 198, 220, 221;
- in infants, ix, 346;
- inflammation of, cause, x, 224;
- length in animals and man, ix, 246;
- mucous membrane, functions of, x, 347;
- position in circulatory system, ix, 196 (fig.), 198;
- smooth muscles in, 74, 160-1, 162
- Intrenched Meanders, xiv, 165
- Intrusive Rocks, xiv, 105
- Intrusive Sheets (sills), xiv, 108
- Intuition, xi, 245-6;
- Bergson on, xvi, 196
- Inventions, imagination in, xvi, 59;
- inspiration and labor in, xi, 226;
- method of great, xvi, 98;
- misuse of ancient, v, 15-16, 111;
- necessity and laziness in, 282;
- production increased by, 17-18;
- pure science preliminary to, iv, 44-5;
- summary of mechanical, v, 376-84;
- war as stimulus to, 12, 359-60, 375
- Inverse Time Relays and Switches, vii, 37, 39-40, 41, 42
- Invertases, viii, 357
- Invertebrates, xii, 127;
- age of, iii, 20;
- largest, xii, 80
- Invincible Armada, xiv, 280
- Inyo Earthquake, iii, 225
- Iodine, a halogen, viii, 18, 84-5, 86;
- as antiseptic, 333;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- classification place, 182, 183;
- indicator uses, 294;
- in seaweed, 197;
- manufacture of, 274;
- physical state and, chemical properties, 22, 297-8;
- test of, 290;
- thyroid secretion of, x, 351
- Iodoform, viii, 52, 212
- Ion-Counters, i, 142-3, 375
- Ionic Reactions, viii, 119-25
- Ionization, vi, 133-5, vii, 247, 248, 370;
- defined, viii, 378;
- electron theory, 188;
- in electric precipitation, vii, 348-9;
- of atmosphere, i, 142-4, 146, 150;
- of solutions, viii, 119-25, 300-1;
- origin of theory, 296, 300-1
- Ionogens, viii, 122, 125, 378
- Ions, iv, 382, vii, 370, viii, 378;
- in electric batteries, vi, 133, vii, 247;
- number in air, i, 142-3;
- of solutions, viii, 120-4, 286-90;
- origin of name, 124;
- positive and negative, i, 142, vii, 247, 370
- Iowa, glacial deposits, iii, 241;
- gypsum deposits, 376;
- loess deposits, xiv, 72;
- porous rocks beneath, iii, 114;
- soil of, xiv, 383;
- wells, iii, 118, 119, 125
- Ireland, Alpine invasion, xvi, 49;
- coast formations, xiv, 24, 47, 249, 251, 257;
- continental island in character, 273;
- "Emerald Isle," 352;
- eskers and drumlins, 59, 60;
- former volcanoes, 318;
- Ice Age in, xv, 74;
- lakes of, xiv, 200;
- lava plateau of, 104;
- potato in, xiii, 218;
- rainfall in, xiv, 41, 352;
- scurvy and potato crop, x, 266;
- snakes in, xii, 217
- Iridescence, cause of, xii, 245
- Iridium, viii, 173, 383
- Iridocytes, xii, 135
- Iris, xiii, 22-3, 57 (fig.)
- Iris Family, xiii, 189
- Irish, pre-Nordic, xvi, 49
- Irish Language, xv, 162
- Irish Potato, xiii, 218, 219
- Irish School, of Medicine, x, 112
- Irish Wakes, xv, 336
- Iron, affinity strength, viii, 128;
- antiquity of use, v, 314-15;
- atomic weight of, viii, 180, 383;
- body use of, ix, 184, x, 256;
- cast and wrought, v, 316-17;
- cast and wrought, viii, 157, 158, 159;
- castings of, iv, 150;
- density of, 111;
- electrical conductivity, 283, vi, 77;
- electrical positiveness, 59;
- electrolytic refining, vii, 320;
- expansion on solidifying, iv, 150;
- expansion rate, 145-6;
- extraction from ores, viii, 271;
- fusibility, 384;
- galvanized, vii, 318-19, viii, 155-6, 273;
- heat conduction by, iv, 179;
- importance, v, 314, viii, 156;
- in blood, 354;
- in chlorophyll, xiii, 79-80;
- in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192;
- in earth's interior, xiv, 11;
- magnetic, iv, 242, 243 (fig.);
[Pg 280]
- magnetization, 243, 245, 251, 287-8, vi, 35-6;
- melting point and requirements, iv, 162, 163;
- metallography of, viii, 273-4;
- meteoric, ii, 292;
- meteoric, in deep sea, iii, 55;
- ores and occurrence, 355-9, viii, 47, 130, 148, 156, 198;
- ores, profitable, 197;
- plant needs of, 337, 341;
- properties of, 126-7, 154;
- rusting, iii, 25, viii, 9, 13, 155-6;
- sheet tin, 161;
- shortness, hot and cold, iii, 356;
- sound velocity in, iv, 201;
- specific gravity of, 109, viii, 384;
- specific heat, 308;
- symbol, 383;
- test for, 287, 288-9;
- valences, 161, 189
- Iron Age, xvi, 51;
- tools of, 47
- Iron Compounds, viii, 160-1
- Iron Industry, history, xvi, 174-6;
- processes in, v, 315-18, viii, 157-9, 273, 345
- Ironing Machines, Electric, vii, 82-3
- Iron Oxides, viii, 13, 156, 157;
- in pigments, 265;
- in rock decay, iii, 25, 27;
- in soils, iii, 28;
- removal in steel-making, v, 320;
- rock coloring due to, iii, 25-6, 27, 44
- Iron Pyrites, iii, 335, viii, 156, 198;
- in wireless detectors, vii, 269
- Irons, Electric, vii, 77
- Iron Ships, floating of, iv, 104-5;
- magnetization of, 254
- Iron Structures, magnetization of, iv, 253
- Iroquois, Lake, iii, 149, 150
- Iroquois Indians, and Mohawk Valley, xiv, 194;
- power of women among, xv, 295;
- union in nation, 363
- Irrationality of Dispersion, ii, 101
- Irrigation, development of methods, v, 239;
- in Egypt, 18-19, 178;
- electrical methods, vii, 231;
- in relation to critical periods, i, 250;
- sewage disposal by, viii, 327;
- snow sources, i, 118
- Irritability (life), doctrine of, x, 86, 87, 88
- Isallobars, i, 238
- Ischia Earthquake, xiv, 339
- Isinglass, iii, 334
- Islands, classes, continental and oceanic, xiv, 271-9;
- formed on coasts, 251-2, 256, 258;
- historical importance, 281-2, xv, 137;
- new volcanic, xiv, 319;
- overpopulation of, 282;
- plants of oceanic, xiii, 348;
- tidal races produced by coastal, xiv, 294
- Isobaric Elements, viii, 189
- Isobars, i, 125, 375-6;
- classification, 238;
- spacing, 126;
- winds in relation to, 126
- Isohyet, defined, i, 376
- Isohyetal Charts, i, 206
- Isomer, defined, x, 137
- Isomerism, defined, viii, 378
- Isomorphism, viii, 313
- Isothermal, defined, iv, 382
- Isothermal Changes, in gases, iv, 156, 159
- Isothermal Layer (atmosphere), i, 19
- Isotherms, i, 206, 207, 376;
- barriers to plants and animals, xiv, 364
- Isotopic Elements, viii, 189
- Israelites, "Cities of Refuge," xv, 369;
- life of, 199
- Italian Honeysuckle, xiii, 142-3
- Italian Language, descent from Latin, xv, 160, 162;
- musical terms from, 161
- Italians, in Alpine group, xvi, 49
- Italy, Adriatic coast, xiv, 252, 263;
- aeronautical weather service, i, 230, 304;
- Alps Mountains and, xiv, 244-5, xv, 138;
- "blood showers," i, 55;
- boric acid sources, viii, 90;
- brontides, i, 196;
- bubonic plague measures, x, 164;
- buffalo use in, xii, 329;
- earthquakes of, xiv, 332, 340-1;
- former connection with Tunis, 291;
- geographical changes in, 33;
- hail-shooting, i, 341, 342, 343;
- lakes, beauty of, xiv, 200;
- lakes, breezes of, i, 132;
- mercury production, iii, 370;
- meteorological observations, i, 68-9, 213;
- Napoleon's campaigns in, xiv, 244;
- paper-making, v, 290;
- rainfall, xiv, 358;
- Renaissance and science in, ii, 12-13;
- rice growing, xiii, 214;
- sea captains of, xiv, 310;
- volcanic power, v, 179-80;
- in World War, xiv, 244-5, 252-3, xv, 138;
- in World War, medical preparedness, x, 176
- Itching, sensation of, ix, 92-3, xi, 109, 114
- Ivory, elasticity of, iv, 36;
- sources of, xii, 302, 303
- Izalco Volcano, xiv, 321, 325
- Jackals, xii, 339-40;
- dogs and, 344;
- ears of, 346
- Jack-in-the-Pulpit, in arum family, xiii, 188;
- flower, 52 (fig.);
- leaves, 183 (fig.);
- stems, 23 (fig.)
- Jacks, Hydraulic, v, 100, 101, 124, 260
- Jackson, Dr. Charles T., x, 124, 125
- Jackson, James, x, 116, xvi, 185
- Jacquard Loom, v, 280-2, 377
- Jade, iii, 322-3;
- pyroxene, 336
- Jaguars, xii, 360-2
- Jaguarundi, xii, 364
- Jamaica Earthquake, cause, xiv, 340
- James, William, on associations, xi, 204-6;
- on attention, 232;
- on emotions, 141;
- on habit, 255-6, 256-7;
- on instincts, 48;
- on memory, 208;
[Pg 281]
- on stream of consciousness, 193;
- on will and action, 264;
- on complexity of life, x, 244;
- on seasickness, 242;
- on outdoor treatment, 241;
- pragmatic philosophy, xvi, 196
- James, W. T., link motion invention, v, 208, 379
- James, I. Harvey, physician to, x, 62;
- of England, submarine trips, v, 196-7
- James River Valley, N. D., wells in, xiv, 12, 139
- Janet, Dr. P., x, 360-1
- Janssen, Jules, astronomer, ii, 114, 127, 180-1;
- station on Mt. Blanc, 142
- January Thaws, i, 363, 376
- Japan, Ainus of, xvi, 64;
- beriberi in, ix, 35, x, 257;
- brown bears of, xii, 336;
- copper production, iii, 360;
- earthquakes of, xiv, 332, 341;
- earthquake studies in, 337, 342;
- geology of, 125;
- ginkgo tree in temples, xiii, 315;
- goat antelope of, xii, 325;
- historical development from insulation, xiv, 281;
- idea of eclipses in, ii, 209;
- octopod fishing, xii, 78;
- railway bridges, earthquake construction, xiv, 342;
- rice, xiii, 213;
- tea cultivation, 228;
- temperate rain forests, 372;
- tidal waves, xiv, 337;
- trees of, 377;
- volcanic eruption effects, i, 57, 59
- Japan Current, xiv, 304
- Japanese, artificial immunity practiced by, xv, 49;
- food and stature of, xiii, 172;
- in yellow race, xv, 37;
- tattooing among, xv, 258
- Japanese Earthquake, iii, 94;
- fault formed by, xiv, 334, 335
- Jasper, iii, 337
- Jaundice, cause of, ix, 243;
- epidemic, x, 201
- Java, ancient man-ape of, iii, 302, xv, 88-92;
- bats and fruits of, xii, 370;
- cinnamon production, xiii, 264;
- continental island, xiv, 274;
- tea cultivation, xiii, 228;
- transplanting rice in, (illus.) 208;
- zoölogy of, xiv, 274-5
- Javelins, Roman, xv, 213
- Jaws, bones and functions of, ix, 62-3;
- deformities of, results, 228;
- in aged people, 57;
- in apes and men, xv, 62;
- of primitive men, 91, 92, 95;
- protruding, classification by, 43-5
- Jealousy, absent in polygamous countries, xv, 288;
- sentiment of, xi, 149-50
- Jefferson, Thomas, on climatic changes, i, 201;
- on standard muskets, v, 49;
- vaccination interests, x, 102
- Jelly-Fishes, iii, 259, 266-7, xii, 35-7;
- coelenterates, 26;
- phosphorescence of, 18, 19
- Jenkins, C. Francis, v, 330
- Jenner, Edward, x, 99-103, xvi, 126-7, 184;
- love affair, x, 95;
- pupil of John Hunter, x, 94, 99;
- vaccination discovery, x, 100-2, 122, 207-8
- Jerboas, xii, 289-90
- Jesuits, meteorological services, i, 213, 223;
- survey of China, xvi, 123
- Jewelweed, seed dispersal, xiii, 56
- Jewish Medicine, x, 15-16
- Jews, of Asia and Europe, xvi, 64;
- circumcision, untransmitted, x, 230;
- history in relation to Ghor of Syria, xiv, 121;
- immunity from trichina, xv, 49;
- polygamy among, 289;
- prepotency in crosses, x, 230
- Jew's Harp, iv, 232
- Jibon River, Salvador, xiv, 198
- Jihar River, xiv, 185
- John Daniel, orang-utan, xvi, 25
- "John H. Grindle", (fish), xii, 152
- John of Gaddesden, x, 41
- Johns Hopkins Hospital and Medical School, x, 151, 172
- Johnson, Prof. D. W., coast classification, xiv, 253;
- on climatic changes, 361
- Johnson, Samuel, compared with Paracelsus, x, 48;
- on Heberden, 104
- Johnstown Flood, iii, 31
- John the Baptist, locusts and honey of, xv, 134
- Joints, arm and hand, ix, 67;
- diseases of, x, 224-5;
- dislocation of, ix, 71;
- fastening at, 70-1;
- hip, 67, 71;
- motion sense in, ix, 90;
- muscles to move, 76-7;
- sensations of, xi, 124-5, 128;
- shoulder, ix, 66, 71
- Joints, Joint Blocks (geology), iii, 23, 379, xiv, 128-30;
- illustration, iii, 144 (Pl. 8);
- residual cores, iii, 32 (Pl. 1);
- topography and drainage effects, xiv, 130-3;
- various examples, iii, 48, 49-50, 65
- Joint Worms, xii, 125
- Joliet, expedition of, xiv, 192
- Joplin, Mo., mining district, iii, 362, 364
- Jordan Engine, v, 294-5
- Jordan River, base level of, xiv, 164
- Jordan Valley, iii, 151, xiv, 118, 120, 167
- Jorullo, Mexico, xiv, 320
- Joule, electrical energy unit, iv, 284, 294, 310, 312, vii, 370;
- used as heat unit, 369;
- erg and calorie equivalents, 382;
- work or energy unit, iv, 80
- Joule, James Prescott, energy unit named for, iv, 284;
- heat experiments of, 49-50;
[Pg 282]
- mechanical equivalent of heat, xvi, 131-3
- Joule-Thomson Effect, i, 30
- Joy Stick, i, 299
- Judæa, Wilderness of, xiv, 121
- Judaism, development of, xv, 199
- Jumping Hare, xii, 290
- Juniper, a conifer, xiii, 174;
- in landscaping, 270;
- spread by buds, 340
- Junker Engine, v, 163-4
- Jupiter (planet), ii, 260-3;
- atmosphere, 249, 261;
- comet families, 271;
- disturbing effect on asteroids, 258;
- "great inequality," 87;
- habitability of moons, 250;
- life on, ii, 248-9;
- lucid planet, 249, 261;
- photographic studies, 132-3;
- rotation period, 377;
- satellites, 261-3;
- satellites, discovery of, 54, 83, 94, 110, 267;
- size and orbit, 162, 163;
- weight, 76, 77
- "Jupiter", U. S. collier, vii, 326
- Jura Mountains, xiv, 93-4;
- age of, 232;
- folding of, 36, 93-4, 229-30;
- little metamorphism in, 234;
- streams of, 94, 95, 157, 167
- Jurassic Period, iii, 213-14;
- Age of Reptiles, xv, 71;
- animal and plant life in, iii, 20, 255, 270, 276, 289, 295;
- flies of, xii, 104
- Juries, as crowds, xi, 326
- Justifying (printing), v, 308;
- on linotype, 310;
- on monotype, 311-12
- Jute, cellulose composition, viii, 254;
- uses and production, xiii, 241-3;
- economic importance, 208
- Juvenile Water, xiv, 151-2
- Kaaba of Mecca, ii, 284
- Kaguan, Malayan, xii, 367
- Kalahari Desert, xv, 133;
- antelopes of, xii, 327
- Kames, glacial, iii, 69-70
- Kayaks, xv, 264 (fig.)
- Kangaroo Mice, xii, 290
- Kangaroos, xii, 278-80;
- young of, 274
- Kansas, ancient birds of, xii, 242;
- former reptiles of, 202;
- gypsum deposits, iii, 376;
- locust plague of, xii, 109;
- volcanic dust beds, xiv, 327
- Kansas City, automatic telephony, vii, 92
- Kant, excessive professionalism of, xi, 376;
- nebular hypothesis, ii, 367-8, 380;
- on structure of universe, 350, 352;
- philosophy of, xvi, 111
- Kaolin, iii, 333;
- formed from feldspar, 25, 27, 373
- Kapteyn Plan, ii, 353
- Karnak, Temples of, ii, 25-6
- Karst District, xiv, 150
- Katathermometer, i, 319-20, 321, 376
- Katmai, Mount, crater, iii, 101 (fig.), 102;
- eruption, i, 59, iii, 102;
- lake in crater, 155
- Katydids, xii, 109-10;
- Florida, 100 (fig.)
- Kaye, John, x, 45
- Keewatin Glacier, iii, 238-9
- Keewatin Series, iii, 169
- Kelvin, Lord, contributions to electricity, vi, 23-4;
- on oscillatory circuits, xvi, 191;
- on rigidity of ether, 137;
- theory of life, xii, 9
- Kelvin-Chetwynd Compass, vi, 41-2
- Kelvin's Law, vii, 21-2
- Kent's Cavern, England, xv, 77-83
- Kentucky, "Blue-grass Region," xiv, 68;
- "dark and bloody ground" of, 243;
- glacial period in, 376;
- non-glacial topography, 56;
- underground streams, 149
- Kentucky Blue Grass, xiii, 179
- Kenya, Mount, glaciers of, xiv, 54
- Keokuk Power Plant, v, 81-3, vi, 352
- Kepler, Johann, ii, 14, 49-52, iv, 19, 95, xvi, 102-3;
- as astrologer, ii, 21;
- on comets, 83-4;
- eclipse calculations, 216;
- Galileo and, 53;
- idea of moving bodies, 63;
- new star seen by, 331;
- on star distances, 350;
- on sun's corona, 221;
- Tycho Brahe and, 12
- Kepler's Laws, ii, 49-52;
- Newton's explanations, 62-6, 88, xvi, 115-16;
- proved by Keeler's discoveries, ii, 121;
- used in weighing planets, 75-6
- Kerosene, viii, 51, 208;
- combustion of, 52, 54, 57, 59;
- soap and, 142;
- used in mosquito campaign, x, 300
- Ketones, viii, 225 (note)
- Kettle Holes, iii, 144
- Keyhole Nebula, ii, 355, 365
- Key Instruments, xv, 318
- Kidney Diseases, atmospheric conditions best for, x, 241;
- blood pressure and, 335;
- Bright's Disease, 112, 346;
- from focal infections, 224, 225;
- nephritis, 344-5, 346;
- salt in, 256;
- therapy of, 382-3
- Kidneys, development in black and white races, xv, 50;
- emotion effects, xi, 135;
- functions and disorders, x, 342-6;
- functions and structure, ix, 271-4;
- functional capacity tests, x, 377-9;
- position in circulatory system, ix, 51 (diagram), 197, 198, 199;
- Simon's removal of, x, 131;
- sugar handling by, ix, 291-2
- Kilauea, volcano, iii, 103, 104, 105, 106-7, xiv, 322, 323
- Kilimanjaro, Mount, xiv, 317
- Killdeer (plover), xii, 262
- Kilogram, iv, 46, viii, 28;
- standard, iv, 69
[Pg 283]
- Kilowatt, iv, 80, 312, vi, 85, vii, 370
- Kilowatt-Hour, iv, 81, vi, 82, 84;
- meters and charges for, vii, 174
- Kinaesthetic Sensation, xi, 124-8;
- space perception by, 166-7, 169-70, 175, 183, 186;
- strain in attention, 228, 231-2;
- in will, 265
- Kindling Temperature, viii, 54
- Kinematic, defined, iv, 382
- Kinetic, defined, iv, 382
- Kinetic Energy, iv, 79, 81, 83;
- defined, v, 84, vii, 368;
- forms of, iv, 82-5, 87-8
- Kinetic System of Body, xi, 57, 60-1;
- action in attention, 231-2;
- connection with sensation, 67, 68, 127
- Kinetic Theory, iv, 30, 131;
- of gases, viii, 305-6, 378
- Kinetics, defined, iv, 25
- Kinetoscope, iv, 348, v, 330
- King, Prof. L. V., i, 190-1
- Kingfishers, xii, 267
- King's River Canyon, iii, 43, 225
- Kingston Earthquake, xiv, 340
- Kiosks, weather, i, 75, 267, 376
- Kipling, airship prediction, i, 43;
- "female of the species," x, 162;
- on dew ponds, i, 353
- Kirchhoff, spectrum lines, ii, 17, 112-13
- Kitasato, x, 164
- Kitchens, lighting, vi, 276, vii, 71
- Kite Balloons, v, 226
- Kites, v, 230, 233-5;
- action of wind on, iv, 42-3, 76 (fig.);
- aerological uses, i, 18, 19, 22, 89
- Kittatinny Ridge, Delaware Water Gap through, xiv, 169;
- rock weathering at, 776
- Kiwis, xii, 243, 249
- Klamath Mountains, iii, 214
- Klebs, Edwin, x, 141, 155
- Knee-cap, ix, 69, 70 (fig.)
- Knee Jerk, ix, 136
- Knitted Goods, threads in, v, 277
- Knitting machines, inventions, v, 282-3, 377, 378, 379
- Knots, tying, by machine, v, 247-8
- Knotweeds, xiii, 194
- Knowledge, Bacon on, xi, 10;
- Bergson on intuitive, xvi, 196;
- Greek theories, 87-8;
- growing thirst for, vi, 330;
- relativity of, xvi, 195-6;
- St. Augustine on proper, 99-100;
- science and, 39-40, 41-2;
- scientific, remarks on, iv, 26;
- transmission means, xv, 142, 145-6, 167
- Koch, Robert, x, 149-50, 169, 292, xvi, 184, 185;
- "postulates" of, x, 150, 160, 196
- Kodak, invention, v, 382
- Koenig, acoustician, iv, 52, 233
- Kohl-rabi, xiii, 223, 333-4
- Kopjes, of S. Africa, xiv, 82
- Korea, geology of, xiv, 125
- Kraft Paper, v, 294
- Krakatoa Eruption, xiv, 324-5;
- atmospheric waves from, i, 188, xiv, 324;
- distances heard, i, 188;
- dust from, 57-8, iii, 100-1, xiii, 344, xiv, 325;
- noctilucent clouds from, i, 18;
- plant and animal extinction by, xiii, 345, xiv, 278
- Krakatoa Island, xiv, 324;
- restocked after eruption, xiii, 344-5, xiv, 278
- Krasnoiarsk Iron, ii, 284
- Kril, xii, 19
- Krypton, in atmosphere, i, 11, 12;
- symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Kut-el-Amara, i, 308
- Labor-saving Machinery, remarks on, vii, 73-4, 75, xi, 268
- Labrador, auks of, xii, 265;
- climate of, xiv, 345
- Labrador Current, i, 345, xiv, 305
- Labradorite, iii, 329
- Laccoliths, xiv, 109
- Lace Coralline, xii, 47
- Lace Leaf Yam, xiii, 89-90, 32 (illus.)
- Laces, machine-made, v, 287-8
- Lactic Acid, viii, 222, 223, 248, xi, 24-5;
- fatigue product, 271-2;
- stimulant, 272-3;
- from fermentation, x, 138;
- in body, 280
- Lactometer, iv, 113
- Ladakhis, character of, xiv, 245
- Ladybirds, xii, 122;
- lemon tree scales and, xv, 22
- Laënnec, René, T. H., x, 108-10
- Lag, angle of, vii, 362;
- in electric currents, vi, 167;
- correction, 262
- Lagrange, mathematical work, xvi, 105, 125;
- scientific work of, ii, 15, 71-2, 73, 74, 75, 216, 375
- Laid Paper, v, 296
- Lake, Simon, submarine of, v, 382
- Lake Dwellers, agriculture, xiii, 210;
- houses and implements, v, 14
- Lakes, iii, 142-57, xiv, 198-212;
- color of, viii, 40;
- economic importance, xiv, 212;
- ephemeral character, iii, 142, xiv, 198-9, 209-12;
- few in mature regions, xiv, 160;
- freezing of, iv, 150;
- processes of destruction, iii, 157, xiv, 198, 210-12;
- salt, 206-9;
- shore-line development, iii, 57-8;
- sizes and depths, xiv, 204
- Lake Superior Region, glacial topography of, xiv, 56;
- mines, iii, 356-7, 358, 361, viii, 163;
- rock formation, iii, 172, 175, 176-7
- Lakeview Gusher, iii, 354
- Lamarck, cloud classification, i, 97;
- on inheritance of acquired characters, ix, 325-6;
- paleontological work, xvi, 169
[Pg 284]
- Laminated Construction, vi, 316, vii, 371
- Laminated Magnets, vi, 34
- Lammergeiers, xii, 261
- Lampblack, viii, 47
- Lampreys, xii, 130-1
- Lamps, portable, vi, 276-7, vii, 68-9
- Lamp-Shells, xii, 47-8
- Lancashire Cotton Mills, xiii, 236
- Lancelets, xii, 129
- Lancisi, x, 98, 154
- Land, Land Surfaces, always some unsubmerged, xiv, 19-20;
- area and distribution, 20-2;
- area measurements, 10-11;
- changes in features of, 28-30;
- character of old and new, iii, 33-5, xiv, 48-9, 155-63;
- elevation distribution, 26-7;
- forms determined by earth movements and erosion, xiv, 33-79;
- forms determined by rocks, 80-113;
- heating and cooling of, i, 208, xiv, 346;
- level changes (see Level Changes);
- oldest, iii, 168-9;
- relief features, orders of magnitude, xiv, 27;
- rock formation, 19;
- wind variations on, 351
- (see also Continents)
- Land-and-Sea Breezes, i, 131, 376
- Land Animals, beginnings of, iii, 20, ix, 176;
- development of, iii, 285-6, xii, 167;
- salt in body fluid of, ix, 175-6
- Land Filling, by machine, v, 258-9
- Landlocked Areas, of continents, xiv, 190
- Land Plants, beginnings, iii, 252;
- development, xiii, 304-22
- Land Plaster, iii, 376
- Landscape Gardening, xiii, 267-97;
- color contrast and induction in, xi, 95
- Landscape Painting, xv, 302
- Landscapes, changes in, iii, 10, xiv, 28;
- dramatic interest in, xiii, 11
- Land-sculpture, xiv, 30
- Lane's Law, ii, 309, 371, 380, 383
- Lanfranchi of Milan, x, 38, 39
- Langenbeck, Bernard von, x, 130-1
- Langley, Prof. S. P., aeronautical work, iv, 43-4, v, 231, 382;
- astronomical work, ii, 144, 169, 213, 223-4;
- measurement of heat of moonbeams, iv, 301;
- on the camera, ii, 221;
- spectrobolometer, 128, 186
- Language, xv, 141-2;
- association principle in, ix, 151-2;
- clearness of, xi, 379;
- importance of, ix, 152-3, xv, 68, 142, 143, 145-6;
- inadequacy in feelings, 143;
- making of, xv, 140-63;
- psychological importance, xi, 200, 224, 225;
- race and, xv, 159;
- thought and, 143-5, 146
- Languages, Aryan and Semitic, xv, 161-3;
- changes in, 154-6;
- difficulty of learning new, xi, 201;
- foreign, advantages of learning, xv, 146;
- foreign, sound of, xi, 103;
- relationships and common origin, xv, 159-63
- Lantern Gears, v, 27-8
- Lanterns, enlarging and projecting, iv, 341-2
- Lanthanum, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383
- Lap, cotton, v, 272;
- wood pulp, 293
- Lapilli, volcanic, xiv, 323-4
- Laplace, asteroid hypothesis, ii, 258;
- mathematical work, xvi, 105, 125;
- nebular hypothesis, ii, 369-72, 374-5, 378, 380 (see Nebular Hypothesis);
- on sound velocity, iv, 198-9;
- other work, ii, 15, 72, 73, 74, 87
- La Plata River, connections of tributaries, xiv, 187;
- fish of, xii, 160
- Lapwings, xii, 262, 263
- Lard, animal fat, viii, 246;
- calories in, ix, 299;
- vitamins absent in, x, 261, 262
- Larks, xii, 268
- Larmor, light theory, xvi, 137-8;
- magnetism theory, 193
- Larrey, Jean, x, 130
- Larvæ, affected by light, x, 253;
- used in nest repairing, v, 10;
- "rains," i, 356-7
- Larynx, aphonia of, x, 29-30;
- infection center, 220
- La Salle, xiv, 192
- La Soufriere, eruption of, xiv, 28, 338
- Lassen Peak, iii, 103, 226, 176 (Pl. 10);
- activity of, xiv, 315
- Latent Heat, iv, 152-3, v, 169, 353-4, viii, 37-8, 378;
- of fusion, iv, 152, 160, 161, 162;
- of vaporization, 173-4, 187
- Latent Period, of pain, xi, 121;
- of sound, 105;
- of touch, 111
- Lateral Line, of fishes, xii, 137
- Lateral Moraines, lakes formed by, xiv, 202
- Lathes, development of, v, 42-6, 47, 52-3, 376, 378, 380, 383
- Latin, in animal classification, xii, 29;
- in cloud classification, i, 98;
- in plant classification, xiii, 169;
- languages derived from, xv, 160, 162
- Latitude, barometric corrections for, iv, 122-3;
- color of skin and, xv, 36-7;
- of ships, how determined, v, 65;
- plant distribution determined by, xiv, 364-6;
- temperature and, 344-5;
- weight of bodies, affected by, iv, 101-2
- Laudanum, discovery of uses, xvi, 109;
[Pg 285]
- first prepared by Paracelsus, x, 50
- Laughing Gas, viii, 71, x, 123-4;
- critical temperature and pressure, iv, 172
- Laughter, emotional control of, ix, 164;
- in infants, 349;
- kinetic theory, xi, 355-7;
- psychology of, 350-7
- Laurel Family, xiii, 196-7
- Laurel-leaf Points, xv, 109
- Laurel Magnolia, xiii, 318 (fig.)
- Laurent, chemist, xvi, 162, 163
- Laurentian Highlands, antiquity of, xiv, 235
- Laurentide Glacier, iii, 238
- Lava, iii, 380, xiv, 17-18;
- fissure flows, iii, 105-6;
- forms of fragments, xiv, 323-4;
- heat of molten, iii, 106-7;
- heat retention by, xv, 230;
- in Hawaiian craters, iii, 103, 104, 105, xiv, 322-3;
- porous, iii, 101 (see Pumice);
- rate of flow, 104-5;
- sheets, 102 (fig.);
- soils from, 28, xiv, 329;
- spine of Mount Pelee, iii, 103
- Lava-dam Lakes, iii, 156
- Lava Formations, xiv, 102-4, 164, 170, 172, 188;
- erosion effects, 103-5;
- extent of, iii, 106;
- in Appalachian trough, 212;
- in British Isles, 191;
- in Colorado, 177;
- in Columbian Plateau, 105-6, 227, 228, xiv, 102-3, 104, 164, 170, 172, 188;
- in Deccan of India, 105-6, 228, xiv, 103;
- in East Africa, 103;
- in Keewatin Series, iii, 169;
- in Lake Superior region, 177;
- in Snake River Valley, 228
- Lava Rocks, not crystallized, iii, 170-1
- Lavender, source, xiii, 205
- Laveran, Alphonse, x, 155
- Lavoisier, chemical work, xvi, 120, 121, 159-60, 177;
- combustion theory, viii, 34
- Law, beginning of, xv, 360-3, 367-74, 379-80
- Lawn Sprinklers, revolving, v, 143
- Laxatives, use of, ix, 252
- Lazear, Dr. Jesse W., x, 160, 162
- Lead, affinity intensity, viii, 128;
- alloys with tin, melting point, iv, 161-2;
- atomic weight, viii, 189, 383;
- commercial source, iii, 330;
- compounds, viii, 29, 162;
- density of, iv, 113;
- extraction from ores, viii, 270, 271;
- from radium disintegration, 185;
- fusibility, 384;
- melting point and requirements, iv, 162;
- occurrence of, viii, 129;
- opaque to X-rays, vii, 250, 251;
- ores of, viii, 154, 198, 199-200;
- positiveness, vi, 59;
- production, iii, 362-3;
- properties, viii, 126-7, 154, 162;
- refining of, 272;
- refining, electrolytic, vii, 320;
- specific gravity, viii, 384;
- symbol, 383;
- test for, 287, 288;
- uses, iii, 362, viii, 162
- Lead (of electric currents), vi, 171-4, 261, 262;
- angle of, vii, 362
- Lead Arsenate, viii, 169
- Lead Cells, vi, 130, 146-7, 150-1, viii, 167-9
- Leaders, of crowds, xi, 332-3;
- of primitive peoples, xv, 363-6
- Lead Pencils, graphite of, viii, 43
- Lead Peroxide, in storage batteries, viii, 167-9
- Lead Pipes, corrosion of, viii, 162
- Leadville Mining District, iii, 363, 364
- Leaf Mosaic, xiii, 38
- Leafstalks, xiii, 34, 35 (fig.);
- light effect on, 87-8
- Leakage, electrical, vii, 10-11, 371
- Leaning Tower of Pisa, ii, 53, iv, 100-1;
- Galileo's use of, iv, 28, 97
- Learning, Egyptian advice, xvi, 70;
- experience and, viii, 269
- Learning Processes, xi, 33-46, 68;
- rules, 211-15
- Leather, making of, viii, 257
- Leather Collar, Maudsley's, v, 99
- Leaves, xiii, 32-43;
- absent in some plants, 15, 28, 30, 31, 99, 100;
- arrangement on stems, 38;
- branches as, 378, 379;
- buds of, 34;
- colors, 42;
- coloring in autumn, 79;
- coloring in tropics, 361;
- compound, 36-7;
- first, 60-1;
- forms and varieties, 34-6;
- fossils of, 302;
- functions, 37-8, 42, 61, 77-84;
- hairy covering, 104-5, 379;
- insect-capturing, 39-41;
- light and, 38-9, 87-90;
- large, examples, 189, 217, 359;
- moving, 105-6, 113, 114;
- none in fungous plants, 70;
- not decisive in family grouping, 184;
- of desert plants, 41-2, 106-7, 378, 379-80, xiv, 378-9;
- of evergreens and deciduous trees, xiii, 174, 175;
- of ferns, 63, 65;
- of monocotyledons and dicotyledons, 176, 178;
- osmotic pressure, 94;
- reproduction by division of, 165-6;
- rigidity of, viii, 338;
- shedding of, in dry periods, xiv, 369;
- skeleton (Madagascar yam), xiii, 90;
- sleeping, 88-9, 113;
- stems acting as, 28-31, 378;
- structure, 78-9;
- struggle for sunlight, 38-9, 87-90;
- tendrils on, 38;
- transitional form, 43;
- transpiration, 103, 104, 113, 374, 378, 379;
- uses, summarized, 42-3;
- veins, 32-3;
- water-dripping, 107-8;
[Pg 286]
- water-storing, 41-2, 106-7, 379-80;
- water-supply methods, 102-9;
- wilting, 102, 103, 114
- Leblanc Process, viii, 276-7
- Leclanche Cell, vi, 138
- Lee, Dr. Willis T., i, 47
- Lee, William, knitting machine of, v, 283
- Leeches, xii, 51, 55-6
- Leeuwenhoek, Antonius von, xvi, 107-8, 112
- Legs, bones of, ix, 68-9, 70 (fig.);
- bones, growth, 56, 58;
- equal length, 169-70;
- evolution of, xii, 167;
- in insects, 102;
- length of men and apes, xv, 57, 59;
- muscles of, ix, 76;
- nerves of, 124-5;
- vestiges of, in snakes, xii, 213
- Legumes, xiii, 56;
- nitrogen fixation by, viii, 74, 346, xiv, 66
- Lehigh River, gap of, xiv, 51, 167
- Leibnitz, mathematical work of, ii, 14, xvi, 105;
- monad theory, 117-18;
- scientific work, 113
- Leif Ericson, xiv, 261
- Lelande Cell, vi, 137, 139
- Lemmings, xii, 290, 291
- Lemon Oil, viii, 240, 252
- Lemon Tree, origin, xiii, 225;
- scale on, xv, 22;
- spread, xiii, 354
- "Lemuria", xii, 192
- Lemurs, xii, 374-6;
- primates, 373;
- feet of, iii, 301 (fig.)
- Length, British units, iv, 45, 69, 283;
- measurements and standards, xvi, 130;
- metric units, iv, 46, 69, viii, 28
- Lenoir Motor Car, v, 213
- Lenses, iv, 337-8;
- achromatic, iv, 372-3, xvi, 125-6;
- Bacon's improvements, 101;
- for eye defects, ix, 111, 112, 113, 114;
- formation of images by, iv, 337-42, ix, 108-9;
- of eye, 109-11, 113 (fig.);
- refraction of light by, ii, 99
- Lenticels, xiii, 26
- Lenticular Clouds, i, 104, 376
- Lentils, xiii, 198, 223
- Lenz's Law, vi, 311, vii, 371
- Leonardo da Vinci, anatomical work of, x, 51-2;
- astronomical work, ii, 41;
- idea of moving bodies, 63;
- views of fossils, iii, 14
- Leonids, ii, 288
- Leopards, xii, 357;
- deer-hunting with, xv, 223
- Lepidoptera, xii, 115-20;
- "blood rains" of, i, 358
- Lepidosirens, xii, 142, 166
- Leprosy, immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51
- Lesions, meaning, x, 98, 322;
- X-ray treatment, vii, 253, 255-6
- Lettuce, as food, ix, 27, 30;
- family, xiii, 206;
- origin, 223;
- wild, 105
- Leucippus, theory of matter, xvi, 83, 84, 118
- Leukaemia, metabolism in, x, 272
- Leucocytes, germ destruction by, x, 209-10
- Levees, effects of, xiv, 162
- Level Changes, iii, 76-83, xiv, 33-6;
- due to earthquakes, iii, 97, 98;
- due to lateral pressure, 85;
- effect on erosion cycles, 36-7, xiv, 40, 163-4;
- shown by erosion of rocks, iii, 171-2
- (see also Elevation, Rejuvenation, Subsidence)
- LeVerrier, astronomical work of, ii, 16, 79, 189, 269;
- meteorological work, i, 217, 228
- Levers, v, 21-5;
- Archimedes on power of, iv, 25;
- classes of, remarks on, 89;
- clubs as, v, 12;
- friction in, iv, 93;
- legs as, v, 215;
- liquid, 97-103;
- mechanical gain in, iv, 41;
- primitive beginnings of, 24, v, 9, 14-15;
- principles shown by Archimedes, xvi, 89;
- revolving, v, 25-35
- "Leviathan," steamship, v, 193-4
- Leviathan Reflector, ii, 16-17, 105-6
- Levulose, viii, 226, 248
- Lewis & Clarke reports, xvi, 171
- Lewis Machine Gun, v, 365-6
- Lex Talionis, xv, 371
- Leyden Jar, iv, 267, 368 (fig.), vii, 259, 260;
- discovery and experiments, xvi, 188-9;
- oscillations of, iv, 313
- Lianes, xiii, 362, 363, 366
- Liberty Engines, v, 53-4
- Libyan Cat, xii, 355
- Libyan Desert, rain in, i, 210
- Lichens, species, xiii, 323
- Lick Observatory, ii, 142-4, 148
- Licorice Plant, leaves, xiii, 113
- Liebig, Justus von, x, 126;
- chemical work, xvi, 162;
- on fermentation, x, 138-9
- Liège, siege of, xiv, 92
- Life, antiquity on earth, xiii, 314;
- beginnings on earth, iii, 20, 173, 249, xv, 71;
- Bergson on, xvi, 196;
- brain in relation to, xi, 15;
- Brunonian (excitability) theory of, x, 89;
- cell basis of, ix, 17, x, 119, xii, 10, 14, xv, 16, 381;
- chemical nature of processes, viii, 353, 355;
- chemical theories of, x, 69, 84;
- colloidal theory, xii, 11-13;
- conditions necessary, ii, 242-5;
- conscious, parts concerned in, ix, 21-2;
- demand for, in nature, xiii, 69;
- dependence of, on sugar products, ix, 27;
- distinctions from inorganic realm, xii, 13-14;
- fundamental instincts, xi, 49-56;
- Hoffman's "ether" theory, x, 85;
- instinct for renewal, xiii, 116, 167;
- instinct of preservation of, x, 9-10, 282-3;
[Pg 287]
- interest and triteness, vi, 330;
- irritability theory of, x, 86, 87, 89;
- James on complexity of, 244;
- low temperature effects, i, 32;
- maintenance of, ix, 18-23;
- mechanical explanations of, x, 70, 71, 72;
- metals congenial to, viii, 148;
- nature of processes, ix, 34;
- necessity of water, xi, 66;
- only thing man cannot produce, vii, 310;
- origin, ii, 243, 245, xii, 9-13, xiii, 300-1;
- Paracelsus on process of, x, 49;
- possibility in other worlds, ii, 242-53;
- possibility on Mars, 228-32, 237-8;
- protoplasm the seat of, viii, 356, ix, 13, 17, x, 228, xiii, 74;
- recent lengthening in U. S., x, 291;
- salts in relation to, ix, 174-5;
- savage attitude toward, xv, 327;
- seat of, in body, ix, 11-12, 17;
- sea water favorable to, viii, 355;
- signs (proofs) of, ix, 9-17;
- soul as source of (Stahl), x, 84;
- spontaneous generation of, 139;
- temperature in relation to, ii, 249, v, 348, x, 250-1;
- universality, Indian belief, xvi, 44
- (see also Vital Processes)
- Life Plant, xiii, 165
- Lift, of aeroplanes, i, 288, 298
- Lifting Magnets, iv, 289, vi, 86, 94
- Lifting Pump, iv, 126
- Lift Locks, of canals, v, 103
- Ligaments, ix, 70-1
- Ligatures, history of use of, x, 14, 27, 55-6, 91, 121-2, 123, 129-30, 146, 148
- Light, iv, 322-34;
- aberration of (see Aberration of Light);
- absorption in space, ii, 160, 354-5;
- absorption of, by objects, iv, 364;
- actinic effects, vii, 250;
- artificial, applications of, iv, 50-1;
- artificial, colors, of, ix, 115;
- bacteria destroyed by, viii, 332;
- body regulation to, x, 250;
- chemical action of, viii, 171-2;
- chromatic aberration, ii, 99-100;
- corpuscular theory of, iv, 47, 50, xvi, 136;
- decomposition, ii, 99, 111, 112, iv, 357-9
- (see also Spectrum, Spectroscope);
- deflection of, 330, 374;
- deflection by sun, ii, 81-2;
- diffraction, i, 183, iv, 326;
- effects of objects on, 323-4;
- effects on organisms and man, x, 253-4;
- Einstein theory, ii, 80-2;
- electrical production, inefficiency, vi, 268;
- electromagnetic theory of, iv, 54, vi, 25, vii, 371, xvi, 137-8;
- eye and, vi, 270-2, xi, 86, 95-6;
- eye regulation to, x, 254;
- from sun, importance of, ix, 25-6;
- "gentleman" of physics, iv, 50;
- glowing effects on minerals, vii, 254;
- injury from excessive, 153;
- intensity unit, iv, 351-2;
- interference of, 376-8;
- instinct of seeking, xi, 52-3;
- invisibility, iv, 333-4;
- machines responding to, v, 331-2, 332-3;
- measurement of illumination of, iv, 350-2;
- measurement of intensity, viii, 374;
- monochromatic, iv, 364, 365;
- of electric lamps, vi, 268;
- of firefly, 268;
- of glowworms, xvi, 144;
- of moon, ii, 200;
- of stars, 296;
- of sun, 168-9;
- penetration of ocean by, xii, 22;
- perception limits, iv, 360-1;
- perception of, in animals, ix, 105;
- physiological sensation, vii, 249;
- polarization, iii, 319-20, iv, 353-6;
- polarization, discovery, xvi, 119;
- production by various kinds of rays, iv, 378-80;
- quantity unit, 352;
- radiant energy, 322, ix, 114;
- rays of, iv, 323;
- reflection and refraction (see Reflection and Refraction);
- seeing by, iv, 322-3, 324-9;
- shadows cast by, 332-3;
- theory of, present state, 50;
- transformed to musical sounds, v, 332-5;
- transmitted by ether, vi, 119, 120, 269, vii, 259;
- traveling of, in straight lines, iv, 330;
- velocity, 323;
- velocity constancy, xvi, 196;
- velocity in different media, iv, 327;
- velocity, methods of obtaining, ii, 59-60, 91, 167;
- vibrations and colors of, ix, 115;
- wave theory, iv, 47, 353, vi, 118-19, 269, xvi, 136-8;
- wave theory discovery, 119;
- white (see White Light);
- wind effects on, iv, 211
- (see also Light Waves, Sunlight)
- Light-headedness, production of, ix, 266-7
- Lighthouses, strength of, xiv, 300-1
- Lighting, art of, modern advances in, iv, 50-1;
- direct, xi, 277, 373;
- emotional effects, vi, 273;
- factory, xi, 361;
- flood, vi, 283;
- modern gas, viii, 60;
- proper and improper, vi, 273-5;
- unit of intensity, vii, 368
- (see also Electric Lighting, Lighting Systems)
- Lighting Systems, color effects, iv, 370;
- exterior, vi, 278-83, vii, 339-43;
- interior, vi, 275-8, vii, 68-72
- Lightning, i, 146-57, vii, 201-19;
- annual deaths by, x, 254;
- awe-inspiring power, vii, 201, 202;
- causes, i, 149-52, iv, 269, vii, 206-15, 217-8;
- current strength, i, 152-3;
- danger and protection, 155-7, vii, 201-2, 218-19;
- danger in aeronautics, i, 303;
- defined, 376, vii, 371;
- displays, 203;
- distance, how determined, i, 187, vii, 210;
- electromagnetic waves from, 260;
- fire from, xv, 320;
[Pg 288]
- Franklin's experiment, i, 141, vi, 10-11, 14-16, vii, 204-5;
- large raindrops and, 215-17;
- multiple flashes, i, 146-8;
- nitrogen fixation by, 13, 34-5;
- oscillations, vii, 208, 366, 374;
- ozone produced, i, 15;
- photographic study, 146-8, 151;
- protection of electric lines, vii, 16-19, 49-50;
- thunder from, i, 192-3, vii, 210-11;
- types, i, 146, 148-9, vii, 205-6, 211-15;
- visibility, i, 152;
- voltage, 151-2, vii, 206-7;
- weathering agency, iii, 24;
- wind effects, i, 148
- Lightning Arresters, vii, 17-18, 49-50, 362, 371
- Lightning Prints, i, 154-5, 376
- Lightning Rods, i, 156-7, 376, iv, 270, vii, 218-219, 371;
- invention, i, 141, vi, 14, 16;
- principle, vii, 209;
- use of points, vi, 297
- Light-Pillars, i, 376
- Light Waves, iv, 353, vi, 118-19, 269;
- atmospheric effects, i, 165-6, 170-1;
- caused by molecular vibrations, iv, 360, 363, 379;
- Doppler's principle, ii, 119, iv, 210;
- glass and, 183;
- interference of, 376-8;
- length and frequency, vii, 250, 260;
- length and frequency with different colors, iv, 359, 360, 365, ix, 114, 115;
- motion of, xvi, 137;
- unit of length, iv, 359, xvi, 130
- Light-Year, ii, 315, xvi, 33
- Lignite, iii, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, viii, 44, 45
- Lilac, fertilization, xiii, 143-4;
- leaves, 38
- Lilienthal, Otto, v, 231
- Lily, African, xiii, 38;
- leaves, 38, 176
- Lily Family, xiii, 183-4
- Lily of the Valley, xiii, 45, 47, 178
- Lima Beans, variation in, xiii, 331
- Limacina, xii, 19
- Lime, calcium oxide, viii, 149;
- in earth's crust, iii, 308;
- in water, viii, 40, xiv, 142, 147;
- production, iii, 373, viii, 150, 276;
- slaking of, 38-9;
- uses, iii, 373, viii, 149-50, 278, 323, 347
- Limes (fruit), origin, xiii, 225;
- spread, 354
- Lime Salts, body needs of, ix, 32, 33, 33-4, 174;
- in bone, 57;
- in diet, x, 256
- Limestone, iii, 13, 380;
- cliffs of, jointing in, xiv, 133;
- composed of carbonate of lime, iii, 25, 308;
- destruction by frost, xiv, 76-7;
- formation of, viii, 152;
- lime making from, 149, 150, 276;
- marble from, iii, 169, 189, 371;
- occurrence in U. S., 371-2;
- polyzoans in, xii, 47;
- residual soils from, xiv, 68, 145;
- sedimentary rock, 18;
- solubility, iii, 24-5, 126, viii, 151, xiv, 145-6, 147;
- travertine deposits, 146;
- uses, iii, 325-6, 373-4, v, 315, 318, viii, 151, 280;
- weathering of, iii, 27
- Limestone Formations, iii, 185, 267, 270;
- caves in, 127, viii, 151, xiv, 147-8;
- underground streams in, iii, 116, xiv, 149-50
- Limonite, iii, 333, 359, viii, 130, 156
- Lincoln, assassination incident, xi, 323;
- in Holmes's "goodly company," x, 134
- Linden Trees, xiii, 324-5, 345-6
- Linen, antiquity of, xv, 243;
- as clothing material, ix, 311-12, x, 307, 309;
- cellulose composition, viii, 254;
- from flax plant, xiii, 235;
- paper from, v, 290-1, 292
- Lines of Force (electric), iv, 261-2, vi, 295-6
- Lines of Force (magnetic), iv, 251-2, 261, 274-5, vi, 33, 54, vii, 371;
- cutting of, iv, 301-8, vi, 23, 54, 307-8;
- direction, iv, 277-8, vi, 54-5, 88-90;
- leakage, vii, 371;
- least resistance tendency, vi, 43-4, 96;
- shortest direction tendency, 219;
- terrestrial, 39, 40;
- terrestrial, in relation to aurora, i, 159-60
- Line Squalls, i, 138-9, 376
- Link Motion, v, 208-10, 379
- Linnæus (Carl von Linné), x, 84, 134;
- natural history work, xvi, 116, 126, 139, 165;
- rattlesnake named by, xii, 235
- Linotype, Mergenthaler, v, 308-10, 381-2
- Linsangs, xii, 353
- Linseed Oil, viii, 231-2, 246;
- action in paint, 264, 265;
- source, xiii, 235;
- spontaneous combustion of, viii, 55-6
- Lions, xii, 359-60;
- fearlessness, xi, 136;
- instinctive fear of fire, 46;
- strength of, xv, 16, 18
- Lipari Islands, volcanoes of, xiv, 317
- Lipases, viii, 357, x, 326
- Lipins, viii, 350-1
- Liquefaction of Gases, i, 29, 32, iv, 143, 153, 171, 188, 191-2, viii, 303-4
- Liquid Air, i, 26, 29-33, iv, 190-2, vii, 323, viii, 68;
- boiling point, iv, 173;
- oxygen production from, viii, 67, 274;
- temperature, and pressure, iv, 172
- Liquids, boiling of, iv, 167-74;
- boiling point and chemical composition, viii, 298-301;
- boiling point and pressure, iv, 168, 169-72, v, 354, viii, 303-5;
- buoyant powers of, iv, 30, 103-7;
- chemical aspects, viii, 22, 297-301;
- compressibility, v, 107;
[Pg 289]
- conversion to gases, iv, 152-3, 153, 167;
- critical temperature, 171-2, viii, 303-4;
- density, how measured, iv, 113, vi, 147;
- distinguished by pressure and diffusibility, iv, 22-3;
- elasticity of, 156, 158;
- evaporation, 167, 174;
- expansion by heat, 135, 138;
- expansion coefficient, 145;
- fractional distillation of, 168;
- heat effects on, 144, viii, 25;
- heat transmission in, iv, 138-9, 177-8;
- intermingling of, in contact, 131;
- latent heat (see Latent Heat);
- molecules in, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131, 152, 167, 363, viii, 23, 24;
- osmosis, xiii, 90-1;
- pressure of, iv, 116-19;
- solubility in water, viii, 111-12;
- sound velocity in, iv, 198;
- specific gravity, how determined, 112, 113;
- spectra of incandescent, ii, 112, iv, 360, 363;
- supercooled and heated, viii, 113, 304-5;
- vapor pressure of, 303-5;
- vaporization of, iv, 173-4;
- vibrations of, 196, 215;
- volatile, 174
- Lister, Joseph, x, 144-6, xvi, 182-3;
- importance of work of, x, 40, 107, 149, 381;
- on Pasteur, 143
- Liter, standard of volume, viii, 28
- Lithium, viii, 128, 132, 133;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- flame color, 301;
- specific gravity, 384;
- spectrum of, 301-2;
- test for, 287, 289
- Litmus, viii, 114
- Little Falls Gorge, iii, 243
- Little Red Riding-hood, xv, 358
- Littoral Fauna, xii, 16, 17
- Live Oaks, xiv, 370
- Liver, bile secreted by, ix, 237, 275;
- changes caused by shock, xi, 59;
- development in black and white races, xv, 49-50;
- disorders of, x, 330;
- emotion effects on, xi, 136-7, 138;
- failure in diabetes, ix, 293;
- functions, x, 329-30, 347, xi, 60;
- gall stones in, ix, 286;
- glycogen storage in, 291, 292, 293, 298;
- hemoglobin decomposed in, 184, 275;
- in circulatory system, 196 (fig.), 198, 245;
- inflammation of, x, 224;
- secretin effects on, 325;
- therapy of, 382-3;
- urea production in, ix, 284, 285;
- waste removal by, 271, 275
- Liverwort, reproduction, xiii, 166, 167
- Livingstone, David, African exploration, xiv, 196;
- quoted, 78
- Lizards, xii, 182, 203-10;
- descent of, 203;
- embryo of, xv, 54;
- Mesozoic, iii, 295
- Llamas, xii, 313, 315 (fig.)
- Lloyd's, insurance of, i, 270
- Load Factor, vi, 380-2
- Loadstones, vi, 28-9, vii, 372;
- at magnetic pole, vi, 30;
- Gilbert's studies, 11, 12;
- used as suspended compass, 29, 31 (fig.);
- (see also Lodestone)
- Lobsters, iii, 260, 278-9, xii, 87
- Locaille, xvi, astronomer, 124
- Locke, John, medical work of, x, 74-5;
- philosophy of, xvi, 111, 115, 117
- Lockjaw, x, 298-9;
- immunity to, 206, 207;
- prevention of, 218
- Lockyer, Sir Norman, discovery of sun prominences, ii, 181;
- collision theory, 327, 333;
- star classification, 309-10;
- on temple orientation, 26
- Locomotion, forms of, ix, 82, 155-6;
- friction necessary to, iv, 94;
- of animals, means of, ix, 73-4;
- of serpents, xii, 212;
- reflex processes in, ix, 156-9;
- rolling, v, 215
- Locomotives, Steam, v, 207-12, 377, 378-9;
- boilers, 140 (see Boilers);
- efficiency, 155;
- compared with electric, vii, 193-4;
- power source of, ix, 15;
- smoke from, i, 64, vii, 345;
- sound of passing, iv, 210
- Locomotor Ataxia, ix, 90-1
- Locusts, xii, 108-9;
- jaws of, 100;
- seventeen-year, 112, 113;
- as food, xv, 134
- Locust Trees, in landscaping, xiii, 271-2;
- in Long Island, 354;
- in pea family, 198;
- lightning danger, i, 155;
- petals, 47;
- sleeping of leaves, 89, 113
- Lodestone, iv, 52-3, 242, viii, 156;
- name of, iv, 243,
- (see also Loadstone)
- Lodge, Sir Oliver, Evesham experiments, vii, 352;
- on atmospheric electricity, 212;
- on electrons, vi, 114;
- on forces in atoms, 115;
- on luminiferous æther, 118;
- wireless system, xvi, 191
- Lodgepole Pines, xiv, 374
- Loess, i, 53-4, iii, 73-4, 380, xiv, 63, 72-5
- Loire River, base-leveled stream, xiv, 49
- London, "Black Day," ii, 211;
- eclipses in, 214;
- fogs, i, 94;
- harbor of, xiv, 270;
- sewage disposal, viii, 327;
- smoke deposits, i, 65;
- tea market of world, xiii, 231;
- water purification, viii, 319-20
- London-Paris Air Route, i, 44-5, 95, 285-6
- Long, Crawford W., x, 124, 125
- Long Branch, N. J., wave destruction at, xiv, 45, 302
[Pg 290]
- Long Distance Electrical Transmission, alternating and direct currents in, vi, 159-61, 195-6;
- choke coils in, vii, 50;
- condensers in, vi, 285-6;
- difficulties, 367;
- high voltages best, 159, 161, 163, 331-2;
- high voltages and leakage, vii, 10-11;
- of Niagara Power Plant, vi, 376-8;
- power-factor correction, 262;
- present distances attained, 365;
- progress in, vii, 9-10;
- synchronous condensers in, vi, 262;
- three phase alternators in, 206;
- transformers, 309, 324;
- transcontinental, 10, 367-8;
- vacuum tubes in, 125
- Long Distance Telephony, inductance reduction, vii, 104-5;
- method of connecting cities, 104;
- phantom circuit, 105-6, 119;
- repeating stations, 114;
- in United States, 91-2
- Longfellow, stanzas on nature, xvi, 43
- Long Heads, physical characteristics, xv, 47;
- racial divisions, xvi, 48-9;
- skull index in, xv, 42
- Long Island, bowlders on, xiv, 69;
- locust tree on, xiii, 354;
- opossums in, xii, 275;
- outwash plain on, iii, 69;
- plant conditions, xiii, 382;
- scallop fisheries, xii, 65;
- terminal moraine on, iii, 68, 237, 238
- Long Island Sound, false corals of, xii, 47;
- oysters of, 61;
- oyster "drills" of, 72
- Longitudinal Rivers, xiv, 153-4
- Looking-glass, images in, iv, 335-6
- Looming, optical, i, 172, 174, 376
- Looms, history and development, v, 268, 277-82, xv, 245-7;
- various inventions, v, 376-7, 381, 383
- Loons, xii, 250
- Loop-the-loop Cars, iv, 74
- Loosestrife, xiii, 140-1, 203
- Lop-Nor Desert, xiv, 209
- Lorentz, light theory, xvi, 137-8;
- relativity theory, iv, 18, xvi, 196
- Lories, Australian, xii, 266-7
- Los Angeles, electric power supply, v, 81, vi, 363;
- telephone connection with New York, 367-8
- Loudness, of sound, iv, 211;
- to what due, xi, 104
- Louis XIV, high heels introduced by, x, 306;
- observatory founded by, ii, 58;
- on Pyrenees Mts., xiv, 239
- Louis, Pierre C. A., x, 108
- Louisiana cotton, xiii, 237;
- salt deposits, viii, 140;
- sulphur deposits, 76
- Louisiana Purchase, xiv, 192, 193, 311
- Louisville, early growth, xiv, 219;
- water supply, viii, 318
- Loup Fork, xiv, 161
- Love, fundamental impulse, xv, 185;
- motor character, xi, 58;
- sentiment of, 149-50;
- unknown to savages, xv, 279, 321
- Lowbrows, xv, 43
- Lowell, Percival, ii, 233-4, 237, 271;
- reference to, xi, 218
- Lowell Observatory, ii, 146-7, 148
- Low German, xv, 162
- Lowlands, xiv, 213
- Lows, Low Pressure Areas, i, 135-6, 137, 376;
- of Iceland, 361;
- movement, 134-5, 237;
- physiological effects, 330;
- thunderstorms and, 138;
- wind and weather attendants, 125, 218, 236, 237
- (see also Pressure Areas)
- Lubricants, fatty, viii, 247;
- graphite, 43, vii, 308, 309;
- oil-dag, 300
- Luciferin, xii, 20
- Lues, curability of, x, 134;
- germ of, 195, 199;
- immunity to, 207
- Lumber, chief source of, xiv, 383;
- from heartwood, xiii, 25
- Lumen, light unit, iv, 352
- Luminous Plants and Animals, i, 346-7, xii, 20, xiii, 203-4, xvi, 144, 146
- Lunation, defined, ii, 196
- Lundy, Lake, iii, 149
- Lung Fish, iii, 283 (fig.), xii, 164-6
- Lungs, ix, 254-6;
- aeration of blood by, 253, x, 62, 63, 331;
- carbon dioxide diffusion by, ix, 263-7;
- circulation of blood through, 196 (fig.), 198-200;
- congestion of, x, 341;
- development in black and white races, xv, 50;
- diseases of, susceptibility to, 50, 51;
- dust in, ix, 223;
- evolution in animal kingdom, xii, 164-5, 169, 187, 248;
- external respiration by, x, 339;
- functions in maintenance of life, ix, 21-3;
- infection through, x, 198, 220;
- in pneumonia, 289;
- oxygen supply through, ix, 51 (diagram), 253, 258;
- poisons exhaled by, 269;
- water loss by, i, 317, ix, 274
- Lupine, leaves, xiii, 113
- Luray Caverns, iii, 127, xiv, 148
- "Lusitania," loss of, xi, 332
- Luster, of metals, viii, 126;
- of minerals, 201
- Lycopodium Selago, xiii, 305-6, 322
- Lycopods, iii, 253-4, 256
- Lye, making of, viii, 276, 278;
- in soap-making, 221
- Lyell, geological work, xvi, 126, 171
- Lymphatics, ix, 222-5;
- in circulatory system, 196 (fig.)
[Pg 291]
- Lynx, xii, 364-5
- Lyra, elliptic nebulæ in, ii, 360;
- movement of sun toward, 18, 122, 137, 305-6
- Lyric Poetry, primitive, xv, 319-21
- Lysins, x, 211
- Maas River, shifts in delta, xiv, 186
- (see also Meuse)
- Macaques, xii, 378-9
- Macaws, xii, 266
- McCormick, Cyrus, reaper, v, 244-7, 249, 379
- MacCulloch, on rocks, xvi, 170
- McDowell, Ephraim, x, 122, 147
- Mace, spice, xiii, 261, 262
- Mace, symbol of power, xv, 208
- McGehee, Arkansas, antimalarial work in, x, 174
- Machine Guns, v, 362-8, 380, 382
- Machines, advantages of electrical drive, vii, 62;
- air-cushioning in, v, 134;
- "animated," 326-44;
- contract with operators, vii, 121-2;
- displacement of men by, v, 17-18;
- early, iv, 26;
- efficiency (see Efficiency of Machines), elementary, iv, 89-94, v, 20-41;
- fascination of, vi, 175;
- force and resistance law, iv, 90, 92;
- for making machines, v, 42-56;
- friction in, iv, 92-4;
- history of development, v, 15-19, 376-84;
- hydraulic, reliability, 106;
- instruction of workers, xi, 363-5;
- labor-saving, vii, 73;
- mechanical advantage, iv, 89, 98;
- parts named from human parts, v, 20;
- skilled artisans and, 42, 46;
- standardization of parts, 48-50, 53-4;
- summary of progress in, 376-84
- Machine Tools, development, v, 42-56, 376;
- in relation to automobile industry, 55-6, 214, 383
- Mackerel Sky, i, 100, 376
- Mackerel Year, i, 359
- Mackintosh Waterproof Cloth, xiii, 245
- Madagascar, chameleons of, xii, 210;
- crocodiles of, 199;
- former union with Africa, 376;
- fossane of, 353;
- lemurs of, 374, 375;
- laceleaf yam, xiii, 89-90;
- orchid, 48;
- ratite birds in, xii, 249;
- separation from Africa, xiv, 273;
- tenrecs of, xii, 367;
- tortoises of, 191, 192
- Madder Family, xiii, 205-6
- Madeira, discovery of, xiv, 309;
- oceanic volcano, 289, 316
- Madrepores, xii, 39-40
- Maeterlinck, on eelgrass, xiii, 150-1
- Magazines, printing and binding, v, 305-7
- Magdalenian Period, xv, 105, 109;
- clay models of, 118-19
- Magdeburg Hemispheres, iv, 29
- Magellanic Clouds, ii, 355
- Magendie, François, x, 126, 127, xvi, 186
- Maggiore Lake, iii, 146
- Magi, Persian, xvi, 59
- Magic, history of, xvi, 44, 59
- Magic Lantern, iv, 341-2
- Magma, viii, 191
- Magnesium, viii, 17, 127, 148-9, 153;
- affinity intensity, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- automobile parts made of, 127, 149;
- electrolytic production, vii, 320-1;
- fusibility, viii, 384;
- ignition, 53, 54;
- in body, 354;
- in body fluids, ix, 174;
- in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192, 195, 196;
- light of, 60, 172;
- plant needs of, 337, 341;
- specific gravity, 384;
- test for, 287, 289
- Magnesium Chloride, in sea water, xiv, 295-6
- Magnesium Compounds, viii, 130, 148-9;
- deposits of, 138, 195, 196, 275;
- in hard water, 40, 318, 322-4;
- lightness of, 29
- Magnesium Oxide, medicinal uses, viii, 153
- Magnetic Axis, of earth, iv, 250
- Magnetic Blowout, vii, 37, 39
- Magnetic Circuits, vii, 364;
- force of, vi, 93
- Magnetic Disturbances, accompanying aurora, i, 161;
- due to moon, ii, 201;
- sun-spots and, 176, 186
- Magnetic Equator, iv, 246
- Magnetic Fields, iv, 251, vi, 31, vii, 368;
- concentration of, vi, 91-2;
- distortion, 43-4;
- electromotive force created by, 50-3, 54;
- electron theory, 128;
- generator and motor actions in, 218-19;
- of atoms, 117;
- of earth, iv, 253, vi, 39, 40;
- of electric currents, iv, 274-5, 277, 279 (fig.), vi, 19-20, 88-91;
- of sun, ii, 177-9;
- spectra of vapors in, 178;
- strength or intensity, iv, 252, vii, 368, 370
- Magnetic Force, vii, 369
- Magnetic Leakage, vii, 371
- Magnetic Meridians, iv, 246
- Magnetic Needle, iv, 243-4;
- dip or inclination of, 245-6;
- earth's action on, 248;
- electric current effects on, 273-4, 275-6, 278-9
- Magnetic Permeability, vii, 372
- Magnetic Poles, vii, 374;
- force of attraction between, iv, 249
- Magnetic Poles (of earth), iv, 246, 248, vi, 29-30;
- aurora in relation to, i, 159-60
- Magnetic Saturation, vii, 372
- Magnetic Screens, vi, 32 (fig.)
- Magnetic Storms, vi, 40
- Magnetism, iv, 242-55, vi, 27-45;
[Pg 292]
- daily application, xvi, 19, 30;
- effects on body, vii, 246, 247;
- electricity and, vi, 12, 19-20, 27-8, 86, iv, 256, 276;
- electron theory, vii, 371;
- energy in, iv, 82;
- force of, how measured, 249;
- history of, 52-5, vi, 9-26, xvi, 109, 122;
- law of attraction and repulsion, vi, 18, 42-3, 286-7;
- of direct and alternating currents, 155-6;
- lines of force (see Lines of Force);
- of earth, iv, 248-50, 252, vi, 29-30, 39-40;
- of earth, connection with internal iron, xiv, 11;
- of rotating bodies, ii, 178, vi, 21;
- residual, vi, 191, vii, 372;
- science of power, xvi, 36-7;
- term as used, vii, 372;
- universal presence, vi, 40
- (see also Electromagnetism, Magnetic Fields, Magnets)
- Magnetite, iii, 333-4, viii, 156;
- ores in Adirondacks, iii, 359;
- properties of, iv, 242
- Magnetization, iv, 242;
- aided by striking, 253;
- by electric currents, 286-8, vi, 30, 50;
- by induction, iv, 243, 253;
- by lightning, i, 152-3;
- by loadstone, vi, 29;
- internal effects, 36-7;
- of iron structures, iv, 253;
- molecular effects, 245, 253;
- processes of, vi, 44-5;
- test, 43
- Magneto Generators, vi, 215-16
- Magnetomotive Force, vi, 92-3
- Magnetos, automobile, vii, 140-41
- Magnets, iv, 242-4;
- action of, 250-1, vi, 31-2;
- aging of, 45, vii, 159;
- attraction and repulsion of, iv, 242, 244, 245, 249, vi, 33, 42-3, (fig.);
- demagnetization methods, iv, 253, vii, 366;
- effect on compass, vi, 27, 42-3;
- electromotive force produced by, iv, 303;
- force, how measured, 249-50;
- heat and jarring effects, vi, 34-8, 117;
- internal constitution, 36-7;
- laminated, 34, 35 (fig.);
- lines of force, 33
- (see also Lines of Force);
- lifting force of, iv, 289;
- making of, vi, 44-5 (see Magnetization);
- natural, iv, 242;
- penetrability, 250, vi, 31-2;
- permanent and temporary, iv, 243, vi, 30;
- poles of, iv, 242, 244-5, 253, 262, vi, 31, 42, 43;
- types, 30-1, vii, 372;
- uses, commercial and industrial, iv, 255, viii, 270
- (see also Electromagnets)
- Magnifying Glass, iv, 343
- Magnitude, illusions of, xi, 184-90
- Magnitude of Stars, absolute (see Absolute Magnitude);
- catalogued by Hipparchus, ii, 31;
- classification by, 295-6, 297;
- conditions affecting, 322;
- determined by photoelectric methods, 328;
- different kinds, 296;
- different stages, 383, 384;
- spectral type in relation to, 309
- Magnolias, antiquity, xiii, 324-5;
- development, 55;
- fertilization, 130-1;
- former distribution, xiv, 375;
- fossil ancestor, xiii, 318;
- index plants, i, 255;
- in landscaping, xiii, 271-2
- Mahogany, from tropical forests, xiv, 383;
- in anacardiaceae family, xiii, 200
- Maidenhair Tree, xiii, 315-16;
- in landscaping, 271-3
- Mail-Order Business, in stormy weather, i, 264
- Maine, coast of, iii, 37-8, 57, 235, xiv, 256, 257, 262-3;
- coast destruction, 46;
- dikes on coast, iii, 110, xiv, 108;
- harbors, 268;
- moose of, xii, 318
- Mains, electric, vii, 373
- Maize, history and uses, xiii, 211-13
- Major Triad (music), iv, 206-7
- Make-and-Break (electricity), iv, 382
- Malachite, iii, 334, 360
- Malaise, sensation of, ix, 91
- Malaria, x, 153-9;
- campaign against, 173-4, 299-301;
- control of, in tropics, xiv, 356, 357;
- former idea of causes, x, 286;
- quinine and, xiii, 250-1
- Malaspina Glacier, iii, 70
- Malay Archipelago, bananas native to, xiii, 216;
- continental relationships, xiv, 274;
- crocodiles of, xii, 201;
- lemurs of, 374, 375;
- largest flower in, xiii, 363-4;
- parrots of, xii, 266;
- rain forests, xiv, 369
- Malay Peninsula, beriberi in, x, 257;
- coco palm of, xv, 125;
- leaf butterfly of, xii, 117;
- rhinoceros of, 306;
- snakes of, 214, 218;
- tapirs of, 306;
- tin production, iii, 369
- Malays, hair of, xv, 37;
- immunity to tuberculosis, 51;
- in tropics, xiv, 356;
- members of brown race, xv, 37
- Malic Acid, viii, 222-3, 336
- Malicious Animal Magnetism, xi, 311
- Malleable Iron, v, 319
- Malleability, viii, 126;
- in mineral identification, 202
- Mallow Family, xiii, 200
- Malmags, xii, 374
- Malpighi, Marcello, x, 77, xvi, 107, 112, 116, 126
- Malt, viii, 249
- Malta Fever, diagnosis of, x, 216
- Maltase, viii, 357
- Maltose, viii, 227, 241, 243, 244;
- in brewing, 249;
- formed in digestion, ix, 230
- Mammals, xii, 270-384;
- Age of, iii, 20;
[Pg 293]
- appearance in Cretaceous, xv, 71;
- egg-laying, 272-3, 274;
- evolution of, xii, 185, 271-2;
- geological history, iii, 20, 297-306;
- growth in relation to flowering plants, 257;
- in oceanic islands, xiv, 277-8;
- order of succession, xii, 338-9;
- primitive types, 272-4;
- smallest of, 368;
- temperature maintenance in, ix, 307-8;
- warm-bloodedness of, 305, 306
- Mammato-Cumulus Clouds, i, 104, 376
- Mammoth Cave, iii, 127, xiv, 148;
- fishes of, xii, 163
- Mammoth Coal Bed, iii, 201, 347-8
- Mammoth Hot Springs, terrace, iii, 192 (Pl. 11);
- travertine deposits, 325, xiv, 146
- Mammoths, xii, 301 (fig.), 302;
- of Ice Age, xv, 76, 79;
- prehistoric pictures of, 85, 86;
- remains found in Siberia, 16
- Man, activities of, ix, 21;
- adaptation to environment by, xiv, 344, 363, xv, 25, 26, 28, 31, 36;
- adapted to mixed diet, ix, 246, 285;
- Age of, iii, 20;
- anthropology science of, xv, 10-11, 15, xvi, 36;
- antiquity of, ii, 19, iii, 301-2, 303, v, 11, xv, 11-12, 69-87, 95, 163;
- apes and, physically compared, xii, 373, xv, 57-62, 94;
- brain in, 39-41, 62-3, 96;
- broadened interests of, x, 10;
- cell development in, ix, 44;
- chromosome number in, 46, 339;
- dependence on fire, shelter and clothing, 308-9;
- descent of, 349, xii, 384, xv, 56;
- distribution over earth, xiv, 21, 344, xv, 12;
- distribution mostly on plains, xiv, 218-19;
- dominant impulses, xv, 185;
- educability, 66;
- embryological development, 53-5;
- environmental control of, xi, 33, 58, xiv, 30-1;
- environment conquest by, xv, 25-6;
- environment of present, x, 354;
- erect posture and walking, xv, 58;
- evolution of, iii, 283, 301-6, xv, 25, 26-31, 53-4, 70, 88-102;
- evolution, Anaximander on, xvi, 78-9;
- face and brain case in, xv, 43;
- fear in, origin of, xi, 136;
- fire generation confined to, ix, 308, xv, 229-30;
- fundamental instincts, xi, 50-6;
- grasp of, ix, 67-8;
- grouping tendency in, xv, 361-3;
- improvement by selection and education, xvi, 157;
- impulses conscious, xv, 273;
- increase in numbers, 26-7;
- infectious diseases peculiar to, x, 206;
- instincts and reason in, xv, 65-6, 68;
- language evolution, 140, 142-3, 146-63;
- language importance, ix, 152-3, xi, 224;
- "measure of all things," xvi, 85;
- origin of, various accounts and theories, xv, 69-70;
- Paracelsus on, x, 48;
- physical, xv, 32-52;
- physical measurements, comparative, 57;
- place in nature, iii, 260, 281, xvi, 126;
- primate, xii, 373;
- psychological unity, xvi, 42-3;
- races of (see Races);
- rate of growth in, ix, 32 (diagram);
- reasoning power, xi, 237, 243-4, xv, 65, 66, 68;
- relation to lower animals, 53-68;
- rudimentary structures in, 56;
- sense of smell, xi, 77-8;
- sex determiners in, ix, 338-9;
- skull capacity, xv, 40-1, 89;
- skull shapes in, 42-3;
- stages in development of, 188-204;
- structure compared with apes, 57-62;
- struggle for existence in, 25-6, 27;
- struggle for perfection in, 28-9;
- survival of fittest in, 27;
- symmetrical instinct in, 251;
- tool-using animal, v, 9, 10-11, ix, 67-8, xv, 205;
- tropical animal, ix, 308-9
- (see also Primitive Man)
- Manatees, jaguars and, xii, 362
- Mandan Indians, buffalo dance, xv, 305-6
- Mandibles, of insects, xii, 99;
- of men and apes compared, xv, 94
- Mandrills, xii, 379-80
- Mangabeys, xii, 379
- Manganese, viii, 154;
- affinity strength, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- electrochemical analysis, 295;
- fusibility, 384;
- ores, 198, 271;
- specific gravity, 384;
- test for, 287, 289
- Manganin, resistance, vi, 77, vii, 364
- Mangrove Keys, xii, 42
- Mangle, Electric, vii, 82-3
- Manhattan Elevated Railway, engines and turbines, v, 152-3
- Manholes, construction, vii, 30
- Mania, hot baths in treatment of, x, 311;
- of adolescence, 236-7
- Maniacs, strength of, xi, 264
- Manila Hemp, xiii, 236, 239-40
- Manila Paper, source, xiii, 240
- Manna, "rains" of, i, 355, 357
- Mantids, xii, 107-8
- Manual Labor, fatigue from, ix, 81;
- food requirements in calories, 297
- Manufacturing Centers, of future, v, 173
- Manufacturing Stage, xv, 187, 203
- Manures, as fertilizers, viii, 342-3;
- as nitrogen source, xiv, 66;
- waste of, viii, 346
- Map-Making, aeronautical, i, 45-8
- Maple Tree, antiquity, xiii, 324-5;
- as forest tree, 86-7;
[Pg 294]
- fruit, winged, 57, 58 (fig.);
- in landscaping, 271-2;
- petals absent in, 195;
- seed dispersal, 343;
- source of sugar, viii, 242-3;
- in United States, xiii, 368, xiv, 372
- (see also Sugar Maple)
- Maps, discrepancies in, xiv, 10-11;
- tinting of, iv, 130
- Marble, iii, 371;
- green, 338;
- metamorphic rock, 380, xiv, 19;
- reaction with acids, viii, 37
- March (of weather elements), i, 205, 376-7
- Marchetti, Peter, x, 79
- Marconi, distress signal system, vii, 284;
- wireless messages, 258, 259;
- wireless work, xvi, 191
- Marconi Transmitting System, vii, 263-5
- Mare Tenebrosum, i, 55
- Mare's Tail Clouds, i, 99, 377
- Margarines, vegetable, x, 261, 267
- Marine Animals, conditions necessary, iii, 17;
- large, xii, 297-9, 333-5, 347;
- mollusks, 57-80;
- primitive types, 16-24, 26, 32, 128-9;
- worms, 45, 51, 54
- Marine Climate, i, 208, 377
- Marine Deposits, iii, 52-5
- Marine Meteorology, i, 271-83;
- founding of, 216
- Marine Rivers, xiv, 153
- Marine Rocks, xiv, 19;
- found above sea level, iii, 82-3, 85, 132, 235;
- in mountains, xiv, 231
- Mariner's Compass, iv, 253-4, vii, 365;
- invention and improvements, vi, 29, 41-2
- Mariotte, Edme, xvi, 110, 111;
- law of, iv, 140
- Markhor, xii, 325
- Marmosets, xii, 376
- Marmots, xii, 294-5
- Marne, Battle of, defence of "Grande Couronne", xiv, 90;
- soldiers asleep on retreat, xi, 286-7
- Marne River, topographical features, xiv, 89
- Marquette, Père, xiv, 192
- Marriage, xv, 273-95, 364
- Mars, (planet), ii, 227-34;
- atmosphere, 228-32, 247;
- canals, 235-41, 248;
- distance, 235-6;
- Kepler's studies, 50;
- life on, 228-32, 237-8, 247-8;
- "lucid" planet, 264;
- motions and orbits, 50, 162, 163;
- photographic study, 131, 132;
- rotation period, 59, 377;
- satellites, 241, 110;
- size, 162, 163;
- surface study, 238-9;
- Tycho Brahe's studies, 49;
- weight, 76, 77-8
- Marshes, draining of, by trees, xiv, 379;
- malaria and, x, 154, 300
- Marsh Gas, iii, 345, 354, viii, 51;
- as ignis fatuus, i, 347, 348
- (see also Methane)
- Marshmallow, family, xiii, 200
- Marsupials, xii, 274-81;
- evolution of, 271
- Martens, xii, 350, 351
- Martensite, viii, 274
- Martha's Vineyard, waves action, iii, 56
- Martin, Prof. E. G., author Physiology Vol. ix
- Maryland, former volcanoes, xiv, 318;
- oyster industry, xii, 61
- Maskelyne, astronomer, xvi, 124;
- mountain-weighing, ii, 68-9
- Mass, defined, iv, 35, xvi, 130;
- density and, iv, 110;
- measured by beam balance, 102;
- momentum in relation to, 62-3;
- motion in relation to, 60-1, 63-5, 72, 78;
- standard units of, 46, 69, xvi, 130;
- weight and, iv, 35, 110, xvi, 130
- Massage, ancient Chinese, x, 13;
- effect on lymphatics, ix, 223
- Massasauga, xii, 235
- Mastoiditis, ix, 61-2
- Matches, friction and safety, viii, 88;
- invention of, xv, 232
- Materialism, xi, 13-14;
- in mediæval philosophy, x, 35
- Materia Medica, Mesue's work on, x, 32;
- 17th century improvements, xvi, 109
- Mathematical Astronomy, ii, 15, 113-14;
- culmination of, 15, 71-2;
- spectroscopic methods in, 119-24
- Mathematical Calculations, development of, xv, 181-4, xvi, 61
- Mathematical Machines, v, 326-7
- Mathematics, coordinates used in, iv, 16;
- Golden Age, ii, 15;
- history of development, xvi, 54, 60-3, 68, 71-2, 79-81, 88-90, 92, 94-5, 103-5, 113-14, 118-19, 125;
- practice of challenges in, iv, 89
- Mather, Cotton, on disease, x, 380;
- on inoculation, 101
- Mating Instinct, xiii, 116
- Mato Tepee, xiv, 129-30
- Matter, chemical energy of, viii, 267;
- chemistry, science of, 11, iv, 12;
- constitution of, 21, 23, vi, 35-6, 78, 108, 109-12, viii, 22-8
- (see also Atomic Theory, Electron Theory, Molecular Theory);
- elasticity of, iv, 35-6;
- elements of, viii, 11-12, 16-21;
- energy and, iv, 12, 13-14;
- energies in, xvi, 15;
- energy loss, 134;
- ether in, iv, 181;
- fluxation idea, xvi, 194;
- fourth state of, iv, 54-5, xvi, 193;
- Greek theories, 77, 83-4, 86, 91, 118;
- indestructibility, vi, 128, viii, 110;
- inertia of, iv, 20;
- kinetic theory of, 30, 131;
- monad theory, xvi, 117-18;
[Pg 295]
- primary concept, iv, 15, 16;
- sciences of, xvi, 36-7;
- states of, iv, 21-3
- (see also Physical States)
- Matterhorn, formation of, iii, 236
- Matriarchy, xv, 295
- Maudsley, Henry, inventions, v, 45-6, 99, 376
- Mauna Loa, iii, 103-4, 107, xiv, 322-3;
- real height and diameter, 101, 225
- Maury, Lieut. M. F., i, 216, 271-2, xiv, 288
- Maxim Machine Gun, v, 363, 364, 382
- Maxwell, Clerk, electromagnetic theory, iv, 54, 55, vi, 25, vii, 371;
- on loss of molecular energy, xvi, 134;
- on motor-dynamo discovery, iv, 54;
- on rings of Saturn, ii, 133, 265-6;
- prediction of electromagnetic radiations, xvi, 191
- Mayans, number and time systems of, xv, 181, 182 (fig.)
- May Bugs, xii, 123
- Mayflies, xii, 104
- Mazama, xii, 325
- Mazda Lamps, vi, 267, 268;
- ohms of, 75;
- sizes and light, vii, 153
- Mazda Nitrogen Lamps, vi, 278
- Meadow Pink, xiii, 133-5
- Meals, agreeable surroundings, at, ix, 241, x, 319-20;
- alcohol at, ix, 244;
- bathing after, 313;
- eating between, 88;
- excitement at, xi, 374-5;
- soup value at, ix, 241, x, 320;
- water at, ix, 229
- Meanders, iii, 380;
- in old and new areas, 33, 34, xiv, 162, 165;
- intrenched, 165
- Measles, Brown's treatment of, x, 89;
- consumption and, 292;
- eardrum affected by, ix, 103;
- epidemic of 15th century, x, 59-60;
- first description of, 32;
- germ of, 200;
- Indian susceptibility to, xv, 48, 51
- Measurements, British and metric systems, iv, 45-6, 69-70, viii, 27-8;
- chemical apparatus, 294, 295 (fig.);
- in different fields, vii, 151-2;
- sciences and standards of, xvi, 129-31
- Meat, body heat production by, ix, 309, x, 271, 273;
- calories in, 269;
- calory loss in preparing, ix, 299;
- composition, viii, 362;
- cooking effects, 368;
- digestion of, x, 326;
- eating of, effects, ix, 384-6, x, 279;
- eating of, in relation to bile, ix, 275;
- food constituents in, 300;
- gristle of, 13;
- proteins in, 34, 35, 280;
- salted, tinned and dried, x, 263;
- salts and extracts of, viii, 366;
- structure of lean and coarse, ix, 75;
- vitamines in, x, 260, 261, 262, 266
- Mechanical Advantage, iv, 89, 92, 93
- Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, iv, 49-50, 140, 142, 189-90, v, 350-1, viii, 186-7, xvi, 131-3
- Mechanical Progress, summary, v, 376-84
- Mechanics, Volume v
- Mechanics, "artisan" of physics, iv, 50;
- daily applications, xvi, 16-17, 19-20, 30;
- defined, iv, 25;
- history, xvi, 67-8, 72, 89, 91
- Medical Education, requirements of, x, 367-8, 369;
- Rockefeller Foundation and, 172
- Medical Humanists, x, 45
- Medical Meteorology, i, 316-31
- Medicine, Volume x
- Medicine, history of, x, 9-192, xvi, 59, 63, 70-1, 82-3, 95-6, 98, 106-9, 112, 126-7, 178-87;
- Paracelsus on science of, x, 49;
- science of, remarks on, 368, xvi, 15, 37
- Medicine Men, xv, 349-53, 354, 359, 365-6
- Medicines, electrical application of, vii, 247-8;
- quack, 240-1;
- plants used as, xiii, 249-55;
- specific, x, 49-50
- Mediterranean Lands, climate of, xiv, 348-9, 358-9;
- source of cultivated plants, 381-2
- Mediterranean Racial Group, xvi, 49
- Mediterranean Sea, ancient civilization around, xiv, 290, 306-7, 358, 359;
- concordant coasts, 249;
- darkness at depths, 298;
- geology of, 290-1;
- petrels of, xii, 252;
- "pilgrim shell" of, 65;
- salt in, viii, 139, xiv, 296, 297;
- sponges of, xii, 32;
- temperature of waters, xiv, 299
- Mediterranean Volcanic Belt, xiv, 316-17
- Medium, technical meaning, iv, 382
- Medulla, xi, 28, 29, 76
- Medusae (jellyfish), xii, 36
- Megabar, iv, 123
- Megaphones, iv, 239-40
- Megatheres, xii, 283
- Melampus, xii, 68-9
- Melancholia, of adolescence, x, 236-7
- Melancholic Temperament, xi, 153, 205
- Melanesia, xiv, 277
- Melanesians, beards of, xv, 38;
- hair of, 38
- Melting Point, iv, 153;
- chemical composition and, viii, 298-301;
- of various substances, iv, 161-2;
- pressure and, 153, 162, 163-6
- Membranes, fluid equalization through, ix, 194, xiii, 90-1;
- vibrations of, iv, 101
- Memory, xi, 208-17, ix;
- association of ideas in, 149-51;
- delayed nervous disturbances in, 141-2;
- of emotions, 154;
- hypnosis and, xi, 317-18;
[Pg 296]
- reason and, 243-4;
- right use, 378;
- seat of, in cerebrum, ix, 145, 146-7
- Memory Colors, xi, 89, 220-1
- Men, basal metabolism of, x, 271;
- brain in, xv, 39;
- color-blindness in, ix, 116, 340-1;
- hats of, x, 309;
- heart rate in, 334;
- height of, xv, 38;
- skull capacity, 40;
- susceptibility of, x, 240;
- voice vibration rates in, ix, 99
- Mendel, Gregor, x, 231-2, 13, 333, xvi, 154;
- experiments on peas, ix, 328, 333-4
- Mendel's Law, xiii, 333, xvi, 157
- Mendeléeff, chemical work, xvi, 134, 163;
- classification of elements, viii, 177;
- prediction of elements, 180
- Mendelian Theory, xvi, 156
- Mental Activity, insomnia due to, ix, 219;
- seat of, 145-6;
- temperature effects, i, 323-4
- Mental Fatigue, ix, 137-8, x, 247, xi, 269
- Mental Healers, x, 242-3, 365
- Mental Hygiene, xi, 368-82
- Mental-Nerve Diseases, x, 353
- Mental Processes, in brain, ix, 145, 147-54;
- similarity in all men, xvi, 42-3
- Mental Tests, in diagnosis, x, 371;
- in vocational guidance, xi, 359-60
- Mental Types, xi, 152-9
- Mercaptan, smell of, xi, 80
- Mercerized Cotton, viii, 255
- Mercuric Chlorides, viii, 170, 333
- Mercuric Mercury, test for, viii, 287, 288
- Mercuric Oxide, instability, viii, 101;
- oxygen preparation from, 34, 170
- Mercurous Mercury, test for, viii, 288
- Mercury (metal), affinity intensity, viii, 128;
- atomic weight and symbol, 383;
- barometric column of, iv, 30;
- compounds, viii, 170;
- density of, iv, 113;
- electrical conductivity, 283;
- expansion by heat, 135;
- freezing point, 153;
- heat capacity, 155;
- light of, viii, 172;
- melting point and requirements, iv, 162, viii, 384;
- ores and production, iii, 370, viii, 198, 270;
- properties and uses, iii, 370, viii, 126-7, 170;
- specific gravity, 384;
- specific heat, iv, 155;
- use of, in syphilis, x, 60, 104;
- use of, in thermometers, iv, 135, 137, 153
- Mercury (planet), ii, 189-90;
- atmosphere, 190, 246;
- life on, 245-6;
- "lucid" planet, 264;
- motion at perihelion, 79, 81;
- non-rotation theory, 377;
- orbit, 39, 73, 162, 163;
- size, 162;
- weight, 76, 77
- Mercury Arc Converters, vii, 365
- Mercury Arc Lamp, vi, 281-3
- Mercury Arc Rectifiers, vi, 331, 333-9
- Mercury Fulminate, viii, 145
- Mercury Vapor, viii, 309
- Mergansers, xii, 257
- Mergenthaler Linotype, v, 308-10, 381-2
- Meridian Photometer, ii, 297
- Mesaba Range, iii, 358
- Mesas, iii, 140, 380, xiv, 81, 82
- Mesenchyme, xii, 26-7
- Mesentery, ix, 59
- Mesopotamia, ancient empire of, xiv, 306;
- astronomy of ancient, xvi, 70;
- British campaign, i, 308;
- cradle of human race and history, xvi, 46, 51;
- food plant center, xiii, 221, xiv, 381-2;
- mirage in World War, i, 173;
- ostriches of, xii, 249;
- photographic mapping, i, 47;
- present desert character, xiv, 219;
- scurvy in, during World War, x, 265;
- wild wheat of, xiii, 210
- Mesozoic Era, iii, 20, 208-20;
- animal life in, 270, 272, 275, 285, 286;
- birds of, xii, 239, 242;
- divisions and species of, xv, 71;
- mammals of, iii, 297, xii, 271;
- marsupials in, 277;
- plants of, iii, 255, 256, 257;
- reptiles of, 286-95, xii, 183, 188, 194-5, 202-3;
- sharks of, 143
- Messages, primitive methods of sending, xv, 165-7
- Messina Earthquake, xiv, 340-1
- Mesue of Damascus, x, 32
- Metabolism, ix, 37, x, 268;
- calculation of, 269-70;
- daily total in calories, ix, 296, 297;
- disease in relation to, 302-4, x, 268-81;
- fatigue caused by, ix, 80, 81;
- food requirements for, 289, 295-301;
- protein, x, 277-80;
- protein effects on, ix, 301-2;
- rate of, how influenced, x, 270-1;
- studies of, 128, 382;
- temperature effects on, ix, 37, 306-7
- (see also Cell Metabolism, Basic Metabolism, Functional Metabolism, Growth Metabolism)
- Metal-Bearing Deposits, iii, 355-70
- Metallography, vi, 78, viii, 273-4, xvi, 175-6
- Metallurgy, viii, 269-74;
- historical development, xvi, 51, 59, 74, 174-7
- Metals, viii, 17, 126-74, 379;
- affinities (electromotive series), 127-9;
- affinity for sulphur, 76, 77;
- atomic weights, vii, 384, viii, 383;
- atomic weights in relation to activity, 133, 180;
- chemical analysis, 286-9, 291-2;
- colors of compounds due to, 312;
- common states of, iv, 153;
- compounds of, viii, 130, 146, 202;
- corrosion of, 13, 100;
- cutting of (see Cutting of Metals);
[Pg 297]
- electrical conductivity, iv, 259;
- electrification of, 257, 259;
- electrochemical analysis, viii, 295;
- electromotive positiveness, vi, 59;
- expanding on solidifying, iv, 150;
- extraction from ores, viii, 131, 269-72;
- groups of, 181-2;
- heat conductors, iv, 177, 178-9;
- identification of, viii, 201, 202, 313;
- industrial, 154;
- internal structure, vi, 78-9;
- in body, viii, 354;
- in sea, 197;
- melting point and requirements, iv, 162;
- melting points, viii, 384;
- occurrence, 129-31, 198-200;
- occurrence due to igneous action, xiv, 234, 237-8, 329;
- original form in earth, viii, 193;
- periodic classification, 180-1;
- plant uses of, 337, 341;
- positive ionization of, 122;
- potentials against hydrogen, vii, 383;
- rare earths, viii, 182;
- refining of, 272;
- refining, electrolytic, vii, 319-21;
- resistance (electrical), vi, 77-9;
- resistance tables, vii, 384;
- resistance reduced by low temperatures, i, 32;
- specific gravity table, viii, 384;
- thermoelectric powers, vii, 383;
- valency, vii, 384;
- welding by oxyacetylene blowpipe, 33;
- X-ray examination, vii, 257
- Metamorphic Rocks, iii, 13, 380, xiv, 18-19;
- jointing of, 133;
- land forms in, 44, 113;
- ores in, 234, 237
- Metamorphism, iii, 380;
- by molten intrusions, xiv, 112;
- fossils and, iii, 265
- Metazoa, xii, 25, 26-7
- Metchnikoff, x, 143, 201, 209-10, xi, 218
- Meteoric Dust, i, 53, 56;
- in deep-sea deposits, xiv, 285
- Meteoric Iron, ii, 292
- Meteorites, ii, 290-3;
- energy from, ix, 25;
- iron and dust from, iii, 55;
- origin of life from, xii, 9
- Meteorograph, i, 88, 377
- Meteorological Instruments, i, 68-89;
- public display, 266-7
- Meteorological Observations, history and organization, i, 212-23;
- marine, 272-3, 274-6
- Meteorological Terms, i, 365-84
- Meteorology, Volume i
- Meteorology, daily interest, xvi, 13;
- defined, i, 7, 377, xvi, 37;
- history of development, 114, 177;
- organized, i, 212-23
- Meteors, ii, 283-9;
- carborundum found in, vii, 310;
- cause of brontides, i, 196;
- dust from, i, 53, 56;
- former meaning, 7;
- in relation to corona, ii, 224, 225;
- in relation to solar system, 164;
- orbits, 287, 288, 289;
- photographic study, 134-5;
- planetesimal theory, iii, 162
- (see also Meteorites)
- Meter, length unit, iv, 46, 69, viii, 27-8;
- radio unit, vii, 272;
- value in yards, iv, 70
- Methane, viii, 51, 206;
- combustion products, 61;
- derivatives, 210, 230-1;
- flame of, 60;
- name of, 98
- Methodism (medical), x, 26, 28, 29
- Methyl, defined, viii, 379
- Metric System, iv, 46;
- adoption in French Revolution, 136;
- advantage in specific measurements, 111;
- units in, iv, 69-70, 80-1, 154, viii, 27-8
- Meuse River, xiv, 89;
- delta and shifts, 186
- Mexico, ancient civilization (see Aztecs);
- century plants, xiii, 355;
- chocolate cultivation, 234;
- climatic belts, xiv, 223;
- copper production, iii, 360;
- corn-growing in ancient, xiii, 212;
- deserts of, xiv, 380;
- first hospital, x, 81;
- harbors and commerce, xiv, 265-6;
- jaguars of, xii, 362;
- lava fields, iii, 228;
- lead production, 362;
- new volcanoes in, xiv, 320;
- oil output, iii, 350, 354, v, 173;
- plateau and hot lands of, xiv, 221, 223;
- rivers of, 195;
- rubber plants, xiii, 248;
- serpents of, xii, 214, 234, 235;
- silver production, iii, 367-8;
- vanilla production, xiii, 260;
- yellow fever in, x, 163
- Mexico, Gulf of, importance in rainfall distribution, xiv, 360;
- sponges in, xii, 32
- Meyer, Lothar, xvi, 163;
- classification of elements, viii, 177
- Mica, iii, 334;
- in granite, 308;
- chemical composition, viii, 90, 193
- Mice, xii, 289-91;
- snakes and, 220, 227
- Michelangelo, anatomical work of, x, 51-2
- Michelson, interferometer, ii, 151, 322-3;
- standard length measurements, xvi, 130
- Michigan, copper production, iii, 327, 360, 361;
- gypsum deposits, 376;
- iron ores, 357;
- salt deposits, 375
- Michigan, Lake, size, xiv, 204
- Micron, wave length unit, iv, 359
- Microline, iii, 328
- Micrometer, use of, ii, 58, vii, 151
- Micronesia, xiv, 277
- Microscopes, iv, 343-4;
- in chemical analysis, viii, 290-1;
- in medicine, x, 67, 128, 132, xvi, 112-13
- Middle Ages, astronomy in, ii, 37-41, 42;
- comets of, 273;
- constructive work, 12;
- ermine fur in, xii, 350;
- European commerce in, xiv, 240, 241, 307, 308;
[Pg 298]
- falconry of, xv, 223;
- hail and lightning prevention, i, 341;
- hysteria epidemics in, x, 360;
- intellectual character of, 34, 35, 43;
- intellectual lethargy, ii, 11;
- Jewish polygamy of, xv, 289;
- magic, xvi, 79;
- medicine in, x, 31, 34-42, 43;
- meteoric showers of, ii, 287;
- minstrels of, xv, 323;
- painting in, 302-3;
- poisoning in, 228-9;
- science in, iv, 27-8;
- science and philosophy, xvi, 99-105;
- views of fossils in, iii, 14
- Migrations, of birds, xii, 258, xiii, 55;
- of forests, xiv, 375-6;
- of plants, xiii, 348
- Mikulicz-Rodecki, xvi, 183
- Mil, wire measure, iv, 283, 382, vii, 373
- Mil Foot, vi, 77
- Military Meteorology, i, 306-15
- Milk, amino acids in, x, 278;
- boiling of, viii, 368;
- calories in, ix, 299;
- composition, value and products, viii, 363;
- contamination and safeguarding of, ix, 347;
- digestion of, 235, 292;
- fat globules of, viii, 315;
- food constituents in, ix, 300;
- for infants, 33-4, 346-7;
- germs in, x, 193;
- milk sugar in, viii, 227;
- pasteurized, x, 139-40, 263, xiii, 71, ix, 347;
- snakes and, xii, 222-3;
- sour, and longevity, xiii, 172;
- souring of, 71;
- souring, lactic acid developed, viii, 223;
- typhoid fever from, x, 287, 288;
- vitamines in, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266;
- vitamines and lime salts in, ix, 33-4, 347;
- water in, how measured, iv, 113
- Milking Machines, vii, 227
- Milk Sugar, viii, 226, 227, 363;
- digestion of, ix, 292
- Milkweeds, flowers, xiii, 50;
- plumes, 343-4
- Milky Way, ii, 350-6;
- discovery of separate stars, 96;
- Egyptian knowledge of, xvi, 69;
- Galileo's observations, 103
- (see also Galaxy)
- Miller, Hugh, xvi, 169
- Miller, Prof. W. J., author Geology, Vol. iii
- Milliken, Dr., vi, 121
- Milling Machines, v, 47, 53, 378, 381
- Millipedes, xii, 87, 88-9
- Mills, Milling, development of, xv, 237-41
- Mind, activities of, xi, 12, 25, 32, 236;
- body and, relations, 13-14, 61, 369-75;
- care and right use, 375-82;
- character of a good, 377-80;
- complexity, 206;
- conscious and subconscious, 47;
- differences and classes of, 152-9;
- difficulty of study of, x, 356;
- diseases of, 354-63;
- dominant traits, xi, 208-9;
- Emerson on common, 152;
- environment effects on, x, 237, 242-4;
- fatigue of, xi, 269;
- impairment by physical ills, 369-75;
- kinetic theory, 57-61, 123;
- meaning, 12, 13, 23-5, 32, 236;
- mechanism, meaning, 12-14;
- origins, 45;
- psychology as science of, 10-14;
- qualities revealed in smiles, 357;
- similarity in all men, xvi, 42-3
- Mind of the Crowd, xi, 323-33
- Mineral Matter, in animal and plant tissues, viii, 354-5;
- in ground water, xiv, 142-3, 144;
- in human body, viii, 348;
- in plants, 337, 339, 341, xiv, 65-6;
- in sea and surface waters, iii, 52, 127;
- in soils, viii, 338, 339, xiv, 68-9
- Mineralogy, iii, 307-41, viii, 200-3;
- daily interest, xvi, 23, 29;
- defined, 38;
- history of development, 112, 126, 169, 173
- Minerals, concentrations of, viii, 192, 195-200, xvi, 173;
- definition, iii, 307-8, 380, viii, 192, 200, 379;
- description of various, iii, 321-41;
- distinguished from living things, xii, 13-14;
- groups of, viii, 200-1;
- number of species, iii, 308, 315, viii, 200;
- properties and identification, iii, 309-21, viii, 201-3, 313;
- silicates, importance, viii, 193;
- veins, how formed, iii, 126
- Mineral Salts, need of, in food, x, 256, ix, 33
- Mineral Springs, xiv, 142-5;
- limestone deposits of, 146
- (see also Hot Springs)
- Mines, Mining, coal dust explosions, i, 63;
- compressed air uses, 26, 27, iv, 129;
- deep shafts, iii, 120, v, 259-60;
- explosions caused by oxygen, i, 322, xiv, 12, 15;
- hot water in, 144;
- importance of faults, iii, 88, xiv, 37;
- mountains and, 237-8;
- oxygen in air, i, 322;
- science of, xvi, 36;
- temperature limitations, xiv, 15;
- underground water in, iii, 116;
- water-blasting in, v, 100
- Mining Machinery, compressed air in, v, 128-9;
- sonic wave transmission, 108
- Mining Schools, xvi, 126
- Mink, xii, 349, 350
- Minnesota, iron ores, iii, 357-8;
- lakes and lake basins, xiv, 200, 212;
- newness of topography, 158;
- moose of, xii, 318
- Minnows, xii, 161, 163
- Minstrels, mediæval, xv, 323
- Mint Family, xiii, 204;
- petals in, 190
- Miocene Epoch, iii, 221;
- species surviving from, xv, 71;
[Pg 299]
- tortoise of, xii, 191
- Mira, classification, ii, 115;
- oldest known variable, 325
- (see Omicron Ceti)
- Mirages, i, 172-4, 377, iv, 328-9
- Mirrors, ancient, v, 109-10;
- fire generation by, xv, 232;
- images formed by, iv, 335-7;
- making of, viii, 171
- Missing Link, xv, 56, 91
- Mississippi-Missouri System, xiv, 153, 189
- Mississippi River, aerial mapping, i, 47;
- course changed, iii, 98;
- delta, xiv, 53;
- depth and dredging at mouth, 270;
- discovery and exploration, 192;
- flood plain slope, 162;
- former steamboats, 193;
- harnessing of, v, 81-3;
- in American history, xiv, 192-3;
- meanders of lower, 162, 165;
- mineral matter in solution, iii, 127;
- overflow question, xiv, 71;
- paddle-fish of, xii, 151;
- salt content, viii, 139;
- sediment carried by, iii, 31, xiv, 53;
- upper, superimposed, 171
- Mississippi Valley, alluvial soils of, xiv, 71;
- bowfins of, xii, 152;
- coal fields, iii, 348;
- development due to rivers, xiv, 31;
- earthquakes of 1811, 203;
- forests of, 378;
- French in, 192;
- geological history, iii, 35, 182-3, 187, 195, 206, 207, 231;
- growth of population, xiv, 193;
- loess deposits, i, 54, xiv, 72;
- panthers formerly in, xii, 363;
- precipitation in, xiv, 360;
- thermal springs absent, 143-4;
- thickness and composition of strata, 228-9;
- turtles of, xii, 187, 193;
- volcanic action in, xiv, 318;
- yellow fever epidemic, x, 160
- Mississippian Period, iii, 20, 197-8, 380;
- animals of, 268-9;
- plants of, 252-3;
- sea extensions in, 193
- Missouri, Ice Age in, iii, 239;
- loess deposits, xiv, 72;
- mining products, iii, 362, 364;
- sunk country, 98
- Missouri River, course changed, iii, 245;
- in western emigration, xiv, 195;
- upper Mississippi, xiv, 153
- Mist, i, 377, Brocken specters in, 184-5
- Mistakes, analysis of, xi, 340, 379
- (see also Errors)
- Mistletoe, xiii, 15, 100
- Mistpoeffers, i, 195, 377
- Mistral Winds, i, 133, 377
- Mitchell, John, x, 116
- Mitchell, Mount, xiv, 97, 168
- Mites, xii, 98
- Mixtures, compared with compounds, viii, 15;
- explosions of, 62;
- heat and cold production by, iv, 174-5;
- separation by vapor pressure, viii, 305
- Mizar, double star, ii, 123, 334
- Mocking Bird, xii, 269
- Modesty, clothing and, xv, 253;
- custom and, 254-5
- Mohammed Ibn Musa, xvi, 103
- Mohammedan Astronomy, ii, 37-9
- Mohammedanism, development of, xv, 199;
- polygamy allowed by, 289
- Mohawk Valley, importance of pass, xiv, 194;
- origin, iii, 232;
- rock faulting, 91
- Moissan, electrical work, xvi, 176;
- Arc Furnace, vii, 303
- Moisture (atmospheric) climate determined by, xiv, 351-6;
- temperature effects, 352-4;
- vegetation determined by, 364, 366, 372, 377-8, 380, 381;
- atmospheric (see Humidity)
- Molar Solutions, viii, 118-19, 379
- Molasses, production and use, viii, 242, 243, xiii, 215;
- vitamines in, x, 262
- Mold, cause of formation, i, 61;
- disease-producing, x, 196;
- reproduction, xiii, 164
- (see also Fungi)
- Molecular Theory, viii, 23-5;
- history of development, xvi, 91, 133-4
- Molecular Weight, viii, 92;
- boiling point and, 299-300;
- diffusibility and, 108;
- differences, to what due, iv, 110;
- found by vapor pressure, viii, 305;
- in relation to actual weight, 109;
- of proteins, 351
- Molecules, iv, 21, vi, 109, viii, 379;
- arrangement in relation to crystals, 203, xvi, 164;
- attraction of, viii, 306;
- possible variations in, iv, 143;
- condition at absolute zero, iv, 142-3;
- discrimination from atoms by Dumas, xvi, 162;
- dissipation of energy, 134;
- electrical balance and unbalance, i, 142, 143;
- electrical charges of, viii, 121;
- escape from liquids, iv, 167;
- ether in, iv, 181;
- formulæ of, viii, 91;
- fundamental vibrations of, iv, 363;
- in solids, liquids and gases, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131-3, 152-3, 363, viii, 23-4, 106;
- in solutions, 311-12;
- invariability law, 110;
- laws of, 106-10;
- magnetization of, iv, 245, 253;
- momentum, viii, 109-10;
- monatomic, 309;
- motions of, iv, 132-3, 363, viii, 23-5, 305-6;
- motion increased by heat, iv, 138-9, 144, 152-3, viii, 25, 37-8, 107, 108, 309, 310;
- number, vi, 112;
- number of, in gases, iv, 133, viii, 25, 108-9;
- polymerization, 219;
- size, vi, 112, viii, 24, 306;
- structure, 25-7, 306;
- structure, chain and ring, 233;
- structure, ether, 217, 224;
[Pg 300]
- structure in hydrocarbons, 51;
- structure in proteins, 351;
- structure and color, 258, 259, 312;
- structure and physical state, 207, 298;
- structure in relation to boiling and freezing points, 298-9;
- structure revealed by polariscope, 309;
- velocity of, iv, 133, viii, 24
- Moles, xii, 366, 367-8
- Molluscoids, iii, 259, 263, 270;
- origin of name, xii, 47
- Mollusks, iii, 260, 272-6, xii, 57-80;
- deep sea, 23;
- in sea plankton, 19;
- sponges and, 32
- Molybdenum, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383;
- use and occurrence, xiv, 238
- Moments of Force, iv, 382
- Momentum, iv, 62-3, 66-7
- Monadnock, Mount, iii, 232
- Monadnocks, iii, 35
- Monads, xvi, 117, 118
- Mondeville, Henri de, x, 39, 40
- Mongolian Orongo, xii, 327
- Mongols, hair of, xv, 37, 38 (fig.);
- in yellow race, 37
- Mongooses, xii, 351, 352
- "Monitor," Ericsson's, v, 380
- Monitors (lizards), xii, 208
- Monkeys, xii, 376-9;
- embryological resemblances, xv, 54;
- expression of feelings by, 64-5;
- fear in, xi, 136;
- feet of, iii, 301 (fig.), xv, 61;
- first appearance, iii, 301;
- jaguars and, xii, 362;
- lemurs and, 374, primates, 373;
- resemblance to man, xv, 57;
- thumb in, 60
- Monkshood, xiii, 196;
- aconite from, 252
- Monochord, xvi, 82
- Monocotyledons, defined, xiii, 60;
- evolution, 181;
- families, 181-9;
- first appearance, 319;
- leaves and flowers, 176, 179;
- stem formation, 177 (fig.);
- relative antiquity, 207;
- subdivisions, 179, 180
- Monoecious Plants, xiii, 46
- Monogamy, xv, 285, 289-94, 295;
- among birds, 276-7
- Monorail Car, v, 342-3
- Monosaccharides, viii, 223-6
- Monotony, of work, xi, 275-6, 277-8, 280
- Monotype, v, 310-12, 383
- Monros, physicians, xvi, 179, 181, 186
- Monsoons, i, 130-1, 377, xiv, 350-1;
- conditions resulting from, 359-60;
- use of, in early trade, 307
- Montana, bad lands of, xiv, 82;
- fossils found, iii, 250;
- grasslands and cattle, xiv, 222-3;
- mining products, iii, 360, 361, 364, 368
- Montauk Point, birds at, xiii, 342
- Mont Cenis Tunnel, xiv, 240, 241;
- drills used, i, 27
- Montenegro, mountaineers of, xiv, 243
- Monte Nuovo, eruption of, xiv, 316, 320
- Montpellier, University, x, 36, 38
- Montreal, harbor of, xiv, 270
- Moodus, Conn., brontides, i, 196, 360
- Moon, ii, 193-205;
- acceleration of, iv, 98;
- atmosphere, ii, 200, 204, 232;
- coronas, i, 183;
- distance, ii, 64, 197-8;
- earthshine on, 41;
- eclipses, 32, 206-8;
- erratic amplitude, 25;
- falling motion, 64, 65;
- Galileo's studies, 54, 96, xvi, 103;
- Halley on motions of, ii, 87;
- halos, i, 100, 103, 178, 180, 181;
- Hevelius's studies, ii, 57;
- influences of, 201;
- irregularities in motions, 32, 34, 73-4;
- life on, 204-5, 247;
- light and heat of, 168, 200;
- light of, Egyptian knowledge, xvi, 69;
- non-rotation theory, ii, 376, 377;
- path around earth, xiv, 292-3;
- photographic studies, ii, 130;
- quartering, 28, 194-5;
- size, 198-9, 230;
- size as observed by ancients, 27-8, 32;
- solar corona and, 221, 222;
- spectrum lines, 112;
- stereograms of, xi, 181;
- telescopic views of, iv, 346;
- theories of origin, ii, 375-6;
- tides caused by, 70;
- tides caused by, xiv, 291, 292-3
- Moonbeams, measurement of heat of, iv, 301
- Moon Dogs, i, 180, 377
- Moon-Pillar, i, 376
- Moonstone, iii, 329
- Moor Fires, i, 56
- Moors, astronomy of, ii, 11, 38;
- in Mediterranean group, xvi, 49;
- medical influence of, x, 37-8;
- science of, xvi, 100, 106
- Moose, xii, 318-19;
- antlers of, 316
- Moraines, iii, 67-8, 380, xiv, 59;
- lakes formed by, iii, 144-6, xiv, 202
- Morality, beginnings of, xv, 356;
- civilization and, xvi, 43-4, 45, 47-8;
- primitive, limited to tribes, xv, 374;
- religion and, 355-7;
- varying conceptions of, 285-6
- Morgagni Giovanni, x, 97-8
- Moriceau, François, x, 79, 80
- Morning Glories, climbing stems, xiii, 27;
- roots, 18;
- tendrils, 111
- Moro, Lazzaro, xvi, 126
- Morphine, xiii, 253;
- an alkaloid, viii, 240;
- use of, in pain, x, 381
- Morro Velho, mine shaft, v, 259-60
[Pg 301]
- Morse, S. F. B., telegraph inventor, vi, 24, vii, 108, xvi, 188
- Morse Systems, vii, 108, 109-11
- Mortar, lime in, viii, 150
- Mortar and Pestle, xv, 238
- Mortars (military), v, 368
- Mortmain, meaning, xi, 44
- Morton, William, ether introduction, x, 124-5, xvi, 185
- Mosaic Laws, medical importance of, x, 15
- Mosasaurs, iii, 288, xii, 203
- Moselle River, xiv, 89, 90, 165
- Mosenthal's Test, x, 379
- Mosquitoes, campaign against, x, 299-301;
- in fly family, xii, 120;
- kinds of, x, 156;
- malaria spread by, 154, 156-9, 299-301;
- singing of, cause, xii, 103;
- yellow fever and, x, 160, 161-2, 173
- Moss Animals, xii, 46-7
- Mosses, alternation of generations, xvi, 166;
- character and kinds, xiii, 68-70;
- reproductive process, 160-3
- Mosso, Prof., experiment of, xi, 285;
- on mountain sickness, i, 328
- "Mother Carey's Chickens", xii, 252
- Mother-Family, xv, 295
- Mother-of-Pearl, xii, 63;
- iridescence of, 245
- Mother Shipton, iv, 104
- Mothers, rule of, under polyandry, xv, 294-5;
- transmission of hereditary traits, ix, 340-1;
- transmission of nervous influences, 343-4
- Mother's Milk, infants' digestion of, ix, 346
- Moths, xii, 114-16, 118-20;
- appearance in Tertiary, 104;
- evolution of, 107;
- in flower fertilization, xiii, 142-3;
- number of species in New York, xii, 99;
- Pronuba, adaptation in, xvi, 152-3
- Motion, as sign of life, ix, 9-11, 14;
- bodily, different kinds of, 82-3;
- of animals, means of, 73-4;
- sense of, ix, 90, xi, 123-8
- (see also Movement)
- Motion (mechanics), energy of (see Kinetic Energy);
- force in relation to, iv, 56-69, 71-2, v, 182-3;
- forms of, iv, 85-6;
- Galileo's investigations, iv, 19;
- laws of (see Newton's Laws of Motion);
- quantity of, iv, 62;
- rapid, not explained by Newton's theory, ii, 80, 81;
- relativity of, iv, 16-17, xvi, 85;
- science of, iv, 25;
- time and, Newton on, 15;
- uniform and difform, ii, 80;
- Zeno's theories, xvi, 84-5
- Motor Cycles, cooling of cylinders, v, 160;
- gyroscopic action, 343;
- generators in, vi, 215-16
- Motor-Generator Sets, vi, 332-3, 342-3;
- efficiency in electric furnaces, vii, 306
- Motor-mindedness, xi, 222
- Motor Nerve Cells, ix, 125, 126, 129, 160;
- connections, 130 (fig.), 131, 147, 148 (fig.)
- Motor Nerves, at birth, ix, 348
- Motor Neurones, xi, 21, 22, 24;
- development in embryo, 34, 35
- Motor Response, defined, xi, 123-4;
- method of, 26-7;
- sensation dependent on, 27-8, 43, 63, 66, 74-5, 102-3, 110-11, 118-21, 202-3;
- to contact and distance senses, ix, 95, 121, 140;
- violence in emotions, xi, 134
- (see also Final Common Path, Reactions, Reflex Actions)
- Motors, iv, 308-9, vi, 217-63, vii, 367, 373;
- advantages over engines, 223;
- air-driven, v, 129-30;
- alternating-current, vi, 240-63;
- automatic regulation, 218, 224-9, 232;
- automobile, v, 156-61;
- compressed-air effects, 128;
- compression and non-compression, 157;
- constant-speed, vi, 231;
- direct-current, 217-39;
- direction of revolutions, 56;
- earliest form, 21;
- efficiency, 228;
- efficiency in cold weather, vii, 194;
- electromagnetic, vi, 95-6;
- for farm purposes, vii, 223-4, 225-6, 228;
- heat, Clausius's principle, xvi, 135;
- individual machine, vii, 52;
- in household appliances, 74, 78, 83-4, 86;
- interchangeability with dynamos, iv, 54;
- multiple cylinder, v, 159;
- of electric cars, vii, 182-3, 185, 186;
- of electric locomotives, 196, 200;
- popular applications of, iv, 10;
- power, on what dependent, vi, 223;
- ratings, 192-4;
- self-regulation of voltage, 226-8;
- single-cylinder, v, 157;
- speed variation and constancy, vi, 240-1;
- starting and starters, 235-9, 250-5, 262-3;
- synchronous, 241;
- three-phase system, 206-7;
- torque of, iv, 309, vi, 224-7;
- toy, 95-9;
- voltage generated, 247;
- water and air-cooled, v, 159-61;
- waterproof in U. S. Navy, vii, 332
- Motor Tractors, v, 214, 215-218, 243
- Motor Trucks, v, 214;
- advantages to farmers, vii, 231;
- growing use, 195
- Motor Type of Men, xi, 155, 157, 158-9
- Mott, Valentine, x, 121-2
- Motus Peculiaris, ii, 346
- Mound Builders, weaving of, xv, 248 (fig.)
[Pg 302]
- Mountain-and-Valley Breezes, i, 131, 132, 377
- Mountain Goats, xii, 325
- Mountain Health Resorts, i, 322
- Mountain Lions, xii, 363
- Mountain Observatories, ii, 139-51
- Mountain Passes, formation of, xiv, 58, 176
- Mountains, Mountain Ranges, xiv, 224-6;
- atmospheric pressure on, i, 28, iv, 114-15, 170, ii, 245;
- block, iii, 138-9, xiv, 117, 226;
- boiling point of water on, viii, 303;
- Brocken specters, i, 184-5;
- cirques of corries on, xiv, 58;
- civilization of, xv, 129-31;
- cloud caps and banners, i, 104-5;
- coast lines and, xiv, 248, 249;
- distinguished from plateaus, 28;
- economic importance, 237-9, 245;
- ephemeral character, iii, 11, 12, 130, xiv, 235;
- faulted, iii, 138-9, xiv, 226;
- folded, iii, 131-8, xiv, 36, 93-4, 96, 226-34;
- forests on, xiv, 238-9;
- formed by erosion of plateaus, iii, 139-40, xiv, 225, 226;
- formation complex, iii, 140-1;
- granite cores of, 112, xiv, 110-11;
- heights determined by barometers, 124;
- hot springs of, 143;
- igneous intrusions, 228, 230, 232-3, 234;
- influence of, on human history, 10, 236-45, xv, 136, 137-8;
- lightning dangers, i, 156;
- making of in various eras, iii, 187-91, 205-6, 213-14, 218-19, 224-6;
- metamorphism in, xiv, 234;
- old and young, 235-6;
- ores and mines, 234, 237-8;
- peoples of, 245, xv, 129-31;
- plants and animals of, xiii, 321, 381, xiv, 365-6, 370, 376-7;
- rainfall and, i, 111, xiv, 354-5;
- rime on, i, 121-2;
- rock weathering on, iii, 23, 24, xiv, 40, 233-4;
- ruggedness due to erosion, 234;
- St. Elmo's Fire, i, 157;
- shadows in sky, 169-70;
- snow-line on, iv, 183-4;
- solar radiation on, i, 210;
- sound intensity on, 186;
- structural topography of, xiv, 94;
- stunted trees, xiii, 367;
- temperature on high, i, 19;
- volcanic, iii, 139, xiv, 225-6, 327
- (see also Volcanic Cones);
- weighing of, ii, 68-9;
- wind types, i, 132-3
- Mountain Sickness, i, 328, ii, 144, 150
- Mountain Streams, harnessing of, v, 79-81;
- material transported by, xiv, 52, 233-4
- Mountain Systems, xi