The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
Volume 4, Part 4, by Various

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4
       "Bulgaria" to "Calgary"

Author: Various

Release Date: April 14, 2007 [EBook #19846]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***




Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net





Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been
incorporated into the text of each page as: v.04 p.0001.

In the article CALCITE, negative Miller Indices, e.g. "1-bar" in the
original are shown as "-1".

In the article CALCULATING MACHINES, [Integral,a:b] indicates a definite
integral between lower limit a and upper limit b. [Integral] by itself
indicates an indefinite integral. [=x] and [=y] represent x-bar and y-bar
in the original.

[v.04 p.0773]

BULGARIA (_continued from part 3_)

... the mean interval being 60 m.; the summits are, as a rule, rounded, and
the slopes gentle. The culminating points are in the centre of the range:
Yumrukchál (7835 ft.), Maragudúk (7808 ft.), and Kadimlía (7464 ft.). The
Balkans are known to the people of the country as the _Stara Planina_ or
"Old Mountain," the adjective denoting their greater size as compared with
that of the adjacent ranges: "Balkán" is not a distinctive term, being
applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the Turks, to all mountains. Closely
parallel, on the south, are the minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or "Middle
Mountains" (highest summit 5167 ft.) and the Karaja Dagh, enclosing
respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlyk. At its eastern
extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central
terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Eminé ("Haemus"), the northern forming
the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the rivers falling
directly into the Black Sea. The Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether
distinct from the Balkans, with which, however, it is connected by the
Malka Planina and the Ikhtiman hills, respectively west and east of Sofia;
it may be regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine system which
traverses the Peninsula from the Dinaric Alps and the Shar Planina on the
west to the Shabkhana Dagh near the Aegean coast; its sharper outlines and
pine-clad steeps reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than that of the
Balkans. The imposing summit of Musallá (9631 ft.), next to Olympus, the
highest in the Peninsula, forms the centre-point of the group; it stands
within the Bulgarian frontier at the head of the Mesta valley, on either
side of which the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and
south-east respectively towards the Aegean. The chain of Rhodope proper
radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already
mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the
Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytké (7179 ft.) and
Karlyk (6828 ft.), are within the frontier. From Musallá in a westerly
direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a
picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this
chain attain 7000 ft. Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the
Osogovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen (7392 ft.). To the north of the
Rilska Planina the almost isolated mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs
Sofia. Snow and ice remain in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the
Balkans throughout the summer. The fertile slope trending northwards from
the Balkans to the Danube is for the most part gradual and broken by hills;
the eastern portion known as the _Delí Orman_, or "Wild Wood," is covered
by forest, and thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes precipitous
character of the Bulgarian bank of the Danube contrasts with the swampy
lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side. Northern Bulgaria is watered by
the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern Lom, all, except the
Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing into the Danube. The channels
of these rivers are deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; irrigation is
consequently difficult and navigation impossible. The course of the Iskr is
remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into the basin
of Samakov, passing thence through a serpentine defile into the plateau of
Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a lake; it now forces its way
through the Balkans by the picturesque gorge of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly
the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik breaks the central chain of the Balkans near
their eastern extremity and, uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the
Black Sea. The Maritza, the ancient _Hebrus_, springs from the slopes of
Musallá, and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the wide
plain of Eastern Rumelia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek _Strymon_)
drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza, flows into the
Aegean. The elevated basins of Samakov (lowest altitude 3050 ft.), Trn
(2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia (1640 ft.), and
Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature of the western highlands.

[Illustration]

_Geology._--The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety, almost
all the systems being exemplified. The Archean, composed of gneiss and
crystalline schists, and traversed by eruptive veins, extends over the
greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina, Rhodope,
and the adjacent ranges. North of the Balkans it appears only in the
neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The other earlier Palaeozoic systems are
wanting, but the Carboniferous appears in the western Balkans with a
continental _facies_ (Kulm). Here anthracitiferous coal is found in beds of
argillite and sandstone. Red sandstone and conglomerate, representing the
Permian system, appear especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these,
in the western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper
Jurassic, also occurring in the central part of the range. The Cretaceous
system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears
throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the
Balkans to the Danube. Gosau beds are found on the southern declivity of
the chain. Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and Eocene systems, is
widely distributed. The Eocene, or older Tertiary, further appears with
nummulitic formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene
only near the Black Sea coast at Burgas. Of the Neogene, or younger
Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears near Pleven (Plevna)
in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between Varna and Burgas with beds
of spaniodons, as in the Crimea; the Sarmatian stage in the plain of the
Danube and in the districts of Silistria and Varna. A rich mammaliferous
deposit (_Hipparion_, _Rhinoceros_, _Dinotherium_, _Mastodon_, &c.) of this
period has been found near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more
limited space. The Quaternary era is represented by the typical loess,
which covers most of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the
alluvial deposits of the riparian districts with remains of the _Ursus_,
_Equus_, &c., found in bone-caverns. Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans
and Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern [v.04
p.0774] ranges, presenting granite, syenite, diorite, diabase,
quartz-porphyry, melaphyre, liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt, &c.

_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, although, with
the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited. The minerals which
are commercially valuable include gold (found in small quantities), silver,
graphite, galena, pyrite, marcasite, chalcosine, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
bornite, cuprite, hematite, limonite, ochre, chromite, magnetite, azurite,
manganese, malachite, gypsum, &c. The combustibles are anthracitiferous
coal, coal, "brown coal" and lignite. The lignite mines opened by the
government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons. Coal beds have
been discovered at Trevna and elsewhere. Thermal springs, mostly
sulphureous, exist in forty-three localities along the southern slope of
the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of Sofia and Kiustendil;
maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near Dupnitza, 180.5° (Fahrenheit), at
Sofia 118.4°. Many of these are frequented now, as in Roman times, owing to
their valuable therapeutic qualities. The mineral springs on the north of
the Balkans are, with one exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), cold.

_Climate._--The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison with that
of other European regions of the same latitude is attributable in part to
the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in part to the general
configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme heat in summer and cold in
winter, great local contrasts, and rapid transitions of temperature occur
here as in the adjoining countries. The local contrasts are remarkable. In
the districts extending from the Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed
to the bitter north wind, the winter cold is intense, and the river,
notwithstanding the volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently
frozen over; the temperature has been known to fall to 24° below zero.
Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans against hot southerly winds,
the summer heat in this region is not unbearable; its maximum is 99°. The
high tableland of Sofia is generally covered with snow in the winter
months; it enjoys, however, a somewhat more equable climate than the
northern district, the maximum temperature being 86°, the minimum 2°; the
air is bracing, and the summer nights are cool and fresh. In the eastern
districts the proximity of the sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold;
the sea is occasionally frozen at Varna. The coast-line is exposed to
violent north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the [Greek: pontos axeinos] or
"inhospitable sea" of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation for storms.
The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a comparatively warm
climate; spring begins six weeks earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and
the vegetation is that of southern Europe. In general the Bulgarian winter
is short and severe; the spring short, changeable and rainy; the summer
hot, but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (_yasen_, "the clear time")
magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month of December. The
mean temperature is 52°. The climate is healthy, especially in the
mountainous districts. Malarial fever prevails in the valley of the
Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the
upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage. The mean annual
rainfall is 25-59 in. (Gabrovo, 41-73; Sofia, 27-68; Varna, 18-50).

_Fauna._--Few special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian fauna. Bears
are still abundant in the higher mountain districts, especially in the
Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian bear is small and of brown
colour, like that of the Carpathians. Wolves are very numerous, and in
winter commit great depredations even in the larger country towns and
villages; in hard weather they have been known to approach the outskirts of
Sofia. The government offers a reward for the destruction of both these
animals. The roe deer is found in all the forests, the red deer is less
common; the chamois haunts the higher regions of the Rilska Planina,
Rhodope and the Balkans. The jackal (_Canis aureus_) appears in the
district of Burgas; the lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild
boar, otter, fox, badger, hare, wild cat, marten, polecat (_Foetorius
putorius_; the rare tiger polecat, _Foetorius sarmaticus_, is also found),
weasel and shrewmouse (_Spermophilus citillus_) are common. The beaver
(Bulg. _bebr_) appears to have been abundant in certain localities, _e.g._
Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently extinct. Snakes (_Coluber
natrix_ and other species), vipers (_Vipera berus_ and _V. ammodytes_), and
land and water tortoises are numerous. The domestic animals are the same as
in the other countries of southeastern Europe; the fierce shaggy grey
sheep-dog leaves a lasting impression on most travellers in the interior.
Fowls, especially turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of
geese may be seen in the Moslem villages. The ornithology of Bulgaria is
especially interesting. Eagles (_Aquila imperialis_ and the rarer _Aquila
fulva_), vultures (_Vultur monachus_, _Gyps fulvus_, _Neophron
percnopterus_), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of prey are
extraordinarily abundant; singing birds are consequently rare. The
lammergeier (_Gypaëtus barbatus_) is not uncommon. Immense flocks of wild
swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube and the
lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of the woods (_Tetrao urogallus_)
is found in the Balkan and Rhodope forests, the wild pheasant in the Tunja
valley, the bustard (_Otis tarda_) in the Eastern Rumelian plain. Among the
migratory birds are the crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley,
woodcock, snipe and quail; the great spotted cuckoo (_Coccystes
glandarius_) is an occasional visitant. The red starling (_Pastor roseus_)
sometimes appears in large flights. The stork, which is never molested,
adds a picturesque feature to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water fish,
the sturgeon (_Acipenser sturio_ and _A. huso_), sterlet, salmon (_Salmo
hucho_), and carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams abound in
trout. The Black Sea supplies turbot, mackerel, &c.; dolphins and flying
fish may sometimes be seen.

_Flora._--In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (1) the
northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the southern
plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts adjoining the
Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov and Kiustendil, (5)
the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans and the southern mountain
group. In the first-mentioned region the vegetation resembles that of the
Russian and Rumanian steppes; in the spring the country is adorned with the
flowers of the crocus, orchis, iris, tulip and other bulbous plants, which
in summer give way to tall grasses, umbelliferous growths, _dianthi_,
_astragali_, &c. In the more sheltered district south of the Balkans the
richer vegetation recalls that of the neighbourhood of Constantinople and
the adjacent parts of Asia Minor. On the Black Sea coast many types of the
Crimean, Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora present
themselves. The plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish specimens of
sub-alpine plants, while the vine disappears; the hollow of Kiustendil,
owing to its southerly aspect, affords the vegetation of the Macedonian
valleys. The flora of the Balkans corresponds with that of the Carpathians;
the Rila and Rhodope group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with
those of the central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The
Alpine types are often represented by variants: _e.g._ the _Campanula
alpina_ by the _Campanula orbelica_, the _Primula farinosa_ by the _Primula
frondosa_ and _P. exigua_, the _Gentiana germanica_ by the _Gentiana
bulgarica_, &c. The southern mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the
unexplored highlands of Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown
elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases corresponding with those of the
Caucasus. Among the more characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are
the following:--_Centaurea_, _Cirsium_, _Linaria_, _Scrophularia_,
_Verbascum_, _Dianthus_, _Silene_, _Trifolium_, _Euphorbia_, _Cytisus_,
_Astragalus_, _Ornithogalum_, _Allium_, _Crocus_, _Iris_, _Thymus_,
_Umbellifera_, _Sedum_, _Hypericum_, _Scabiosa_, _Ranunculus_, _Orchis_,
_Ophrys_.

_Forests._--The principal forest trees are the oak, beech, ash, elm,
walnut, cornel, poplar, pine and juniper. The oak is universal in the
thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnificent forests of
beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the
northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the
southern slope is bare. The walnut and chestnut are mainly confined to
eastern Rumelia. Conifers (_Pinus silvestris_, _Picea excelsa_, _Pinus
laricis_, _Pinus mughus_) are rare in the Balkans, but abundant in the
higher regions of the southern mountain group, where the _Pinus peuce_,
otherwise peculiar to the Himalayas, also flourishes. The wild lilac forms
a beautiful feature in the spring landscape. Wild fruit trees, such as the
apple, pear and plum, are common. The vast forests of the middle ages
disappeared under the supine Turkish administration, which took no measures
for their protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of
towns and highways in order to deprive brigands of shelter. A law passed in
1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting timber, and places
the state forests under the control of inspectors. According to official
statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of the whole superficies of the
kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion of this area is covered
only by brushwood and scrub. The beautiful forests of the Rila district are
rapidly disappearing under exploitation.

_Agriculture._--Agriculture, the main source of wealth to the country, is
still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignorance and conservatism
of the peasantry, the habits engendered by widespread insecurity and the
fear of official rapacity under Turkish rule, insufficiency of
communications, want of capital, and in some districts sparsity of
population, have all tended to retard the development of this most
important industry. The peasants cling to traditional usage, and look with
suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of production. The
plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only partially
practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown. The government has
sedulously endeavoured to introduce more enlightened methods and ideas by
the establishment of agricultural schools, the appointment of itinerant
professors and inspectors, the distribution of better kinds of seeds,
improved implements, &c. Efforts have been made to improve the breeds of
native cattle and horses, and stallions have been introduced from Hungary
and distributed throughout the country. Oxen and buffaloes are the
principal animals of draught; the buffalo, which was apparently introduced
from Asia in remote times, is much prized by the peasants for its patience
and strength; it is, however, somewhat delicate and requires much care. In
[v.04 p.0775] the eastern districts camels are also employed. The Bulgarian
horses are small, but remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a
rule unfitted for draught and cavalry purposes. The best sheep are found in
the district of Karnobat in Eastern Rumelia. The number of goats in the
country tends to decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these
animals owing to the injury they inflict on young trees. The average price
of oxen is £5 each, draught oxen £12 the pair, buffaloes £14 the pair, cows
£2, horses £6, sheep, 7s., goats 5s., each. The principal cereals are
wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats and millet. The cultivation of maize is
increasing in the Danubian and eastern districts. Rice-fields are found in
the neighbourhood of Philippopolis. Cereals represent about 80% of the
total exports. Besides grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of
roses, silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could
the peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of
wine-making the Bulgarian vintages would rank among the best European
growths. The tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in
considerable quantities for home consumption and only an insignificant
amount is exported. The best tobacco-fields in Bulgaria are on the northern
slopes of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which produces the famous
Kavala growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The
rose-fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between
the Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh.
About 6000 lb of the rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from
£12 to £14 per lb. Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia.
Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to disease
among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with promise
of success. Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern Rumelia.

Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averaging about 18
acres each. There are scarcely any large estates owned by individuals, but
some of the monasteries possess considerable domains. The large
_tchifliks_, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish landowners, have been
divided among the peasants. The rural proprietors enjoy the right of
pasturing their cattle on the common lands belonging to each village, and
of cutting wood in the state forests. They live in a condition of rude
comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in the towns. A
peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricultural life is the
_zadruga_, or house-community, a patriarchal institution apparently dating
from prehistoric times. Family groups, sometimes numbering several dozen
persons, dwell together on a farm in the observance of strictly communistic
principles. The association is ruled by a house-father (_domakin_,
_stareïshina_), and a house-mother (_domakinia_), who assign to the members
their respective tasks. In addition to the farm work the members often
practise various trades, the proceeds of which are paid into the general
treasury. The community sometimes includes a priest, whose fees for
baptisms, &c., augment the common fund. The national aptitude for
combination is also displayed in the associations of market gardeners
(_gradinarski druzhini_, _taifi_), who in the spring leave their native
districts for the purpose of cultivating gardens in the neighbourhood of
some town, either in Bulgaria or abroad, returning in the autumn, when they
divide the profits of the enterprise; the number of persons annually thus
engaged probably exceeds 10,000. Associations for various agricultural,
mining and industrial undertakings and provident societies are numerous:
the handicraftsmen in the towns are organized in _esnafs_ or gilds.

_Manufactures._--The development of manufacturing enterprise on a large
scale has been retarded by want of capital. The principal establishments
for the native manufactures of _aba_ and _shayak_ (rough and fine
homespuns), and of _gaitan_ (braided embroidery) are at Sliven and Gabrovo
respectively. The Bulgarian homespuns, which are made of pure wool, are of
admirable quality. The exportation of textiles is almost exclusively to
Turkey: value in 1806, £104,046; in 1898, £144,726; in 1904, £108,685.
Unfortunately the home demand for native fabrics is diminishing owing to
foreign competition; the smaller textile industries are declining, and the
picturesque, durable, and comfortable costume of the country is giving way
to cheap ready-made clothing imported from Austria. The government has
endeavoured to stimulate the home industry by ordering all persons in its
employment to wear the native cloth, and the army is supplied almost
exclusively by the factories at Sliven. A great number of small
distilleries exist throughout the country; there are breweries in all the
principal towns, tanneries at Sevlievo, Varna, &c., numerous corn-mills
worked by water and steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain torrents,
in the Balkans and Rhodope. A certain amount of foreign capital has been
invested in industrial enterprises; the most notable are sugar-refineries
in the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis, and a cotton-spinning mill
at Varna, on which an English company has expended about £60,000.

_Commerce._--The usages of internal commerce have been considerably
modified by the development of communications. The primitive system of
barter in kind still exists in the rural districts, but is gradually
disappearing. The great fairs (_panaïri_, [Greek: panêgureis]) held at
Eski-Jumaia, Dobritch and other towns, which formerly attracted multitudes
of foreigners as well as natives, have lost much of their importance; a
considerable amount of business, however, is still transacted at these
gatherings, of which ninety-seven were held in 1898. The principal seats of
the export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on the Black Sea, and
Svishtov, Rustchuk, Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo, and Vidin on the Danube.
The chief centres of distribution for imports are Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk,
Philippopolis and Burgas. About 10% of the exports passes over the Turkish
frontier, but the government is making great efforts to divert the trade to
Varna and Burgas, and important harbour works have been carried out at both
these ports. The new port of Burgas was formally opened in 1904, that of
Varna in 1906.

In 1887 the total value of Bulgarian foreign commerce was £4,419,589. The
following table gives the values for the six years ending 1904. The great
fluctuations in the exports are due to the variations of the harvest, on
which the prosperity of the country practically depends:--

  Year.   Exports.     Imports.     Total.

             £             £           £
  1899    2,138,684    2,407,123    4,545,807
  1900    2,159,305    1,853,684    4,012,989
  1901    3,310,790    2,801,762    6,112,552
  1902    4,147,381    2,849,059    7,996,440
  1903    4,322,945    3,272,103    7,595,048
  1904    6,304,756    5,187,583   11,492,339

The principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hides, cheese,
eggs, attar of roses. Exports to the United Kingdom in 1900 were valued at
£239,665; in 1904 at £989,127. The principal imports are textiles, metal
goods, colonial goods, implements, furniture, leather, petroleum. Imports
from the United Kingdom in 1900, £301,150; in 1904, £793,972.

The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of £400,000, has its
central establishment at Sofia, and branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk,
Varna, Trnovo and Burgas. Besides conducting the ordinary banking
operations, it issues loans on mortgage. Four other banks have been founded
at Sofia by groups of foreign and native capitalists. There are several
private banks in the country. The Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Industrial
Bank of Kiev have branches at Philippopolis and Sofia respectively. The
agricultural chests, founded by Midhat Pasha in 1863, and reorganized in
1894, have done much to rescue the peasantry from the hands of usurers.
They serve as treasuries for the local administration, accept deposits at
interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage or the security of two
solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887 was £569,260; in 1904,
£1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been constituted as the "Bulgarian
Agricultural Bank"; the central direction is at Sofia. The post-office
savings bank, established 1896, had in 1905 a capital of £1,360,560.

There are over 200 registered provident societies in the country. The legal
rate of interest is 10%, but much higher rates are not uncommon.

Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has adopted the
metric system. Turkish weights and measures, however, are still largely
employed in local commerce. The monetary unit is the _lev_, or "lion" (pl.
_leva_), nominally equal to the franc, with its submultiple the _stotinka_
(pl. _-ki_), or centime. The coinage consists of nickel and bronze coins
(2½, 5, 10 and 20 _stotinki_) and silver coins [v.04 p.0776] (50
_stotinki_; 1, 2 and 5 _leva_). A gold coinage was struck in 1893 with
pieces corresponding to those of the Latin Union. The Turkish pound and
foreign gold coins are also in general circulation. The National Bank
issues notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 _leva_, payable in gold. Notes
payable in silver are also issued.

_Finance._--It is only possible here to deal with Bulgarian finance prior
to the declaration of independence in 1908. At the outset of its career the
principality was practically unencumbered with any debt, external or
internal. The stipulations of the Berlin Treaty (Art. ix.) with regard to
the payment of a tribute to the sultan and the assumption of an "equitable
proportion" of the Ottoman Debt were never carried into effect. In 1883 the
claim of Russia for the expenses of the occupation (under Art. xx. of the
treaty) was fixed at 26,545,625 fr. (£1,061,820) payable in annual
instalments of 2,100,000 fr. (£84,000). The union with Eastern Rumelia in
1885 entailed liability for the obligations of that province consisting of
an annual tribute to Turkey of 2,951,000 fr. (£118,040) and a loan of
3,375,000 fr. (£135,000) contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank. In 1888
the purchase of the Varna-Rustchuk railway was effected by the issue of
treasury bonds at 6% to the vendors. In 1889 a loan of 30,000,000 fr.
(£1,200,000) bearing 6% interest was contracted with the Vienna Länderbank
and Bankverein at 85½. In 1892 a further 6% loan of 142,780,000 fr.
(£5,711,200) was contracted with the Länderbank at 83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a
5% loan of 106,000,000 fr. (£4,240,000), secured on the tobacco dues and
the stamp-tax, was contracted with the Banque de l'État de Russie and the
Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas at 81½, for the purpose of consolidating
the floating debt, and in 1904 a 5% loan of 99,980,000 fr. (£3,999,200) at
82, with the same guarantees, was contracted with the last-named bank
mainly for the purchase of war material in France and the construction of
railways. In January 1906 the national debt stood as follows:--Outstanding
amount of the consolidated loans, 363,070,500 fr. (£14,522,820); internal
debt, 15,603,774 fr. (£624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208
(£76,408). In February 1907 a 4½% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85, secured on
the surplus proceeds of the revenues already pledged to the loans of 1902
and 1904, was contracted with the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas
associated with some German and Austrian banks for the conversion of the
loans of 1888 and 1889 (requiring about 53,000,000 fr.) and for railway
construction and other purposes. The total external debt was thus raised to
upwards of 450,000,000 fr. The Eastern Rumelian tribute and the rent of the
Sarambey-Belovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a further
sum of 50,919,100 fr. (£2,036,765). The national debt was not
disproportionately great in comparison with annual revenue. After the union
with Eastern Rumelia the budget receipts increased from 40,803,262 leva
(£1,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (£4,786,220) in 1904; the
estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva (£4,476,800), of which
41,179,000 (£1,647,160) were derived from direct and 38,610,000
(£1,544,400) from indirect taxation; the estimated expenditure was
111,903,281 leva (£4,476,131), the principal items being: public debt,
31,317,346 (£1,252,693); army, 26,540,720 (£1,061,628); education,
10,402,470 (£416,098); public works, 14,461,171 (£578,446); interior,
7,559,517 (£302,380). The actual receipts in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. In
1895 direct taxation, which pressed heavily on the agricultural class, was
diminished and indirect taxation (import duties and excise) considerably
increased. In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c., indirect to 8
fr. 58 c., per head of the population. The financial difficulties in which
the country was involved at the close of the 19th century were attributable
not to excessive indebtedness but to heavy outlay on public works, the
army, and education, and to the maintenance of an unnecessary number of
officials, the economic situation being aggravated by a succession of bad
harvests. The war budget during ten years (1888-1897) absorbed the large
sum of 275,822,017 leva (£11,033,300) or 35.77% of the whole national
income within that period. In subsequent years military expenditure
continued to increase; the total during the period since the union with
Eastern Rumelia amounting to 599,520,698 leva (£23,980,800).

_Communications._--In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria was the
Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English company in 1867. In
Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to Philippopolis and the Turkish
frontier (122 m.), with a branch to Yamboli (66 m.), had been built by
Baron Hirsch in 1873, and leased by the Turkish government to the Oriental
Railways Company until 1958. It was taken over by the Bulgarian government
in 1908 (see _History_, below). The construction of a railway from the
Servian frontier at Tzaribrod to the Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel
was imposed on the principality by the Berlin Treaty, but political
difficulties intervened, and the line, which touches Sofia, was not
completed till 1888. In that year the Bulgarian government seized the short
connecting line Belovo-Sarambey belonging to Turkey, and railway
communication between Constantinople and the western capitals was
established. Since that time great progress has been made in railway
construction. In 1888, 240 m. of state railways were open to traffic; in
1899, 777 m.; in 1902, 880 m. Up to October 1908 all these lines were
worked by the state, and, with the exception of the Belovo-Sarambey line
(29 m.), which was worked under a convention with Turkey, were its
property. The completion of the important line Radomir-Sofia-Shumen
(November 1899) opened up the rich agricultural district between the
Balkans and the Danube and connected Varna with the capital. Branches to
Samovit and Rustchuk establish connexion with the Rumanian railway system
on the opposite side of the river. It was hoped, with the consent of the
Turkish government, to extend the line Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to Uskub,
and thus to secure a direct route to Salonica and the Aegean. Road
communication is still in an unsatisfactory condition. Roads are divided
into three classes: "state roads," or main highways, maintained by the
government; "district roads" maintained by the district councils; and
"inter-village roads" (_mezhduselski shosseta_), maintained by the
communes. Repairs are effected by the _corvée_ system with requisitions of
material. There are no canals, and inland navigation is confined to the
Danube. The Austrian _Donaudampschiffahrtsgesellschaft_ and the Russian
_Gagarine_ steamship company compete for the river traffic; the grain trade
is largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants. The coasting
trade on the Black Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian steamship company; the
steamers of the Austrian Lloyd, and other foreign companies call at Varna,
and occasionally at Burgas.

The development of postal and telegraphic communication has been rapid. In
1886, 1,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 29,063,043. Receipts of posts
and telegraphs in 1886 were £40,975, in 1903 £134,942. In 1903 there were
3261 m. of telegraph lines and 531 m. of telephones.

_Towns._--The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the capital (Bulgarian
_Sredetz_, a name now little used), pop. in January 1906, 82,187;
Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Rumelia (Bulg. _Plovdiv_), pop.
45,572; Varna, 37,155; Rustchuk (Bulg. _Russé_), 33,552; Sliven, 25,049;
Shumla (Bulg. _Shumen_), 22,290; Plevna (Bulg. _Pleven_), 21,208;
Stara-Zagora, 20,647; Tatar-Pazarjik, 17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek
_Hyampolis_), 15,708; Dobritch (Turkish _Hajiolu-Pazarjik_), 15,369;
Haskovo, 15,061; Vratza, 14,832; Stanimaka (Greek _Stenimachos_), 14,120;
Razgrad, 13,783; Sistova (Bulg. _Svishtov_), 13,408; Burgas, 12,846;
Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the ancient capital, 12,171. All these are
described in separate articles.

_Population._--The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq. m.; of Eastern
Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240 sq. m. According to the
census of the 12th of January 1906, the population of northern Bulgaria was
2,853,704; of Eastern Rumelia, 1,174,535; of united Bulgaria, 4,028,239 or
88 per sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between Rumania and Portugal in regard to
area; between the Netherlands and Switzerland in regard to population: in
density of population it may be compared with Spain and Greece.

The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave the total
population as 3,154,375. In January 1893 the population was 3,310,713; in
January 1901, 3,744,283.

The movement of the population at intervals of five years has been as
follows:--

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
  | Year. |  Marriages.  |  Births  |  Still-  | Deaths. | Natural    |
  |       |              |(living). |  born.   |         |Increase.[1]|
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
  | 1882  |    19,795    |  74,642  |   300    |  38,884 |   35,758   |
  | 1887  |    20,089    |  83,179  |   144    |  39,396 |   43,783   |
  | 1892  |    27,553    | 117,883  |   321    | 103,550 |   14,333   |
  | 1897  |    29,227    | 149,631  |   858    |  90,134 |   59,497   |
  | 1902  |    36,041    | 149,542  |   823    |  91,093 |   58,449   |
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------

[1] Excess of births over deaths.

The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the five years 1882-1886 the
mean death-rate was 18.0 per 1000; in 1887-1891, 20.4; in 1892-1896, 27.0;
in 1897-1902, 23.92. Infant mortality is high, especially among the
peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely survive, the adult population
is in general robust, hardy and long-lived. The census of January 1901
gives 2719 persons of 100 years and upwards. Young men, as a rule, marry
betore the age of twenty-five, girls before eighteen. The number of
illegitimate births is inconsiderable, averaging only 0.12 of the total.
The population according to sex in 1901 is given as 1,909,567 males and
1,834,716 females, or 51 males to 49 females. A somewhat similar disparity
may be observed in the other countries of the Peninsula. Classified
according to occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or 74.85% of the population,
are engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various productive industries;
118,824 in the service of the government or the exercise of liberal
professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population according to race
cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is approximately shown by
the census of 1901, which gives the various nationalities according to
language as follows:--Bulgars, 2,888,219; Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063;
Greeks, 66,635; Gipsies (Tziganes), 89,549; Jews (Spanish speaking),
33,661; Tatars, [v.04 p.0777] 18,884; Armenians, 14,581; other
nationalities, 30,451. The Bulgarian inhabitants of the Peninsula beyond
the limits of the principality may, perhaps, be estimated at 1,500,000 or
1,600,000, and the grand total of the race possibly reaches 5,500,000.

_Ethnology._--The Bulgarians, who constitute 77.14% of the inhabitants of
the kingdom, are found in their purest type in the mountain districts, the
Ottoman conquest and subsequent colonization having introduced a mixed
population into the plains.

The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish invasion resulted
in the extirpation or flight of a large proportion of the Bulgarian
inhabitants of the lowlands, who were replaced by Turkish colonists. The
mountainous districts, however, retained their original population and
sheltered large numbers of the fugitives. The passage of the Turkish armies
during the wars with Austria, Poland and Russia led to further Bulgarian
emigrations. The flight to the Banat, where 22,000 Bulgarians still remain,
took place in 1730. At the beginning of the 19th century the majority of
the population of the Eastern Rumelian plain was Turkish. The Turkish
colony, however, declined, partly in consequence of the drain caused by
military service, while the Bulgarian remnant increased, notwithstanding a
considerable emigration to Bessarabia before and after the Russo-Turkish
campaign of 1828. Efforts were made by the Porte to strengthen the Moslem
element by planting colonies of Tatars in 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The
advance of the Russian army in 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus of the
Turkish population, of which only a small proportion returned to settle
permanently. The emigration continued after the conclusion of peace, and is
still in progress, notwithstanding the efforts of the Bulgarian government
to arrest it. In twenty years (1879-1899), at least 150,000 Turkish
peasants left Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains
unoccupied. On the other hand, a considerable influx of Bulgarians from
Macedonia, the vilayet of Adrianople, Bessarabia, and the Dobrudja took
place within the same period, and the inhabitants of the mountain villages
show a tendency to migrate into the richer districts of the plains.

The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to Elena are inhabited
almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in Eastern Rumelia the national element
is strongest in the Sredna Gora and Rhodope. Possibly the most genuine
representatives of the race are the Pomaks or Mahommedan Bulgarians, whose
conversion to Islam preserved their women from the licence of the Turkish
conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope and certain districts in
the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch) and Plevna. Retaining their
Bulgarian speech and many ancient national usages, they may be compared
with the indigenous Cretan, Bosnian and Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks in the
principality are estimated at 26,000, but their numbers are declining. In
the north-eastern district between the Yantra and the Black Sea the
Bulgarian race is as yet thinly represented; most of the inhabitants are
Turks, a quiet, submissive, agricultural population, which unfortunately
shows a tendency to emigrate. The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a variety
of races. The Greek element is strong in the maritime towns, and displays
its natural aptitude for navigation and commerce. The Gagäuzi, a peculiar
race of Turkish-speaking Christians, inhabit the littoral from Cape Eminé
to Cape Kaliakra: they are of Turanian origin and descend from the ancient
Kumani. The valleys of the Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed
population consisting of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the principal Greek
colonies are in Stanimaka, Kavakly and Philippopolis. The origin of the
peculiar Shôp tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of Sofia, Breznik
and Radomir is a mystery. The Shôps are conceivably a remnant of the
aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in its mountain home during the
Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions: they cling with much tenacity to their
distinctive customs, apparel and dialect. The considerable Vlach or Ruman
colony in the Danubian districts dates from the 18th century, when large
numbers of Walachian peasants sought a refuge on Turkish soil from the
tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the department of Vidin alone contains 36
Ruman villages with a population of 30,550. Especially interesting is the
race of nomad shepherds from the Macedonian and the Aegean coast who come
in thousands every summer to pasture their flocks on the Bulgarian
mountains; they are divided into two tribes--the Kutzovlachs, or "lame
Vlachs," who speak Rumanian, and the Hellenized Karakatchans or "black
shepherds" (compare the Morlachs, or Mavro-vlachs, [Greek: mauroi blaches],
of Dalmatia), who speak Greek. The Tatars, a peaceable, industrious race,
are chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Varna and Silistria; they were
introduced as colonists by the Turkish government in 1861. They may be
reckoned at 12,000. The gipsies, who are scattered in considerable numbers
throughout the country, came into Bulgaria in the 14th century. They are
for the most part Moslems, and retain their ancient Indian speech. They
live in the utmost poverty, occupy separate cantonments in the villages,
and are treated as outcasts by the rest of the population. The Bulgarians,
being of mixed origin, possess few salient physical characteristics. The
Slavonic type is far less pronounced than among the kindred races; the
Ugrian or Finnish cast of features occasionally asserts itself in the
central Balkans. The face is generally oval, the nose straight, the jaw
somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are rather below middle height,
compactly built, and, among the peasantry, very muscular; the women are
generally deficient in beauty and rapidly grow old. The upper class, the
so-called _intelligenzia_, is physically very inferior to the rural
population.

_National Character._--The character of the Bulgarians presents a singular
contrast to that of the neighbouring nations. Less quick-witted than the
Greeks, less prone to idealism than the Servians, less apt to assimilate
the externals of civilization than the Rumanians, they possess in a
remarkable degree the qualities of patience, perseverance and endurance,
with the capacity for laborious effort peculiar to an agricultural race.
The tenacity and determination with which they pursue their national aims
may eventually enable them to vanquish their more brilliant competitors in
the struggle for hegemony in the Peninsula. Unlike most southern races, the
Bulgarians are reserved, taciturn, phlegmatic, unresponsive, and extremely
suspicious of foreigners. The peasants are industrious, peaceable and
orderly; the vendetta, as it exists in Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia,
and the use of the knife in quarrels, so common in southern Europe, are
alike unknown. The tranquillity of rural life has, unfortunately, been
invaded by the intrigues of political agitators, and bloodshed is not
uncommon at elections. All classes practise thrift bordering on parsimony,
and any display of wealth is generally resented. The standard of sexual
morality is high, especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is
an object of public contempt, and in former times was punished with death.
Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the case in most
primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but usually take place with
the consent of the parents on both sides, in order to avoid the expense of
a regular wedding. The principal amusement on Sundays and holidays is the
_choró_ ([Greek: choros]), which is danced on the village green to the
strains of the _gaida_ or bagpipe, and the _gûsla_, a rudimentary fiddle.
The Bulgarians are religious in a simple way, but not fanatical, and the
influence of the priesthood is limited. Many ancient superstitions linger
among the peasantry, such as the belief in the vampire and the evil eye;
witches and necromancers are numerous and are much consulted.

_Government._--Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by Art. iii. of the
Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the family of a prince "freely
elected by the population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the
assent of the powers." According to the constitution of Trnovo, voted by
the Assembly of Notables on the 29th of April 1879, revised by the Grand
Sobranye on the 27th of May 1893, and modified by the proclamation of a
Bulgarian kingdom on the 5th of October 1908, the royal dignity descends in
the direct male line. The king must profess the Orthodox faith, only the
first elected sovereign and his immediate heir being released from this
obligation. The legislative power is vested in the king in conjunction with
the [v.04 p.0778] national assembly; he is supreme head of the army,
supervises the executive power, and represents the country in its foreign
relations. In case of a minority or an interregnum, a regency of three
persons is appointed. The national representation is embodied in the
Sobranye, or ordinary assembly (Bulgarian, _S[)u]branïe_, the Russian form
_Sobranye_ being usually employed by foreign writers), and the Grand
Sobranye, which is convoked in extraordinary circumstances. The Sobranye is
elected by manhood suffrage, in the proportion of 1 to 20,000 of the
population, for a term of five years. Every Bulgarian citizen who can read
and write and has completed his thirtieth year is eligible as a deputy.
Annual sessions are held from the 27th of October to the 27th of December.
All legislative and financial measures must first be discussed and voted by
the Sobranye and then sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The
government is responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether
deputies or not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which is elected
in the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants, is convoked to elect a
new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction a change in the constitution,
or to ratify an alteration in the boundaries of the kingdom. The executive
is entrusted to a cabinet of eight members--the ministers of foreign
affairs and religion, finance, justice, public works, the interior,
commerce and agriculture, education and war. Local administration, which is
organized on the Belgian model, is under the control of the minister of the
interior. The country is divided into twenty-two departments (_okr[)u]g_,
pl. _okr[)u]zi_), each administered by a prefect (_uprávitel_), assisted by
a departmental council, and eighty-four sub-prefectures (_okolía_), each
under a sub-prefect (_okoliiski natchálnik_). The number of these
functionaries is excessive. The four principal towns have each in addition
a prefect of police (_gradonatchalnik_) and one or more commissaries
(_pristav_). The gendarmery numbers about 4000 men, or 1 to 825 of the
inhabitants. The prefects and sub-prefects have replaced the Turkish
_mutessarifs_ and _kaimakams_; but the system of municipal government, left
untouched by the Turks, descends from primitive times. Every commune
(_obshtina_), urban or rural, has its _kmet_, or mayor, and council; the
commune is bound to maintain its primary schools, a public library or
reading-room, &c.; the kmet possesses certain magisterial powers, and in
the rural districts he collects the taxes. Each village, as a rule, forms a
separate commune, but occasionally two or more villages are grouped
together.

_Justice._--The civil and penal codes are, for the most part, based on the
Ottoman law. While the principality formed a portion of the Turkish empire,
the privileges of the capitulations were guaranteed to foreign subjects
(Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.). The lowest civil and criminal court is that of
the village kmet, whose jurisdiction is confined to the limits of the
commune; no corresponding tribunal exists in the towns. Each sub-prefecture
and town has a justice of the peace--in some cases two or more; the number
of these officials is 130. Next follows the departmental tribunal or court
of first instance, which is competent to pronounce sentences of death,
penal servitude and deprivation of civil rights; in specified criminal
cases the judges are aided by three assessors chosen by lot from an
annually prepared panel of forty-eight persons. Three courts of appeal sit
respectively at Sofia, Rustchuk and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is
the court of cassation, sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president, two
vice-presidents and nine judges. There is also a high court of audit
(_vrkhovna smetna palata_), similar to the French _cour des comptes._ The
judges are poorly paid and are removable by the government. In regard to
questions of marriage, divorce and inheritance the Greek, Mahommedan and
Jewish communities enjoy their own spiritual jurisdiction.

_Army and Navy._--The organization of the military forces of the
principality was undertaken by Russian officers, who for a period of six
years (1879-1885) occupied all the higher posts in the army. In Eastern
Rumelia during the same period the "militia" was instructed by foreign
officers; after the union it was merged in the Bulgarian army. The present
organization is based on the law of the 1st of January 1904. The army
consists of: (1) the active or field army (_deïstvuyushta armia_), divided
into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active army reserve; (2) the reserve
army (_reservna armia_); (3) the _opltchenïe_ or militia; the two former
may operate outside the kingdom, the latter only within the frontier for
purposes of defence. In time of peace the active army (i.) alone is on a
permanent footing.

The peace strength in 1905 was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and 8000 horses,
the active army being composed of 9 divisions of infantry, each of 4
regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together with 12 squadrons attached to
the infantry divisions, 9 regiments of artillery each of 3 groups of 3
batteries, together with 2 groups of mountain artillery, each of 3
batteries, and 3 battalions of siege artillery; 9 battalions of engineers
with 1 railway and balloon section and 1 bridging section. At the same date
the army was locally distributed in nine divisional areas with headquarters
at Sofia, Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, Vratza, Plevna,
Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area being subdivided into four
districts, from each of which one regiment of four battalions was recruited
and completed with reservists. In case of mobilization each of the nine
areas would furnish 20,106 men (16,000 infantry, 1200 artillery, 1000
engineers, 300 divisional cavalry and 1606 transport and hospital services,
&c.). The war strength thus amounted to 180,954 of the active army and its
reserve, exclusive of the five regiments of cavalry. In addition the 36
districts each furnished 3 battalions of the reserve army and one battalion
of opltchenïe, or 144,000 infantry, which with the cavalry regiments (3000
men) and the reserves of artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry, &c.
(about 10,000), would bring the grand total in time of war to about 338,000
officers and men with 18,000 horses. The men of the reserve battalions are
drafted into the active army as occasion requires, but the militia serves
as a separate force. Military service is obligatory, but Moslems may claim
exemption on payment of £20; the age of recruitment in time of peace is
nineteen, in time of war eighteen. Each conscript serves two years in the
infantry and subsequently eight years in the active reserve, or three years
in the other corps and six years in the active reserve; he is then liable
to seven years' service in the reserve army and finally passes into the
opltchenïe. The Bulgarian peasant makes an admirable soldier--courageous,
obedient, persevering, and inured to hardship; the officers are painstaking
and devoted to their duties. The active army and reserve, with the
exception of the engineer regiments, are furnished with the .315"
Mannlicher magazine rifle, the engineer and militia with the Berdan; the
artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of 8.7- and 7.5-cm. Krupp guns (field)
and 6.5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12 cm. Krupp and 15 cm. Creuzot (Schneider)
howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp and 12 cm. Creuzot siege guns, and 7.5 cm. Creuzot
quick-firing guns; total of all description, 1154. Defensive works were
constructed at various strategical points near the frontier and elsewhere,
and at Varna and Burgas. The naval force consisted of a flotilla stationed
at Rustchuk and Varna, where a canal connects Lake Devno with the sea. It
was composed in 1905 of 1 prince's yacht, 1 armoured cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3
torpedo boats and 10 other small vessels, with a complement of 107 officers
and 1231 men.

_Religion._--The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims to be an
indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, and asserts historic
continuity with the autocephalous Bulgarian church of the middle ages. It
was, however, declared schismatic by the Greek patriarch of Constantinople
in 1872, although differing in no point of doctrine from the Greek Church.
The Exarch, or supreme head of the Bulgarian Church, resides at
Constantinople; he enjoys the title of "Beatitude" (_negovo Blazhenstvo_),
receives an annual subvention of about £6000 from the kingdom, and
exercises jurisdiction over the Bulgarian hierarchy in all parts of the
Ottoman empire. The exarch is elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy
Synod, and a general assembly (_obshti sbor_), in which the laity is
represented; their choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian
independence, was subject to the sultan's approval. The occupant of the
dignity is titular metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The organization of
the church within the principality was regulated [v.04 p.0779] by statute
in 1883. There are eleven eparchies or dioceses in the country, each
administered by a metropolitan with a diocesan council; one diocese has
also a suffragan bishop. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod,
consisting of four metropolitans, which assembles once a year. The laity
take part in the election of metropolitans and parish priests, only the
"black clergy," or monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All
ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the government.
There are 2106 parishes (_eporii_) in the kingdom with 9 archimandrites,
1936 parish priests and 21 deacons, 78 monasteries with 184 monks, and 12
convents with 346 nuns. The celebrated monastery of Rila possesses a vast
estate in the Rilska Planina; its abbot or _hegumen_ owns no spiritual
superior but the exarch. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of
the minister of public worship; the clergy of all denominations are paid by
the state, being free, however, to accept fees for baptisms, marriages,
burials, the administering of oaths, &c. The census of January 1901 gives
3,019,999 persons of the Orthodox faith (including 66,635 Patriarchist
Greeks), 643,300 Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews, 28,569 Catholics, 13,809
Gregorian Armenians, 4524 Protestants and 419 whose religion is not stated.
The Greek Orthodox community has four metropolitans dependent on the
patriarchate. The Mahommedan community is rapidly diminishing; it is
organized under 16 muftis who with their assistants receive a subvention
from the government. The Catholics, who have two bishops, are for the most
part the descendants of the medieval Paulicians; they are especially
numerous in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova. The Armenians
have one bishop. The Protestants are mostly Methodists; since 1857 Bulgaria
has been a special field of activity for American Methodist missionaries,
who have established an important school at Samakov. The Berlin Treaty
(Art. V.) forbade religious disabilities in regard to the enjoyment of
civil and political rights, and guaranteed the free exercise of all
religions.

_Education._--No educational system existed in many of the rural districts
before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance, and the older generation
remained totally illiterate. In the towns the schools were under the
superintendence of the Greek clergy, and Greek was the language of
instruction. The first Bulgarian school was opened at Gabrovo in 1835 by
the patriots Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski. After the Crimean War, Bulgarian
schools began to appear in the villages of the Balkans and the
south-eastern districts. The children of the wealthier class were generally
educated abroad. The American institution of Robert College on the Bosporus
rendered an invaluable service to the newly created state by providing it
with a number of well-educated young men fitted for positions of
responsibility. In 1878, after the liberation of the country, there were
1658 schools in the towns and villages. Primary education was declared
obligatory from the first, but the scarcity of properly qualified teachers
and the lack of all requisites proved serious impediments to educational
organization. The government has made great efforts and incurred heavy
expenditure for the spread of education; the satisfactory results obtained
are largely due to the keen desire for learning which exists among the
people. The present educational system dates from 1891. Almost all the
villages now possess "national" (_narodni_) primary schools, maintained by
the communes with the aid of a state subvention and supervised by
departmental and district inspectors. The state also assists a large number
of Turkish primary schools. The penalties for non-attendance are not very
rigidly enforced, and it has been found necessary to close the schools in
the rural districts during the summer, the children being required for
labour in the fields.

The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890, 47.01% of the
boys and 16.11% of the girls attended the primary schools; in 1898, 85% of
the boys and 40% of the girls. In 1904 there were 4344 primary schools, of
which 3060 were "national," or communal, and 1284 denominational (Turkish,
Greek, Jewish, &c.), attended by 340,668 pupils, representing a proportion
of 9.1 per hundred inhabitants. In addition to the primary schools, 40
infant schools for children of 3 to 6 years of age were attended by 2707
pupils. In 1888 only 327,766 persons, or 11% of the population, were
literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to 19.88%; in 1901 to 23.9%.

In the system of secondary education the distinction between the classical
and "real" or special course of study is maintained as in most European
countries; in 1904 there were 175 secondary schools and 18 gymnasia (10 for
boys and 8 for girls). In addition to these there are 6 technical and 3
agricultural schools; 5 of pedagogy, 1 theological, 1 commercial, 1 of
forestry, 1 of design, 1 for surgeons' assistants, and a large military
school at Sofia. Government aid is given to students of limited means, both
for secondary education and the completion of their studies abroad. The
university of Sofia, formerly known as the "high school," was reorganized
in 1904; it comprises 3 faculties (philology, mathematics and law), and
possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 lecturers. The number of students
in 1905 was 943.

POLITICAL HISTORY

The ancient Thraco-Illyrian race which inhabited the district between the
Danube and the Aegean was expelled, or more probably absorbed, by the great
Slavonic immigration which took place at various intervals between the end
of the 3rd century after Christ and the beginning of the 6th. The numerous
tumuli which are found in all parts of the country (see Herodotus v. 8) and
some stone tablets with bas-reliefs remain as monuments of the aboriginal
population; and certain structural peculiarities, which are common to the
Bulgarian and Rumanian languages, may conceivably be traced to the
influence of the primitive Illyrian speech, now probably represented by the
Albanian. The Slavs, an agricultural people, were governed, even in those
remote times, by the democratic local institutions to which they are still
attached; they possessed no national leaders or central organization, and
their only political unit was the _pleme_, or tribe. They were considerably
influenced by contact with Roman civilization. It was reserved for a
foreign race, altogether distinct in origin, religion and customs, to give
unity and coherence to the scattered Slavonic groups, and to weld them into
a compact and powerful state which for some centuries played an important
part in the history of eastern Europe and threatened the existence of the
Byzantine empire.

_The Bulgars._--The Bulgars, a Turanian race akin to the Tatars, Huns,
Avars, Petchenegs and Finns, made their appearance on the banks of the
Pruth in the latter part of the 7th century. They were a horde of wild
horsemen, fierce and barbarous, practising polygamy, and governed
despotically by their _khans_ (chiefs) and _boyars_ or _bolyars_ (nobles).
Their original abode was the tract between the Ural mountains and the
Volga, where the kingdom of Great (or Black) Bolgary existed down to the
13th century. In 679, under their khan Asparukh (or Isperikh), they crossed
the Danube, and, after subjugating the Slavonic population of Moesia,
advanced to the gates of Constantinople and Salonica. The East Roman
emperors were compelled to cede to them the province of Moesia and to pay
them an annual tribute. The invading horde was not numerous, and during the
next two centuries it became gradually merged in the Slavonic population.
Like the Franks in Gaul the Bulgars gave their name and a political
organization to the more civilized race which they conquered, but adopted
its language, customs and local institutions. Not a trace of the Ugrian or
Finnish element is to be found in the Bulgarian speech. This complete
assimilation of a conquering race may be illustrated by many parallels.

_Early Dynasties._--The history of the early Bulgarian dynasties is little
else than a record of continuous conflicts with the Byzantine emperors. The
tribute first imposed on the Greeks by Asparukh was again exacted by Kardam
(791-797) and Krum (802-815), a sovereign noted alike for his cruelty and
his military and political capacity. Under his rule the Bulgarian realm
extended from the Carpathians to the neighbourhood of Adrianople; Serdica
(the present Sofia) was taken, and the valley of the Struma conquered.
Prêslav, the Bulgarian capital, was attacked and burned by the emperor
Nicephorus, but the Greek army on its return was annihilated in one of the
Balkan passes; the emperor was slain, and his skull was converted by Krum
into a goblet. The reign of Boris (852-884) is memorable [v.04 p.0780] for
the introduction of Christianity into Bulgaria. Two monks of Salonica, SS.
Cyril and Methodius, are generally reverenced as the national apostles; the
scene of their labours, however, was among the Slavs of Moravia, and the
Bulgars were evangelized by their disciples. Boris, finding himself
surrounded by Christian states, decided from political motives to abandon
paganism. He was baptized in 864, the emperor Michael III. acting as his
sponsor. It was at this time that the controversies broke out which ended
in the schism between the Churches of the East and West. Boris long wavered
between Constantinople and Rome, but the refusal of the pope to recognize
an autocephalous Bulgarian church determined him to offer his allegiance to
the Greek patriarch. The decision was fraught with momentous consequences
for the future of the race. The nation altered its religion in obedience to
its sovereign, and some of the boyars who resisted the change paid with
their lives for their fidelity to the ancient belief. The independence of
the Bulgarian church was recognized by the patriarchate, a fact much dwelt
upon in recent controversies. The Bulgarian primates subsequently received
the title of patriarch; their see was transferred from Prêslav to Sofia,
Voden and Prespa successively, and finally to Ochrida.

_The First Empire._--The national power reached its zenith under Simeon
(893-927), a monarch distinguished in the arts of war and peace. In his
reign, says Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a rank among the civilized powers of
the earth." His dominions extended from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, and
from the borders of Thessaly to the Save and the Carpathians. Having become
the most powerful monarch in eastern Europe, Simeon assumed the style of
"Emperor and Autocrat of all the Bulgars and Greeks" (_tsar i samodrzhetz
vsêm Blgarom i Grkom_), a title which was recognized by Pope Formosus.
During the latter years of his reign, which were spent in peace, his people
made great progress in civilization, literature nourished, and Prêslav,
according to contemporary chroniclers, rivalled Constantinople in
magnificence. After the death of Simeon the Bulgarian power declined owing
to internal dissensions; the land was distracted by the Bogomil heresy (see
BOGOMILS), and a separate or western empire, including Albania and
Macedonia, was founded at Ochrida by Shishman, a boyar from Trnovo. A
notable event took place in 967, when the Russians, under Sviatoslav, made
their first appearance in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian tsar, Boris II., with the
aid of the emperor John Zimisces, expelled the invaders, but the Greeks
took advantage of their victory to dethrone Boris, and the first Bulgarian
empire thus came to an end after an existence of three centuries. The
empire at Ochrida, however, rose to considerable importance under Samuel,
the son of Shishman (976-1014), who conquered the greater part of the
Peninsula, and ruled from the Danube to the Morea. After a series of
campaigns this redoubtable warrior was defeated at Bêlasitza by the emperor
Basil II., surnamed Bulgaroktonos, who put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners
taken in the fight, and sent them into the camp of his adversary. The
Bulgarian tsar was so overpowered by the spectacle that he died of grief. A
few years later his dynasty finally disappeared, and for more than a
century and a half (1018-1186) the Bulgarian race remained subject to the
Byzantine emperors.

_The Second Empire._--In 1186, after a general insurrection of Vlachs and
Bulgars under the brothers Ivan and Peter Asên of Trnovo, who claimed
descent from the dynasty of the Shishmanovtzi, the nation recovered its
independence, and Ivan Asên assumed the title of "Tsar of the Bulgars and
Greeks." The seat of the second, or "Bulgaro-Vlach" empire was at Trnovo,
which the Bulgarians regard as the historic capital of their race. Kaloyan,
the third of the Asên monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nish
and Skopïe (Uskub); he acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope,
and received the royal crown from a papal legate. The greatest of all
Bulgarian rulers was Ivan Asên II. (1218-1241), a man of humane and
enlightened character. After a series of victorious campaigns he
established his sway over Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace, and
governed his wide dominions with justice, wisdom and moderation. In his
time the nation attained a prosperity hitherto unknown: commerce, the arts
and literature flourished; Trnovo, the capital, was enlarged and
embellished; and great numbers of churches and monasteries were founded or
endowed. The dynasty of the Asêns became extinct in 1257, and a period of
decadence began. Two other dynasties, both of Kuman origin, followed--the
Terterovtzi, who ruled at Trnovo, and the Shishmanovtzi, who founded an
independent state at Vidin, but afterwards reigned in the national capital.
Eventually, on the 28th June 1330, a day commemorated with sorrow in
Bulgaria, Tsar Michael Shishman was defeated and slain by the Servians,
under Stephen Urosh III., at the battle of Velbûzhd (Kiustendil). Bulgaria,
though still retaining its native rulers, now became subject to Servia, and
formed part of the short-lived empire of Stephen Dushan (1331-1355). The
Servian hegemony vanished after the death of Dushan, and the Christian
races of the Peninsula, distracted by the quarrels of their petty princes,
fell an easy prey to the advancing might of the Moslem invader.

_The Turkish Conquest._--In 1340 the Turks had begun to ravage the valley
of the Maritza; in 1362 they captured Philippopolis, and in 1382 Sofia. In
1366 Ivan Shishman III., the last Bulgarian tsar, was compelled to declare
himself the vassal of the sultan Murad I., and to send his sister to the
harem of the conqueror. In 1389 the rout of the Servians, Bosnians and
Croats on the famous field of Kossovo decided the fate of the Peninsula.
Shortly afterwards Ivan Shishman was attacked by the Turks; and Trnovo,
after a siege of three months, was captured, sacked and burnt in 1393. The
fate of the last Bulgarian sovereign is unknown: the national legend
represents him as perishing in a battle near Samakov. Vidin, where Ivan's
brother, Strazhimir, had established himself, was taken in 1396, and with
its fall the last remnant of Bulgarian independence disappeared.

The five centuries of Turkish rule (1396-1878) form a dark epoch in
Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and sword through the land;
towns, villages and monasteries were sacked and destroyed, and whole
districts were converted into desolate wastes. The inhabitants of the
plains fled to the mountains, where they founded new settlements. Many of
the nobles embraced the creed of Islam, and were liberally rewarded for
their apostasy; others, together with numbers of the priests and people,
took refuge across the Danube. All the regions formerly ruled by the
Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and Thrace, were placed under the
administration of a governor-general, styled the beylerbey of Rum-ili,
residing at Sofia; Bulgaria proper was divided into the sanjaks of Sofia,
Nikopolis, Vidin, Silistria and Kiustendil. Only a small proportion of the
people followed the example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity; the
conversion of the isolated communities now represented by the Pomaks took
place at various intervals during the next three centuries. A new kind of
feudal system replaced that of the boyars, and fiefs or _spahiliks_ were
conferred on the Ottoman chiefs and the renegade Bulgarian nobles. The
Christian population was subjected to heavy imposts, the principal being
the _haratch_, or capitation-tax, paid to the imperial treasury, and the
tithe on agricultural produce, which was collected by the feudal lord.
Among the most cruel forms of oppression was the requisitioning of young
boys between the ages of ten and twelve, who were sent to Constantinople as
recruits for the corps of janissaries. Notwithstanding the horrors which
attended the Ottoman conquest, the condition of the peasantry during the
first three centuries of Turkish government was scarcely worse than it had
been under the tyrannical rule of the boyars. The contemptuous indifference
with which the Turks regarded the Christian _rayas_ was not altogether to
the disadvantage of the subject race. Military service was not exacted from
the Christians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either their
religion or their language, and within certain limits they were allowed to
retain their ancient local administration and the jurisdiction of their
clergy in regard to inheritances and family affairs. At the time of the
conquest certain towns and villages, known as the _voïnitchki sela_,
obtained important privileges which were not infringed till the 18th
century; on condition of [v.04 p.0781] furnishing contingents to the
Turkish army or grooms for the sultan's horses they obtained exemption from
most of the taxes and complete self-government under their _voïvodi_ or
chiefs. Some of them, such as Koprivshtitza in the Sredna Gora, attained
great prosperity, which has somewhat declined since the establishment of
the principality. While the Ottoman power was at its height the lot of the
subject-races was far less intolerable than during the period of decadence,
which began with the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683. Their rights and
privileges were respected, the law was enforced, commerce prospered, good
roads were constructed, and the great caravans of the Ragusan merchants
traversed the country. Down to the end of the 18th century there appears to
have been only one serious attempt at revolt--that occasioned by the
advance of Prince Sigismund Báthory into Walachia in 1595. A kind of
guerilla warfare was, however, maintained in the mountains by the
_kaiduti_, or outlaws, whose exploits, like those of the Greek _klepkts_,
have been highly idealized in the popular folk-lore. As the power of the
sultans declined anarchy spread through the Peninsula. In the earlier
decades of the 18th century the Bulgarians suffered terribly from the
ravages of the Turkish armies passing through the land during the wars with
Austria. Towards its close their condition became even worse owing to the
horrors perpetrated by the Krjalis, or troops of disbanded soldiers and
desperadoes, who, in defiance of the Turkish authorities, roamed through
the country, supporting themselves by plunder and committing every
conceivable atrocity. After the peace of Belgrade (1737), by which Austria
lost her conquests in the Peninsula, the Servians and Bulgarians began to
look to Russia for deliverance, their hopes being encouraged by the treaty
of Kuchuk Kaïnarji (1774), which foreshadowed the claim of Russia to
protect the Orthodox Christians in the Turkish empire. In 1794 Pasvanoglu,
one of the chiefs of the Krjalis, established himself as an independent
sovereign at Vidin, putting to flight three large Turkish armies which were
despatched against him. This adventurer possessed many remarkable
qualities. He adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained order,
levied taxes and issued a separate coinage. He died in 1807. The memoirs of
Sofronii, bishop of Vratza, present a vivid picture of the condition of
Bulgaria at this time. "My diocese," he writes, "was laid desolate; the
villages disappeared--they had been burnt by the Krjalis and Pasvan's
brigands; the inhabitants were scattered far and wide over Walachia and
other lands."

_The National Revival._--At the beginning of the 19th century the existence
of the Bulgarian race was almost unknown in Europe, even to students of
Slavonic literature. Disheartened by ages of oppression, isolated from
Christendom by their geographical position, and cowed by the proximity of
Constantinople, the Bulgarians took no collective part in the
insurrectionary movement which resulted in the liberation of Servia and
Greece. The Russian invasions of 1810 and 1828 only added to their
sufferings, and great numbers of fugitives took refuge in Bessarabia,
annexed by Russia under the treaty of Bucharest. But the long-dormant
national spirit now began to awake under the influence of a literary
revival. The precursors of the movement were Paisii, a monk of Mount Athos,
who wrote a history of the Bulgarian tsars and saints (1762), and Bishop
Sofronii, whose memoirs have been already mentioned. After 1824 several
works written in modern Bulgarian began to appear, but the most important
step was the foundation, in 1835, of the first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo.
Within ten years at least 53 Bulgarian schools came into existence, and
five Bulgarian printing-presses were at work. The literary movement led the
way to a reaction against the influence and authority of the Greek clergy.
The spiritual domination of the Greek patriarchate had tended more
effectually than the temporal power of the Turks to the effacement of
Bulgarian nationality. After the conquest of the Peninsula the Greek
patriarch became the representative at the Sublime Porte of the
_Rûm-millet_, the Roman nation, in which all the Christian nationalities
were comprised. The independent patriarchate of Trnovo was suppressed; that
of Ochrida was subsequently Hellenized. The Phanariot clergy--unscrupulous,
rapacious and corrupt--succeeded in monopolizing the higher ecclesiastical
appointments and filled the parishes with Greek priests, whose schools, in
which Greek was exclusively taught, were the only means of instruction open
to the population. By degrees Greek became the language of the upper
classes in all the Bulgarian towns, the Bulgarian language was written in
Greek characters, and the illiterate peasants, though speaking the
vernacular, called themselves Greeks. The Slavonic liturgy was suppressed
in favour of the Greek, and in many places the old Bulgarian manuscripts,
images, testaments and missals were committed to the flames. The patriots
of the literary movement, recognizing in the patriarchate the most
determined foe to a national revival, directed all their efforts to the
abolition of Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy and the restoration of the
Bulgarian autonomous church. Some of the leaders went so far as to open
negotiations with Rome, and an archbishop of the Uniate Bulgarian church
was nominated by the pope. The struggle was prosecuted with the utmost
tenacity for forty years. Incessant protests and memorials were addressed
to the Porte, and every effort was made to undermine the position of the
Greek bishops, some of whom were compelled to abandon their sees. At the
same time no pains were spared to diffuse education and to stimulate the
national sentiment. Various insurrectionary movements were attempted by the
patriots Rakovski, Panayot Khitoff, Haji Dimitr, Stephen Karaja and others,
but received little support from the mass of the people. The recognition of
Bulgarian nationality was won by the pen, not the sword. The patriarchate
at length found it necessary to offer some concessions, but these appeared
illusory to the Bulgarians, and long and acrimonious discussions followed.
Eventually the Turkish government intervened, and on the 28th of February
1870 a firman was issued establishing the Bulgarian exarchate, with
jurisdiction over fifteen dioceses, including Nish, Pirot and Veles; the
other dioceses in dispute were to be added to these in case two-thirds of
the Christian population so desired. The election of the first exarch was
delayed till February 1872, owing to the opposition of the patriarch, who
immediately afterwards excommunicated the new head of the Bulgarian church
and all his followers. The official recognition now acquired tended to
consolidate the Bulgarian nation and to prepare it for the political
developments which were soon to follow. A great educational activity at
once displayed itself in all the districts subjected to the new
ecclesiastical power.

_The Revolt of 1876._--Under the enlightened administration of Midhat Pasha
(1864-1868) Bulgaria enjoyed comparative prosperity, but that remarkable
man is not remembered with gratitude by the people owing to the severity
with which he repressed insurrectionary movements. In 1861, 12,000 Crimean
Tatars, and in 1864 a still larger number of Circassians from the Caucasus,
were settled by the Turkish government on lands taken without compensation
from the Bulgarian peasants. The Circassians, a lawless race of
mountaineers, proved a veritable scourge to the population in their
neighbourhood. In 1875 the insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina produced
immense excitement throughout the Peninsula. The fanaticism of the Moslems
was aroused, and the Bulgarians, fearing a general massacre of Christians,
endeavoured to anticipate the blow by organizing a general revolt. The
rising, which broke out prematurely at Koprivshtitza and Panagurishté in
May 1876, was mainly confined to the sanjak of Philippopolis. Bands of
bashi-bazouks were let loose throughout the district by the Turkish
authorities, the Pomaks, or Moslem Bulgarians, and the Circassian colonists
were called to arms, and a succession of horrors followed to which a
parallel can scarcely be found in the history of the middle ages. The
principal scenes of massacre were Panagurishté, Perushtitza, Bratzigovo and
Batak; at the last-named town, according to an official British report,
5000 men, women and children were put to the sword by the Pomaks under
Achmet Aga, who was decorated by the sultan for this exploit. Altogether
some 15,000 persons were massacred in the [v.04 p.0782] district of
Philippopolis, and fifty-eight villages and five monasteries were
destroyed. Isolated risings which took place on the northern side of the
Balkans were crushed with similar barbarity. These atrocities, which were
first made known by an English journalist and an American consular
official, were denounced by Gladstone in a celebrated pamphlet which
aroused the indignation of Europe. The great powers remained inactive, but
Servia declared war in the following month, and her army was joined by 2000
Bulgarian volunteers. A conference of the representatives of the powers,
held at Constantinople towards the end of the year, proposed, among other
reforms, the organization of the Bulgarian provinces, including the greater
part of Macedonia, in two vilayets under Christian governors, with popular
representation. These recommendations were practically set aside by the
Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS, and
PLEVNA). In the campaign which followed the Bulgarian volunteer contingent
in the Russian army played an honourable part; it accompanied Gourko's
advance over the Balkans, behaved with great bravery at Stara Zagora, where
it lost heavily, and rendered valuable services in the defence of Shipka.

_Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin._--The victorious advance of the
Russian army to Constantinople was followed by the treaty of San Stefano
(3rd March 1878), which realized almost to the full the national
aspirations of the Bulgarian race. All the provinces of European Turkey in
which the Bulgarian element predominated were now included in an autonomous
principality, which extended from the Black Sea to the Albanian mountains,
and from the Danube to the Aegean, enclosing Ochrida, the ancient capital
of the Shishmans, Dibra and Kastoria, as well as the districts of Vranya
and Pirot, and possessing a Mediterranean port at Kavala. The Dobrudja,
notwithstanding its Bulgarian population, was not included in the new
state, being reserved as compensation to Rumania for the Russian annexation
of Bessarabia; Adrianople, Salonica and the Chalcidian peninsula were left
to Turkey. The area thus delimited constituted three-fifths of the Balkan
Peninsula, with a population of 4,000,000 inhabitants. The great powers,
however, anticipating that this extensive territory would become a Russian
dependency, intervened; and on the 13th of July of the same year was signed
the treaty of Berlin, which in effect divided the "Big Bulgaria" of the
treaty of San Stefano into three portions. The limits of the principality
of Bulgaria, as then defined, and the autonomous province of Eastern
Rumelia, have been already described; the remaining portion, including
almost the whole of Macedonia and part of the vilayet of Adrianople, was
left under Turkish administration. No special organization was provided for
the districts thus abandoned; it was stipulated that laws similar to the
organic law of Crete should be introduced into the various parts of Turkey
in Europe, but this engagement was never carried out by the Porte. Vranya,
Pirot and Nish were given to Servia, and the transference of the Dobrudja
to Rumania was sanctioned. This artificial division of the Bulgarian nation
could scarcely be regarded as possessing elements of permanence. It was
provided that the prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the
population, and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the
powers, and that, before his election, an assembly of Bulgarian notables,
convoked at Trnovo, should draw up the organic law of the principality. The
drafting of a constitution for Eastern Rumelia was assigned to a European
commission.

_The Constitution of Trnovo._--Pending the completion of their political
organization, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia were occupied by Russian troops
and administered by Russian officials. The assembly of notables, which met
at Trnovo in 1879, was mainly composed of half-educated peasants, who from
the first displayed an extremely democratic spirit, in which they proceeded
to manipulate the very liberal constitution submitted to them by Prince
Dondukov-Korsakov, the Russian governor-general. The long period of Turkish
domination had effectually obliterated all social distinctions, and the
radical element, which now formed into a party under Tzankoff and
Karaveloff, soon gave evidence of its predominance. Manhood suffrage, a
single chamber, payment of deputies, the absence of property qualification
for candidates, and the prohibition of all titles and distinctions, formed
salient features in the constitution now elaborated. The organic statute of
Eastern Rumelia was largely modelled on the Belgian constitution. The
governor-general, nominated for five years by the sultan with the
approbation of the powers, was assisted by an assembly, partly
representative, partly composed of _ex-officio_ members; a permanent
committee was entrusted with the preparation of legislative measures and
the general supervision of the administration, while a council of six
"directors" fulfilled the duties of a ministry.

_Prince Alexander._--On the 29th of April 1879 the assembly at Trnovo, on
the proposal of Russia, elected as first sovereign of Bulgaria Prince
Alexander of Battenberg, a member of the grand ducal house of Hesse and a
nephew of the tsar Alexander II. Arriving in Bulgaria on the 7th of July,
Prince Alexander, then in his twenty-third year, found all the authority,
military and civil, in Russian hands. The history of the earlier portion of
his reign is marked by two principal features--a strong Bulgarian reaction
against Russian tutelage and a vehement struggle against the autocratic
institutions which the young ruler, under Russian guidance, endeavoured to
inaugurate. Both movements were symptomatic of the determination of a
strong-willed and egoistic race, suddenly liberated from secular
oppression, to enjoy to the full the moral and material privileges of
liberty. In the assembly at Trnovo the popular party had adopted the
watchword "Bulgaria for the Bulgarians," and a considerable anti-Russian
contingent was included in its ranks. Young and inexperienced, Prince
Alexander, at the suggestion of the Russian consul-general, selected his
first ministry from a small group of "Conservative" politicians whose views
were in conflict with those of the parliamentary majority, but he was soon
compelled to form a "Liberal" administration under Tzankoff and Karaveloff.
The Liberals, once in power, initiated a violent campaign against
foreigners in general and the Russians in particular; they passed an alien
law, and ejected foreigners from every lucrative position. The Russians
made a vigorous resistance, and a state of chaos ensued. Eventually the
prince, finding good government impossible, obtained the consent of the
tsar to a change of the constitution, and assumed absolute authority on the
9th of May 1881. The Russian general Ernroth was appointed sole minister,
and charged with the duty of holding elections for the Grand Sobranye, to
which the right of revising the constitution appertained. So successfully
did he discharge his mission that the national representatives, almost
without debate, suspended the constitution and invested the prince with
absolute powers for a term of seven years (July 1881). A period of Russian
government followed under Generals Skobelev and Kaulbars, who were
specially despatched from St Petersburg to enhance the authority of the
prince. Their administration, however, tended to a contrary result, and the
prince, finding himself reduced to impotence, opened negotiations with the
Bulgarian leaders and effected a coalition of all parties on the basis of a
restoration of the constitution. The generals, who had made an unsuccessful
attempt to remove the prince, withdrew; the constitution of Trnovo was
restored by proclamation (19th September 1883), and a coalition ministry
was formed under Tzankoff. Prince Alexander, whose relations with the court
of St Petersburg had become less cordial since the death of his uncle, the
tsar Alexander II., in 1881, now incurred the serious displeasure of
Russia, and the breach was soon widened by the part which he played in
encouraging the national aspirations of the Bulgarians.

_Union with Eastern Rumelia._--In Eastern Rumelia, where the Bulgarian
population never ceased to protest against the division of the race,
political life had developed on the same lines as in the principality.
Among the politicians two parties had come into existence--the
Conservatives or self-styled "Unionists," and the Radicals, derisively
called by their opponents [v.04 p.0783] "Kazioni" or treasury-seekers; both
were equally desirous of bringing about the union with the principality.
Neither party, however, while in power would risk the sweets of office by
embarking in a hazardous adventure. It was reserved for the Kazioni, under
their famous leader Zakharia Stoyánoff, who in early life had been a
shepherd, to realize the national programme. In 1885 the Unionists were in
office, and their opponents lost no time in organizing a conspiracy for the
overthrow of the governor-general, Krstovitch Pasha. Their designs were
facilitated by the circumstance that Turkey had abstained from sending
troops into the province. Having previously assured themselves of Prince
Alexander's acquiescence, they seized the governor-general and proclaimed
the union with Bulgaria (18th September). The revolution took place without
bloodshed, and a few days later Prince Alexander entered Philippopolis amid
immense enthusiasm. His position now became precarious. The powers were
scandalized at the infraction of the Berlin Treaty; Great Britain alone
showed sympathy, while Russia denounced the union and urged the Porte to
reconquer the revolted province--both powers thus reversing their
respective attitudes at the congress of Berlin.

_War with Servia._--The Turkish troops were massed at the frontier, and
Servia, hoping to profit by the difficulties of her neighbour, suddenly
declared war (14th November). At the moment of danger the Russian officers,
who filled all the higher posts in the Bulgarian army, were withdrawn by
order of the tsar. In these critical circumstances Prince Alexander
displayed considerable ability and resource, and the nation gave evidence
of hitherto unsuspected qualities. Contrary to general expectation, the
Bulgarian army, imperfectly equipped and led by subaltern officers,
successfully resisted the Servian invasion. After brilliant victories at
Slivnitza (19th November) and Tsaribrod, Prince Alexander crossed the
frontier and captured Pirot (27th November), but his farther progress was
arrested by the intervention of Austria (see SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR). The
treaty of Bucharest followed (3rd of March 1886), declaring, in a single
clause, the restoration of peace. Servia, notwithstanding her aggression,
escaped a war indemnity, but the union with Eastern Rumelia was practically
secured. By the convention of Top-Khané (5th April) Prince Alexander was
recognized by the sultan as governor-general of eastern Rumelia; a personal
union only was sanctioned, but in effect the organic statute disappeared
and the countries were administratively united. These military and
diplomatic successes, which invested the prince with the attributes of a
national hero, quickened the decision of Russia to effect his removal. An
instrument was found in the discontent of several of his officers, who
considered themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards, and a
conspiracy was formed in which Tzankoff, Karaveloff (the prime minister),
Archbishop Clement, and other prominent persons were implicated. On the
night of the 21st of August the prince was seized in his palace by several
officers and compelled, under menace of death, to sign his abdication; he
was then hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo and transported to Russian soil
at Reni. This violent act met with instant disapproval on the part of the
great majority of the nation. Stamboloff, the president of the assembly,
and Colonel Mutkuroff, commandant of the troops at Philippopolis, initiated
a counter-revolution; the provisional government set up by the conspirators
immediately fell, and a few days later the prince, who had been liberated
by the Russian authorities, returned to the country amid every
demonstration of popular sympathy and affection. His arrival forestalled
that of a Russian imperial commissioner, who had been appointed to proceed
to Bulgaria. He now committed the error of addressing a telegram to the
tsar in which he offered to resign his crown into the hands of Russia. This
unfortunate step, by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and
represented Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern
rebuff, and fatally compromised his position. The national leaders, after
obtaining a promise from the Russian representative at Sofia that Russia
would abstain from interference in the internal affairs of the country,
consented to his departure; on the 8th of September he announced his
abdication, and on the following day he left Bulgaria.

_The Regency._--A regency was now formed, in which the prominent figure was
Stamboloff, the most remarkable man whom modern Bulgaria has produced. A
series of attempts to throw the country into anarchy were firmly dealt
with, and the Grand Sobranye was summoned to elect a new prince. The
candidature of the prince of Mingrelia was now set up by Russia, and
General Kaulbars was despatched to Bulgaria to make known to the people the
wishes of the tsar. He vainly endeavoured to postpone the convocation of
the Grand Sobranye in order to gain time for the restoration of Russian
influence, and proceeded on an electoral tour through the country. The
failure of his mission was followed by the withdrawal of the Russian
representatives from Bulgaria. The Grand Sobranye, which assembled at
Trnovo, offered the crown to Prince Valdemar of Denmark, brother-in-law of
the tsar, but the honour was declined, and an anxious period ensued, during
which a deputation visited the principal capitals of Europe with the
twofold object of winning sympathy for the cause of Bulgarian independence
and discovering a suitable candidate for the throne.

_Prince Ferdinand._--On the 7th of July 1887, the Grand Sobranye
unanimously elected Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a grandson,
maternally, of King Louis Philippe. The new prince, who was twenty-six
years of age, was at this time a lieutenant in the Austrian army.
Undeterred by the difficulties of the international situation and the
distracted condition of the country, he accepted the crown, and took over
the government on the 14th of August at Trnovo. His arrival, which was
welcomed with enthusiasm, put an end to a long and critical interregnum,
but the dangers which menaced Bulgarian independence were far from
disappearing. Russia declared the newly-elected sovereign a usurper; the
other powers, in deference to her susceptibilities, declined to recognize
him, and the grand vizier informed him that his presence in Bulgaria was
illegal. Numerous efforts were made by the partisans of Russia to disturb
internal tranquillity, and Stamboloff, who became prime minister on the 1st
of September, found it necessary to govern with a strong hand. A raid led
by the Russian captain Nabokov was repulsed; brigandage, maintained for
political purposes, was exterminated; the bishops of the Holy Synod, who,
at the instigation of Clement, refused to pay homage to the prince, were
forcibly removed from Sofia; a military conspiracy organized by Major
Panitza was crushed, and its leader executed. An attempt to murder the
energetic prime minister resulted in the death of his colleague, Beltcheff,
and shortly afterwards Dr Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian representative at
Constantinople, was assassinated. While contending with unscrupulous
enemies at home, Stamboloff pursued a successful policy abroad. Excellent
relations were established with Turkey and Rumania, valuable concessions
were twice extracted from the Porte in regard to the Bulgarian episcopate
in Macedonia, and loans were concluded with foreign financiers on
comparatively favourable terms. His overbearing character, however,
increased the number of his opponents, and alienated the goodwill of the
prince.

In the spring of 1893 Prince Ferdinand married Princess Marie-Louise of
Bourbon-Parma, whose family insisted on the condition that the issue of the
marriage should be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith. In view of the
importance of establishing a dynasty, Stamboloff resolved on the unpopular
course of altering the clause of the constitution which required that the
heir to the throne should belong to the Orthodox Church, and the Grand
Sobranye, which was convoked at Trnovo in the summer, gave effect to this
decision. The death of Prince Alexander, which took place in the autumn,
and the birth of an heir, tended to strengthen the position of Prince
Ferdinand, who now assumed a less compliant attitude towards the prime
minister. In 1894 Stamboloff resigned office; a ministry was formed under
Dr Stoïloff, and Prince Ferdinand inaugurated a policy of conciliation
towards Russia with a view to obtaining his recognition by the powers. A
Russophil [v.04 p.0784] reaction followed, large numbers of political
refugees returned to Bulgaria, and Stamboloff, exposed to the vengeance of
his enemies, was assassinated in the streets of Sofia (15th July 1895).

The prince's plans were favoured by the death of the tsar Alexander III. in
November 1894, and the reconciliation was practically effected by the
conversion of his eldest son, Prince Boris, to the Orthodox faith (14th
February 1896). The powers having signified their assent, he was nominated
by the sultan prince of Bulgaria and governor-general of Eastern Rumelia
(14th March). Russian influence now became predominant in Bulgaria, but the
cabinet of St Petersburg wisely abstained from interfering in the internal
affairs of the principality. In February 1896 Russia proposed the
reconciliation of the Greek and Bulgarian churches and the removal of the
exarch to Sofia. The project, which involved a renunciation of the exarch's
jurisdiction in Macedonia, excited strong opposition in Bulgaria, and was
eventually dropped. The death of Princess Marie-Louise (30th January 1899),
caused universal regret in the country. In the same month the Stoïloff
government, which had weakly tampered with the Macedonian movement (see
MACEDONIA) and had thrown the finances into disorder, resigned, and a
ministry under Grekoff succeeded, which endeavoured to mend the economic
situation by means of a foreign loan. The loan, however, fell through, and
in October a new government was formed under Ivanchoff and Radoslavoff.
This, in its turn, was replaced by a _cabinet d'affaires_ under General
Petroff (January 1901).

In the following March Karaveloff for the third time became prime minister.
His efforts to improve the financial situation, which now became alarming,
proved abortive, and in January 1902 a Tzankovist cabinet was formed under
Daneff, who succeeded in obtaining a foreign loan. Russian influence now
became predominant, and in the autumn the grand-duke Nicholas, General
Ignatiev, and a great number of Russian officers were present at the
consecration of a Russian church and monastery in the Shipka pass. But the
appointment of Mgr. Firmilian, a Servian prelate, to the important see of
Uskub at the instance of Russia, the suspected designs of that power on the
ports of Varna and Burgas, and her unsympathetic attitude in regard to the
Macedonian Question, tended to diminish her popularity and that of the
government. A cabinet crisis was brought about in May 1903, by the efforts
of the Russian party to obtain control of the army, and the Stambolovists
returned to power under General Petroff. A violent recrudescence of the
Macedonian agitation took place in the autumn of 1902; at the suggestion of
Russia the leaders were imprisoned, but the movement nevertheless gained
force, and in August 1903 a revolt broke out in the vilayet of Monastir,
subsequently spreading to the districts of northern Macedonia and
Adrianople (see MACEDONIA). The barbarities committed by the Turks in
repressing the insurrection caused great exasperation in the principality;
the reserves were partially mobilized, and the country was brought to the
brink of war. In pursuance of the policy of Stamboloff, the Petroff
government endeavoured to inaugurate friendly relations with Turkey, and a
Turco-Bulgarian convention was signed (8th April 1904) which, however,
proved of little practical value.

The outrages committed by numerous Greek bands in Macedonia led to
reprisals on the Greek population in Bulgaria in the summer of 1906, and
the town of Anchialo was partially destroyed. On the 6th of November in
that year Petroff resigned, and Petkoff, the leader of the Stambolovist
party, formed a ministry. The prime minister, a statesman of undoubted
patriotism but of overbearing character, was assassinated on the 11th of
March 1907 by a youth who had been dismissed from a post in one of the
agricultural banks, and the cabinet was reconstituted under Gudeff, a
member of the same party.

_Declaration of Independence._--During the thirty years of its existence
the principality had made rapid and striking progress. Its inhabitants,
among whom a strong sense of nationality had grown up, were naturally
anxious to escape from the restrictions imposed by the treaty of Berlin.
That Servia should be an independent state, while Bulgaria, with its
greater economic and military resources, remained tributary to the Sultan,
was an anomaly which all classes resented; and although the Ottoman
suzerainty was little more than a constitutional fiction, and the tribute
imposed in 1878 was never paid, the Bulgarians were almost unanimous in
their desire to end a system which made their country the vassal of a
Moslem state notorious for its maladministration and corruption. This
desire was strengthened by the favourable reception accorded to Prince
Ferdinand when he visited Vienna in February 1908, and by the so-called
"Geshoff incident," _i.e._ the exclusion of M. Geshoff, the Bulgarian
agent, from a dinner given by Tewfik Pasha, the Ottoman minister for
foreign affairs, to the ministers of all the sovereign states represented
at Constantinople (12th of September 1908). This was interpreted as an
insult to the Bulgarian nation, and as the explanation offered by the grand
vizier was unsatisfactory, M. Geshoff was recalled to Sofia. At this time
the bloodless revolution in Turkey seemed likely to bring about a
fundamental change in the settled policy of Bulgaria. For many years past
Bulgarians had hoped that their own orderly and progressive government,
which had contrasted so strongly with the evils of Turkish rule, would
entitle them to consideration, and perhaps to an accession of territory,
when the time arrived for a definite settlement of the Macedonian Question.
Now, however, the reforms introduced or foreshadowed by the Young Turkish
party threatened to deprive Bulgaria of any pretext for future
intervention; there was nothing to be gained by further acquiescence in the
conditions laid down at Berlin. An opportunity for effective action
occurred within a fortnight of M. Geshoff's recall, when a strike broke out
on those sections of the Eastern Rumelian railways which were owned by
Turkey and leased to the Oriental Railways Company. The Bulgarians alleged
that during the strike Turkish troops were able to travel on the lines
which were closed to all other traffic, and that this fact constituted a
danger to their own autonomy. The government therefore seized the railway,
in defiance of European opinion, and in spite of the protests of the
suzerain power and the Oriental Railways Company. The bulk of the Turkish
army was then in Asia, and the new régime was not yet firmly established,
while the Bulgarian government were probably aware that Russia would not
intervene, and that Austria-Hungary intended to annex Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and thus incidentally to divert attention from their own
violation of the treaty of Berlin. On the 5th of October Prince Ferdinand
publicly proclaimed Bulgaria, united since the 6th of September 1885
(_i.e._ including Eastern Rumelia), an independent kingdom. This
declaration was read aloud by the king in the church of the Forty Martyrs
at Trnovo, the ancient capital of the Bulgarian tsars. The Porte
immediately protested to the powers, but agreed to accept an indemnity. In
February 1909 the Russian government proposed to advance to Bulgaria the
difference between the £4,800,000 claimed by Turkey and the £1,520,000
which Bulgaria undertook to pay. A preliminary Russo-Turkish protocol was
signed on the 16th of March, and in April, after the final agreement had
been concluded, the independence of Bulgaria was recognized by the powers.
Of the indemnity, £1,680,000 was paid on account of the Eastern Rumelian
railways; the allocation of this sum between Turkey and the Oriental
railways was submitted to arbitration. (See TURKEY: _History_.)

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

_Language._--The Bulgarian is at once the most ancient and the most modern
of the languages which constitute the Slavonic group. In its groundwork it
presents the nearest approach to the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, the
liturgical language common to all the Orthodox Slavs, but it has undergone
more important modifications than any of the sister dialects in the
simplification of its grammatical forms; and the analytical character of
its development may be compared with that of the neo-Latin and Germanic
languages. The introduction of the definite article, which appears in the
form of a suffix, and the almost total disappearance of the ancient
declensions, for which the use of [v.04 p.0785] prepositions has been
substituted, distinguish the Bulgarian from all the other members of the
Slavonic family. Notwithstanding these changes, which give the language an
essentially modern aspect, its close affinity with the ecclesiastical
Slavonic, the oldest written dialect, is regarded as established by several
eminent scholars, such as [vS]afa[vr]ik, Schleicher, Leskien and Brugman,
and by many Russian philologists. These authorities agree in describing the
liturgical language as "Old Bulgarian." A different view, however, is
maintained by Miklosich, Kopitar and some others, who regard it as "Old
Slovene." According to the more generally accepted theory, the dialect
spoken by the Bulgarian population in the neighbourhood of Salonica, the
birthplace of SS. Cyril and Methodius, was employed by the Slavonic
apostles in their translations from the Greek, which formed the model for
subsequent ecclesiastical literature. This view receives support from the
fact that the two nasal vowels of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and
lesser _ûs_), which have been modified in all the cognate languages except
Polish, retain their original pronunciation locally in the neighbourhood of
Salonica and Castoria; in modern literary Bulgarian the _rhinesmus_ has
disappeared, but the old nasal vowels preserve a peculiar pronunciation,
the greater _ûs_ changing to _[)u]_, as in English "but," the lesser to
_[)e]_, as in "bet," while in Servian, Russian and Slovene the greater _ûs_
becomes _[=u]_ or _[=o]_, the lesser _e_ or _ya_. The remnants of the
declensions still existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pronominal and adverbial
forms) show a close analogy to those of the old ecclesiastical language.

The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died in 869, St
Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have not been preserved.
The oldest existing copies, which date from the 10th century, already
betray the influence of the contemporary vernacular speech, but as the
alterations introduced by the copyists are neither constant nor regular, it
is possible to reconstruct the original language with tolerable certainty.
The "Old Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an inflexional language of
the synthetic type, containing few foreign elements in its vocabulary. The
Christian terminology was, of course, mainly Greek; the Latin or German
words which occasionally occur were derived from Moravia and Pannonia,
where the two saints pursued their missionary labours. In course of time it
underwent considerable modifications, both phonetic and structural, in the
various Slavonic countries in which it became the liturgical language, and
the various MSS. are consequently classified as "Servian-Slavonic,"
"Croatian-Slavonic," "Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the different
recensions. The "Russian-Slavonic" is the liturgical language now in
general use among the Orthodox Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula owing to the
great number of ecclesiastical books introduced from Russia in the 17th and
18th centuries; until comparatively recent times it was believed to be the
genuine language of the Slavonic apostles. Among the Bulgarians the spoken
language of the 9th century underwent important changes during the next
three hundred years. The influence of these changes gradually asserts
itself in the written language; in the period extending from the 12th to
the 15th century the writers still endeavoured to follow the archaic model,
but it is evident that the vernacular had already become widely different
from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language of the MSS. of
this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands midway between
the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern speech.

In the first half of the 16th century the characteristic features of the
modern language became apparent in the literary monuments. These features
undoubtedly displayed themselves at a much earlier period in the oral
speech; but the progress of their development has not yet been completely
investigated. Much light may be thrown on this subject by the examination
of many hitherto little-known manuscripts and by the scientific study of
the folk-songs. In addition to the employment of the article, the loss of
the noun-declensions, and the modification of the nasal vowels above
alluded to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the final vowels
_yer-golêm_ and _yer-malúk_, the loss of the infinitive, and the increased
variety of the conjugations, distinguish the modern from the ancient
language. The suffix-article, which is derived from the demonstrative
pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the Bulgarian among Slavonic and to the
Rumanian among Latin languages. This and other points of resemblance
between these remotely related members of the Indo-European group are
shared by the Albanian, probably the representative of the old Illyrian
language, and have consequently been attributed to the influence of the
aboriginal speech of the Peninsula. A demonstrative suffix, however, is
sometimes found in Russian and Polish, and traces of the article in an
embryonic state occur in the "Old Bulgarian" MSS. of the 10th and 11th
centuries. In some Bulgarian dialects it assumes different forms according
to the proximity or remoteness of the object mentioned. Thus _zhena-ta_ is
"the woman"; _zhena-va_ or _zhena-sa_, "the woman close by"; _zhena-na_,
"the woman yonder." In the borderland between the Servian and Bulgarian
nationalities the local use of the article supplies the means of drawing an
ethnological frontier; it is nowhere more marked than in the immediate
neighbourhood of the Servian population, as, for instance, at Dibra and
Prilep. The modern Bulgarian has admitted many foreign elements. It
contains about 2000 Turkish and 1000 Greek words dispersed in the various
dialects; some Persian and Arabic words have entered through the Turkish
medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian words are found. Most of these are
rejected by the purism of the literary language, which, however, has been
compelled to borrow the phraseology of modern civilization from the
Russian, French and other European languages. The dialects spoken in the
kingdom may be classed in two groups--the eastern and the western. The main
point of difference is the pronunciation of the letter _yedvoïno_, which in
the eastern has frequently the sound of _ya_, in the western invariably
that of _e_ in "pet." The literary language began in the western dialect
under the twofold influence of Servian literature and the Church Slavonic.
In a short time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and the influence
of Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Russian reaction was
initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been maintained by numerous
writers educated in the German and Austrian universities. Since the
foundation of the university of Sofia the literary language has taken a
middle course between the ultra-Russian models of the past generation and
the dialectic Bulgarian. Little uniformity, however, has yet been attained
in regard to diction, orthography or pronunciation.

The Bulgarians of pagan times are stated by the monk Khrabr, a contemporary
of Tsar Simeon, to have employed a peculiar writing, of which inscriptions
recently found near Kaspitchan may possibly be specimens. The earliest
manuscripts of the "Old Bulgarian" are written in one or other of the two
alphabets known as the glagolitic and Cyrillic (see SLAVS). The former was
used by Bulgarian writers concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th
century. Among the orthodox Slavs the Cyrillic finally superseded the
glagolitic; as modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian alphabet,
which, with the revival of literature, was introduced into Servia and
Bulgaria. Some Russian letters which are superfluous in Bulgarian have been
abandoned by the native writers, and a few characters have been restored
from the ancient alphabet.

_Literature._--The ancient Bulgarian literature, originating in the works
of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, consisted for the most part
of theological works translated from the Greek. From the conversion of
Boris down to the Turkish conquest the religious character predominates,
and the influence of Byzantine literature is supreme. Translations of the
gospels and epistles, lives of the saints, collections of sermons, exegetic
religious works, translations of Greek chronicles, and miscellanies such as
the _Sbornik_ of St Sviatoslav, formed the staple of the national
literature. In the time of Tsar Simeon, himself an author, considerable
literary activity prevailed; among the more remarkable works of this period
was the _Shestodnev_, or Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account of the
creation. A little later the heresy of the Bogomils gave an impulse to
controversial writing. The principal champions of orthodoxy were St Kosmâs
and the monk Athanas of Jerusalem; among the Bogomils the _Questions of St
Ivan Bogosloff_, a work containing a description of the beginning and the
end of the world, was held in high esteem. Contemporaneously with the
spread of this sect a number of apocryphal works, based on the Scripture
narrative, but embellished with Oriental legends of a highly imaginative
character, obtained great popularity. Together with these religious
writings works of fiction, also of Oriental origin, made their appearance,
such as the life of Alexander the Great, the story of Troy, the tales of
_Stephanit and Ichnilat_ and _Barlaam and Josaphat_, the latter founded on
the biography of Buddha. These were for the most part reproductions or
variations of the fantastical romances which circulated through Europe in
the middle ages, and many of them have left traces in the national legends
and folk-songs. In the 13th century, under the Asên dynasty, numerous
historical works or chronicles (_lêtopisi_) were composed. State records
appear to have existed, but none of them have been preserved. With the
Ottoman conquest literature disappeared; the manuscripts became the food of
moths and worms, or fell a prey to the fanaticism of the Phanariot clergy.
The library of the patriarchs of Trnovo was committed to the flames by the
Greek metropolitan Hilarion in 1825.

The monk Païsii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii (1739-1815) have
already been mentioned as the precursors of the literary [v.04 p.0786]
revival. The _Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska_ (1762) of Païsii, written in the
solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of little historical value, but its
influence upon the Bulgarian race was immense. An ardent patriot, Païsii
recalls the glories of the Bulgarian tsars and saints, rebukes his
fellow-countrymen for allowing themselves to be called Greeks, and
denounces the arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot prelates. The _Life
and Sufferings of sinful Sofronii_ (1804) describes in simple and touching
language the condition of Bulgaria at the beginning of the 19th century.
Both works were written in a modified form of the church Slavonic. The
first printed work in the vernacular appears to have been the
_Kyriakodromion_, a translation of sermons, also by Sofronii, published in
1806. The Servian and Greek insurrections quickened the patriotic
sentiments of the Bulgarian refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia
and southern Russia, and Bucharest became the centre of their political and
literary activity. A modest _bukvar_, or primer, published at Kronstadt by
Berovitch in 1824, was the first product of the new movement. Translations
of the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories and various
elementary treatises now appeared. With the multiplication of books came
the movement for establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the monk Neophyt
Rilski (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the author of the first
Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational works, and translated the
New Testament into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary
renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the
patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national zeal, Liuben
Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff
(1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend Haji Dimitr,
an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language, and Petko
Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical and erotic,
moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a great influence over
the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly governor-general of eastern
Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have written
historical works. Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of
revolutionary and satirical ballads; his friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d.
1889), who began life as a shepherd, has left some interesting memoirs. The
most distinguished Bulgarian man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose
epic and lyric poems and prose works form the best specimens of the modern
literary language. His novel _Pod Igoto_ (Under the Yoke) has been
translated into several European languages. The best dramatic work is
_Ivanko_, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote some
novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological
treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and Urumoff to
Velnovski's _Flora Bulgarica_, no original works on natural science have as
yet been produced; a like dearth is apparent in the fields of philosophy,
criticism and fine art, but it must be remembered that the literature is
still in its infancy. The ancient folk-songs have been preserved in several
valuable collections; though inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they
deserve scientific attention. Several periodicals and reviews have been
founded in modern times. Of these the most important are the
_Perioditchesko Spisanie_, issued since 1869 by the Bulgarian Literary
Society, and the _Sbornik_, a literary and scientific miscellany, formerly
edited by Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published
by the government at irregular intervals.

AUTHORITIES.--C.J. Jire[vc]ek, _Das Furstenthum Bulgarien_ (Prague, 1891),
and _Cesty po Bulharsku_ (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works
of the first importance; Léon Lamouche, _La Bulgarie dans le passé et le
présent_ (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, _Die
Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgarians_ (Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz,
_Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan_ (Leipzig, 1882); A.G. Drander, _Événements
politiques en Bulgarie_ (Paris, 1896); and _Le Prince Alexandre de
Battenberg_ (Paris, 1884); A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipzig, 1898); A.
Tuma, _Die östliche Balkanhalbinsel_ (Vienna, 1886); A. de Gubernatis, _La
Bulgarie et les Bulgares_ (Florence, 1899); E. Blech, _Consular Report on
Bulgaria in 1889_ (London, 1890); _La Bulgarie contemporaine_ (issued by
the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905).
Geology: F. Toula, _Reisen und geologische Untersuchungen in Bulgarien_
(Vienna, 1890); J. Cviji['c], "Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," in _C.R.
IX. Cong. géol. intern. de Vienne_, pp. 348-370, with map, 1904. History:
C.J. Jire[vc]ek, _Geschichte der Bulgaren_ (Prague, 1876); (a summary in
_The Balkans_, by William Miller, London, 1896); Sokolov, _Iz drevneì
istorii Bolgar_ (Petersburg, 1879); Uspenski, _Obrazovanïe vtorago
Bolgarskago tsarstva_ (Odessa, 1879); _Acta Bulgariae ecclesiastica_,
published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887). Language: F.
Miklosich, _Vergleichende Grammatik_ (Vienna, 1879); and _Geschichte d.
Lautbezeichnung im Bulgarischen_ (Vienna, 1883); A. Leskien, _Handbuch d.
altbulgarischen Sprache_ (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich,
_Staroblgarska Gramatika_ (Sofia, 1896); _Das Ostbulgarische_ (Vienna,
1903); Labrov, _Obzor zvulkovikh i formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago
yezika_ (Moscow, 1893); W.R. Morfill, _A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian
Language_ (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, _Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache
leicht und schnell zu erlernen_ (Vienna, 1888). Literature: L.A.H. Dozon,
_Chansons populaires bulgares inédites_ (with French translations), (Paris,
1875); A. Strausz, _Bulgarische Volksdichtungen_ (translations with a
preface and notes), (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, _Légendes
religieuses bulgares_ (Paris, 1896); Pypin and Spasovich, _History of the
Slavonic Literature_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French
translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, _Bulgarian Chrestomathy_
(Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov, _Blgarska Literatura_ (Philippopolis,
1896); Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov
(Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882),
Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveïkov (Sofia,
1899). See also _The Shade of the Balkans_, by Pencho Slaveïkov, H. Bernard
and E.J. Dillon (London, 1904).

(J. D. B.)

BULGARIA, EASTERN, formerly a powerful kingdom which existed from the 5th
to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present territory of the
provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and N. Astrakhan, perhaps extending
also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzañ, surrounded by numerous
graves in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made,
occupies the site of one of the cities--perhaps the capital--of that
extinct kingdom. The history, _Tarikh Bulgar_, said to have been written in
the 12th century by an Arabian cadi of the city Bolgari, has not yet been
discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid
Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited the
kingdom, beginning with the 10th century, have left descriptions of it. The
Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have assimilated
Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the 5th century they attacked
the Russians in the Black Sea prairies, and afterwards made raids upon the
Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them
not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and houses
in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by Arabian architects. Ibn
Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides cattle breeding. Trade with
Persia and India, as also with the Khazars and the Russians, and
undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation,
their main riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After
their conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which are
mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod
(Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often raided by the Russians. In
the 13th century it was conquered by the Mongols, and became for a time the
seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. In the second half of the 15th
century Bolgari became part of the Kazañ kingdom, lost its commercial and
political importance, and was annexed to Russia after the fall of Kazañ.

(P. A. K.)

BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna, sometimes
erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of
the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors"
of the law school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of
the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden
Mouth" (_os aureum_). He died in 1166 A.D., at a very advanced age. Popular
tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo
de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (_q.v._),
but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting
this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general
tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus
were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many
respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being
at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents
styled the equity of "the purse" (_aequitas bursalis_), whilst Bulgarus
adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus
ultimately prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes
Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a
commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus
took the leading part amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in
1158, and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I.
His most celebrated work is his commentary _De Regulis Juris_, which was at
one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly
reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence
contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the
pen of Placentinus. This [v.04 p.0787] _Commentary_, which is the earliest
extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Gloss-writers, is,
according to Savigny, a model specimen of the excellence of the method
introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results
which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and
exclusive study of the sources of law.

BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on the 25th of
March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter
College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his
refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained
privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was that of St
George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively to be rector of
Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary of Gloucester (1678),
archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on
the 17th of February 1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered
to the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached
strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display great erudition
and powerful thinking. The _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1670) is an attempt to
show the fundamental agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with
regard to justification. The _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ (1685), his greatest
work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the
ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a
thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church
literature. The _Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (1694) and _Primitiva et
Apostolica Traditio_ (1710) won high praise from Bossuet and other French
divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of the _Judicium_, Bull wrote a
treatise on _The Corruptions of the Church of Rome_, which became very
popular.

The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at Oxford by
the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This
edition contains the _Life_ by Robert Nelson. The _Harmonia, Defensio_ and
_Judicium_ are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology
(Oxford, 1842-1855).

BULL, JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist, was born in
Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he
joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of
Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in
succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education.
In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University;
and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he
was unable to lecture in Latin according to the foundation-rules of that
college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his
favour by permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture
on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and
Germany, and was everywhere received with the respect due to his talents.
Anthony Wood tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed
the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition
already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him
by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to
England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in
1606. He played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on the
16th of July 1607, in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been
appointed one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he
resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 he
again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post as
one of the organists in the arch-duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was
appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died
in that city on the 12th or 13th of March 1628. Little of his music has
been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its merits
(see Dr Willibald Nagel's _Geschichte der Musik in England_, ii. (1897), p.
155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's _Geschichte der Klaviermusik_ (1899), p. 54,
&c.). Contemporary writers speak in the highest terms of Bull's skill as a
performer on the organ and the virginals, and there is no doubt that he
contributed much to the development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck
(1562-1621), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on
composition as complete without placing in it a canon by John Bull, and the
latter wrote a fantasia upon a fugue of Swielinck. For the ascription to
Bull of the composition of the British national anthem, see NATIONAL
ANTHEMS. Good modern reprints, _e.g._ of the Fitzwilliam _Virginal-Book_,
"The King's Hunting Jig," and one or two other pieces, are in the
repertories of modern pianists from Rubinstein onwards.

BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist, was born in Bergen,
Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At first a pupil of the violinist
Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught, he was intended for the church, but
failed in his examinations in 1828 and became a musician, directing the
philharmonic and dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he went to Cassel,
on a visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He now began to study
law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence of Paganini, and
definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso. He made his first
appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin at a concert of his own in
Paris in 1832. Successful tours in Italy and England followed soon
afterwards, and he was not long in obtaining European celebrity by his
brilliant playing of his own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to
the United States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he
formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in Bergen; this
became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in consequence of harassing
business complications he went again to America. During this visit
(1852-1857) he bought 125,000 acres in Potter county, Pennsylvania, for a
Norwegian colony, which was to have been called Oleana after his name; but
his title turned out to be fraudulent, and the troubles he went through in
connexion with the undertaking were enough to affect his health very
seriously, though not to hinder him for long from the exercise of his
profession. Another attempt to found an academy of music in Christiania had
no permanent result. In 1836 he had married Alexandrine Félicie Villeminot,
the grand-daughter of a lady to whom he owed much at the beginning of his
musical career in Paris; she died in 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C.
Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he confined himself to the career of a
violinist. He died at Lysö, near Bergen, on the 17th of August 1880. Ole
Bull's "polacca guerriera" and many of his other violin pieces, among them
two concertos, are interesting to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his
prodigious technique. The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains
many illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives a
picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression in a
somewhat boisterous form of practical humour.

There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the Ole Bulls
Plads in Bergen.

BULL, (1) The male of animals belonging to the section _Bovina_ of the
family _Bovidae_ (_q.v._), particularly the uncastrated male of the
domestic ox (_Bos taurus_). (See CATTLE.) The word, which is found in M.E.
as _bole, bolle_ (cf. Ger. _Bulle_, and Dutch _bul_ or _bol_), is also used
of the males of other animals of large size, _e.g._ the elephant, whale,
&c. The O.E. diminutive form _bulluc_, meaning originally a young bull, or
bull calf, survives in bullock, now confined to a young castrated male ox
kept for slaughter for beef.

On the London and New York stock exchanges "bull" and "bear" are
correlative technical slang terms. A "bull" is one who "buys for a rise,"
_i.e._ he buys stocks or securities, grain or other commodities (which,
however, he never intends to take up), in the hope that before the date on
which he must take delivery he will be able to sell the stocks, &c., at a
higher price, taking as a profit the difference between the buying and
selling price. A "bear" is the reverse of a "bull." He is one who "sells
for a fall," _i.e._ he sells stock, &c., which he does not actually
possess, in the hope of buying it at a lower price before the time at which
he has contracted to deliver (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE). The word
"bull," according to the _New English Dictionary_, was used in this sense
as early as the beginning of the 18th century. The origin of the use is not
known, though it is tempting to connect it with the fable of the frog and
the bull.

[v.04 p.0788] The term "bull's eye" is applied to many circular objects,
and particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of a sheet
of blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used for windows in small
leaded panes. The French term _oeil de boeuf_ is used of a circular window.
Other circular objects to which the word is applied are the centre of a
target or a shot that hits the central division of the target, a
plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex glass in it, a
thick circular piece of glass let into the deck or side of a ship, &c., for
lighting the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge,
and with a hole through the centre through which a rope can be passed, and
also a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes presages a hurricane.

(2) The use of the word "bull," for a verbal blunder, involving a
contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense it is used
with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Milton's _True
Religion_, "and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Roman Catholick,
it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope's Bulls, as if he should say a
universal particular, a Catholick schismatick." Probably this use may be
traced to a M.E. word _bul_, first found in the _Cursor Mundi_, c. 1300, in
the sense of falsehood, trickery, deceit; the _New English Dictionary_
compares an O.Fr. _boul_, _boule_ or _bole_, in the same sense. Although
modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, possibly
owing to the many famous "bulls" attributed to Sir Boyle Roche (_q.v._),
the early quotations show that in the 17th century, when the meaning now
attached to the word begins, no special country was credited with them.

(3) _Bulla_ (Lat for "bubble"), which gives us another "bull" in English,
was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on
doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes. It was applied, however, more
particularly to an ornament, generally of gold, a round or heart-shaped box
containing an amulet, worn suspended from the neck by children of noble
birth until they assumed the _toga virilis_, when it was hung up and
dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing the bulla, which was
regarded as a charm against sickness and the evil eye, was of Etruscan
origin. After the Second Punic War all children of free birth were
permitted to wear it; but those who did not belong to a noble or wealthy
family were satisfied with a bulla of leather. Its use was only permitted
to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrated a triumph. Young
girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and even favourite
animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, _La Bolla d' Oro_, 1732; Yates,
_Archaeological Journal_, vi., 1849; viii., 1851). In ecclesiastical and
medieval Latin, _bulla_ denotes the seal of oval or circular form, bearing
the name and generally the image of its owner, which was attached to
official documents. A metal was used instead of wax in the warm countries
of southern Europe. The best-known instances are the papal _bullae_, which
have given their name to the documents (bulls) to which they are attached.
(See DIPLOMATIC; SEALS; CURIA ROMANA; GOLDEN BULL.)

BULLER, CHARLES (1806-1848), English politician, son of Charles Buller (d.
1848), a member of a well-known Cornish family (see below), was born in
Calcutta on the 6th of August 1806; his mother, a daughter of General
William Kirkpatrick, was an exceptionally talented woman. He was educated
at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and afterwards at
Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1831. Before this date,
however, he had succeeded his father as member of parliament for West Looe;
after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 and the consequent
disenfranchisement of this borough, he was returned to parliament by the
voters of Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died in London on the
29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles Greville says, "a
memory cherished for his delightful social qualities and a vast credit for
undeveloped powers." An eager reformer and a friend of John Stuart Mill,
Buller voted for the great Reform Bill, favoured other progressive
measures, and presided over the committee on the state of the records and
the one appointed to inquire into the state of election law in Ireland in
1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord Durham as private secretary, and
after rendering conspicuous service to his chief, returned with him to
England in the same year. After practising as a barrister, Buller was made
judge-advocate-general in 1846, and became chief commissioner of the poor
law about a year before his death. For a long time it was believed that
Buller wrote Lord Durham's famous "Report on the affairs of British North
America." However, this is now denied by several authorities, among them
being Durham's biographer, Stuart J. Reid, who mentions that Buller
described this statement as a "groundless assertion" in an article which he
wrote for the _Edinburgh Review_. Nevertheless it is quite possible that
the "Report" was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly bears
traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man, witty, popular and
generous, and is described by Carlyle as "the genialest radical I have ever
met." Among his intimate friends were Grote, Thackeray, Monckton Milnes and
Lady Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster Abbey, and another was
unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote "A Sketch of Lord Durham's mission
to Canada," which has not been printed.

See T. Carlyle, _Reminiscences_ (1881); and S.J. Reid, _Life and Letters of
the 1st earl of Durham_ (1906).

BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY (1839-1908), British general, son of James
Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton, Devonshire, and the descendant of an
old Cornish family, long established in Devonshire, tracing its ancestry in
the female line to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated at Eton. He
entered the army in 1858, and served with the 60th (King's Royal Rifles) in
the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became captain, and went on the Red
River expedition, where he was first associated with Colonel (afterwards
Lord) Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee
campaign as head of the Intelligence Department, and was slightly wounded
at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in despatches, made a C.B., and
raised to the rank of major. In 1874 he inherited the family estates. In
the Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an
intrepid and popular leader, and acquired a reputation for courage and
dogged determination. In particular his conduct of the retreat at Inhlobane
(March 28, 1879) drew attention to these qualities, and on that occasion he
earned the V.C.; he was also created C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and
A.D.C. to the queen. In the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief
of staff; and thus added to his experience of South African conditions of
warfare. In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence department in the
Egyptian campaign, and was knighted for his services. Two years later he
commanded an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was
at the battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for
distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord
Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of the desert column
when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his
conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu Klea
(February 16-17), and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland
to inquire into the "moonlighting" outrages, and for a short time he acted
as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was appointed
quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890 to 1897 he held the
office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank of lieutenant-general in
1891. At the war office his energy and ability inspired the belief that he
was fitted for the highest command, and in 1895, when the duke of Cambridge
was about to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's cabinet
intended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a scheme of
reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's commission. On the eve of
this change, however, the government was defeated, and its successors
appointed Lord Wolseley to the command under the old title of
commander-in-chief. In 1896 he was made a full general.

In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer War
broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African Field Force
(see TRANSVAAL), and landed [v.04 p.0789] at Cape Town on the 31st of
October. Owing to the Boer investment of Ladysmith and the consequent
gravity of the military situation in Natal, he unexpectedly hurried thither
in order to supervise personally the operations, but on the 15th of
December his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso (see LADYSMITH)
was repulsed. The government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic
tone of Buller's messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the
chief command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal
force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27) proved
another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (January 24)
causing consternation in England. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, February
5-7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task in
the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill and
the relief of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Buller
remained in command of the Natal army till October 1900, when he returned
to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the meanwhile slowly done a
great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15),
forcing Lang's Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). But
though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his reputation
for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence of his own
men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and difficult
operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, therefore, in
1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command met with a
vigorous press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his
conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly to a message
to Sir George White in which he seriously contemplated and provided for the
contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On the 10th of October
1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer
to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of discipline,
and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. For the remaining years of
his life he played an active part as a country gentleman, accepting in
dignified silence the prolonged attacks on his failures in South Africa;
among the public generally, and particularly in his own county, he never
lost his popularity. He died on the 2nd of June 1908. He had married in
1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him
with one daughter.

A _Memoir_, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909.

BULLET (Fr. _boulet_, diminutive of _boule_, ball). The original meaning (a
"small ball") has, since the end of the 16th century, been narrowed down to
the special case of the projectile used with small arms of all kinds,
irrespective of its size or shape. (For details see AMMUNITION; GUN; RIFLE,
&c.)

BULL-FIGHTING, the national Spanish sport. The Spanish name is
_tauromaquia_ (Gr. [Greek: tauros], bull, and [Greek: machê], combat).
Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the
amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature of
worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting formerly common in England.
The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it is probable
that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered that province.
It is certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman
amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and other places, and
that these constituted the favourite sport of the Moorish chieftains.
Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid himself as the original
Spanish bull-fighter, it is probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull
in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the
lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in the sport,
proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish knights. A spirited
rivalry in the art between the Christian and Moorish warriors resulted, in
which even the kings of Castile and other Spanish princes took an ardent
interest. After the Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II.,
bull-fighting continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the
method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the time of the
accession of the house of Austria it had become an indispensable accessory
of every court function, and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the
people by killing a bull with his own lance on the birthday of his son,
Philip II. Philip IV. is also known to have taken a personal part in
bull-fights. During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the
short spear (_rejoncillo_), and the leg armour still worn by the
_picadores_ was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon witnessed
a radical transformation in the character of the bullfight, which the
aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the combats
professional subordinates who, by the end of the 17th century, had become
the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great professional
_espada_ (_i.e._ swordsman, the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the
bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who
introduced the _estoque_, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the
_muleta_, the red flag carried by the _espada_ (see below), the spear
falling into complete disuse.

For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed gradually
into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish bull-fights have
been repeatedly introduced into France and Italy, but the cruelty of the
sport has prevented its taking firm root. In Portugal a kind of
bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the
bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never being killed. In
Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the sport, by Ferdinand
II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella, by Charles III., by Ferdinand
VI., and by Charles IV.; and several popes placed its devotees under the
ban of excommunication with no perceptible effect upon its popularity.
Before the introduction of railways there were comparatively few bull-rings
(_plazas de toros_) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied in recent
years, in both Spain and Spanish America. At the present day nearly every
larger town and city in Spain has its _plaza de toros_ (about 225
altogether), built in the form of the Roman circuses with an oval open
arena covered with sand, surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high.
Between this and the seats of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where
those bull-fighters who are not at the moment engaged take their stations.
The _plazas de toros_ are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds
more than 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two or three
thousand. Every bull-ring has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel
where the _toreros_ (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist.

The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and are
reared in special establishments (_vacádas_), the most celebrated of which
is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When quite young they are
branded with the emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of
their courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained
further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character of horns,
and action in attack are all objects of the keenest observation and study.
The best bulls are worth from £40 to £60. About 1300 bulls are killed
annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians,
consist of _espadas_ (or _matadores_), _banderilleros_ and _picadores_, in
addition to whom there are numbers of assistants (_chulos_), drivers and
other servants. For each bull-fight two or three _espadas_ are engaged,
each providing his own quadrille (_cuadrilla_), composed of several
_banderilleros_ and _picadores_. Six bulls are usually killed during one
_corrida_ (bull-fight), the _espadas_ engaged taking them in turn. The
_espada_ must have passed through a trying novitiate in the art at the
royal school of bull-fighting, after which he is given his _alternativa_,
or licence.

The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters with
_alguaciles_, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head, followed,
in three rows, by the _espadas, banderilleros, picadores, chulos_ and the
richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from the arena the
carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest possible brilliance
of costume and accoutrements is aimed at, and the picture presented is one
of dazzling colour. The _espadas_ and _banderilleros_ wear short jackets
and small-clothes of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with
[v.04 p.0790] light silk stockings and heelless shoes; the _picadores_
(pikemen on horseback) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in
steel armour covered with leather as a protection against the horns of the
bull.

The fight is divided into three divisions (_suertes_). When the opening
procession has passed round the arena the president of the _corrida_,
usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the _alguaciles_ the key
to the _toril_, or bull-cells. As soon as the supernumeraries have left the
ring, and the _picadores_, mounted upon blindfolded horses in wretched
condition, have taken their places against the barrier, the door of the
_toril_ is opened, and the bull, which has been goaded into fury by the
affixing to his shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of the colours of
his breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the _suerte de picar_,
or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the mounted _picadores_,
ripping up and wounding the horses, often to the point of complete
disembowelment. As the bull attacks the horse, the _picador_, who is armed
with a short-pointed, stout pike (_garrocha_), thrusts this into the bull's
back with all his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its
attention to another _picador_. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the
bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both
animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger by the
_chulos_ and _banderilleros_, who, by means of their red cloaks (_capas_),
divert the bull from the fallen _picador_, who either escapes from the ring
or mounts a fresh horse. The number of horses killed in this manner is one
of the chief features of the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned
accordingly. About 6000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound
of a trumpet the _picadores_ retire from the ring, the dead horses are
dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the _suerte de
banderillear_, or planting the darts, begins. The _banderillas_ are barbed
darts about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper, one being held in
each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30 yds. from the bull,
draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull
charges, the _banderillero_ steps towards him, dexterously plants both
darts in the beast's neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its
horns. Four pairs of _banderillas_ are planted in this way, rendering the
bull mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardly nature
and refuse to attack repeatedly, _banderillas de fuego_ (fire) are used.
These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which explode with terrific
noise as the bull careers about the ring. During this division numerous
manoeuvres are sometimes indulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull
out, such as leaping between his horns, vaulting over his back with the
_garrocha_ as he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate
flauntings of the cloak (_floréos_, flourishes).

Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of the fight,
the _suerte de matár_ (killing). This is carried out by the _espada_,
alone, his assistants being present only in the case of emergency or to get
the bull back to the proper part of the ring, should he bolt to a distance.
The _espada_, taking his stand before the box of the president, holds aloft
in his left hand sword and _muleta_ and in his right his hat, and in set
phrases formally dedicates (_brinde_) the death of the bull to the
president or some other personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat
behind his back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull.
This is a process accompanied by much formality. The _espada_, armed with
the _estoque_, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the
proper position by means of passes with the _muleta_, a small red silk flag
mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a single thrust,
delivered through the back of the neck close to the head and downward into
the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one, requiring long practice as
well as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object,
the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The stroke
(_estocada_) is usually given _á volapié_ (half running), the _espada_
delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull usually standing
still. Another method is _recibiéndo_ (receiving), the _espada_ receiving
the onset of the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need a
_coup de grâce_, it is given by a _chulo_, called _puntilléro_, with a
dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out
of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the _espada_ makes a tour of
honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the most
extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is
introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such as a
coronation, a _corrida_ in the ancient style is given by amateurs, who are
clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and mounted upon steeds
of good breed and condition. They are armed with sharp lances, with which
they essay to kill the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds
from his horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened by
many wounds and tired out by much running, the performances of the
gentlemen fighters are remarkable for pluck and dexterity.

See Moratin, _Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros_; Bedoya's _Historia
del Toreo_; J.S. Lozano, _Manual de Tauromaquia_ (Seville, 1882); A.
Chapman and W.T. Buck, _Wild Spain_ (London, 1893).

BULLFINCH (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_), the ancient English name  given to a bird
belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), of a bluish-grey and
black colour above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female
differing chiefly in having its under-parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy
bird, not associating with other species, and frequents well-wooded
districts, being very rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds
a shallow nest composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or
thick underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four or five
eggs of a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with purple. The young
remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring, not
building their nests, however, till May. In spring and summer they feed on
the buds of trees and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as contain
the incipient blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards and
gardens. In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits and on
seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and pleasant,
but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses, however, great powers
of imitation, and considerable memory, and can thus be taught to whistle a
variety of tunes. Bullfinches are very abundant in the forests of Germany,
and it is there that most of the piping bullfinches are trained. They are
taught continuously for nine months, and the lesson is repeated throughout
the first moulting, as during that change the young birds are apt to forget
all that they have previously acquired. The bullfinch is a native of the
northern countries of Europe, occurring in Italy and other southern parts
only as a winter visitor. White and black varieties are occasionally met
with; the latter are often produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on
hempseed, when its plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely breeds in
confinement, and hybrids between it and the canary have been produced on
but few occasions.

BULLI, a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Australia, 59 m. by rail
S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the headquarters of the Bulli Mining
Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked
by a tunnel, 2 m. long, driven into the heart of the mountain. From this
tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for 1½ m. to a pier, whence it is
shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet of steam colliers. The
beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea, over the Illawarra range, is
one of the most attractive tourist resorts in Australia.

BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son of Dean Heinrich
Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, on
the 18th of July 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the
teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to
first-hand  study of the Bible. Next the writings of Luther and Melanchthon
appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in the cloister school of Cappel,
he lectured on Melanchthon's _Loci Communes_ (1521). He heard Zwingli at
Zürich in 1527, and next year accompanied him to the disputation at Berne.
He was made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a
nun, by whom he had eleven children. After the battle [v.04 p.0791] of
Cappel (11th of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten.
On the 9th of December 1531 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief
pastor of Zürich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially
unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little
sympathy. His controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his
correspondence with Lelio Sozini (see SOCINUS), exhibit, in different
connexions, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he
concluded (1549) the _Consensus Tigurinus_ on the Lord's Supper. The
(second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in Switzerland, Hungary,
Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of the _Zurich Letters_,
published by the Parker Society, testify to his influence on the English
reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into
English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and
polemical, have not been collected. He died at Zürich on the 17th of
September 1575.

See Carl Pestalozzi, _Leben_ (1858); Raget Christoffel, _H. Bullinger_
(1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897).

(A. GO.*)

BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a
standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the
French form "puissent sauvement porter à les exchanges ou bullion ...
argent en plate, vessel d'argent, &c."; and apparently it is connected with
_bouillon_, the sense of "boiling" being transferred in English to the
melting of metal, so that _bullion_ in the passage quoted meant
"melting-house" or "mint." The first recorded instance of the use of the
word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the
use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they
should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and
though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in
silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to
infinitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime
element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and other articles
of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and
ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not
only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value.

BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740), English actor, "of great glee and much
comic vivacity," was the original Clincher in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_
(1699), Boniface in _The Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall
in Pavener's _Artful Wife_ (1717). He played at all the London theatres of
his time, and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three
sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (c.
1690-1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln's Inn Fields
displayed "a considerable versatility of talent." Christopher created a few
original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or
adapter:--_A Woman's Revenge_ (1715); _Slip_; _Adventures of Half an Hour_
(1716); _The Cobbler of Preston_; _Woman's a Riddle_; _The Perjurer_
(1717); and _The Traitor_ (1718).

BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made of a small flat slip of
wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round
rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by
Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and
sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia,
where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the
utmost awe by the "blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or sacred "tunduns,"
are of two types, the "grandfather" or "man tundun," distinguished by its
deep tone, and the "woman tundun," which, being smaller, gives forth a
weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are
never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the
bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice of the "Great Spirit," and on
hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the
British Museum, and travellers in Africa state that it is known and held
sacred there. Thus among the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed
"Voice of Oro," their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which
is actually worshipped as the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer
has been shown to be very widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus
[Greek: rhombos] which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among
North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the
procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The
instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians
(J.G. Bourke, _Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._, 1892),
among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, "Social Organization, &c.,
of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_),
and in Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres
Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is used
as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), and in
Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a
woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as
among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man
renowned for his bravery.

See A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (1884); J.D.E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_
(Hamburg, 1896); A.C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_, and in the _Journ.
Anthrop. Instit._ xix., 1890; G.M.C. Theal, _Kaffir Folk-Lore_; A.B. Ellis,
_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_ (1894); R.C. Codrington, _The Melanesians_
(1891).

BULL RUN, a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the name to two
famous battles in the American Civil War.

(1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) was
fought on the 21st of July 1861 between the Union forces under
Brigadier-General Irvin McDowell and the Confederates under General Joseph
E. Johnston. Both armies were newly raised and almost untrained. After a
slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies prepared for
a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding all the
passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway bridge. McDowell's
forces rendezvoused around Centreville, and both commanders, sensible of
the temper of their troops, planned a battle for the 21st. On his part
McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to attack the Stone Bridge, two
to make a turning movement via Sudley Springs, the remaining division
(partly composed of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to watch the
lower fords. The local Confederate commander, Brigadier-General P.G.T.
Beauregard, had also intended to advance, and General Johnston, who arrived
by rail on the evening of the 20th with the greater part of a fresh army,
and now assumed command of the whole force, approved an offensive movement
against Centreville for the 21st; but orders miscarried, and the Federal
attack opened before the movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then
decided to fight a defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the
single brigade of Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no
serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day.

[Illustration]

The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions [v.04
p.0792] engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary checks.
At 6 A.M., when the troops told off for the frontal attack appeared before
the Stone Bridge, the turning movement was by no means well advanced. Evans
had time to change position so as to command both the Stone Bridge and
Sudley Springs, and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee,
Bartow and T.J. Jackson. About 9.30 the leading Federal brigade from Sudley
Springs came into action, and two hours later Evans, Bee and Bartow had
been driven off the Matthews hill in considerable confusion. But on the
Henry House hill Jackson's brigade stood, as General Bee said to his men,
"like a stone wall," and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were
continually reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very
severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusiastic
volunteers, continued to attack. About 1.30 P.M. he brought up two regular
batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being mistaken
for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns by close
rifle fire, and from that time, though the hill was taken and retaken
several times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At 2.45 more of
Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade charged with the
bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in flank by the
last brigades of Johnston's army, which arrived at the critical moment from
the railway. They gave way at once, tired out, and conscious that the day
was lost, and after one rally melted away slowly to the rear, the handful
of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, at the defile of the Cub
Run, they came under shell fire the retreat became a panic flight to the
Potomac. The victors were too much exhausted to pursue, and the U.S.
regulars of the reserve division formed a strong and steady rearguard. The
losses were--Federals, 2896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates,
1982 men out of 18,000.

(2) The operations of the last days of August 1862, which include the
second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are amongst the most
complicated of the war. At the outset the Confederate general Lee's army
(Longstreet's and Jackson's corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the
Federal Army of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be
reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength of 150,000
men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon forced Lee to move,
though not to retreat, and his plan for attacking Pope was one of the most
daring in all military history. Jackson with half the army was despatched
on a wide turning movement which was to bring him via Salem and
Thoroughfare Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's task
was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the same route.
Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his march round the right of
Pope's army; on the 26th the column passed Thoroughfare Gap, and Bristoe
Station, directly in Pope's rear, was reached on the same evening, while a
detachment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. On the 27th the
immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed. On his side Pope had soon
discovered Jackson's departure, and had arranged for an immediate attack on
Longstreet. When, however, the direction of Jackson's march on Thoroughfare
Gap became clear, Pope fell back in order to engage him, at the same time
ordering his army to concentrate on Warrenton, Greenwich and Gainesville.
He was now largely reinforced. On the evening of the 27th one of his
divisions, marching to its point of concentration, met a division of
Jackson's corps, near Bristoe Station; after a sharp fight the Confederate
general, Ewell, retired on Manassas. Pope now realized that he had
Jackson's corps in front of him at the Junction, and at once took steps to
attack Manassas with all his forces. He drew off even the corps at
Gainesville for his intended battle of the 28th; McDowell, however, its
commander, on his own responsibility, left Ricketts's division at
Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in the air. When he arrived at
Manassas on the 28th he found nothing but the ruins of his magazines, and
one of McDowell's divisions (King's) marching from Gainesville on Manassas
Junction met Jackson's infantry near Groveton. The situation had again
changed completely. Jackson had no intention of awaiting Pope at Manassas,
and after several feints made with a view to misleading the Federal scouts
he finally withdrew to a hidden position between Groveton and Sudley
Springs, to await the arrival of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as
Jackson had done, arrived on the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap and, engaging
Ricketts's division, finally drove it back to Gainesville. On the evening
of this day Jackson's corps held the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his
right wing near Groveton opposing King's division; and Longstreet held
Thoroughfare Gap, facing Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was
King near Groveton, and the line was continued thence by McDowell's
remaining division and by Sigel's corps to the Stone Bridge. At
Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope with three divisions, a fourth was
north-east of Manassas Junction, and Porter's corps at Bristoe Station.
Thus, while Ricketts continued at Gainesville to mask Longstreet, Pope
could concentrate a superior force against Jackson, whom he now believed to
be meditating a retreat to the Gap. But a series of misunderstandings
resulted in the withdrawal of Ricketts and King, so that nothing now
intervened between Longstreet and Jackson; while Sigel and McDowell's other
division alone remained to face Jackson until such time as Pope could bring
up the rest of his scattered forces. Jackson now closed on his left and
prepared for battle, and on the morning of the 29th the Confederates,
posted behind a high railway embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by
Sigel. Pope arrived at noon with the divisions from Centreville, which, led
by the general himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the bravest officers
in the Union army, made a third and most desperate attack on Jackson's
line. The latter, repulsing it with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke
too far and was in turn repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division.
Grover then made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss.
The last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under Kearny and
Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; but a Confederate
counter-attack, led by the brave Jubal Early, dislodged the assailants with
the bayonet.

In the meanwhile events had taken place near Groveton which were, for
twenty years after the war, the subject of controversy and recrimination
(see PORTER, FITZ-JOHN). When Porter's and part of McDowell's corps, acting
on various orders sent by Pope, approached Gainesville from the south-east,
Longstreet had already reached that place, and the Federals thus
encountered a force of unknown strength at the moment when Sigel's guns to
the northward showed him to be closely engaged with Jackson. The two
generals consulted, and McDowell marched off to join Sigel, while Porter
remained to hold the new enemy in check. In this he succeeded; Longstreet,
though far superior in numbers, made no forward move, and his advanced
guard alone came into action. On the night of the 29th Lee reunited the
wings of his army on the field of battle. He had forced Pope back many
miles from the Rappahannock, and expecting that the Federals would retire
to the line of Bull Run before giving battle, he now decided to wait for
the last divisions of Longstreet's corps, which were still distant. But
Pope, still sanguine, ordered a "general pursuit" of Jackson for the 30th.
There was some ground for his suppositions, for Jackson had retired a short
distance and Longstreet's advanced guard had also fallen back. McDowell,
however, who was in general charge of the Federal right on the 30th, soon
saw that Jackson was not retreating and stopped the "pursuit," and the
attack on Jackson's right, which Pope had ordered Porter to make, was
repulsed by Longstreet's overwhelming forces. Then Lee's whole line, 4 m.
long, made its grand counter-stroke (4 P.M.). There was now no hesitation
in Longstreet's attack; the Federal left was driven successively from every
position it took up, and Longstreet finally captured Bald Hill. Jackson,
though opposed by the greater part of Pope's forces, advanced to the
Matthews hill, and his artillery threatened the Stone Bridge. The Federals,
driven back to the banks of Bull Run, were only saved by the gallant
defence of the Henry House hill by the Pennsylvanian division of Reynolds
and the regulars [v.04 p.0793] under Sykes. Pope withdrew under cover of
night to Centreville. Here he received fresh reinforcements, but Jackson
was already marching round his new right, and after the action of Chantilly
(1st of September) the whole Federal army fell back to Washington. The
Union forces present on the field on the 29th and 30th numbered about
63,000, the strength of Lee's army being on the same dates about 54,000.
Besides their killed and wounded the Federals lost very heavily in
prisoners.

BULLY (of uncertain origin, but possibly connected with a Teutonic word
seen in many compounds, as the Low Ger. _bullerjaan_, meaning "noisy"; the
word has also, with less probability, been derived from the Dutch _boel_,
and Ger. _Buhle_, a lover), originally a fine, swaggering fellow, as in
"Bully Bottom" in _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, later an overbearing
ruffian, especially a coward who abuses his strength by ill-treating the
weak; more technically a _souteneur_, a man who lives on the earnings of a
prostitute. The term in its early use of "fine" or "splendid" survives in
American slang.

BÜLOW, BERNHARD ERNST VON (1815-1879), Danish and German statesman, was the
son of Adolf von Bülow, a Danish official, and was born at Cismar in
Holstein on the 2nd of August 1815. He studied law at the universities of
Berlin, Göttingen and Kiel, and began his political career in the service
of Denmark, in the chancery of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen,
and afterwards in the foreign office. In 1842 he became councillor of
legation, and in 1847 Danish _chargé d'affaires_ in the Hanse towns, where
his intercourse with the merchant princes led to his marriage in 1848 with
a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Rücker. When the insurrection broke out
in the Elbe duchies (1848) he left the Danish service, and offered his
services to the provisional government of Kiel, an offer that was not
accepted. In 1849, accordingly, he re-entered the service of Denmark, was
appointed a royal chamberlain and in 1850 sent to represent the duchies of
Schleswig and Holstein at the restored federal diet of Frankfort. Here he
came into intimate touch with Bismarck, who admired his statesmanlike
handling of the growing complications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question.
With the radical "Eider-Dane" party he was utterly out of sympathy; and
when, in 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was recalled from
Frankfort. He now entered the service of the grand-duke of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and remained at the head of the grand-ducal
government until 1867, when he became plenipotentiary for the two
Mecklenburg duchies in the council of the German Confederation (Bundesrat),
where he distinguished himself by his successful defence of the medieval
constitution of the duchies against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck, who
was in thorough sympathy with his views, persuaded him to enter the service
of Prussia as secretary of state for foreign affairs, and from this time
till his death he was the chancellor's most faithful henchman. In 1875 he
was appointed Prussian plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became
Bismarck's lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the
Empire; and in 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian
plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort on the 20th
of October 1879, his end being hastened by his exertions in connexion with
the political crisis of that year. Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard
Heinrich Karl (see below), became chancellor of the Empire.

See the biography of H. von Petersdorff in _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_, Band 47, p. 350.

BÜLOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE VON (1849- ), German
statesman, was born on the 3rd of May 1849, at Klein-Flottbeck, in
Holstein. The Bülow family is one very widely extended in north Germany,
and many members have attained distinction in the civil and military
service of Prussia, Denmark and Mecklenburg. Prince Bülow's great-uncle,
Heinrich von Bülow, who was distinguished for his admiration of England and
English institutions, was Prussian ambassador in England from 1827 to 1840,
and married a daughter of Wilhelm von Humboldt (see the letters of
Gabrielle von Bülow). His father, Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, is separately
noticed above.

Prince Bülow must not be confused with his contemporary Otto v. Bülow
(1827-1901), an official in the Prussian foreign office, who in 1882 was
appointed German envoy at Bern, from 1892 to 1898 was Prussian envoy to the
Vatican, and died at Rome on the 22nd of November 1901.

Bernhard von Bülow, after serving in the Franco-Prussian War, entered the
Prussian civil service, and was then transferred to the diplomatic service.
In 1876 he was appointed attaché to the German embassy in Paris, and after
returning for a while to the foreign office at Berlin, became second
secretary to the embassy in Paris in 1880. From 1884 he was first secretary
to the embassy at St Petersburg, and acted as _chargé d'affaires_; in 1888
he was appointed envoy at Bucharest, and in 1893 to the post of German
ambassador at Rome. In 1897, on the retirement of Baron Marshall von
Bieberstein, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs (the
same office which his father had held) under Prince Hohenlohe, with a seat
in the Prussian ministry. The appointment caused much surprise at the time,
as Bülow was little known outside diplomatic circles. The explanations
suggested were that he had made himself very popular at Rome and that his
appointment was therefore calculated to strengthen the loosening bonds of
the Triple Alliance, and also that his early close association with
Bismarck would ensure the maintenance of the Bismarckian tradition. As
foreign secretary Herr von Bülow was chiefly responsible for carrying out
the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor had identified
himself, and in 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the
negotiations by which the Caroline Islands were acquired by Germany, he was
raised to the rank of count. On the resignation of Hohenlohe in 1900 he was
chosen to succeed him as chancellor of the empire and president of the
Prussian ministry.

The _Berliner Neueste Nachrichten_, commenting on this appointment, very
aptly characterized the relations of the new chancellor to the emperor, in
contrast to the position occupied by Bismarck. "The Germany of William
II.," it said, "does not admit a Titan in the position of the highest
official of the Empire. A cautious and versatile diplomatist like Bernhard
von Bülow appears to be best adapted to the personal and political
necessities of the present situation." Count Bülow, indeed, though, like
Bismarck, a "realist," utilitarian and opportunist in his policy, made no
effort to emulate the masterful independence of the great chancellor. He
was accused, indeed, of being little more than the complacent executor of
the emperor's will, and defended himself in the Reichstag against the
charge. The substance of the relations between the emperor and himself, he
declared, rested on mutual good-will, and added: "I must lay it down most
emphatically that the prerogative of the emperor's personal initiative must
not be curtailed, and will not be curtailed, by any chancellor.... As
regards the chancellor, however, I say that no imperial chancellor worthy
of the name ... would take up any position which in his conscience he did
not regard as justifiable." It is clear that the position of a chancellor
holding these views in relation to a ruler so masterful and so impulsive as
the emperor William II. could be no easy one; and Bülow's long continuance
in office is the best proof of his genius. His first conspicuous act as
chancellor was a masterly defence in the Reichstag of German action in
China, a defence which was, indeed, rendered easier by the fact that Prince
Hohenlohe had--to use his own words--"dug a canal" for the flood of
imperial ambition of which warning had been given in the famous "mailed
fist" speech. Such incidents as this, however, though they served to
exhibit consummate tact and diplomatic skill, give little index to the
fundamental character of his work as chancellor. Of this it may be said, in
general, that it carried on the best traditions of the Prussian service in
whole-hearted devotion to the interests of the state. The accusation that
he was an "agrarian" he thought it necessary to rebut in a speech delivered
on the 18th of February 1906 to the German Handelstag. He was an agrarian,
he declared, in so far as he came of a land-owning family, and was
interested in the prosperity of agriculture; but as chancellor, whose
function it is to watch over the welfare [v.04 p.0794] of all classes, he
was equally concerned with the interests of commerce and industry
(_Kölnische Zeitung_, Feb. 20, 1906). Some credit for the immense material
expansion of Germany under his chancellorship is certainly due to his zeal
and self-devotion. This was generously recognized by the emperor in a
letter publicly addressed to the chancellor on the 21st of May 1906,
immediately after the passage of the Finance Bill. "I am fully conscious,"
it ran, "of the conspicuous share in the initiation and realization of this
work of reform... which must be ascribed to the statesmanlike skill and
self-sacrificing devotion with which you have conducted and promoted those
arduous labours." Rumours had from time to time been rife of a "chancellor
crisis" and Bülow's dismissal; in the _Berliner Tageblatt_ this letter was
compared to the "Never!" with which the emperor William I. had replied to
Bismarck's proffered resignation.

On the 6th of June 1905 Count Bülow was raised to the rank of prince
(_Fürst_), on the occasion of the marriage of the crown prince. The
coincidence of this date with the fall of M. Delcassé, the French minister
for foreign affairs--a triumph for Germany and a humiliation for
France--was much commented on at the time (see _The Times_, June 7, 1905);
and the elevation of Bismarck to the rank of prince in the Hall of Mirrors
at Versailles was recalled. Whatever element of truth there may have been
in this, however, the significance of the incident was much exaggerated.

On the 5th of April 1906, while attending a debate in the Reichstag, Prince
Bülow was seized with illness, the result of overwork and an attack of
influenza, and was carried unconscious from the hall. At first it was
thought that the attack would be fatal, and Lord Fitzmaurice in the House
of Lords compared the incident with that of the death of Chatham, a
compliment much appreciated in Germany. The illness, however, quickly took
a favourable turn, and after a month's rest the chancellor was able to
resume his duties. In 1907 Prince Bülow was made the subject of a
disgraceful libel, which received more attention than it deserved because
it coincided with the Harden-Moltke scandals; his character was, however,
completely vindicated, and the libeller, a journalist named Brand, received
a term of imprisonment.

The parliamentary skill of Prince Bülow in holding together the
heterogeneous elements of which the government majority in the Reichstag
was composed, no less than the diplomatic tact with which he from time to
time "interpreted" the imperial indiscretions to the world, was put to a
rude test by the famous "interview" with the German emperor, published in
the London _Daily Telegraph_ of the 28th of October 1908 (see WILLIAM II.,
German emperor), which aroused universal reprobation in Germany. Prince
Bülow assumed the official responsibility, and tendered his resignation to
the emperor, which was not accepted; but the chancellor's explanation in
the Reichstag on the 10th of November showed how keenly he felt his
position. He declared his conviction that the disastrous results of the
interview would "induce the emperor in future to observe that strict
reserve, even in private conversations, which is equally indispensable in
the interest of a uniform policy and for the authority of the crown,"
adding that, in the contrary case, neither he nor any successor of his
could assume the responsibility (_The Times_, Nov. 11, 1908, p. 9). The
attitude of the emperor showed that he had taken the lesson to heart. It
was not the imperial indiscretions, but the effect of his budget proposals
in breaking up the Liberal-Conservative _bloc_, on whose support he
depended in the Reichstag, that eventually drove Prince Bülow from office
(see GERMANY: _History_). At the emperor's request he remained to pilot the
mutilated budget through the House; but on the 14th of July 1909 the
acceptance of his resignation was announced.

Prince Bülow married, on the 9th of January 1886, Maria Anna Zoe Rosalia
Beccadelli di Bologna, Princess Camporeale, whose first marriage with Count
Karl von Dönhoff had been dissolved and declared null by the Holy See in
1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil of Liszt, was a
step-daughter of the Italian statesman Minghetti.

See J. Penzler, _Graf Bülows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beiträgen zu seiner
Politik_ (Leipzig, 1903).

BÜLOW, DIETRICH HEINRICH, FREIHERR VON (1757-1807), Prussian soldier and
military writer, and brother of General Count F.W. Bülow, entered the
Prussian army in 1773. Routine work proved distasteful to him, and he read
with avidity the works of the chevalier Folard and other theoretical
writers on war, and of Rousseau. After sixteen years' service he left
Prussia, and endeavoured without success to obtain a commission in the
Austrian army. He then returned to Prussia, and for some time managed a
theatrical company. The failure of this undertaking involved Bülow in heavy
losses, and soon afterwards he went to America, where he seems to have been
converted to, and to have preached, Swedenborgianism. On his return to
Europe he persuaded his brother to engage in a speculation for exporting
glass to the United States, which proved a complete failure. After this for
some years he made a precarious living in Berlin by literary work, but his
debts accumulated, and it was under great disadvantages that he produced
his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1799) and _Der Feldzug
1800_ (Berlin, 1801). His hopes of military employment were again
disappointed, and his brother, the future field marshal, who had stood by
him in all his troubles, finally left him. After wandering in France and
the smaller German states, he reappeared at Berlin in 1804, where he wrote
a revised edition of his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1805),
_Lehrsätze des Neueren Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1805), _Geschichte des Prinzen
Heinrich von Preussen_ (Berlin, 1805), _Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein
sollte_ (Leipzig, 1805), and _Der Feldzug 1805_ (Leipzig, 1806). He also
edited, with G.H. von Behrenhorst (1733-1814) and others, _Annalen des
Krieges_ (Berlin, 1806). These brilliant but unorthodox works,
distinguished by an open contempt of the Prussian system, cosmopolitanism
hardly to be distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a
disappointed man, brought upon Bülow the enmity of the official classes and
of the government. He was arrested as insane, but medical examination
proved him sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he
was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his
condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga
in 1807, probably as a result of ill-treatment.

In Bülow's writings there is evident a distinct contrast between the spirit
of his strategical and that of his tactical ideas. As a strategist (he
claimed to be the first of strategists) he reduces to mathematical rules
the practice of the great generals of the 18th century, ignoring
"friction," and manoeuvring his armies _in vacuo_. At the same time he
professes that his system provides working rules for the armies of his own
day, which in point of fact were "armed nations," infinitely more affected
by "friction" than the small dynastic and professional armies of the
preceding age. Bülow may therefore be considered as anything but a reformer
in the domain of strategy. With more justice he has been styled the "father
of modern tactics." He was the first to recognize that the conditions of
swift and decisive war brought about by the French Revolution involved
wholly new tactics, and much of his teaching had a profound influence on
European warfare of the 19th century. His early training had shown him
merely the pedantic _minutiae_ of Frederick's methods, and, in the absence
of any troops capable of illustrating the real linear tactics, he became an
enthusiastic supporter of the methods, which (more of necessity than from
judgment) the French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in
small columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were won by
skirmishers. "We must organize disorder," he said; indeed, every argument
of writers of the modern "extended order" school is to be found _mutatis
mutandis_ in Bülow, whose system acquired great prominence in view of the
mechanical improvements in armament. But his tactics, like his strategy,
were vitiated by the absence of "friction," and their dependence on the
realization of an unattainable standard of bravery.

See von Voss, _H. von Bülow_ (Köln, 1806); P. von Bülow, _Familienbuch der
v. Bülow_ (Berlin, 1859); Ed. von Bülow, _Aus dem Leben Dietrichs v.
Bülow_, also _Vermischte Schriften aus dem Nachlass von Behrenhorst_
(1845); Ed. von Bülow and von Rüstow, _Militärische und vermischte
Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. Bülow_ (Leipzig, 1853); Memoirs by
Freiherr v. Meerheimb in _Allgemeine deutsche [v.04 p.0795] Biographie_,
vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1876), and "Behrenhorst und Bülow" (_Historische
Zeitschrift_, 1861, vi.); Max Jähns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_,
vol. iii. pp. 2133-2145 (Munich, 1891); General von Cämmerer (transl. von
Donat), _Development of Strategical Science_ (London, 1905), ch. i.

BÜLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, FREIHERR VON, count of Dennewitz (1755-1816),
Prussian general, was born on the 16th of February 1755, at Falkenberg in
the Altmark; he was the elder brother of the foregoing. He received an
excellent education, and entered the Prussian army in 1768, becoming ensign
in 1772, and second lieutenant in 1775. He took part in the "Potato War" of
1778, and subsequently devoted himself to the study of his profession and
of the sciences and arts. He was throughout his life devoted to music, his
great musical ability bringing him to the notice of Frederick William II.,
and about 1790 he was conspicuous in the most fashionable circles of
Berlin. He did not, however, neglect his military studies, and in 1792 he
was made military instructor to the young prince Louis Ferdinand, becoming
at the same time full captain. He took part in the campaigns of 1792-93-94
on the Rhine, and received for signal courage during the siege of Mainz the
order _pour le mérite_ and promotion to the rank of major. After this he
went to garrison duty at Soldau. In 1802 he married the daughter of Colonel
v. Auer, and in the following year he became lieutenant-colonel, remaining
at Soldau with his corps. The vagaries and misfortunes of his brother
Dietrich affected his happiness as well as his fortune. The loss of two of
his children was followed in 1806 by the death of his wife, and a further
source of disappointment was the exclusion of his regiment from the field
army sent against Napoleon in 1806. The disasters of the campaign aroused
his energies. He did excellent service under Lestocq's command in the
latter part of the war, was wounded in action, and finally designated for a
brigade command in Blücher's force. In 1808 he married the sister of his
first wife, a girl of eighteen. He was made a major-general in the same
year, and henceforward he devoted himself wholly to the regeneration of
Prussia. The intensity of his patriotism threw him into conflict even with
Blücher and led to his temporary retirement; in 1811, however, he was again
employed. In the critical days preceding the War of Liberation he kept his
troops in hand without committing himself to any irrevocable step until the
decision was made. On the 14th of March 1813 he was made a
lieutenant-general. He fought against Oudinot in defence of Berlin (see
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), and in the summer came under the command of
Bernadotte, crown prince of Sweden. At the head of an army corps Bülow
distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Gross Beeren, a victory
which was attributed almost entirely to his leadership. A little later he
won the great victory of Dennewitz, which for the third time checked
Napoleon's advance on Berlin. This inspired the greatest enthusiasm in
Prussia, as being won by purely Prussian forces, and rendered Bülow's
popularity almost equal to that of Blücher. Bülow's corps played a
conspicuous part in the final overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig, and he was
then entrusted with the task of evicting the French from Holland and
Belgium. In an almost uniformly successful campaign he won a signal victory
at Hoogstraaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he invaded France from the
north-west, joined Blücher, and took part in the brilliant victory of Laon
in March. He was now made general of infantry and received the title of
Count Bülow von Dennewitz. In the short peace of 1814-1815 he was at
Konigsberg as commander-in-chief in Prussia proper. He was soon called to
the field again, and in the Waterloo campaign commanded the IV. corps of
Blücher's army. He was not present at Ligny, but his corps headed the flank
attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, and bore the heaviest part in the
fighting of the Prussian troops. He took part in the invasion of France,
but died suddenly on the 25th of February 1816, a month after his return to
the Königsberg command.

See _General Graf Bülow von Dennewitz, 1813-1814_ (Leipzig, 1843);
Varnhagen von Ense, _Leben des G. Grafen B. von D._ (Berlin, 1854).

BÜLOW, HANS GUIDO VON (1830-1894), German pianist and conductor, was born
at Dresden, on the 8th of January 1830. At the age of nine he began to
study music under Friedrich Wieck as part of a genteel education. It was
only after an illness while studying law at Leipzig University in 1848 that
he determined upon music as a career. At this time he was a pupil of Moritz
Hauptmann. In 1849 revolutionary politics took possession of him. In the
Berlin _Abendpost_, a democratic journal, the young aristocrat poured forth
his opinions, which were strongly coloured by Wagner's _Art and
Revolution_. Wagner's influence was musical no less than political, for a
performance of _Lohengrin_ under Liszt at Weimar in 1850 completed von
Bülow's determination to abandon a legal career. From Weimar he went to
Zürich, where the exile Wagner instructed him in the elements of
conducting. But he soon returned to Weimar and Liszt; and in 1853 he made
his first concert tour, which extended from Vienna to Berlin. Next he
became principal professor of the piano at the Stern Academy, and married
in his twenty-eighth year Liszt's daughter Cosima. For the following nine
years von Bülow laboured incessantly in Berlin as pianist, conductor and
writer of musical and political articles. Thence he removed to Munich,
where, thanks to Wagner, he had been appointed _Hofkapellmeister_ to Louis
II., and chief of the Conservatorium. There, too, he organized model
performances of _Tristan_ and _Die Meistersinger_. In 1869 his marriage was
dissolved, his wife subsequently marrying Wagner, an incident which, while
preventing Bülow from revisiting Bayreuth, never dimmed his enthusiasm for
Wagner's dramas. After a temporary stay in Florence, Bülow set out on tour
again as a pianist, visiting most European countries as well as the United
States of America, before taking up the post of conductor at Hanover, and,
later, at Meiningen, where he raised the orchestra to a pitch of excellence
till then unparalleled. In 1885 he resigned the Meiningen office, and
conducted a number of concerts in Russia and Germany. At Frankfort he held
classes for the higher development of piano-playing. He constantly visited
England, for the last time in 1888, in which year he went to live in
Hamburg. Nevertheless he continued to conduct the Berlin Philharmonic
Concerts. He died at Cairo, on the 13th of February 1894. Bülow was a
pianist of the highest order of intellectual attainment, an artist of
remarkably catholic tastes, and a great conductor. A passionate hater of
humbug and affectation, he had a ready pen, and a biting, sometimes almost
rude wit, yet of his kindness and generosity countless tales were told. His
compositions are few and unimportant, but his annotated editions of the
classical masters are of great value. Bülow's writings and letters (_Briefe
und Schriften_), edited by his widow, have been published in 8 vols.
(Leipzig, 1895-1908).

BULRUSH, a name now generally given to _Typha latifolia_, the reed-mace or
club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges of rivers and similar
localities, with a creeping underground stem, narrow, nearly flat leaves, 3
to 6 ft. long, arranged in opposite rows, and a tall stem ending in a
cylindrical spike, half to one foot long, of closely packed male (above)
and female (below) flowers. The familiar brown spike is a dense mass of
minute one-seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk and covered with
long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and readily carried by
the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied to _Scirpus
lacustris_, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae), a common plant in
wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless stems, bearing a tuft of
many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for matting, &c. The bulrush of
Scripture, associated with the hiding of Moses, was the _Papyrus_ (_q.v._),
also a member of the order Cyperaceae, which was abundant in the Nile.

BULSTRODE, SIR RICHARD (1610-1711), English author and soldier, was a son
of Edward Bulstrode (1588-1659), and was educated at Pembroke College,
Cambridge; after studying law in London he joined the army of Charles I. on
the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642. In 1673 he became a resident agent
of Charles II. at Brussels; in 1675 he was knighted; then following James
II. into exile he died at St Germain on the 3rd of October 1711. Bulstrode
is chiefly known by his _Memoirs and Reflections upon the Reign and
Government of King Charles I. and King Charles II._, published after his
death in 1721. He also [v.04 p.0796] wrote _Life of James II._, and
_Original Letters written to the Earl of Arlington_ (1712). The latter
consists principally of letters written from Brussels giving an account of
the important events which took place in the Netherlands during 1674.

His second son, WHITELOCKE BULSTRODE (1650-1724), remained in England after
the flight of James II.; he held some official positions, and in 1717 wrote
a pamphlet in support of George I. and the Hanoverian succession. He
published _A Discourse of Natural Philosophy_, and was a prominent
Protestant controversialist. He died in London on the 27th of November
1724.

BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from _bol_ or _bole_, a
tree-trunk, and _werk_, work, in Ger. _Bollwerk_, which has also been
derived from an old German _bolen_, to throw, and so a machine for throwing
missiles), a barricade of beams, earth, &c., a work in 15th and 16th
century fortifications designed to mount artillery (see BOULEVARD). On
board ship the term is used of the woodwork running round the ship above
the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence.

BUMBOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions, &c., to ships
lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably connected with the
Dutch _bumboat_ or _boomboot_, a broad Dutch fishing-boat, the derivation
of which is either from _boom_, cf. Ger. _baum_, a tree, or from _bon_, a
place in which fish is kept alive, and _boot_, a boat. It appears first in
English in the Trinity House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging
boats attending ships lying in the Thames.

BUMBULUM, BOMBULUM or BUNIBULUM, a fabulous musical instrument described in
an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to Dardanus,[1] and illustrated in a
series of illuminated MSS. of the 9th to the 11th century, together with
other instruments described in the same letter. These MSS. are the _Psalter
of Emmeran_, 9th century, described by Martin Gerbert,[2] who gives a few
illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. _Tiberius C. VI._ in the British
Museum, 11th century; the famous _Boulogne Psalter_, A.D. 1000; and the
_Psalter of Angers_, 9th century.[3] In the Cotton MS. the instrument
consists of an angular frame, from which depends by a chain a rectangular
metal plate having twelve bent arms attached in two rows of three on each
side, one above the other. The arms appear to terminate in small
rectangular bells or plates, and it is supposed that the standard frame was
intended to be shaken like a sistrum in order to set the bells jangling.
Sebastian Virdung[4] gives illustrations of these instruments of Jerome,
and among them of the one called bumbulum in the Cotton MS., which Virdung
calls _Fistula Hieronimi_. The general outline is the same, but instead of
metal arms there is the same number of bent pipes with conical bore.
Virdung explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand
resembling the draughtsman's square represents the Holy Cross, the
rectangular object dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the Cross, and
the twelve pipes are the twelve apostles. Virdung's illustration, probably
copied from an older work in manuscript, conforms more closely to the text
of the letter than does the instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no
evidence whatever of the actual existence of such an instrument during the
middle ages, with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn
to illustrate an instrument known from description only. The word
_bombulum_ was probably derived from the same root as the [Greek:
bombaulios] of Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 866) ([Greek: bombos] and
[Greek: aulos]), a comic compound for a bag-pipe with a play on [Greek:
bombulios], an insect that hums or buzzes (see BAG-PIPE). The original
described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an early type of
organ.

(K. S.)

[1] _Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum._

[2] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774).

[3] For illustrations see _Annales archéologiques_, iii. p. 82 et seq.

[4] _Musica getutscht und aussgezogen_ (Basle, 1511).

BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the word is used
for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north of Ireland for a round
loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word has been much disputed.
It has been affiliated to the old provincial French _bugne_, "swelling," in
the sense of a "fritter," but the _New English Dictionary_ doubts the usage
of the word. It is quite as probable that it has a far older and more
interesting origin, as is suggested by an inquiry into the origin of hot
cross buns. These cakes, which are now solely associated with the Christian
Good Friday, are traceable to the remotest period of pagan history. Cakes
were offered by ancient Egyptians to their moon-goddess; and these had
imprinted on them a pair of horns, symbolic of the ox at the sacrifice of
which they were offered on the altar, or of the horned moon-goddess, the
equivalent of Ishtar of the Assyro-Babylonians. The Greeks offered such
sacred cakes to Astarte and other divinities. This cake they called _bous_
(ox), in allusion to the ox-symbol marked on it, and from the accusative
_boun_ it is suggested that the word "bun" is derived. Diogenes Laertius
(c. A.D. 200), speaking of the offering made by Empedocles, says "He
offered one of the sacred liba, called a _bouse_, made of fine flour and
honey." Hesychius (c. 6th century) speaks of the _boun_, and describes it
as a kind of cake with a representation of two horns marked on it. In time
the Greeks marked these cakes with a cross, possibly an allusion to the
four quarters of the moon, or more probably to facilitate the distribution
of the sacred bread which was eaten by the worshippers. Like the Greeks,
the Romans eat cross-bread at public sacrifices, such bread being usually
purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them,--a custom
alluded to by St Paul in I Cor. x. 28. At Herculaneum two small loaves
about 5 in. in diameter, and plainly marked with a cross, were found. In
the Old Testament a reference is made in Jer. vii. 18-xliv. 19, to such
sacred bread being offered to the moon goddess. The cross-bread was eaten
by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eoster, their goddess of light. The
Mexicans and Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. The custom,
in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church adroitly adopted
the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist. The _boun_ with its
Greek cross became akin to the Eucharistic bread or cross-marked wafers
mentioned in St Chrysostom's _Liturgy_. In the medieval church, buns made
from the dough for the consecrated Host were distributed to the
communicants after Mass on Easter Sunday. In France and other Catholic
countries, such blessed bread is still given in the churches to
communicants who have a long journey before they can break their fast. The
Holy Eucharist in the Greek church has a cross printed on it. In England
there seems to have early been a disposition on the part of the bakers to
imitate the church, and they did a good trade in buns and cakes stamped
with a cross, for as far back as 1252 the practice was forbidden by royal
proclamation; but this seems to have had little effect. With the rise of
Protestantism the cross bun lost its sacrosanct nature, and became a mere
eatable associated for no particular reason with Good Friday. Cross-bread
is not, however, reserved for that day; in the north of England people
usually crossmark their cakes with a knife before putting them in the oven.
Many superstitions cling round hot cross buns. Thus it is still a common
belief that one bun should be kept for luck's sake to the following Good
Friday. In Dorsetshire it is thought that a cross-loaf baked on that day
and hung over the chimneypiece prevents the bread baked in the house during
the year from "going stringy."

BUNBURY, HENRY WILLIAM (1750-1811), English caricaturist, was the second
son of Sir William Bunbury, 5th baronet, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, and came
of an old Norman family. He was educated at Westminster school and St
Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for drawing, and
especially for humorous subjects. His more serious efforts did not rise to
a high level, but his caricatures are as famous as those of his
contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being his "Country
Club" (1788), "Barber's Shop" (1811) and "A Long Story" (1782.) He was a
popular character, and the friend of most of the notabilities of his day,
whom he never offended by attempting political satire; and his easy
circumstances and social position (he was colonel of the West Suffolk
Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787) enabled him
to exercise his talents in comfort.

[v.04 p.0797] His son Sir HENRY EDWARD BUNBURY, Bart. (1778-1860), who
succeeded to the family title on the death of his uncle, was a
distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general; he was an
active member of parliament, and the author of several historical works of
value; and the latter's second son, Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, also a
member of parliament, was well known as a geographer and archaeologist, and
author of a _History of Ancient Geography._

BUNBURY, a seaport and municipal town of Wellington county, Western
Australia, 112 m. by rail S. by W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2455. The harbour,
known as Koombanah Bay, is protected by a breakwater built on a coral reef.
Coal is worked on the Collie river, 30 m. distant, and is shipped from this
port, together with tin, timber, sandal-wood and agricultural produce.

BUNCOMBE, or BUNKUM (from Buncombe county, North Carolina, United States),
a term used for insincere political action or speaking to gain support or
the favour of a constituency, and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase
"to talk for (or to) Buncombe" arose in 1820, during the debate on the
Missouri Compromise in Congress; the member for the district containing
Buncombe county confessed that his long and much interrupted speech was
only made because his electors expected it, and that he was "speaking for
Buncombe."

BUNCRANA, a market-town and watering-place of Co. Donegal, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division on the east shore of Lough Swilly, on the
Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. Pop. (1901) 1316. There
is a trade in agricultural produce, a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and a
manufacture of linen. The town is beautifully situated, being flanked on
the east and south by hills exceeding 1000 ft. The picturesque square keep
of an ancient castle remains, but the present Buncrana Castle is a
residence erected in 1717. The golf-links are well known.

BUNDABERG, a municipal town and river port of Cook county, Queensland,
Australia, 10 m. from the mouth of the river Burnett, and 217 m. by rail N.
by W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 5200. It lies on both sides of the river,
and connexion between the two ports is maintained by road and railway
bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and distilleries in
the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity, notably at
Millaquin, on the river below the town. There are wharves on both sides of
the river, and the staple exports are sugar, golden-syrup and timber. The
climate is remarkably healthy.

BUNDELKHAND, a tract of country in Central India, lying between the United
and the Central Provinces. Historically it includes the five British
districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Banda, which now form
part of the Allahabad division of the United Provinces, but politically it
is restricted to a collection of native states, under the Bundelkhand
agency. There are 9 states, 13 estates and the pargana of Alampur belonging
to Indore state, with a total area of 9851 sq. m. and a total population
(1901) of 1,308,326, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the
effects of famine. The most important of the states are Orchha, Panna,
Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Bijawar and Ajaigarh. A branch of
the Great Indian Peninsula railway traverses the north of the country. A
garrison of all arms is stationed at Nowgong.

The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the north-east
part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines scooped out by
torrents during the periodical rains. The plains of Bundelkhand are
intersected by three mountain ranges, the Bindhachal, Panna and Bander
chains, the highest elevation not exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level.
Beyond these ranges the country is further diversified by isolated hills
rising abruptly from a common level, and presenting from their steep and
nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and strongholds,
whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently set at defiance the
most powerful of the native states of India. The general slope of the
country is towards the north-east, as indicated by the course of the rivers
which traverse or bound the territory, and finally discharge themselves
into the Jumna.

The principal rivers are the Sind, Betwa, Ken, Baighin, Paisuni, Tons,
Pahuj, Dhasan, Berma, Urmal and Chandrawal. The Sind, rising near Sironj in
Malwa, marks the frontier line of Bundelkhand on the side of Gwalior.
Parallel to this river, but more to the eastward, is the course of the
Betwa. Still farther to the east flows the Ken, followed in succession by
the Baighin, Paisuni and Tons. The Jumna and the Ken are the only two
navigable rivers. Notwithstanding the large number of streams, the
depression of their channels and height of their banks render them for the
most part unsuitable for the purposes of irrigation,--which is conducted by
means of _jhils_ and tanks. These artificial lakes are usually formed by
throwing embankments across the lower extremities of valleys, and thus
arresting and accumulating the waters flowing through them. Some of the
tanks are of great capacity; the Barwa Sagar, for instance, is 2½ m. in
diameter. Diamonds are found, particularly near the town of Panna, in a
range of hills called by the natives Band-Ahil.

The mines of Maharajpur, Rajpur, Kimera and Gadasia have been famous for
magnificent diamonds; and a very large one dug from the last was kept in
the fort of Kalinjar among the treasures of Raja Himmat Bahadur. In the
reign of the emperor Akbar the mines of Panna produced diamonds to the
amount of £100,000 annually, and were a considerable source of revenue, but
for many years they have not been so profitable.

The tree vegetation consists rather of jungle or copse than forest,
abounding in game which is preserved by the native chiefs. There are also
within these coverts several varieties of wild animals, such as the tiger,
leopard, hyena, wild boar, _nilgái_ and jackal.

The people represent various races. The Bundelas--the race who gave the
name to the country--still maintain their dignity as chieftains, by
disdaining to cultivate the soil, although by no means conspicuous for
lofty sentiments of honour or morality. An Indian proverb avers that "one
native of Bundelkhand commits as much fraud as a hundred Dandis" (weighers
of grain and notorious rogues). About Datia and Jhansi the inhabitants are
a stout and handsome race of men, well off and contented. The prevailing
religion in Bundelkhand is Hinduism.

The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand were the
Garhwas, who were succeeded by the Parihars; but nothing is known of
either. About A.D. 800 the Parihars are said to have been ousted by the
Chandels, and Dangha Varma, chief of the Chandel Rajputs, appears to have
established the earliest paramount power in Bundelkhand towards the close
of the 10th century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its
greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its raja,
whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the
head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with 640 elephants, to oppose the
invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by
Prithwi Raj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country remained
in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the Bundelas,
a spurious offshoot of the Garhwa tribe of Rajputs, established themselves
on the right bank of the Jumna. One of these took possession of Orchha by
treacherously poisoning its chief. His successor succeeded in further
aggrandizing the Bundela state, but he is represented to have been a
notorious plunderer, and his character is further stained by the
assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and historian
of Akbar. Jajhar Singh, the third Bundela chief, unsuccessfully revolted
against the court of Delhi, and his country became incorporated for a short
time with the empire. The struggles of the Bundelas for independence
resulted in the withdrawal of the royal troops, and the admission of
several petty states as feudatories of the empire on condition of military
service. The Bundelas, under Champat Rai and his son. Chhatar Sal, offered
a successful resistance to the proselytizing efforts of Aurangzeb. On the
occasion of a Mahommedan invasion in 1732, Chhatar Sal asked and obtained
the assistance of the Mahratta Peshwa, whom he adopted as his son, giving
him a third of his dominions. The Mahrattas gradually extended their
influence over Bundelkhand, [v.04 p.0798] and in 1792 the peshwa was
acknowledged as the lord paramount of the country. The Mahratta power was,
however, on the decline; the flight of the peshwa from his capital to
Bassein before the British arms changed the aspect of affairs, and by the
treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British government, the
districts of Banda and Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. Two chiefs
then held the ceded districts, Himmat Bahadur, the leader of the Sanyasis,
who promoted the views of the British, and Shamsher, who made common cause
with the Mahrattas. In September 1803, the united forces of the English and
Himmat Bahadur compelled Shamsher to retreat with his army. In 1809
Ajaigarh was besieged by a British force, and again three years later
Kalinjar was besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In 1817, by the treaty
of Poona, the British government acquired from the peshwa all his rights,
interests and pretensions, feudal, territorial or pecuniary, in
Bundelkhand. In carrying out the provisions of the treaty, an assurance was
given by the British government that the rights of those interested in the
transfer should be scrupulously respected, and the host of petty native
principalities in the province is the best proof of the sincerity and good
faith with which this clause has been carried out. During the mutiny of
1857, however, many of the chiefs rose against the British, the rani of
Jhansi being a notable example.

BUNDI, or BOONDEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, lying
on the north-east of the river Chambal, in a hilly tract historically known
as Haraoti, from the Hara sept of the great clan of Chauhan Rajputs, to
which the maharao raja of Bundi belongs. It has an area of 2220 sq. m. Many
parts of the state are wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina
population, formerly notorious as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the
Chambia and the Mej, water the state; the former is navigable by boats. In
1901 the population was 171,227, showing a decrease of 42% due to the
effects of famine. The estimated revenue is £46,000, the tribute £8000.
There is no railway, but the metalled road from Kotah to the British
cantonment of Deoli passes through the state. The town of Bundi had a
population in 1901 of 19,313. A school for the education of boys of high
rank was opened in 1897.

The state of Bundi was founded about A.D. 1342 by the Hara chief Rao Dewa,
or Deoraj, who captured the town from the Minas. Its importance, however,
dates from the time of Rao Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in
1554 and by throwing in his lot with the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi
(1569) received a considerable accession of territory. From this time the
rulers of Bundi bore the title of rao raja. In the 17th century their power
was curtailed by the division of Haraoti into the two states of Kotah and
Bundi; but they continued to play a prominent part in Indian history, and
the title of maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played
by him in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after the death
of Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja Bishan Singh gave valuable
assistance to Colonel Monson in his disastrous retreat before Holkar, in
revenge for which the Mahratas and Pindaris continually ravaged his state
up to 1817. On the 10th of February 1818, by a treaty concluded with Bishan
Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In 1821 Bishan Singh was
succeeded by his son Ram Singh, who ruled till 1889. He is described as a
grand specimen of the Rajput gentleman, and "the most conservative prince
in conservative Rajputana." His rule was popular and beneficent; and though
during the mutiny of 1857 his attitude was equivocal, he continued to enjoy
the favour of the British government, being created G.C.S.I. and a
counsellor of the empire in 1877 and C.I.E. in 1878. He was succeeded by
his son Raghubir Singh, who was made a K.C.S.I. in 1897 and a G.C.I.E. in
1901.

BUNER, a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier Province
of India. It is a small mountain valley, dotted with villages and divided
into seven sub-divisions. The Mora Hills and the Ilam range divide it from
Swat, the Sinawar range from Yusafzai, the Guru mountains from the Chamla
valley, and the Duma range from the Puran Valley. It is inhabited by the
Iliaszai and Malizai divisions of the Pathan tribe of Yusafzais, who are
called after their country the Bunerwals. There is no finer race on the
north-west frontier of India than the Bunerwals. Simple and austere in
their habits, religious and truthful in their ways, hospitable to all who
seek shelter amongst them, free from secret assassinations, they are bright
examples of the Pathan character at its best. They are a powerful and
warlike tribe, numbering 8000 fighting men. The Umbeyla Expedition of 1863
under Sir Neville Chamberlain was occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with
the Hindostani Fanatics, who had settled down at Malka in their territory.
In the end the Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9000 British troops,
and Malka was destroyed, but they made so fierce a resistance, in
particular in their attack upon the "Crag" picket, that the Indian medal
with a clasp for "Umbeyla" was granted in 1869 to the survivors of the
expedition. The government of India refrained from interfering with the
tribe again until the Buner campaign of 1897 under Sir Bindon Blood. Many
Bunerwals took part in the attack of the Swatis on the Malakand fort, and a
force of 3000 British troops was sent to punish them; but the tribe made
only a feeble resistance at the passes into their country, and speedily
handed in the arms demanded of them and made complete submission.

BUNGALOW (an Anglo-Indian word from the Hindustani _bangl[=a]_, belonging
to Bengal), a one-storeyed house with a verandah and a projecting roof, the
typical dwelling for Europeans in India; the name is also used for similar
buildings which have become common for seaside and summer residences in
America and Great Britain. Dak or dawk bungalows (from _dak_ or _dawk_, a
post, a relay of men for carrying the mails, &c.) are the government
rest-houses established at intervals for the use of travellers on the high
roads of India.

BUNGAY, a market-town in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk,
England; 113 m. N.E. from London on a branch from Beccles of the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 3314. It is picturesquely placed in a deep
bend of the river Waveney, the boundary with Norfolk. Of the two parish
churches that of St Mary has a fine Perpendicular tower, and that of Holy
Trinity a round tower of which the lower part is Norman. St Mary's was
attached to a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1160. The ruins of the castle
date from 1281. They are fragmentary though massive; and there are traces
of earth-works of much earlier date. The castle was a stronghold of the
powerful family of Bigod, being granted to Roger Bigod, a Norman follower
of the Conqueror, in 1075. A grammar school was founded in 1592. There are
large printing-works, and founding and malting are prosecuted. There is a
considerable carrying trade on the Waveney.

BUNION (a word usually derived from the Ital. _bugnone_, a swelling, but,
according to the _New English Dictionary_, the late and rare literary use
of the word makes an Italian derivation unlikely; there is an O. Eng. word
"bunny," also meaning a swelling, and an O. Fr. _buigne_, modern _bigne_,
showing a probable common origin now lost, cf. also "bunch"), an inflamed
swelling of the _bursa mucosa_, the sac containing synovial fluid on the
metatarsal joint of the big toe, or, more rarely, of the little toe. This
may be accompanied by corns or suppuration, leading to an ulcer or even
gangrene. The cause is usually pressure; removal of this, and general
palliative treatment by dressings, &c. are usually effective, but in severe
and obstinate cases a surgical operation may be necessary.

BUNKER HILL, the name of a small hill in Charlestown (Boston),
Massachusetts, U.S.A., famous as the scene of the first considerable
engagement in the American War of Independence (June 17, 1775). Bunker Hill
(110 ft.) was connected by a ridge with Breed's Hill (75 ft.), both being
on a narrow peninsula a short distance to the north of Boston, joined by a
causeway with the mainland. Since the affair of Lexington (April 19, 1775)
General Gage, who commanded the British forces, had remained inactive at
Boston awaiting reinforcements from England; the headquarters of the
Americans were at Cambridge, with advanced posts occupying much of the 4 m.
separating [v.04 p.0799] Cambridge from Bunker Hill. When Gage received his
reinforcements at the end of May, he determined to repair his strange
neglect by which the hills on the peninsula had been allowed to remain
unoccupied and unfortified. As soon as the Americans became aware of Gage's
intention they determined to frustrate it, and accordingly, on the night of
the 16th of June, a force of about 1200 men, under Colonel William Prescott
and Major-General Israel Putnam, with some engineers and a few field-guns,
occupied Breed's Hill--to which the name Bunker Hill is itself now
popularly applied--and when daylight disclosed their presence to the
British they had already strongly entrenched their position. Gage lost no
time in sending troops across from Boston with orders to assault. The
British force, between 2000 and 3000 strong, under (Sir) William Howe,
supported by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and floating batteries
stationed in the anchorage on either side of the peninsula, were fresh and
well disciplined. The American force consisted for the most part of
inexperienced volunteers, numbers of whom were already wearied by the
trench work of the night. As communication was kept up with their camp the
numbers engaged on the hill fluctuated during the day, but at no time
exceeded about 1500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which a galling
musketry fire was directed against the British, was by General Howe's
orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot during the attack. Instead of
attempting to cut off the Americans by occupying the neck to the rear of
their position, Gage ordered the advance to be made up the steep and
difficult ascent facing the works on the hill. Whether or not in
obedience--as tradition asserts--to an order to reserve fire until they
could see the whites of their assailants' eyes, the American volunteers
with admirable steadiness waited till the attack was on the point of being
driven home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and deadly that the
British line broke in disorder. A second assault, made like the first, with
the precision and discipline of the parade-ground met the same fate, but
Gage's troops had still spirit enough for a third assault, and this time
they carried the position with the bayonet, capturing five pieces of
ordnance and putting the enemy to flight. The loss of the British was 1054
men killed and wounded, among whom were 89 commissioned officers; while the
American casualties amounted to 420 killed and wounded, including General
Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners. (See AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.)

The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however, to be gauged
by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in proportion to the
numbers engaged, nor by its purely military results, but by the moral
effect which it produced; and when it is considered from this standpoint
its far-reaching consequences can hardly be over-estimated. "It roused at
once the fierce instinct of combat in America ..., and dispelled ... the
almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering regular
troops with hastily levied volunteers ... No one questioned the conspicuous
gallantry with which the provincial troops had supported a long fire from
the ships and awaited the charge of the enemy, and British soldiers had
been twice driven back in disorder before their fire."[1] The pride which
Americans naturally felt in such an achievement, and the self-confidence
which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that the small force on
Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced, and that their ammunition was
running short before they were dislodged from their position.[2] Had the
character of the fighting on that day been other than it was; had the
American volunteers been easily, and at the first assault, driven from
their fortified position by the troops of George III., it is not impossible
that the resistance to the British government would have died out in the
North American colonies through lack of confidence in their own power on
the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it may have to teach the
student of war, taught the American colonists in 1775 that the odds against
them in the enterprise in which they had embarked were not so overwhelming
as to deny them all prospect of ultimate success.

In 1843 a monument, 221 ft. high, in the form of an obelisk, of Quincy
granite, was completed on Breed's Hill (now Bunker Hill) to commemorate the
battle, when an address was delivered by Daniel Webster, who had also
delivered the famous dedicatory oration at the laying of the corner-stone
in 1825. Bunker Hill day is a state holiday.

See R. Frothingham, _The Centennial: Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1895),
and _Life and Times of Joseph Warren_ (Boston, 1865); Boston City Council,
_Celebration of Centen. Aniv. of Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1875);
G.E. Ellis, _Hist. of Battle of Bunker's_ (Breed's) _Hill_ (Boston, 1875);
S. Sweet, _Who was the Commander at Bunker Hill?_ (Boston, 1850); W.E.H.
Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. iii (London,
1883); Sir George O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (London, 1899);
Fortescue, _History of the British Army_, vol. iii. pp. 153 seq. (London,
1902).

(R. J. M.)

[1] W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, iii. 428.

[2] General Gage's despatch. _American Remembrancer_, 1776, part 11, p.
132.

BUNN, ALFRED (1796-1860), English theatrical manager, was appointed
stage-manager of Drury Lane theatre, London, in 1823. In 1826 he was
managing the Theatre Royal, Birmingham, and in 1833 he undertook the joint
management of Drury Lane and Covent Garden, London. In this undertaking he
met with vigorous opposition. A bill for the abolition of the patent
theatres was passed in the House of Commons, but on Bunn's petition was
thrown out by the House of Lords. He had difficulties first with his
company, then with the lord chamberlain, and had to face the keen rivalry
of the other theatres. A longstanding quarrel with Macready resulted in the
tragedian assaulting the manager. In 1840 Bunn was declared a bankrupt, but
he continued to manage Drury Lane till 1848. Artistically his control of
the two chief English theatres was highly successful. Nearly every leading
English actor played under his management, and he made a courageous attempt
to establish English opera, producing the principal works of Balfe. He had
some gift for writing, and most of the libretti of these operas were
translated by himself. In _The Stage Before and Behind the Curtain_ (3
vols., 1840) he gave a full account of his managerial experiences. He died
at Boulogne on the 20th of December 1860.

BUNNER, HENRY CUYLER (1855-1896), American writer, was born in Oswego, New
York, on the 3rd of August 1855. He was educated in New York City. From
being a clerk in an importing house, he turned to journalism, and after
some work as a reporter, and on the staff of the _Arcadian_ (1873), he
became in 1877 assistant editor of the comic weekly _Puck_. He soon assumed
the editorship, which he held until his death in Nutley, N.J., on the 11th
of May 1896. He developed _Puck_ from a new struggling periodical into a
powerful social and political organ. In 1886 he published a novel, _The
Midge_, followed in 1887 by _The Story of a New York House_. But his best
efforts in fiction were his short stories and sketches--_Short Sixes_
(1891), _More Short Sixes_ (1894), _Made in France_ (1893), _Zadoc Pine and
Other Stories_ (1891), _Love in Old Cloathes and Other Stories_ (1896), and
_Jersey Street and Jersey Lane_ (1896). His verses--_Airs from Arcady and
Elsewhere_ (1884), containing the well-known poem, _The Way to Arcady;
Rowen_ (1892); and _Poems_ (1896), edited by his friend Brander
Matthews--display a light play of imagination and a delicate workmanship.
He also wrote clever _vers de société_ and parodies. Of his several plays
(usually written in collaboration), the best was _The Tower of Babel_
(1883).

BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BARON VON (1791-1860), Prussian
diplomatist and scholar, was born on the 25th of August 1791 at Korbach, an
old town in the little German principality of Waldeck. His father was a
farmer who was driven by poverty to become a soldier. Having studied at the
Korbach grammar school and Marburg university, Bunsen went in his
nineteenth year to Göttingen, where he supported himself by teaching and
later by acting as tutor to W.B. Astor, the American merchant. He won the
university prize essay of the year 1812 by a treatise on the _Athenian Law
of Inheritance_, and a few months later the university of Jena granted him
the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. During 1813 he travelled with
Astor in South Germany, and then turned to the study of the religion, laws,
language and literature of the Teutonic [v.04 p.0800] races. He had read
Hebrew when a boy, and now worked at Arabic at Munich, Persian at Leiden,
and Norse at Copenhagen. At the close of 1815 he went to Berlin, to lay
before Niebuhr the plan of research which he had mapped out. Niebuhr was so
impressed with Bunsen's ability that, two years later, when he became
Prussian envoy to the papal court, he made the young scholar his secretary.
The intervening years Bunsen spent in assiduous labour among the libraries
and collections of Paris and Florence. In July 1817 he married Frances
Waddington, eldest daughter and co-heiress of B. Waddington of Llanover,
Monmouthshire.

As secretary to Niebuhr, Bunsen was brought into contact with the Vatican
movement for the establishment of the papal church in the Prussian
dominions, to provide for the largely increased Catholic population. He was
among the first to realize the importance of this new vitality on the part
of the Vatican, and he made it his duty to provide against its possible
dangers by urging upon the Prussian court the wisdom of fair and impartial
treatment of its Catholic subjects. In this object he was at first
successful, and both from the Vatican and from Frederick William III., who
put him in charge of the legation on Niebuhr's resignation, he received
unqualified approbation. Owing partly to the wise statesmanship of Count
Spiegel, archbishop of Cologne, an arrangement was made by which the thorny
question of "mixed" marriages (_i.e._ between Catholic and Protestant)
would have been happily solved; but the archbishop died in 1835, the
arrangement was never ratified, and the Prussian king was foolish enough to
appoint as Spiegel's successor the narrow-minded partisan Baron Droste. The
pope gladly accepted the appointment, and in two years the forward policy
of the Jesuits had brought about the strife which Bunsen and Spiegel had
tried to prevent. Bunsen rashly recommended that Droste should be seized,
but the _coup_ was so clumsily attempted, that the incriminating documents
were, it is said, destroyed in advance. The government, in this _impasse_,
took the safest course, refused to support Bunsen, and accepted his
resignation in April 1838.

After leaving Rome, where he had become intimate with all that was most
interesting in the cosmopolitan society of the papal capital, Bunsen went
to England, where, except for a short term as Prussian ambassador to
Switzerland (1830-1841), he was destined to pass the rest of his official
life. The accession to the throne of Prussia of Frederick William IV., on
June 7th, 1840, made a great change in Bunsen's career. Ever since their
first meeting in 1828 the two men had been close friends and had exchanged
ideas in an intimate correspondence, published under Ranke's editorship in
1873. Enthusiasm for evangelical religion and admiration for the Anglican
Church they held in common, and Bunsen was the instrument naturally
selected for realizing the king's fantastic scheme of setting up at
Jerusalem a Prusso-Anglican bishopric as a sort of advertisement of the
unity and aggressive force of Protestantism. The special mission of Bunsen
to England, from June to November 1841, was completely successful, in spite
of the opposition of English high churchmen and Lutheran extremists. The
Jerusalem bishopric, with the consent of the British government and the
active encouragement of the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of
London, was duly established, endowed with Prussian and English money, and
remained for some forty years an isolated symbol of Protestant unity and a
rock of stumbling to Anglican Catholics.

During his stay in England Bunsen had made himself very popular among all
classes of society, and he was selected by Queen Victoria, out of three
names proposed by the king of Prussia, as ambassador to the court of St
James's. In this post he remained for thirteen years. His tenure of the
office coincided with the critical period in Prussian and European affairs
which culminated in the revolutions of 1848. With the visionary schemes of
Frederick William, whether that of setting up a strict episcopal
organization in the Evangelical Church, or that of reviving the defunct
ideal of the medieval Empire, Bunsen found himself increasingly out of
sympathy. He realized the significance of the signs that heralded the
coming storm, and tried in vain to move the king to a policy which would
have placed him at the head of a Germany united and free. He felt bitterly
the humiliation of Prussia by Austria after the victory of the reaction;
and in 1852 he set his signature reluctantly to the treaty which, in his
view, surrendered the "constitutional rights of Schleswig and Holstein."
His whole influence was now directed to withdrawing Prussia from the
blighting influence of Austria and Russia, and attempting to draw closer
the ties that bound her to Great Britain. On the outbreak of the Crimean
War he urged Frederick William to throw in his lot with the western powers,
and create a diversion in the north-east which would have forced Russia at
once to terms. The rejection of his advice, and the proclamation of
Prussia's attitude of "benevolent neutrality," led him in April 1854 to
offer his resignation, which was accepted.

Bunsen's life as a public man was now practically at an end. He retired
first to a villa on the Neckar near Heidelberg and later to Bonn. He
refused to stand for a seat, in the Liberal interest, in the Lower House of
the Prussian diet, but continued to take an active interest in politics,
and in 1855 published in two volumes a work, _Die Zeichen der Zeit: Briefe,
&c._, which exercised an immense influence in reviving the Liberal movement
which the failure of the revolution had crushed. In September 1857 Bunsen
attended, as the king's guest, a meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at
Berlin; and one of the last papers signed by Frederick William, before his
mind gave way in October, was that which conferred upon him the title of
baron and a peerage for life. In 1858, at the special request of the regent
(afterwards the emperor) William, he took his seat in the Prussian Upper
House, and, though remaining silent, supported the new ministry, of which
his political and personal friends were members.

Literary work was, however, his main preoccupation during all this period.
Two discoveries of ancient MSS. made during his stay in London, the one
containing a shorter text of the _Epistles of St Ignatius_, and the other
an unknown work _On all the Heresies_, by Bishop Hippolytus, had already
led him to write his _Hippolytus and his Age: Doctrine and Practice of Rome
under Commodus and Severus_ (1852). He now concentrated all his efforts
upon a translation of the Bible with commentaries. While this was in
preparation he published his _God in History_, in which he contends that
the progress of mankind marches parallel to the conception of God formed
within each nation by the highest exponents of its thought. At the same
time he carried through the press, assisted by Samuel Birch, the concluding
volumes of his work (published in English as well as in German) _Egypt's
Place in Universal History_--containing a reconstruction of Egyptian
chronology, together with an attempt to determine the relation in which the
language and the religion of that country stand to the development of each
among the more ancient non-Aryan and Aryan races. His ideas on this subject
were most fully developed in two volumes published in London before he
quitted England--_Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History as
applied to Language and Religion_ (2 vols., 1854).

In 1858 Bunsen's health began to fail; visits to Cannes in 1858 and 1859
brought no improvement, and he died on November 28th, 1860. One of his last
requests having been that his wife would write down recollections of their
common life, she published his _Memoirs_ in 1868, which contain much of his
private correspondence. The German translation of these _Memoirs_ has added
extracts from unpublished documents, throwing a new light upon the
political events in which he played a part. Baron Humboldt's letters to
Bunsen were printed in 1869.

Bunsen's English connexion, both through his wife (d. 1876) and through his
own long residence in London, was further increased in his family. He had
ten children, including five sons, Henry (1818-1855), Ernest (1810-1903),
Karl (1821-1887), Georg (1824-1896) and Theodor (1832-1892). Of these Karl
(Charles) and Theodor had careers in the German diplomatic service; and
Georg, who for some time was an active politician in Germany, eventually
retired to live in London; Henry, who was an English clergyman, became a
naturalized Englishman, [v.04 p.0801] and Ernest, who in 1845 married an
Englishwoman, Miss Gurney, subsequently resided and died in London. The
form of "de" Bunsen was adopted for the surname in England. Ernest de
Bunsen was a scholarly writer, who published various works both in German
and in English, notably on Biblical chronology and other questions of
comparative religion. His son, Sir Maurice de Bunsen (b. 1852), entered the
English diplomatic service in 1877, and after a varied experience became
minister at Lisbon in 1905.

See also L. von Ranke, _Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit
Bunsen_ (Berlin, 1873). The biography in the 9th edition of this
encyclopaedia, which has been drawn upon above, was by Georg von Bunsen.

BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM VON (1811-1899), German chemist, was born at
Göttingen on the 31st of March 1811, his father, Christian Bunsen, being
chief librarian and professor of modern philology at the university. He
himself entered the university in 1828, and in 1834 became _Privat-docent_.
In 1836 he became teacher of chemistry at the Polytechnic School of Cassel,
and in 1839 took up the appointment of professor of chemistry at Marburg,
where he remained till 1851. In 1852, after a brief period in Breslau, he
was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Heidelberg, where he spent the
rest of his life, in spite of an urgent invitation to migrate to Berlin as
successor to E. Mitscherlich. He retired from active work in 1889, and died
at Heidelberg on the 16th of August 1899. The first research by which
attention was drawn to Bunsen's abilities was concerned with the cacodyl
compounds (see ARSENIC), though he had already, in 1834, discovered the
virtues of freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide as an antidote to
arsenical poisoning. It was begun in 1837 at Cassel, and during the six
years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one eye through an
explosion, but nearly killed himself by arsenical poisoning. It represents
almost his only excursion into organic chemistry, and apart from its
accuracy and completeness it is of historical interest in the development
of that branch of the science as being the forerunner of the fruitful
investigations on the organo-metallic compounds subsequently carried out by
his English pupil, Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his work on
cacodyl, he was studying the composition of the gases given off from blast
furnaces. He showed that in German furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by
the fuel was being allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he came
to England, and in conjunction with Lyon Playfair investigated the
conditions obtaining in English furnaces, he found the waste to amount to
over 80%. These researches marked a stage in the application of scientific
principles to the manufacture of iron, and they led also to the elaboration
of Bunsen's famous methods of measuring gaseous volumes, &c., which form
the subject of the only book he ever published (_Gasometrische Methoden_,
1857). In 1841 he invented the carbon-zinc electric cell which is known by
his name, and which conducted him to several important achievements. He
first employed it to produce the electric arc, and showed that from 44
cells a light equal to 1171.3 candles could be obtained with the
consumption of one pound of zinc per hour. To measure this light he
designed in 1844 another instrument, which in various modifications has
come into extensive use--the grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began to
carry out electrolytical decompositions by the aid of the battery. By means
of a very ingenious arrangement he obtained magnesium for the first time in
the metallic state, and studied its chemical and physical properties, among
other things demonstrating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the
flame it gives when burnt in air. From 1855 to 1863 he published with
Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measurements, which W.
Ostwald has called the "classical example for all future researches in
physical chemistry." Perhaps the best known of the contrivances which the
world owes to him is the "Bunsen burner" which he devised in 1855 when a
simple means of burning ordinary coal gas with a hot smokeless flame was
required for the new laboratory at Heidelberg. Other appliances invented by
him were the ice-calorimeter (1870), the vapour calorimeter (1887), and the
filter pump (1868), which was worked out in the course of a research on the
separation of the platinum metals. Mention must also be made of another
piece of work of a rather different character. Travelling was one of his
favourite relaxations, and in 1846 he paid a visit to Iceland. There he
investigated the phenomena of the geysers, the composition of the gases
coming off from the fumaroles, their action on the rocks with which they
came into contact, &c., and on his observations was founded a noteworthy
contribution to geological theory. But the most far-reaching of his
achievements was the elaboration, about 1859, jointly with G.R. Kirchhoff,
of spectrum analysis, which has put a new weapon of extraordinary power
into the hands both of chemists and astronomers. It led Bunsen himself
almost immediately to the isolation of two new elements of the alkali
group, caesium and rubidium. Having noticed some unknown lines in the
spectra of certain salts he was examining, he set to work to obtain the
substance or substances to which these were due. To this end he evaporated
large quantities of the Dürkheim mineral water, and it says much both for
his perseverance and powers of manipulation that he dealt with 40 tons of
the water to get about 17 grammes of the mixed chlorides of the two
substances, and that with about one-third of that quantity of caesium
chloride was able to prepare the most important compounds of the element
and determine their characteristics, even making goniometrical measurements
of their crystals.

Bunsen founded no school of chemistry; that is to say, no body of chemical
doctrine is associated with his name. Indeed, he took little or no part in
discussions of points of theory, and, although he was conversant with the
trend of the chemical thought of his day, he preferred to spend his
energies in the collection of experimental data. One fact, he used to say,
properly proved is worth all the theories that can be invented. But as a
teacher of chemistry he was almost without rival, and his success is
sufficiently attested by the scores of pupils who flocked from every part
of the globe to study under him, and by the number of those pupils who
afterwards made their mark in the chemical world. The secret of this
success lay largely in the fact that he never delegated his work to
assistants, but was constantly present with his pupils in the laboratory,
assisting each with personal direction and advice. He was also one of the
first to appreciate the value of practical work to the student, and he
instituted a regular practical course at Marburg so far back as 1840.
Though alive to the importance of applied science, he considered truth
alone to be the end of scientific research, and the example he set his
pupils was one of single-hearted devotion to the advancement of knowledge.

See Sir Henry Roscoe's "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," _Trans. Chem. Soc._,
1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary notices in an
edition of Bunsen's collected works published by Ostwald and Bodenstein in
3 vols. at Leipzig in 1904.

BUNTER, the name applied by English geologists to the lower stage or
subdivision of the Triassic rocks in the United Kingdom. The name has been
adapted from the German _Buntsandstein, Der bunte Sandstein_, for it was in
Germany that this continental type of Triassic deposit was first carefully
studied. In France, the Bunter is known as the _Grès bigarré_. In northern
and central Germany, in the Harz, Thuringia and Hesse, the Bunter is
usually conformable with the underlying Permian formation; in the
south-west and west, however, it transgresses on to older rocks, on to Coal
Measures near Saarbruck, and upon the crystalline schists of Odenwald and
the Black Forest.

The German subdivisions of the Bunter are as follows:--(1) _Upper
Buntsandstein_, or _Röt_, mottled red and green marls and clays with
occasional beds of shale, sandstone, gypsum, rocksalt and dolomite. In
Hesse and Thuringia, a quartzitic sandstone prevails in the lower part. The
"Rhizocorallium Dolomite" (_R. Jenense_, probably a sponge) of the latter
district contains the only Bunter fauna of any importance. In Lorraine and
the Eifel and Saar districts there are micaceous clays and sandstones with
plant remains--the _Voltzia_ sandstone. The lower beds in the Black Forest,
Vosges, Odenwald and Lorraine very generally contain strings of dolomite
and carnelian--the so-called "Carneol bank." (2) _Middle
Buntsandstein-Hauptbuntsandstein_ (900 ft.), the bulk [v.04 p.0802] of this
subdivision is made up of weakly-cemented, coarse-grained sandstones,
oblique lamination is very prevalent, and occasional conglomeratic beds
make their appearance. The uppermost bed is usually fine-grained and bears
the footprints of _Cheirotherium_. In the Vosges district, this subdivision
of the Bunter is called the _Grès des Vosges, _or the _Grès principal_,
which comprises: (i.) red micaceous and argillaceous sandstone; (ii.) the
_conglomérat principal_; and (iii.) _Grès bigarré principal_ (=_grès des
Vosges_, properly so-called). (3) _Lower Buntsandstein_, fine-grained
clayey and micaceous sandstones, red-grey, yellow, white and mottled. The
cement of the sandstones is often felspathic; for this reason they yield
useful porcelain clays in the Thuringerwald. Clay galls are common in the
sandstones of some districts, and in the neighbourhood of the Harz an
oolitic calcareous sandstone, _Rogenstein_, occurs. In eastern Hesse, the
lowest beds are crumbly, shaly clays, _Brockelschiefern_.

The following are the subdivisions usually adopted in England:--(1) Upper
Mottled Sandstone, red variegated sandstones, soft and generally free from
pebbles. (2) Bunter Pebble Beds, harder red and brown sandstones with
quartzose pebbles, very abundant in some places. (3) Lower Mottled
Sandstone, very similar to the upper division. The Bunter beds occupy a
large area in the midland counties where they form dry, healthy ground of
moderate elevation (Cannock Chase, Trentham, Sherwood Forest, Sutton
Coldfield, &c.). Southward they may be followed through west Somerset to
the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in Devon; while northward they pass
through north Staffordshire, Cheshire and Lancashire to the Vale of Eden
and St Bees, reappearing in Elgin and Arran. A deposit of these rocks lies
in the Vale of Clwyd and probably flanks the eastern side of the Pennine
Hills, although here it is not so readily differentiated from the Keuper
beds. The English Bunter rests with a slight unconformity upon the older
formations. It is generally absent in the south-eastern counties, but
thickens rapidly in the opposite direction, as is shown by the following
table:--

  +----------------+----------------+---------------------+
  | Lancashire and |                | Leicestershire and  |
  |  W. Cheshire.  | Staffordshire. |    Warwickshire.    |
  +----------------+----------------+---------------------+
  |(1)   500 ft.   |   50-200 ft.   |       Absent        |
  |(2) 500-750 ft. |  100-300 ft.   |      0-100 ft.      |
  |(3) 200-500 ft. |    0-100 ft.   |       Absent        |
  +----------------+----------------+---------------------+

The material forming the Bunter beds of England came probably from the
north-west, but in Devonshire there are indications which point to an
additional source.

In the Alpine region, most of the Trias differs markedly from that of
England and northern Germany, being of distinctly marine origin; here the
Bunter is represented by the _Werfen beds_ (from Werfen in Salzburg) in the
northern Alps, a series of red and greenish-grey micaceous shales with
gypsum, rock salt and limestones in the upper part; while in the southern
Alps (S. Tirol) there is an upper series of red clays, the _Campil beds_,
and a lower series of thin sandstones, the _Seis beds_. Mojsisovics von
Mojsvar has pointed out that the Alpine Bunter belongs to the single zone
of _Natica costata_ and _Tirolites cassianus_.

Fossils in the Bunter are very scarce; in addition to the footprints of
_Cheirotherium_, direct evidence of amphibians is found in such forms as
_Trematosaurus_ and _Mastodonsaurus. Myophoria costata_ and _Gervillea
Murchisoni_ are characteristic fossils. Plants are represented by _Voltzia_
and by equisetums and ferns.

In England, the Bunter sandstones frequently act as valuable reservoirs of
underground water; sometimes they are used for building stone or for
foundry sand. In Germany some of the harder beds have yielded building
stones, which were much used in the middle ages in the construction of
cathedrals and castles in southern Germany and on the Rhine. In the
northern Eifel region, at Mechernich and elsewhere, this formation contains
lead ore in the form of spots and patches (_Knotenerz_) in the sandstone;
some of the lead ore was worked by the Romans.

For a consideration of the relationship of the Bunter beds to formations of
the like age in other parts of the world, see TRIASSIC SYSTEM.

(J. A. H.)

BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858), English Wesleyan divine, was born of humble
parentage at Manchester on the 13th of May 1779. He was educated at
Manchester grammar school, and at the age of nineteen began to preach,
being received into full connexion in 1803. He continued to minister for
upwards of fifty-seven years in Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool,
London and elsewhere. In 1835 he was appointed president of the first
Wesleyan theological college (at Hoxton), and in this position he succeeded
in materially raising the standard of education among Wesleyan ministers.
He was four times chosen to be president of the conference, was repeatedly
secretary of the "Legal Hundred," and for eighteen years was secretary to
the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Under him Methodism ceased to be a society
based upon Anglican foundation, and became a distinct church. He favoured
the extension of lay power in committees, and was particularly zealous in
the cause of foreign missions. Bunting was a popular preacher, and an
effective platform speaker; in 1818 he was given the degree of M.A. by
Aberdeen University, and in 1834 that of D.D. by Wesleyan University of
Middletown, Conn., U.S.A. He died on the 16th of June 1858. His eldest son,
William Maclardie Bunting (1805-1866), was also a distinguished Wesleyan
minister; and his grandson Sir Percy William Bunting (b. 1836), son of T.P.
Bunting, became prominent as a liberal nonconformist and editor of the
_Contemporary Review_ from 1882, being knighted in 1908.

See _Lives_ of Jabez Bunting (1859) and W.M. Bunting (1870) by Thomas
Percival Bunting.

BUNTING, properly the common English name of the bird called by Linnaeus
_Emberiza miliaria_, but now used in a general sense for all members of the
family _Emberizidae_, which are closely allied to the finches
(_Fringillidae_), though, in Professor W.K. Parker's opinion, to be easily
distinguished therefrom--the _Emberizidae_ possessing what none of the
_Fringillidae_ do, an additional pair of palatal bones,
"palato-maxillaries." It will probably follow from this diagnosis that some
forms of birds, particularly those of the New World, which have hitherto
been commonly assigned to the latter, really belong to the former, and
among them the genera _Cardinalis_ and _Phrygilus_. The additional palatal
bones just named are also found in several other peculiarly American
families, namely, _Tanagridae_, _Icteridae_ and _Mniotiltidae_--whence it
may be perhaps inferred that the _Emberizidae_ are of Transatlantic origin.
The buntings generally may be also outwardly distinguished from the finches
by their angular gape, the posterior portion of which is greatly deflected;
and most of the Old-World forms, together with some of those of the New
World, have a bony knob on the palate--a swollen outgrowth of the dentary
edges of the bill. Correlated with this peculiarity the maxilla usually has
the tomia sinuated, and is generally concave, and smaller and narrower than
the mandible, which is also concave to receive the palatal knob. In most
other respects the buntings greatly resemble the finches, but their eggs
are generally distinguishable by the irregular hair-like markings on the
shell. In the British Islands by far the commonest species of bunting is
the yellow-hammer (_E. citrinella_), but the true bunting (or corn-bunting,
or bunting-lark, as it is called in some districts) is a very well-known
bird, while the reed-bunting (_E. schoeniclus_) frequents marshy soils
almost to the exclusion of the two former. In certain localities in the
south of England the cirl-bunting (_E. cirlus_) is also a resident; and in
winter vast flocks of the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_), at once
recognizable by its pointed wings and elongated hind-claws, resort to our
shores and open grounds. This last is believed to breed sparingly on the
highest mountains of Scotland, but the majority of the examples which visit
us come from northern regions, for it is a species which in summer inhabits
the whole circumpolar area. The ortolan (_E. hortulana_), so highly prized
for its delicate flavour, occasionally appears in England, but the British
Islands seem to lie outside its proper range. On the continent of Europe,
in Africa and throughout Asia, many other species are found, while in
America the number belonging to the family cannot at present be computed.
The beautiful and melodious cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), commonly
called the Virginian nightingale, must be included in this family.

(A. N.)

BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with _bunt_, to
sift, or with the Ger. _bunt_, of varied colour), a loosely woven woollen
cloth for making flags; the term is also used of a collection of flags, and
particularly those of a ship.

[v.04 p.0803] BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688), English religious writer, was born
at Elstow, about a mile from Bedford, in November 1628. His father, Thomas
Bunyan,[1] was a tinker, or, as he described himself, a "brasier." The
tinkers then formed a hereditary caste, which was held in no high
estimation. Bunyan's father had a fixed residence, and was able to send his
son to a village school where reading and writing were taught.

The years of John's boyhood were those during which the Puritan spirit was
in the highest vigour all over England; and nowhere had that spirit more
influence than in Bedfordshire. It is not wonderful, therefore, that a lad
to whom nature had given a powerful imagination and sensibility which
amounted to a disease, should have been early haunted by religious terrors.
Before he was ten his sports were interrupted by fits of remorse and
despair; and his sleep was disturbed by dreams of fiends trying to fly away
with him. As he grew older his mental conflicts became still more violent.
The strong language in which he described them strangely misled all his
earlier biographers except Southey. It was long an ordinary practice with
pious writers to cite Bunyan as an instance of the supernatural power of
divine grace to rescue the human soul from the lowest depths of wickedness.
He is called in one book the most notorious of profligates; in another, the
brand plucked from the burning. Many excellent persons, whose moral
character from boyhood to old age has been free from any stain discernible
to their fellow-creatures, have, in their autobiographies and diaries,
applied to themselves, and doubtless with sincerity, epithets as severe as
could be applied to Titus Oates or Mrs Brownrigg. It is quite certain that
Bunyan was, at eighteen, what, in any but the most austerely puritanical
circles, would have been considered as a young man of singular gravity and
innocence. Indeed, it may be remarked that he, like many other penitents
who, in general terms, acknowledge themselves to have been the worst of
mankind, fired up, and stood vigorously on his defence, whenever any
particular charge was brought against him by others. He declares, it is
true, that he had let loose the reins on the neck of his lusts, that he had
delighted in all transgressions against the divine law, and that he had
been the ringleader of the youth of Elstow in all manner of vice. But when
those who wished him ill accused him of licentious amours, he called on God
and the angels to attest his purity. No woman, he said, in heaven, earth or
hell, could charge him with having ever made any improper advances to her.
Not only had he been strictly faithful to his wife; but he had, even before
his marriage, been perfectly spotless. It does not appear from his own
confessions, or from the railings of his enemies, that he ever was drunk in
his life. One bad habit he contracted, that of using profane language; but
he tells us that a single reproof cured him so effectually that he never
offended again. The worst that can be laid to his charge is that he had a
great liking for some diversions, quite harmless in themselves, but
condemned by the rigid precisians among whom he lived, and for whose
opinion he had a great respect. The four chief sins of which he was guilty
were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church, playing at tipcat and
reading the history of Sir Bevis of Southampton. A rector of the school of
Laud would have held such a young man up to the whole parish as a model.
But Bunyan's notions of good and evil had been learned in a very different
school; and he was made miserable by the conflict between his tastes and
his scruples.

When he was about seventeen the ordinary course of his life was interrupted
by an event which gave a lasting colour to his thoughts. He enlisted in the
Parliamentary army,[2] and served during the Decisive campaign of 1645. All
that we know of his military career is, that, at the siege of some town,[3]
one of his comrades, who had marched with the besieging army instead of
him, was killed by a shot. Bunyan ever after considered himself as having
been saved from death by the special interference of Providence. It may be
observed that his imagination was strongly impressed by the glimpse which
he had caught of the pomp of war. To the last he loved to draw his
illustrations of sacred things from camps and fortresses, from guns, drums,
trumpets, flags of truce, and regiments arrayed each under its own banner.
His Greatheart, his Captain Boanerges and his Captain Credence are
evidently portraits, of which the originals were among those martial saints
who fought and expounded in Fairfax's army.

In 1646 Bunyan returned home and married about two years later. His wife
had some pious relations, and brought him as her only portion some pious
books. His mind, excitable by nature, very imperfectly disciplined by
education, and exposed to the enthusiasm which was then epidemic in
England, began to be fearfully disordered. The story of the struggle is
told in Bunyan's _Grace Abounding_.

In outward things he soon became a strict Pharisee. He was constant in
attendance at prayers and sermons. His favourite amusements were, one after
another, relinquished, though not without many painful struggles. In the
middle of a game at tipcat he paused, and stood staring wildly upwards with
his stick in his hand. He had heard a voice asking him whether he would
leave his sins and go to heaven, or keep his sins and go to hell; and he
had seen an awful countenance frowning on him from the sky. The odious vice
of bell-ringing he renounced; but he still for a time ventured to go to the
church tower and look on while others pulled the ropes. But soon the
thought struck him that, if he persisted in such wickedness, the steeple
would fall on his head; and he fled in terror from the accursed place. To
give up dancing on the village green was still harder; and some months
elapsed before he had the fortitude to part with his darling sin. When this
last sacrifice had been made, he was, even when tried by the maxims of that
austere time, faultless. All Elstow talked of him as an eminently pious
youth. But his own mind was more unquiet than ever. Having nothing more to
do in the way of visible reformation, yet finding in religion no pleasures
to supply the place of the juvenile amusements which he had relinquished,
he began to apprehend that he lay under some special malediction; and he
was tormented by a succession of fantasies which seemed likely to drive him
to suicide or to Bedlam. At one time he took it into his head that all
persons of Israelite blood would be saved, and tried to make out that he
partook of that blood; but his hopes were speedily destroyed by his father,
who seems to have had no ambition to be regarded as a Jew. At another time
Bunyan was disturbed by a strange dilemma: "If I have not faith, I am lost;
if I have faith, I can work miracles." He was tempted to cry to the puddles
between Elstow and Bedford, "Be ye dry," and to stake his eternal hopes on
the event. Then he took up a notion that the day of grace for Bedford and
the neighbouring villages was past; that all who were to be saved in that
part of England were already converted; and that he had begun to pray and
strive some months too late. Then he was harassed by doubts whether the
Turks were not in the right and the Christians in the wrong. Then he was
troubled by a maniacal impulse which prompted him to pray to the trees, to
a broomstick, to the parish bull.

As yet, however, he was only entering the valley of the shadow of death.
Soon the darkness grew thicker. Hideous forms floated before him. Sounds of
cursing and wailing were in his ears. His way ran through stench and fire,
close to the mouth of the bottomless pit. He began to be haunted by a
strange curiosity about the unpardonable sin, and by a morbid longing to
commit it. But the most frightful of all the forms which [v.04 p.0804] his
disease took was a propensity to utter blasphemy, and especially to
renounce his share in the benefits of the redemption. Night and day, in
bed, at table, at work, evil spirits, as he imagined, were repeating close
to his ear the words, "Sell him, sell him." He struck at the hobgoblins; he
pushed them from him; but still they were ever at his side. He cried out in
answer to them, hour after hour, "Never, never; not for thousands of
worlds; not for thousands." At length, worn out by this long agony, he
suffered the fatal words to escape him, "Let him go if he will." Then his
misery became more fearful than ever. He had done what could not be
forgiven. He had forfeited his part of the great sacrifice. Like Esau, he
had sold his birthright; and there was no longer any place for repentance.
"None," he afterwards wrote, "knows the terrors of those days but myself."
He has described his sufferings with singular energy, simplicity and
pathos. He envied the brutes; he envied the very stones on the street, and
the tiles on the houses. The sun seemed to withhold its light and warmth
from him. His body, though cast in a sturdy mould, and though still in the
highest vigour of youth, trembled whole days together with the fear of
death and judgment. He fancied that this trembling was the sign set on the
worst reprobates, the sign which God had put on Cain. The unhappy man's
emotion destroyed his power of digestion. He had such pains that he
expected to burst asunder like Judas, whom he regarded as his prototype.

Neither the books which Bunyan read, nor the advisers whom he consulted,
were likely to do much good in a case like his. His small library had
received a most unseasonable addition, the account of the lamentable end of
Francis Spira. One ancient man of high repute for piety, whom the sufferer
consulted, gave an opinion which might well have produced fatal
consequences. "I am afraid," said Bunyan, "that I have committed the sin
against the Holy Ghost." "Indeed," said the old fanatic, "I am afraid that
you have."

At length the clouds broke; the light became clearer and clearer; and the
enthusiast who had imagined that he was branded with the mark of the first
murderer, and destined to the end of the arch-traitor, enjoyed peace and a
cheerful confidence in the mercy of God. Years elapsed, however, before his
nerves, which had been so perilously overstrained, recovered their tone.
When he had joined a Baptist society at Bedford, and was for the first time
admitted to partake of the eucharist, it was with difficulty that he could
refrain from imprecating destruction on his brethren while the cup was
passing from hand to hand. After he had been some time a member of the
congregation he began to preach; and his sermons produced a powerful
effect. He was indeed illiterate; but he spoke to illiterate men. The
severe training through which he had passed had given him such an
experimental knowledge of all the modes of religious melancholy as he could
never have gathered from books; and his vigorous genius, animated by a
fervent spirit of devotion, enabled him not only to exercise a great
influence over the vulgar, but even to extort the half-contemptuous
admiration of scholars. Yet it was long before he ceased to be tormented by
an impulse which urged him to utter words of horrible impiety in the
pulpit.[4] Bunyan was finally relieved from the internal sufferings which
had embittered his life by sharp persecution from without. He had been five
years a preacher when the Restoration put it in the power of the Cavalier
gentlemen and clergymen all over the country to oppress the dissenters. In
November 1660 he was flung into Bedford gaol; and there he remained, with
some intervals of partial and precarious liberty, during twelve years. The
authorities tried to extort from him a promise that he would abstain from
preaching; but he was convinced that he was divinely set apart and
commissioned to be a teacher of righteousness, and he was fully determined
to obey God rather than man. He was brought before several tribunals,
laughed at, caressed, reviled, menaced, but in vain. He was facetiously
told that he was quite right in thinking that he ought not to hide his
gift; but that his real gift was skill in repairing old kettles. He was
compared to Alexander the coppersmith. He was told that if he would give up
preaching he should be instantly liberated. He was warned that if he
persisted in disobeying the law he would be liable to banishment, and that
if he were found in England after a certain time his neck would be
stretched. His answer was, "If you let me out to-day, I will preach again
to-morrow." Year after year he lay patiently in a dungeon, compared with
which the worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace.[5] His
fortitude is the more extraordinary because his domestic feelings were
unusually strong. Indeed, he was considered by his stern brethren as
somewhat too fond and indulgent a parent. He had four small children, and
among them a daughter who was blind, and whom he loved with peculiar
tenderness. He could not, he said, bear even to let the wind blow on her;
and now she must suffer cold and hunger; she must beg; she must be beaten;
"yet," he added, "I must, I must do it."

His second wife, whom he had married just before his arrest, tried in vain
for his release; she even petitioned the House of Lords on his behalf.
While he lay in prison he could do nothing in the way of his old trade for
the support of his family. He determined, therefore, to take up a new
trade. He learned to make long-tagged thread laces; and many thousands of
these articles were furnished by him to the hawkers. While his hands were
thus busied he had other employments for his mind and his lips. He gave
religious instruction to his fellow-captives, and formed from among them a
little flock, of which he was himself the pastor. He studied indefatigably
the few books which he possessed. His two chief companions were the Bible
and Fox's _Book of Martyrs_. His knowledge of the Bible was such that he
might have been called a living concordance; and on the margin of his copy
of the _Book of Martyrs_ are still legible the ill-spelt lines of doggerel
in which he expressed his reverence for the brave sufferers, and his
implacable enmity to the mystical Babylon.

Prison life gave him leisure to write, and during his first imprisonment he
wrote, in addition to several tracts and some verse, _Grace Abounding to
the Chief of Sinners_, the narrative of his own religious experience. The
book was published in 1666. A short period of freedom was followed by a
second offence and a further imprisonment. Bunyan's works were coarse,
indeed, but they showed a keen mother wit, a great command of the homely
mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the English Bible, and a vast and
dearly bought spiritual experience. They therefore, when the corrector of
the press had improved the syntax and the spelling, were well received.

Much of Bunyan's time was spent in controversy. He wrote sharply against
the Quakers, whom he seems always to have held in utter abhorrence. He
wrote against the liturgy of the Church of England. No two things,
according to him, had less affinity than the form of prayer and the spirit
of prayer. Those, he said with much point, who have most of the spirit of
prayer are all to be found in gaol; and those who have most zeal for the
form of prayer are all to be found at the alehouse. The doctrinal Articles,
on the other hand, he warmly praised and defended. The most acrimonious of
all his works is his _Defence of Justification by Faith_, an answer to what
Bunyan calls "the brutish and beastly latitudinarianism" of Edward Fowler,
afterwards bishop of Gloucester, an excellent man, but not free from the
taint of Pelagianism.

Bunyan had also a dispute with some of the chiefs of the sect to which he
belonged. He doubtless held with perfect sincerity [v.04 p.0805] the
distinguishing tenet of that sect, but he did not consider that tenet as
one of high importance, and willingly joined in communion with pious
Presbyterians and Independents. The sterner Baptists, therefore, loudly
pronounced him a false brother. A controversy arose which long survived the
original combatants. The cause which Bunyan had defended with rude logic
and rhetoric against Kiffin and Danvers has since been pleaded by Robert
Hall with an ingenuity and eloquence such as no polemical writer has ever
surpassed.

During the years which immediately followed the Restoration, Bunyan's
confinement seems to have been strict. But as the passions of 1660 cooled,
as the hatred with which the Puritans had been regarded while their reign
was recent gave place to pity, he was less and less harshly treated. The
distress of his family, and his own patience, courage and piety, softened
the hearts of his judges. Like his own Christian in the cage, he found
protectors even among the crowd at Vanity Fair. The bishop of the diocese,
Dr Barlow, is said to have interceded for him. At length the prisoner was
suffered to pass most of his time beyond the walls of the gaol, on
condition, as it should seem, that he remained within the town of Bedford.

He owed his complete liberation to one of the worst acts of one of the
worst governments that England has ever seen. In 1671 the Cabal was in
power. Charles II. had concluded the treaty by which he bound himself to
set up the Roman Catholic religion in England. The first step which he took
towards that end was to annul, by an unconstitutional exercise of his
prerogative, all the penal statutes against the Roman Catholics; and in
order to disguise his real design, he annulled at the same time the penal
statutes against Protestant nonconformists. Bunyan was consequently set at
large.[6] In the first warmth of his gratitude he published a tract, in
which he compared Charles to that humane and generous Persian king, who,
though not himself blest with the light of the true religion, favoured the
chosen people, and permitted them, after years of captivity, to rebuild
their beloved temple.

Before he left his prison he had begun the book which has made his name
immortal.[7] The history of that book is remarkable. The author was, as he
tells us, writing a treatise, in which he had occasion to speak of the
stages of the Christian progress. He compared that progress, as many others
had compared it, to a pilgrimage. Soon his quick wit discovered innumerable
points of similarity which had escaped his predecessors. Images came
crowding on his mind faster than he could put them into words, quagmires
and pits, steep hills, dark and horrible glens, soft vales, sunny pastures,
a gloomy castle, of which the courtyard was strewn with the skulls and
bones of murdered prisoners, a town all bustle and splendour, like London
on the Lord Mayor's Day, and the narrow path, straight as a rule could make
it, running on up hill and down hill, through city and through wilderness,
to the Black River and the Shining Gate. He had found out, as most people
would have said, by accident, as he would doubtless have said, by the
guidance of Providence, where his powers lay. He had no suspicion, indeed,
that he was producing a masterpiece. He could not guess what place his
allegory would occupy in English literature; for of English literature he
knew nothing. Those who suppose him to have studied the _Faery Queen_ might
easily be confuted, if this were the proper place for a detailed
examination of the passages in which the two allegories have been thought
to resemble each other. The only work of fiction, in all probability, with
which he could compare his _Pilgrim_ was his old favourite, the legend of
Sir Bevis of Southampton. He would have thought it a sin to borrow any time
from the serious business of his life, from his expositions, his
controversies and his lace tags, for the purpose of amusing himself with
what he considered merely as a trifle. It was only, he assures us, at spare
moments that he returned to the House Beautiful, the Delectable Mountains
and the Enchanted Ground. He had no assistance. Nobody but himself saw a
line till the whole was complete. He then consulted his pious friends. Some
were pleased. Others were much scandalized. It was a vain story, a mere
romance, about giants, and lions, and goblins, and warriors, sometimes
fighting with monsters, and sometimes regaled by fair ladies in stately
palaces. The loose atheistical wits at Will's might write such stuff to
divert the painted Jezebels of the court; but did it become a minister of
the gospel to copy the evil fashions of the world? There had been a time
when the cant of such fools would have made Bunyan miserable. But that time
was past; and his mind was now in a firm and healthy state. He saw that in
employing fiction to make truth clear and goodness attractive, he was only
following the example which every Christian ought to propose to himself;
and he determined to print.

The _Pilgrim's Progress_ was published in February 1678. Soon the
irresistible charm of a book which gratified the imagination of the reader
with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale, which exercised his
ingenuity by setting him to discover a multitude of curious analogies,
which interested his feelings for human beings, frail like himself, and
struggling with temptations from within and from without, which every
moment drew a smile from him by some stroke of quaint yet simple
pleasantry, and nevertheless left on his mind a sentiment of reverence for
God and of sympathy for man, began to produce its effect. In puritanical
circles, from which plays and novels were strictly excluded, that effect
was such as no work of genius, though it were superior to the _Iliad_, to
_Don Quixote_ or to _Othello_, can ever produce on a mind accustomed to
indulge in literary luxury. A second edition came out in the autumn with
additions; and the demand became immense. The eighth edition, which
contains the last improvements made by the author, was published in 1682,
the ninth in 1684, the tenth in 1685. The help of the engraver had early
been called in; and tens of thousands of children looked with terror and
delight on execrable copperplates, which represented Christian thrusting
his sword into Apollyon, or writhing in the grasp of Giant Despair. In
Scotland, and in some of the colonies, the _Pilgrim_ was even more popular
than in his native country. Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable
vanity, that in New England his dream was the daily subject of the
conversation of thousands, and was thought worthy to appear in the most
superb binding. He had numerous admirers in Holland, and amongst the
Huguenots of France.

He continued to work the gold-field which he had discovered, and to draw
from it new treasures, not indeed with quite such ease and in quite such
abundance as when the precious soil was still virgin, but yet with success,
which left all competition far behind. In 1680 appeared the _Life and Death
of Mr Badman_; in 1684 the second part of the _Pilgrim's Progress_. In 1682
appeared the _Holy War_, which if the _Pilgrim's Progress_ did not exist,
would be the best allegory that ever was written.

Bunyan's place in society was now very different from what it had been.
There had been a time when many dissenting ministers, who could talk Latin
and read Greek, had affected to treat him with scorn. But his fame and
influence now far exceeded theirs. He had so great an authority among the
Baptists that he was popularly called Bishop Bunyan. His episcopal
visitations were annual. From Bedford he rode every year to London, and
preached there to large and attentive congregations. From London he went
his circuit through the country, animating the zeal of his brethren,
collecting and distributing alms and making up quarrels. The magistrates
seem in general to have given him little trouble. But there is reason to
believe that, in the year 1685, he was in some danger of again occupying
his old quarters in Bedford gaol. In that year the rash and wicked
enterprise of Monmouth gave the government a pretext for prosecuting the
nonconformists; and scarcely one eminent divine of the Presbyterian.
Independent [v.04 p.0806] or Baptist persuasion remained unmolested. Baxter
was in prison: Howe was driven into exile: Henry was arrested.

Two eminent Baptists, with whom Bunyan had been engaged in controversy,
were in great peril and distress. Danvers was in danger of being hanged;
and Kiffin's grandsons were actually hanged. The tradition is that, during
those evil days, Bunyan was forced to disguise himself as a wagoner, and
that he preached to his congregation at Bedford in a smock-frock, with a
cart-whip in his hand. But soon a great change took place. James II. was at
open war with the church, and found it necessary to court the dissenters.
Some of the creatures of the government tried to secure the aid of Bunyan.
They probably knew that he had written in praise of the indulgence of 1672,
and therefore hoped that he might be equally pleased with the indulgence of
1687. But fifteen years of thought, observation and commerce with the world
had made him wiser. Nor were the cases exactly parallel. Charles was a
professed Protestant; James was a professed Papist. The object of Charles's
indulgence was disguised; the object of James's indulgence was patent.
Bunyan was not deceived. He exhorted his hearers to prepare themselves by
fasting and prayer for the danger which menaced their civil and religious
liberties, and refused even to speak to the courtier who came down to
remodel the corporation of Bedford, and who, as was supposed, had it in
charge to offer some municipal dignity to the bishop of the Baptists.

Bunyan did not live to see the Revolution.[8] In the summer of 1688 he
undertook to plead the cause of a son with an angry father, and at length
prevailed on the old man not to disinherit the young one. This good work
cost the benevolent intercessor his life. He had to ride through heavy
rain. He came drenched to his lodgings on Snow Hill, was seized with a
violent fever, and died in a few days (August 31). He was buried in Bunhill
Fields; and many Puritans, to whom the respect paid by Roman Catholics to
the reliques and tombs of saints seemed childish or sinful, are said to
have begged with their dying breath that their coffins might be placed as
near as possible to the coffin of the author of the _Pilgrim's Progress_.

The fame of Bunyan during his life, and during the century which followed
his death, was indeed great, but was almost entirely confined to religious
families of the middle and lower classes. Very seldom was he during that
time mentioned with respect by any writer of great literary eminence. Young
coupled his prose with the poetry of the wretched D'Urfey. In the
_Spiritual Quixote_, the adventures of Christian are ranked with those of
Jack the Giant-Killer and John Hickathrift. Cowper ventured to praise the
great allegorist, but did not venture to name him. It is a significant
circumstance that, for a long time all the numerous editions of the
_Pilgrim's Progress_ were evidently meant for the cottage and the servants'
hall. The paper, the printing, the plates, were all of the meanest
description. In general, when the educated minority and the common people
differ about the merit of a book, the opinion of the educated minority
finally prevails. The _Pilgrim's Progress_ is perhaps the only book about
which the educated minority has come over to the opinion of the common
people.

The attempts which have been made to improve and to imitate this book are
not to be numbered. It has been done into verse; it has been done into
modern English. The Pilgrimage of Tender Conscience, the Pilgrimage of Good
Intent, the Pilgrimage of Seek Truth, the Pilgrimage of Theophilus, the
Infant Pilgrim, the Hindoo Pilgrim, are among the many feeble copies of the
great original. But the peculiar glory of Bunyan is that those who most
hated his doctrines have tried to borrow the help of his genius. A Catholic
version of his parable may be seen with the head of the virgin in the
title-page. On the other hand, those Antinomians for whom his Calvinism is
not strong enough, may study the Pilgrimage of Hephzibah, in which nothing
will be found which can be construed into an admission of free agency and
universal redemption. But the most extraordinary of all the acts of
Vandalism by which a fine work of art was ever defaced was committed in the
year 1853. It was determined to transform the _Pilgrim's Progress_ into a
Tractarian book. The task was not easy; for it was necessary to make two
sacraments the most prominent objects in the allegory, and of all Christian
theologians, avowed Quakers excepted, Bunyan was the one in whose system
the sacraments held the least prominent place. However, the Wicket Gate
became a type of baptism, and the House Beautiful of the eucharist. The
effect of this change is such as assuredly the ingenious person who made it
never contemplated. For, as not a single pilgrim passes through the Wicket
Gate in infancy, and as Faithful hurries past the House Beautiful without
stopping, the lesson which the fable in its altered shape teaches, is that
none but adults ought to be baptized, and that the eucharist may safely be
neglected. Nobody would have discovered from the original _Pilgrim's
Progress_ that the author was not a Paedobaptist. To turn his book into a
book against Paedobaptism, was an achievement reserved for an
Anglo-Catholic divine. Such blunders must necessarily be committed by every
man who mutilates parts of a great work, without taking a comprehensive
view of the whole.

(M.)

The above article has been slightly corrected as to facts, as compared with
its form in the 9th edition. Bunyan's works were first partially collected
in a folio volume (1692) by his friend Charles Doe. A larger edition (2
vols., 1736-1737) was edited by Samuel Wilson of the Barbican. In 1853 a
good edition (3 vols., Glasgow) was produced by George Offer. Southey's
edition (1830) of the _Pilgrim's Progress_ contained his _Life_ of Bunyan.
Since then various editions of the _Pilgrim's Progress_, many illustrated
(by Cruikshank, Byam Shaw, W. Strang and others), have appeared. An
interesting life by "the author of _Mark Rutherford_" (W. Hale White) was
published in 1904. Other lives are by J.A. Froude (1880) in the "English
Men of Letters" series, and E. Venables (1888); but the standard work on
the subject is _John Bunyan; his Life, Times and Work_ (1885), by the Rev.
J. Brown of Bedford. A bronze statue, by Boehm, was presented to the town
by the duke of Bedford in 1874.

[1] The name, in various forms as Buignon, Buniun, Bonyon or Binyan,
appears in the local records of Elstow and the neighbouring parishes at
intervals from as far back as 1199. They were small freeholders, but all
the property except the cottage had been lost in the time of Bunyan's
grandfather. Bunyan's own account of his family as the "meanest and most
despised of all the families of the land" must be put down to his habitual
self-depreciation. Thomas Bunyan had a forge and workshop at Elstow.

[2] There is no direct evidence to show on which side he fought, but the
balance of probability justifies this view.

[3] There is no means of identifying the place besieged. It has been
assumed to be Leicester, which was captured by the Royalists in May 1645,
and recovered by Fairfax in the next month.

[4] Bunyan had joined, in 1653, the nonconformist community which met under
a certain Mr Gifford at St John's church, Bedford. This congregation was
not Baptist, properly so called, as the question of baptism, with other
doctrinal points, was left open. When Bunyan removed to Bedford in 1655, he
became a deacon of this church, and two years later he was formally
recognized as a preacher, his fame soon spreading through the neighbouring
counties. His wife died soon after their removal to Bedford, and he also
lost his friend and pastor, Mr Gifford. His earliest work was directed
against Quaker mysticism and appeared in 1656. It was entitled _Some Gospel
Truths Opened_; it was followed in the same year by a second tract in the
same sense, _A Vindication of Gospel Truths_.

[5] He was not, however, as has often been stated, confined in the old gaol
which stood on the bridge over the Ouse, but in the county gaol.

[6] His formal pardon is dated the 13th of September 1672; but five months
earlier he had received a royal licence to preach, and acted for the next
three years as pastor of the nonconformist body to which he belonged, in a
barn on the site of which stands the present Bunyan Meeting.

[7] It is now generally supposed that Bunyan wrote his _Pilgrim's
Progress_, not during his twelve years' imprisonment, but during a short
period of incarceration in 1675, probably in the old gaol on the bridge.

[8] He had resumed his pastorate in Bedford after his imprisonment of 1675,
and, although he frequently preached in London to crowded congregations,
and is said in the last year of his life to have been, of course
unofficially, chaplain to Sir John Shorter, lord mayor of London, he
remained faithful to his own congregation.

BUNZLAU, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, on the right bank of the
Bober, 27 m. from Liegnitz on the Berlin-Breslau railway, which crosses the
river by a great viaduct. Pop. (1900) 14,590. It has a handsome market
square, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and monuments to the
Russian field marshal Kutusov, who died here, and to the poet Martin Opitz
von Boberfeld. The Bunzlau pottery is famous; woollen and linen cloth are
manufactured, and there is a considerable trade in grain and cattle.
Bunzlau (Boleslavia) received its name in the 12th century from Duke
Boleslav, who separated it from the duchy of Glogau. Its importance was
increased by numerous privileges and the possession of extensive mining
works. It was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars of the 17th
century, and in 1739 was completely destroyed by fire. On the 30th of
August 1813 the French were here defeated on the retreat from the Katzbach
by the Silesian army of the allies.

BUONAFEDE, APPIANO (1716-1793), Italian philosopher, was born at Comachio,
in Ferrara, and died in Rome. He became professor of theology at Naples in
1740, and, entering the religious body of the Celestines, rose to be
general of the order. His principal works, generally published under the
assumed name of "Agatopisto Cromazione," are on the history of
philosophy:--_Della Istoria e delle Indole di ogni Filosofia_, 7 vols.,
1772 seq.; and _Della Restaurazione di ogni Filosofia ne' Secoli_, xvi.,
xvii., xviii., 3 vols., 1789 (German trans. by C. Heydenreich). The latter
gives a valuable account of 16th-century Italian philosophy. His other
works are _Istoria critica e filosofica del suicidio_ (1761); _Delle
conquiste celebri esaminate col naturale diritto delle genti_ (1763);
_Storia critica del moderno diritto di natura e delle genti_ (1789); and a
few poems and philosophic comedies.

BUOY (15th century "boye"; through O.Fr. or Dutch, from Lat. _boia_,
fetter; the word is now usually pronounced as "boy," and it has been spelt
in that form; but Hakluyt's [v.04 p.0807] _Voyages_ spells it "bwoy," and
this seems to indicate a different pronunciation, which is also given in
some modern dictionaries), a floating body employed to mark the navigable
limits of channels, their fairways, sunken dangers or isolated rocks, mined
or torpedo grounds, telegraph cables, or the position of a ship's anchor
after letting go; buoys are also used for securing a ship to instead of
anchoring. They vary in size and construction from a log of wood to steel
mooring buoys for battleships or a steel gas buoy.

In 1882 a conference was held upon a proposal to establish a uniform system
of buoyage. It was under the presidency of the then duke of Edinburgh, and
consisted of representatives from the various bodies interested. The
questions of colour, visibility, shape and size were considered, and any
modifications necessary owing to locality. The committee proposed the
following uniform system of buoyage, and it is now adopted by the general
lighthouse authorities of the United Kingdom:--

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

(1) The mariner when approaching the coast must determine his position on
the chart, and note the direction of flood tide. (2) The term
"starboard-hand" shall denote that side which would be on the right hand of
the mariner either going with the main stream of the flood, or entering a
harbour, river or estuary from seaward; the term "port-hand" shall denote
the left hand of the mariner in the same circumstances. (3)[1] Buoys
showing the pointed top of a cone above water shall be called conical (fig.
1) and shall always be starboard-hand buoys, as above defined. (4)[1] Buoys
showing a flat top above water shall be called can (fig. 2) and shall
always be port-hand buoys, as above defined. (5) Buoys showing a domed top
above water shall be called spherical (fig. 3) and shall mark the ends of
middle grounds. (6) Buoys having a tall central structure on a broad face
shall be called pillar buoys (fig. 4), and like all other special buoys,
such as bell buoys, gas buoys, and automatic sounding buoys, shall be
placed to mark special positions either on the coast or in the approaches
to harbours. (7) Buoys showing only a mast above water shall be called
spar-buoys (fig. 5).[2] (8) Starboard-hand buoys shall always be painted in
one colour only. (9) Port-hand buoys shall be painted of another
characteristic colour, either single or parti-colour. (10) Spherical buoys
(fig. 3) at the ends of middle grounds shall always be distinguished by
horizontal stripes of white colour, (11) Surmounting beacons, such as staff
and globe and others,[3] shall always be painted of one dark colour. (12)
Staff and globe (fig. 1) shall only be used on starboard-hand buoys, staff
and cage (fig. 2) on port hand; diamonds (fig. 7) at the outer ends of
middle grounds; and triangles (fig. 3) at the inner ends. (13) Buoys on the
same side of a channel, estuary or tideway may be distinguished from each
other by names, numbers or letters, and where necessary by a staff
surmounted with the appropriate beacon. (14) Buoys intended for moorings
(fig. 6) may be of shape and colour according to the discretion of the
authority within whose jurisdiction they are laid, but for marking
submarine telegraph cables the colour shall be green with the word
"Telegraph" painted thereon in white letters.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

_Buoying and Marking of Wrecks._--(15) Wreck buoys in the open sea, or in
the approaches to a harbour or estuary, shall be coloured green, with the
word "Wreck" painted in white letters on them. (16) When possible, the buoy
should be laid near to the side of the wreck next to mid-channel. (17) When
a wreck-marking vessel is used, it shall, if possible, have its top sides
coloured green, with the word "Wreck" in white letters thereon, and shall
exhibit by day, three balls on a yard 20 ft. above the sea, two placed
vertically at one end and one at the other, the single ball being on the
side nearer to the wreck; in fog a gong or bell is rung in quick succession
at intervals not exceeding one minute (wherever practicable); by night,
three white fixed lights are similarly arranged as the balls in daytime,
but the ordinary riding lights are not shown. (18) In narrow waters or in
rivers and harbours under the jurisdiction of local authorities, the same
rules may be adopted, or at discretion, varied as follows:--When a
wreck-marking vessel is used she shall carry a cross-yard on a mast with
two balls by day, placed horizontally not less than 6 nor more than 12 ft.
apart, and by night two lights similarly placed. When a barge or open boat
only is used, a flag or ball may be shown in the daytime. (19) The position
in which the marking vessel is placed with reference to the wreck shall be
at the discretion of the local authority having jurisdiction. A uniform
system by shape has been adopted by the Mersey Dock and Harbour Board, to
assist a mariner by night, and, in addition, where practicable, a uniform
colour; the fairway buoys are specially marked by letter, shape and colour.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

British India has practically adopted the British system, United States and
Canada have the same uniform system; in the majority of European maritime
countries and China various uniform systems have been adopted. In Norway
and Russia the compass system is used, the shape, colour and surmountings
of the buoys indicating the compass bearing of the danger from the buoy;
this method is followed in the open sea by Sweden. An international uniform
system of buoyage, although desirable, appears impracticable. Germany
employs yellow buoys to mark boundaries of quarantine stations. The
question of shape versus colour, irrespective of size, is a disputed one;
the shape is a better guide at night and colour in the daytime. All
markings (figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11) should be subordinate to the main colour
of the buoy; the varying backgrounds and atmospheric conditions render the
question a complex one.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

[Illustration: FIG. 14.]

London Trinity House buoys are divided into five classes, their use
depending on whether the spot to be marked is in the open sea or otherwise
exposed position, or in a sheltered harbour, or according to the depth of
water and weight of moorings, or the importance of the danger. Buoys are
moored with specially tested cables; the eye at the base of the buoy is of
wrought iron to prevent it becoming "reedy" and the cable is secured to
blocks (see ANCHOR) or mushroom anchors according to the nature of the
ground. London Trinity House buoys are [v.04 p.0808] built of steel, with
bulkheads to lessen the risk of their sinking by collision, and, with the
exception of bell buoys, do not contain water ballast. In 1878 gas buoys,
with fixed and occulting lights of 10-candle power, were introduced. In
1896 Mr T. Matthews, engineer-in-chief in the London Trinity Corporation,
developed the present design (fig. 12). It is of steel, the lower plates
being 5/8 in. and the upper 7/16 in. in thickness, thus adding to the
stability. The buoy holds 380 cub. ft. of gas, and exhibits an occulting
light for 2533 hours. This light is placed 10 ft. above the sea, and, with
an intensity of 50 candles, is visible 8 m. It occults every ten seconds,
and there is seven seconds' visibility, with three seconds' obscuration.
The occultations are actuated by a double valve arrangement. In the body of
the apparatus there is a gas chamber having sufficient capacity, in the
case of an occulting light, for maintaining the flame in action for seven
seconds, and by means of a by-pass a jet remains alight in the centre of
the burner. During the period of three seconds' darkness the gas chamber is
re-charged, and at the end of that period is again opened to the main
burner by a tripping arrangement of the valve, and remains in action seven
seconds. The gas chamber of the buoy, charged to five atmospheres, is
replenished from a steamer fitted with a pump and transport receivers
carrying indicating valves, the receivers being charged to ten atmospheres.
Practically no inconvenience has resulted from saline or other deposits,
the glazing (glass) of the lantern being thoroughly cleaned when
re-charging the buoy. Acetylene, generated from calcium carbide inside the
buoy, is also used. Electric light is exhibited from some buoys in the
United States. In England an automatic electric buoy has been suggested,
worked by the motion of the waves, which cause a stream of water to act on
a turbine connected with a dynamo generating electricity. Boat-shaped buoys
are also used (river Humber) for carrying a light and bell. The Courtenay
whistling buoy (fig. 13) is actuated by the undulating movement of the
waves. A hollow cylinder extends from the lower part of the buoy to still
water below the movement of the waves, ensuring that the water inside keeps
at mean level, whilst the buoy follows the movements of the waves. By a
special apparatus the compressed air is forced through the whistle at the
top of the buoy, and the air is replenished by two tubes at the upper part
of the buoy. It is fitted with a rudder and secured in the usual manner.
Automatic buoys cannot be relied on in calm days with a smooth sea. The nun
buoy (fig. 14) for indicating the position of an anchor after letting go,
is secured to the crown of the anchor by a buoy rope. It is usually made of
galvanized iron, and consists of two cones joined together at the base. It
is painted red for the port anchor and green for the starboard.

Mooring buoys (fig. 6) for battleships are built of steel in four
watertight compartments, and have sufficient buoyancy to keep afloat should
a compartment be pierced; they are 13 ft. long with a diameter of 6½ ft.
The mooring cable (bridle) passes through a watertight 16-in. trunk pipe,
built vertically in the centre of the buoy, and is secured to a "rocking
shackle" on the upper surface of the buoy. Large mooring buoys are usually
protected by horizontal wooden battens and are fitted with life chains.

(J. W. D.)

[1] In carrying out the above system the Northern Lights Commissioners have
adopted a red colour for conical or starboard-hand buoys, and black colour
for can or port-hand buoys, and this system is applicable to the whole of
Scotland.

[2] Useful where floating ice is encountered.

[3] St George and St Andrew crosses are principally employed to surmount
shore beacons.

BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, sons of Archermus, and members of the celebrated
school of sculpture in marble which flourished in Chios in the 6th century
B.C. They were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax (about 540 B.C.), whom
they were said to have caricatured. Their works consisted almost entirely
of draped female figures, Artemis, Fortune, the Graces, whence the Chian
school has been well called a school of Madonnas. Augustus brought many of
the works of Bupalus and Athenis to Rome, and placed them on the gable of
the temple of Apollo Palatinus.

BUPHONIA, in Greek antiquities, a sacrificial ceremony, forming part of the
Diipolia, a religious festival held on the 14th of the month Skirophorion
(June-July) at Athens, when a labouring ox was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus
as protector of the city in accordance with a very ancient custom. The ox
was driven forward to the altar, on which grain was spread, by members of
the family of the Kentriadae (from [Greek: kentron], a goad), on whom this
duty devolved hereditarily. When it began to eat, one of the family of the
Thaulonidae advanced with an axe, slew the ox, then immediately threw away
the axe and fled. The axe, as being polluted by murder, was now carried
before the court of the Prytaneum (which tried inanimate objects for
homicide) and there charged with having caused the death of the ox, for
which it was thrown into the sea. Apparently this is an early instance
analogous to deodand (_q.v._). Although the slaughter of a labouring ox was
forbidden, it was considered excusable in the exceptional circumstances;
none the less it was regarded as a murder.

Porphyrius, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 29; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Schol.
Aristoph. _Nubes_, 485; Pausanias, i. 24, 28; see also Band, _De
Diipoliorum Sacro Atheniensium_ (1873).

BUR, or BURR (apparently the same word as Danish _borre_, burdock, cf.
Swed. _kard-boore_), a prickly fruit or head of fruits, as of the burdock.
In the sense of a woody outgrowth on the trunk of a tree, or "gnaur," the
effect of a crowded bud-development, the word is probably adapted from the
Fr. _bourre_, a vine-bud.

BURANO, a town of Venetia, in the province of Venice, on an island in the
lagoons, 6 m. N.E. of Venice by sea. Pop. (1901) 8169. It is a fishing
town, with a large royal school of lace-making employing some 500 girls. It
was founded, like all the towns in the lagoons, by fugitives from the
mainland cities at the time of the barbarian invasions. Torcello is a part
of the commune of Burano.

BURAUEN, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine
Islands, on the Dagitan river, 21 m. S. by W. of Tacloban, the capital.
Pop. (1903) 18,197. Burauen is situated in a rich hemp-growing region, and
hemp is its only important product. The language is Visayan.

BURBAGE, JAMES (d. 1597), English actor, is said to have been born at
Stratford-on-Avon. He was a member of the earl of Leicester's players,
probably for several years before he is first mentioned (1574) as being at
the head of the company. In 1576, having secured the lease of land at
Shoreditch, Burbage erected there the successful house which was known for
twenty years as _The_ Theatre from the fact that it was the first ever
erected in London. He seems also to have been concerned in the erection of
a second theatre in the same locality, the Curtain, and later, in spite of
all difficulties and a great deal of local opposition, he started what
became the most celebrated home of the rising drama,--the Blackfriars
theatre, built in 1596 near the old Dominican friary.

His son RICHARD BURBAGE (c. 1567-1619), more celebrated than his father,
was the Garrick of the Elizabethan stage, and acted all the great parts in
Shakespeare's plays. He, too, is said to have been born at
Stratford-on-Avon, and made his first appearance at an early age at one of
his father's theatres. He had established a reputation by the time he was
twenty, and in the next dozen years was the most popular English actor, the
"Roscius" of his day. At the time of his father's death, a lawsuit was in
progress against the lessor from whom James Burbage held the land on which
The Theatre stood. This suit was continued by Richard and his brother
Cuthbert, and in 1569 they pulled down the Shoreditch house and used the
materials to erect the Globe theatre, famous for its connexion with
Shakespeare. They occupied it as a summer playhouse, retaining the
Blackfriars, which was roofed in, for winter performances. In this venture
Richard Burbage had Shakespeare and others [v.04 p.0809] as his partners,
and it was in one or the other of these houses that he gained his greatest
triumphs, taking the leading part in almost every new play. He was
specially famous for his impersonation of Richard III. and other
Shakespearian characters, and it was in tragedy that he especially
excelled. Every playwright of his day endeavoured to secure his services.
He died on the 13th of March 1619. Richard Burbage was a painter as well as
an actor. The Felton portrait of Shakespeare is attributed to him, and
there is a portrait of a woman, undoubtedly by him, preserved at Dulwich
College.

BURBOT, or EEL-POUT (_Lota vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which
differs from the ling in the dorsal and anal fins reaching the caudal, and
in the small size of all the teeth. It exceeds a length of 3 ft. and is a
freshwater fish, although examples are exceptionally taken in British
estuaries and in the Baltic; some specimens are handsomely marbled with
dark brown, with black blotches on the back and dorsal fins. It is very
locally distributed in central and northern Europe, and an uncommon fish in
England. Its flesh is excellent. The American burbot (_Lota maculosa_) is
coarser, and not favoured for the table.

BURCKHARDT, JAKOB (1818-1897), Swiss writer on art, was born at Basel on
the 25th of May 1818; he was educated there and at Neuchâtel, and till 1839
was intended to be a pastor. In 1838 he made his first journey to Italy,
and also published his first important articles _Bemerkungen über
schweizerische Kathedralen_. In 1839 he went to the university of Berlin,
where he studied till 1843, spending part of 1841 at Bonn, where he was a
pupil of Franz Kugler, the art historian, to whom his first book, _Die
Kunstwerke D. belgischen Städte_ (1842), was dedicated. He was professor of
history at the university of Basel (1845-1847, 1849-1855 and 1858-1893) and
at the federal polytechnic school at Zurich (1855-1858). In 1847 he brought
out new editions of Kugler's two great works, _Geschichte der Malerei_ and
_Kunstgeschichte_, and in 1853 published his own work, _Die Zeit
Constantins des Grossen_. He spent the greater part of the years 1853-1854
in Italy, where he collected the materials for one of his most famous
works, _Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung sum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens_,
which was dedicated to Kugler and appeared in 1855 (7th German edition,
1899; English translation of the sections relating to paintings, by Mrs
A.H. Clough, London, 1873). This work, which includes sculpture and
architecture, as well as painting, has become indispensable to the art
traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition was devoted to the
art of the Renaissance, so that Burckhardt was naturally led on to the
preparation of his two other celebrated works, _Die Cultur der Renaissance
in Italien_ (1860, 5th German edition 1896, and English translation, by
S.G.C. Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and the _Geschichte der
Renaissance in Italien_ (1867, 3rd German edition 1891). In 1867 he refused
a professorship at Tübingen, and in 1872 another (that left vacant by
Ranke) at Berlin, remaining faithful to Basel. He died in 1897.

See Life by Hans Trog in the _Basler Jahrbuch_ for 1898, pp. 1-172.

(W. A. B. C.)

BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS [JOHANN LUDWIG] (1784-1817), Swiss traveller and
orientalist, was born at Lausanne on the 24th of November 1784. After
studying at Leipzig and Göttingen he visited England in the summer of 1806,
carrying a letter of introduction from the naturalist Blumenbach to Sir
Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the African Association,
accepted his offer to explore the interior of Africa. After studying in
London and Cambridge, and inuring himself to all kinds of hardships and
privations, Burckhardt left England in March 1809 for Malta, whence he
proceeded, in the following autumn, to Aleppo. In order to obtain a better
knowledge of oriental life he disguised himself as a Mussulman, and took
the name of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah. After two years passed in the
Levant he had thoroughly mastered Arabic, and had acquired such accurate
knowledge of the Koran, and of the commentaries upon its religion and laws,
that after a critical examination the most learned Mussulmans entertained
no doubt of his being really what he professed to be, a learned doctor of
their law. During his residence in Syria he visited Palmyra, Damascus,
Lebanon and thence journeyed via Petra to Cairo with the intention of
joining a caravan to Fezzan, and of exploring from there the sources of the
Niger. In 1812, whilst waiting for the departure of the caravan, he
travelled up the Nile as far as Dar Mahass; and then, finding it impossible
to penetrate westward, he made a journey through the Nubian desert in the
character of a poor Syrian merchant, passing by Berber and Shendi to
Suakin, on the Red Sea, whence he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca by way
of Jidda. At Mecca he stayed three months and afterwards visited Medina.
After enduring privations and sufferings of the severest kind, he returned
to Cairo in June 1815 in a state of great exhaustion; but in the spring of
1816 he travelled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned to Cairo in June, and
there again made preparations for his intended journey to Fezzan. Several
hindrances prevented his prosecuting this intention, and finally, in April
1817, when the long-expected caravan prepared to depart, he was seized with
illness and died on the 15th of October. He had from time to time carefully
transmitted to England his journals and notes, and a very copious series of
letters, so that nothing which appeared to him to be interesting in the
various journeys he made has been lost. He bequeathed his collection of 800
vols. of oriental MSS. to the library of Cambridge University.

His works were published by the African Association in the following
order:--_Travels in Nubia_ (to which is prefixed a biographical memoir)
(1819); _Travels in Syria and the Holy Land_ (1822); _Travels in Arabia_
(1829); _Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and Customs of the Modern
Egyptians_ (1830); _Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys_ (1831).

BURDEAU, AUGUSTE LAURENT (1851-1894), French politician, was the son of a
labourer at Lyons. Forced from childhood to earn his own living, he was
enabled to secure an education by bursarships at the Lycée at Lyons and at
the Lycée Louis Le Grand in Paris. In 1870 he was at the École Normale
Supérieure in Paris, but enlisted in the army, and was wounded and made
prisoner in 1871. In 1874 he became professor of philosophy, and translated
several works of Herbert Spencer and of Schopenhauer into French. His
extraordinary aptitude for work secured for him the position of _chef de
cabinet _under Paul Bert, the minister of education, in 1881. In 1885 he
was elected deputy for the department of the Rhone, and distinguished
himself in financial questions. He was several times minister, and became
minister of finance in the cabinet of Casimir-Périer (from the 3rd of
November 1893 to the 22nd of May 1894). On the 5th of July 1894 he was
elected president of the chamber of deputies. He died on the 12th of
December 1894, worn out with overwork.

BURDEN, or BURTHEN, (1) (A.S. _byrthen_, from _beran_, to bear), a load,
both literally and figuratively; especially the carrying capacity of a
ship; in mining and smelting, the tops or heads of stream-work which lie
over the stream of tin, and the proportion of ore and flux to fuel in the
charge of a blast-furnace. In Scots and English law the term is applied to
an encumbrance on real or personal property. (2) (From the Fr. _bourdon_, a
droning, humming sound) an accompaniment to a song, or the refrain of a
song; hence a chief or recurrent topic, as "the burden of a speech."

BURDER, GEORGE (1752-1832), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
London on the 5th of June 1752. In early manhood he was an engraver, but in
1776 he began preaching, and was minister of the Independent church at
Lancaster from 1778 to 1783. Subsequently he held charges at Coventry
(1784-1803) and at Fetter Lane, London (1803-1832). He was one of the
founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Religious Tract
Society, and the London Missionary Society, and was secretary to the
last-named for several years. As editor of the _Evangelical Magazine_ and
author of _Village Sermons_, he commanded a wide influence. He died on the
29th of May 1832, and a Life (by H. Burder) appeared in 1833.

BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS (1770-1844), English politician, was the son of
Francis Burdett by his wife Eleanor, daughter of William Jones of Ramsbury
manor, Wiltshire, and grandson of [v.04 p.0810] Sir Robert Burdett, Bart.
Born on the 25th of January 1770, he was educated at Westminster school and
Oxford, and afterwards travelled in France and Switzerland. He was in Paris
during the earlier days of the French Revolution, a visit which doubtless
influenced his political opinions. Returning to England he married in 1793
Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker, and this lady brought him a
large fortune. In 1796 he became member of parliament for Boroughbridge,
having purchased this seat from the representatives of the 4th duke of
Newcastle, and in 1797 succeeded his grandfather as fifth baronet. In
parliament he soon became prominent as an opponent of Pitt, and as an
advocate of popular rights. He denounced the war with France, the
suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the proposed exclusion of John Horne
Tooke from parliament, and quickly became the idol of the people. He was
instrumental in securing an inquiry into the condition of Coldbath Fields
prison, but as a result of this step he was for a time prevented by the
government from visiting any prison in the kingdom. In 1797 he made the
acquaintance of Horne Tooke, whose pupil he became, not only in politics,
but also in philology. At the general election of 1802 Burdett was a
candidate for the county of Middlesex, but his return was declared void in
1804, and in the subsequent contest he was defeated. In 1805 this return
was amended in his favour, but as this was again quickly reversed, Burdett,
who had spent an immense sum of money over the affair, declared he would
not stand for parliament again.

At the general election of 1806 Burdett was a leading supporter of James
Paull, the reform candidate for the city of Westminster; but in the
following year a misunderstanding led to a duel between Burdett and Paull
in which both combatants were wounded. At the general election in 1807
Burdett, in spite of his reluctance, was nominated for Westminster, and
amid great enthusiasm was returned at the top of the poll. He took up again
the congenial work of attacking abuses and agitating for reform, and in
1810 came sharply into collision with the House of Commons. A radical named
John Gale Jones had been committed to prison by the House, a proceeding
which was denounced by Burdett, who questioned the power of the House to
take this step, and vainly attempted to secure the release of Jones. He
then issued a revised edition of his speech on this occasion, and it was
published by William Cobbett in the _Weekly Register_. The House voted this
action a breach of privilege, and the speaker issued a warrant for
Burdett's arrest. Barring himself in his house, he defied the authorities,
while the mob gathered in his defence. At length his house was entered, and
under an escort of soldiers he was conveyed to the Tower. Released when
parliament was prorogued, he caused his supporters much disappointment by
returning to Westminster by water, and so avoiding a demonstration in his
honour. He then brought actions against the speaker and the
serjeant-at-arms, but the courts upheld the action of the House. In
parliament Burdett denounced corporal punishment in the army, and supported
all attempts to check corruption, but his principal efforts were directed
towards procuring a reform of parliament, and the removal of Roman Catholic
disabilities. In 1809 he had proposed a scheme of parliamentary reform, and
returning to the subject in 1817 and 1818 he anticipated the Chartist
movement by suggesting universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts,
vote by ballot, and annual parliaments; but his motions met with very
little support. He succeeded, however, in carrying a resolution in 1825
that the House should consider the laws concerning Roman Catholics. This
was followed by a bill embodying his proposals, which passed the Commons
but was rejected by the Lords. In 1827 and 1828 he again proposed
resolutions on this subject, and saw his proposals become law in 1829. In
1820 Burdett had again come into serious conflict with the government.
Having severely censured its action with reference to the "Manchester
massacre," he was prosecuted at Leicester assizes, fined £1000, and
committed to prison for three months. After the passing of the Reform Bill
in 1832 the ardour of the veteran reformer was somewhat abated, and a
number of his constituents soon took umbrage at his changed attitude.
Consequently he resigned his seat early in 1837, but was re-elected.
However, at the general election in the same year he forsook Westminster
and was elected member for North Wiltshire, which seat he retained, acting
in general with the Conservatives, until his death on the 23rd of January
1844. He left a son, Robert, who succeeded to the baronetcy, and five
daughters, the youngest of whom became the celebrated Baroness
Burdett-Coutts. Impetuous and illogical, Burdett did good work as an
advocate of free speech, and an enemy of corruption. He was exceedingly
generous, and spent money lavishly in furthering projects of reform.

See A. Stephens, _Life of Horne Tooke_ (London, 1813); Spencer Walpole,
_History of England_ (London, 1878-1886); C. Abbot, Baron Colchester,
_Diary and Correspondence_ (London, 1861).

(A. W. H.*)

BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA BURDETT-COUTTS, BARONESS (1814-1906),
English philanthropist, youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born
on the 21st of April 1814. When she was three-and-twenty, she inherited
practically the whole of the immense wealth of her grandfather Thomas
Coutts (approaching two millions sterling, a fabulous sum in those days),
by the will of the duchess of St Albans, who, as the actress Henrietta
Mellon, had been his second wife and had been left it on his death in 1821.
Miss Burdett then took the name of Coutts in addition to her own. "The
faymale heiress, Miss Anjaley Coutts," as the author of the _Ingoldsby
Legends_ called her in his ballad on the queen's coronation in that year
(1837), at once became a notable subject of public curiosity and private
cupidity; she received numerous offers of marriage, but remained resolutely
single, devoting herself and her riches to philanthropic work, which made
her famous for well-applied generosity. In May 1871 she was created a
peeress, as Baroness Burdett-Coutts of Highgate and Brookfield, Middlesex.
On the 18th of July 1872 she was presented at the Guildhall with the
freedom of the city of London, the first case of a woman being admitted to
that fellowship. It was not till 1881 that, when sixty-seven years old, she
married William Lehman Ashmead-Bartlett, an American by birth, and brother
of Sir E.A. Ashmead-Bartlett, the Conservative member of parliament; and he
then took his wife's name, entering the House of Commons as member for
Westminster, 1885. Full of good works, and of social interest and
influence, the baroness lived to the great age of ninety-two, dying at her
house in Stratton Street, Piccadilly, on the 30th of December 1906, of
bronchitis. She was buried in Westminster Abbey.

The extent of her benefactions during her long and active life can only be
briefly indicated; but the baroness must remain a striking figure in the
social history of Victorian England, for the thoughtful and conscientious
care with which she "held her wealth in trust" for innumerable good
objects. It was her aim to benefit the working-classes in ways involving no
loss of independence or self-respect. She carefully avoided taking any side
in party politics, but she was actively interested in phases of Imperial
extension which were calculated to improve the condition of the black
races, as in Africa, or the education and relief of the poor or suffering
in any part of the world. Though she made no special distinction of creed
in her charities, she was a notable benefactor of the Church of England,
building and endowing churches and church schools, endowing the bishoprics
of Cape Town and of Adelaide (1847), and founding the bishopric of British
Columbia (1857). Among her many educational endowments may be specified the
St Stephen's Institute in Vincent Square, Westminster (1846); she started
sewing schools in Spitalfields when the silk trade began to fail; helped to
found the shoe-black brigade; and placed hundreds of destitute boys in
training-ships for the navy and merchant service. She established Columbia
fish market (1869) in Bethnal Green, and presented it to the city, but
owing to commercial difficulties this effort, which cost her over £200,000,
proved abortive. She supported various schemes of emigration to the
colonies; and in Ireland helped to promote the fishing industry by starting
schools, and providing boats, besides [v.04 p.0811] advancing £250,000 in
1880 for supplying seed to the impoverished tenants. She was devoted to the
protection of animals and prevention of cruelty, and took up with
characteristic zeal the cause of the costermongers' donkeys, building
stables for them on her Columbia market estate, and giving prizes for the
best-kept animals. She helped to inaugurate the society for the prevention
of cruelty to children, and was a keen supporter of the ragged school
union. Missionary efforts of all sorts; hospitals and nursing; industrial
homes and refuges; relief funds, &c., found in her a generous supporter.
She was associated with Louisa Twining and Florence Nightingale; and in
1877-1878 raised the Turkish compassionate fund for the starving peasantry
and fugitives in the Russo-Turkish War (for which she obtained the order of
the Medjidieh, a solitary case of its conference on a woman). She relieved
the distressed in far-off lands as well as at home, her helping hand being
stretched out to the Dyaks of Borneo and the aborigines of Australia. She
was a liberal patroness of the stage, literature and the arts, and
delighted in knowing all the cultured people of the day. In short, her
position in England for half a century may well be summed up in words
attributed to King Edward VII., "after my mother (Queen Victoria) the most
remarkable woman in the kingdom."

BURDON-SANDERSON, SIR JOHN SCOTT, Bart. (1828-1905), English physiologist,
was born at West Jesmand, near Newcastle, on the 21st of December 1828. A
member of a well-known Northumbrian family, he received his medical
education at the university of Edinburgh and at Paris. Settling in London,
he became medical officer of health for Paddington in 1856 and four years
later physician to the Middlesex and the Brompton Consumption hospitals.
When diphtheria appeared in England in 1858 he was sent to investigate the
disease at the different points of outbreak, and in subsequent years he
carried out a number of similar inquiries, _e.g._ into the cattle plague
and into cholera in 1866. He became first principal of the Brown
Institution at Lambeth in 1871, and in 1874 was appointed Jodrell professor
of physiology at University College, London, retaining that post till 1882.
When the Waynflete chair of physiology was established at Oxford in 1882,
he was chosen to be its first occupant, and immediately found himself the
object of a furious anti-vivisectionist agitation. The proposal that the
university should spend £10,000 in providing him with a suitable
laboratory, lecture-rooms, &c., in which to carry on his work, was strongly
opposed, by some on grounds of economy, but largely because he was an
upholder of the usefulness and necessity of experiments upon animals. It
was, however, eventually carried by a small majority (88 to 85), and in the
same year the Royal Society awarded him a royal medal in recognition of his
researches into the electrical phenomena exhibited by plants and the
relations of minute organisms to disease, and of the services he had
rendered to physiology and pathology. In 1885 the university of Oxford was
asked to vote £500 a year for three years for the purposes of the
laboratory, then approaching completion. This proposal was fought with the
utmost bitterness by Sanderson's opponents, the anti-vivisectionists
including E.A. Freeman, John Ruskin and Bishop Mackarness of Oxford.
Ultimately the money was granted by 412 to 244 votes. In 1895 Sanderson was
appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, resigning the post in
1904; in 1899 he was created a baronet. His attainments, both in biology
and medicine, brought him many honours. He was Croonian lecturer to the
Royal Society in 1867 and 1877 and to the Royal College of Physicians in
1891; gave the Harveian oration before the College of Physicians in 1878;
acted as president of the British Association at Nottingham in 1893; and
served on three royal commissions--Hospitals (1883), Tuberculosis, Meat and
Milk (1890), and University for London (1892). He died at Oxford on the
23rd of November 1905.

BURDWAN, or BARDWAN, a town of British India, in Bengal, which gives its
name to a district and to a division. It has a station on the East Indian
railway, 67 m. N.W. from Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 35,022. The town consists
really of numerous villages scattered over an area of 9 sq. m., and is
entirely rural in character. It contains several interesting ancient tombs,
and at Nawab Hat, some 2 m. distant, is a group of 108 Siva _lingam_
temples built in 1788. The place was formerly very unhealthy, but this has
been to a large extent remedied by the establishment of water-works, a good
supply of water being derived from the river Banka. Within the town, the
principal objects of interest are the palaces and gardens of the maharaja.
The chief educational institution is the Burdwan Raj college, which is
entirely supported out of the maharaja's estate.

The town owes its importance entirely to being the headquarters of the
maharaja of Burdwan, the premier nobleman of lower Bengal, whose rent-roll
is upwards of £300,000. The _raj_ was founded in 1657 by Abu Ra Kapur, of
the Kapur Khatri family of Kotli in Lahore, Punjab, whose descendants
served in turn the Mogul emperors and the British government. The great
prosperity of the _raj_ was due to the excellent management of Maharaja
Mahtab Chand (d. 1879), whose loyalty to the government--especially during
the Santal rebellion of 1855 and the mutiny of 1857--was rewarded with the
grant of a coat of arms in 1868 and the right to a personal salute of 13
guns in 1877. Maharaja Bijai Chand Mahtab (b. 1881), who succeeded his
adoptive father in 1888, earned great distinction by the courage with which
he risked his life to save that of Sir Andrew Fraser, the
lieutenant-governor of Bengal, on the occasion of the attempt to
assassinate him made by Bengali malcontents on the 7th of November 1908.

The DISTRICT OF BURDWAN lies along the right bank of the river Bhagirathi
or Hugli. It has an area of 2689 sq. m. It is a flat plain, and its scenery
is uninteresting. Chief rivers are the Bhagirathi, Damodar, Ajai, Banka,
Kunur and Khari, of which only the Bhagirathi is navigable by country cargo
boats throughout the year. The district was acquired by the East India
Company under the treaty with Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760, and confirmed by the
emperor Shah Alam in 1765. The land revenue was fixed in perpetuity with
the zemindar in 1793. In 1901 the population was 1,532,475, showing an
increase of 10% in the decade. There are several indigo factories. The
district suffered from drought in 1896-1897. The Eden Canal, 20 m. long,
has been constructed for irrigation. The weaving of silk is the chief
native industry. As regards European industries, Burdwan takes the first
place in Bengal. It contains the great coal-field of Raniganj, first opened
in 1874, with an output of more than three million tons. The Barrakur
ironworks produce pig-iron, which is reported to be as good as that of
Middlesbrough. Apart from Burdwan town and Raniganj, the chief places are
the river-marts of Katwa and Kalna. The East Indian railway has several
lines running through the district.

The DIVISION OF BURDWAN comprises the six districts of Burdwan, Birbhum,
Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli and Howrah, with a total area of 13,949 sq. m.,
and a population in 1901 of 8,240,076.

BUREAU (a Fr. word from _burel_ or _bureau_, a coarse cloth used for
coverings), a writing-table or desk (_q.v._), also in America a low chest
of drawers. From the meaning of "desk," the word is applied to an office or
place of business, and particularly a government department; in the United
States the term is used of certain subdivisions of the executive
departments, as the bureau of statistics, a division of the treasury
department. The term "bureaucracy" is often employed to signify the
concentration of administrative power in bureaux or departments, and the
undue interference by officials not only in the details of government, but
in matters outside the scope of state interference. The word is also
frequently used in the sense of "red-tapism."

BURFORD, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division of
Oxfordshire, England, 18 m. W.N.W. of Oxford. Pop. (1901) 1146. It is
pleasantly situated in the valley of the Windrush, the broad, picturesque
main street sloping upward from the stream, beside which stands the fine
church, to the summit of the ridge flanking the valley on the south, along
which runs the high road from Oxford. The church of St John the Baptist has
a nave and aisles, mainly Perpendicular in appearance owing to alterations
in that period, but actually of [v.04 p.0812] earlier construction, the
south aisle flanked by two beautiful chapels and an ornate porch; transepts
and a central tower, and choir with flanking chapels. The massive Norman
tower contrasts strongly with the delicate Perpendicular spire rising upon
it. The church contains many interesting memorials, and, in the nave, a
Perpendicular shrine dedicated to St Peter. Near the church is the
half-ruined priory house, built in the 17th century, and containing much
fine plaster ornament characteristic of the period; a curious chapel
adjoins it. William Lenthall, speaker of the Long Parliament, was granted
this mansion, died here in 1662, and is buried in the church. In the High
Street nearly every house is of some antiquity. The Tolsey or old town hall
is noteworthy among them; and under one of the houses is an Early English
crypt. Burford is mentioned as the scene of a synod in 705; in 752 Cuthred,
king of the West Saxons, fighting for independence, here defeated
Æthelbald, king of Mercia; and in 1649 the town and district were the scene
of victorious operations by Cromwell.

BURG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the river Ihle, and the
railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 m. N.E. of the latter. Pop. (1900)
22,432. It is noted for its cloth manufactures and boot-making, which
afford employment to a great part of its population. The town belonged
originally to the lordship of Querfurt, passed with this into the
possession of the archbishops of Magdeburg in 1496, and was ceded in 1635
with other portions of the Magdeburg territories to Saxony; in 1687 it was
ceded to Brandenburg. It owes its prosperity to the large influx of
industrious French, Palatinate and Walloon refugees, which took place about
the end of the 17th century.

BURGAGE (from Lat. _burgus_, a borough), a form of tenure, both in England
and Scotland, applicable to the property connected with the old municipal
corporations and their privileges. In England, it was a tenure whereby
houses or tenements in an ancient borough were held of the king or other
person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less practical importance
in the English than in the Scottish system, where it held an important
place in the practice of conveyancing, real property having been generally
divided into feudal-holding and burgage-holding. Since the Conveyancing
(Scotland) Act 1874, there is, however, not much distinction between
burgage tenure and free holding. It is usual to speak of the English
burgage-tenure as a relic of Saxon freedom resisting the shock of the
Norman conquest and its feudalism, but it is perhaps more correct to
consider it a local feature of that general exemption from feudality
enjoyed by the _municipia_ as a relic of their ancient Roman constitution.
The reason for the system preserving for so long its specifically distinct
form in Scottish conveyancing was because burgage-holding was an exception
to the system of subinfeudation which remained prevalent in Scotland when
it was suppressed in England. While other vassals might hold of a graduated
hierarchy of overlords up to the crown, the burgess always held directly of
the sovereign. It is curious that while in England the burgage-tenure was
deemed a species of socage, to distinguish it from the military holdings,
in Scotland it was strictly a military holding, by the service of watching
and warding for the defence of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed
by burgesses, freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies in burghs,
were dependent on the character of the burgage-tenure. Tenure by burgage
was subject to a variety of customs, the principal of which was
Borough-English (_q.v._).

See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898).

BURGAS (sometimes written _Burghaz_, _Bourgas_ or _Borgas_, and, in the
middle ages, _Pyrgos_), a seaport, and capital of the department of Burgas,
in Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), on the gulf of Burgas, an inlet of the Black
Sea, in 42° 27' N. and 27° 35' E. Pop. (1906) 12,846. Burgas is built on a
low foreland, between the lagoons of Ludzha, on the north, and Kara-Yunus,
on the west; it faces towards the open sea on the east, and towards its own
harbour on the south. The principal approach is a broad isthmus on the
north-west, along which runs the railway to Philippopolis and Adrianople.
Despite its small population and the rivalry of Varna and the Turkish port
of Dedeagatch, Burgas has a considerable transit trade. Its fine harbour,
formally opened in 1904, has an average depth of five fathoms; large
vessels can load at the quays, and the outer waters of the gulf are well
lit by lighthouses on the islets of Hagios Anastasios and Megalo-Nisi. In
1904, the port accommodated over 1400 ships, of about 700,000 tons. These
included upwards of 800 Bulgarian and Turkish sailing-vessels, engaged in
the coasting trade. Fuel, machinery and miscellaneous goods are imported,
chiefly from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom; the
exports include grain, wool, tallow, cheese, butter, attar of roses, &c.
Pottery and pipes are manufactured from clay obtained in the neighbourhood.

BURGDORF (Fr. _Berthoud_), an industrial town in the Swiss canton of Bern.
It is built on the left bank of the Emme and is 14 m. by rail N.E. of Bern.
The lower (or modern) town is connected by a curious spiral street with the
upper (or old) town. The latter is picturesquely perched on a hill, at a
height of 1942 ft. above sea-level (or 167 ft. above the river); it is
crowned by the ancient castle and by the 15th-century parish church, in the
former of which Pestalozzi set up his educational establishment between
1798 and 1804. A large trade is carried on at Burgdorf in the cheese of the
Emmenthal, while among the industrial establishments are railway works, and
factories of cloth, white lead and tinfoil. In 1900 the population was
8404, practically all Protestants and German-speaking. A fine view of the
Bernese Alps is obtained from the castle, while a still finer one may be
enjoyed from the Lueg hill (2917 ft.), north-east of the town. The castle
dates from the days of the dukes of Zäringen (11th-12th centuries), the
last of whom (Berchtold V.) built walls round the town at its foot, and
granted it a charter of liberties. On the extinction (1218) of that dynasty
both castle and town passed to the counts of Kyburg, and from them, with
the rest of their possessions, in 1272 by marriage to the cadet line of the
Habsburgs. By that line they were sold in 1384, with Thun, to the town of
Bern, whose bailiffs ruled in the castle till 1798.

(W. A. B. C.)

BURGEE (of unknown origin), a small three-cornered or swallow-tailed flag
or pennant used by yachts or merchant vessels; also a kind of small coal
burnt in engine furnaces.

BÜRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST (1748-1794), German poet, was born on the 1st of
January 1748 at Molmerswende near Halberstadt, of which village his father
was the Lutheran pastor. He was a backward child, and at the age of twelve
was practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, Bauer, at
Aschersleben, who sent him to the _Pädagogium_ at Halle. Hence in 1764 he
passed to the university, as a student of theology, which, however, he soon
abandoned for the study of jurisprudence. Here he fell under the influence
of C.A. Klotz (1738-1771), who directed Bürger's attention to literature,
but encouraged rather than discouraged his natural disposition to a wild
and unregulated life. In consequence of his dissipated habits, he was in
1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on promising to reform was in 1768
allowed to enter the university of Göttingen as a law student. As he
continued his wild career, however, his grandfather withdrew his support
and he was left to his own devices. Meanwhile he had made fair progress
with his legal studies, and had the good fortune to form a close friendship
with a number of young men of literary tastes. In the Göttingen
_Musenalmanach_, edited by H. Boie and F.W. Gotter, Bürger's first poems
were published, and by 1771 he had already become widely known as a poet.
In 1772, through Boie's influence, Bürger obtained the post of "_Amtmann_"
or district magistrate at Altengleichen near Göttingen. His grandfather was
now reconciled to him, paid his debts and established him in his new sphere
of activity. Meanwhile he kept in touch with his Göttingen friends, and
when the "Göttinger Bund" or "Hain" was formed, Bürger, though not himself
a member, kept in close touch with it. In 1773 the ballad _Lenore_ was
published in the _Musenalmanach_. This poem, which in dramatic force and in
its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural remains without a
rival, made his name a household word in Germany. In 1774 Bürger married
Dorette Leonhart, the [v.04 p.0813] daughter of a Hanoverian official; but
his passion for his wife's younger sister Auguste (the "Molly" of his poems
and elegies) rendered the union unhappy and unsettled his life. In 1778
Bürger became editor of the _Musenalmanach_, and in the same year published
the first collection of his poems. In 1780 he took a farm at Appenrode, but
in three years lost so much money that he had to abandon the venture.
Pecuniary troubles oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his
official duties, and feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official
position and removed in 1784 to Göttingen, where he established himself as
_Privat-docent_. Shortly before his removal thither his wife died (30th of
July 1784), and on the 29th of June in the next year he married his
sister-in-law "Molly." Her death on the 9th of January 1786 affected him
deeply. He appeared to lose at once all courage and all bodily and mental
vigour. He still continued to teach in Göttingen; at the jubilee of the
foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary doctor of
philosophy, and in 1789 was appointed extraordinary professor in that
faculty, though without a stipend. In the following year he married a third
time, his wife being a certain Elise Hahn, who, enchanted with his poems,
had offered him her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of married life with
his "Schwabenmädchen" sufficed to prove his mistake, and after two and a
half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded by Schiller's criticism, in the
14th and 15th part of the _Allgemeine Literaturzeitung_ of 1791, of the 2nd
edition of his poems, disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Bürger
eked out a precarious existence as a teacher in Göttingen until his death
there on the 8th of June 1794.

Bürger's character, in spite of his utter want of moral balance, was not
lacking in noble and lovable qualities. He was honest in purpose, generous
to a fault, tender-hearted and modest. His talent for popular poetry was
very considerable, and his ballads are among the finest in the German
language. Besides _Lenore, Das Lied vom braven Manne, Die Kuh, Der Kaiser
und der Abt_ and _Der wilde Jäger_ are famous. Among his purely lyrical
poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but mention may be made of
_Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Lied an den lieben Mond_, and a few love songs.
His sonnets, particularly the elegies, are of great beauty.

Editions of Bürger's _Samtliche Schriften_ appeared at Göttingen, 1817
(incomplete); 1829-1833 (8 vols.), and 1835 (one vol.); also a selection by
E. Grisebach (5th ed., 1894). The _Gedichte_ have been published in
innumerable editions, the best being that by A. Sauer (2 vols., 1884).
_Briefe von und an Burger_ were edited by A. Strodtmann in 4 vols. (1874).
On Bürger's life see the biography by H. Prohle (1856), the introduction to
Sauer's edition of the poems, and W. von Wurzbach, _G.A. Burger_ (1900).

BURGERS, THOMAS FRANÇOIS (1834-1881), president of the Transvaal Republic,
was born in Cape Colony on the 15th of April 1834, and was educated at
Utrecht, Holland, where he took the degree of doctor of theology. On his
return to South Africa he was ordained minister of the Dutch Reformed
Church, and stationed at Hanover in Cape Colony, where he exercised his
ministrations for eight years. In 1862 his preaching attracted attention,
and two years later an ecclesiastical tribunal suspended him for heretical
opinions. He appealed, however, to the colonial government, which had
appointed him, and obtained judgment in his favour, which was confirmed by
the privy council of England on appeal in 1865. On the resignation of M.W.
Pretorius and the refusal of President Brand of the Orange Free State to
accept the office, Burgers was elected president of the Transvaal, taking
the oath on the 1st of July 1872. In 1873 he endeavoured to persuade
Montsioa to agree to an alteration in the boundary of the Barolong
territory as fixed by the Keate award, but failed (see BECHUANALAND). In
1875 Burgers, leaving the Transvaal in charge of Acting-President Joubert,
went to Europe mainly to promote a scheme for linking the Transvaal to the
coast by a railway from Delagoa Bay, which was that year definitely
assigned to Portugal by the MacMahon award. With the Portuguese Burgers
concluded a treaty, December 1875, providing for the construction of the
railway. After meeting with refusals of financial help in London, Burgers
managed to raise £90,000 in Holland, and bought a quantity of railway
plant, which on its arrival at Delagoa Bay was mortgaged to pay freight,
and this, so far as Burgers was concerned, was the end of the matter. In
June 1876 he induced the raad to declare war against Sikukuni (Secocoeni),
a powerful native chief in the eastern Transvaal. The campaign was
unsuccessful, and with its failure the republic fell into a condition of
lawlessness and insolvency, while a Zulu host threatened invasion. Burgers
in an address to the raad (3rd of March 1877) declared "I would rather be a
policeman under a strong government than the president of such a state. It
is you---you members of the raad and the Boers--who have lost the country,
who have sold your independence for a drink." Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who
had been sent to investigate the condition of affairs in the Transvaal,
issued on the 12th of April a proclamation annexing the Transvaal to Great
Britain. Burgers fully acquiesced in the necessity for annexation. He
accepted a pension from the British government, and settled down to farming
in Hanover, Cape Colony. He died at Richmond in that colony on the 9th of
December 1881, and in the following year a volume of short stories,
_Tooneelen uit ons dorp_, originally written by him for the Cape
_Volksblad_, was published at the Hague for the benefit of his family. A
patriot, a fluent speaker both in Dutch and in English, and possessed of
unbounded energy, the failure of Burgers was due to his fondness for large
visionary plans, which he attempted to carry out with insufficient means
(see TRANSVAAL: _History_).

For the annexation period see John Martineau, _The Life of Sir Bartle
Frere_, vol. ii. chap, xviii. (London, 1895).

BURGERSDYK, or BURGERSDICIUS, FRANCIS (1590-1629), Dutch logician, was born
at Lier, near Delft, and died at Leiden. After a brilliant career at the
university of Leiden, he studied theology at Saumur, where while still very
young he became professor of philosophy. After five years he returned to
Leiden, where he accepted the chair of logic and moral philosophy, and
afterwards that of natural philosophy. His _Logic_ was at one time widely
used, and is still valuable. He wrote also _Idea Philosophiae Moralis_
(1644).

BURGES, GEORGE (1786-1864), English classical scholar, was born in India.
He was educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Cambridge,
taking his degree in 1807, and obtaining one of the members' prizes both in
1808 and 1809. He stayed up at Cambridge and became a most successful
"coach." He had a great reputation as a Greek scholar, and was a somewhat
acrimonious critic of rival scholars, especially Bishop Blomfield.
Subsequently he fell into embarrassed circumstances through injudicious
speculation, and in 1841 a civil list pension of £100 per annum was
bestowed upon him. He died at Ramsgate, on the 11th of January 1864. Burges
was a man of great learning and industry, but too fond of introducing
arbitrary emendations into the text of classical authors. His chief works
are: Euripides' _Troades_ (1807) and _Phoenissae_ (1809); Aeschylus'
_Supplices_ (1821), _Eumenides_ (1822) and _Prometheus_ (1831); Sophocles'
_Philoctetes_ (1833); E.F. Poppo's _Prolegomena to Thucydides_ (1837), an
abridged translation with critical remarks; _Hermesianactis Fragmenta_
(1839). He also edited some of the dialogues of Plato with English notes,
and translated nearly the whole of that author and the Greek anthology for
Bohn's Classical library. He was a frequent contributor to the _Classical
Journal_ and other periodicals, and dedicated to Byron a play called _The
Son of Erin_, or, _The Cause of the Greeks_ (1823).

BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713), English Presbyterian divine, was born at
Staines, in Middlesex, where his father was minister. He was educated under
Busby at Westminster school, and in 1660 was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford,
but not being able conscientiously to subscribe the necessary formulae he
quitted the university without taking his degree. In 1667, after taking
orders, he was appointed by Roger Boyle, first Lord Orrery, to the
headmastership of a school recently established by that nobleman at
Charleville, Co. Cork, and soon after he became private chaplain to Lady
Mervin, near Dublin. There he was [v.04 p.0814] ordained by the local
presbytery, and on returning to England was imprisoned for preaching at
Marlborough. He soon regained his liberty, and went to London, where he
speedily gathered a large and influential congregation, as much by the
somewhat excessive fervour of his piety as by the vivacious illustrations
which he frequently employed in his sermons. He was a master of epigram,
and theologically inclined to Calvinism. The Sacheverell mob gutted his
chapel in 1710, but the government repaired the building. Besides
preaching, he gave instruction to private pupils, of whom the most
distinguished was Henry St John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke. His son,
Daniel Burgess (d. 1747), was secretary to the princess of Wales, and in
1723 obtained a _regium donum_ or government grant of £500 half-yearly for
dissenting ministers.

BURGESS, THOMAS (1756-1837), English divine, was born at Odiham, in
Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester, and at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of John Burton's
_Pentalogia_. In 1781 he brought out an annotated edition of Richard
Dawes's _Miscellanea Critica_ (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). In 1783 he became
a fellow of his college, and in 1785 was appointed chaplain to Shute
Barrington, bishop of Salisbury, through whose influence he obtained a
prebendal stall, which he held till 1803. In 1788 he published his
_Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery_, in which he advocated the
principle of gradual emancipation. In 1791 he accompanied Barrington to
Durham, where he did evangelistic work among the poorer classes. In 1803 he
was appointed to the vacant bishopric of St David's, which he held for
twenty years with great success. He founded the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge in the diocese, and also St David's College at
Lampeter, which he liberally endowed. In 1820 he was appointed first
president of the recently founded Royal Society of Literature; and three
years later he was promoted to the see of Salisbury, over which he presided
for twelve years, prosecuting his benevolent designs with unwearied
industry. As at St David's, so at Salisbury, he founded a Church Union
Society for the assistance of infirm and distressed clergymen. He
strenuously opposed both Unitarianism and Catholic emancipation. He died on
the 19th of February 1837.

A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his
biography by J.S. Harford (2nd ed., 1841). In addition to those already
referred to may be mentioned his _Essay on the Study of Antiquities_, _The
First Principles of Christian Knowledge_; _Reflections on the Controversial
Writings of Dr Priestley_, _Emendationes in Suidam et Hesychium et alios
Lexicographos Graecos_; _The Bible, and nothing but the Bible, the Religion
of the Church of England_.

BURGESS (Med. Lat. _burgensis_, from _burgus_, a borough, a town), a term,
in its earliest sense, meaning an inhabitant of a borough, one who occupied
a tenement therein, but now applied solely to a registered parliamentary,
or more strictly, municipal voter. An early use of the word was to denote a
member elected to parliament by his fellow citizens in a borough. In some
of the American colonies (_e.g._ Virginia), a "burgess" was a member of the
legislative body, which was termed the "House of Burgesses." Previously to
the Municipal Reform Act 1835, burgess was an official title in some
English boroughs, and in this sense is still used in some of the states of
the United States, as in Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. _The
Burgess-roll_ is the register or official list of burgesses in a borough.

BURGH [BOURKE, BURKE], the name of an historic Irish house, associated with
Connaught for more than seven centuries. It was founded by William de
Burgh, brother of Hubert de Burgh (_q.v._). Before the death of Henry II.
(1189) he received a grant of lands from John as lord of Ireland. At John's
accession (1199) he was installed in Thomond and was governor of Limerick.
In 1199-1201 he was supporting in turn Cathal Carrach and Cathal Crovderg
for the native throne, but he was expelled from Limerick in 1203, and,
losing his Connaught, though not his Munster estates, died in 1205. His son
Richard, in 1227, received the land of "Connok" [Connaught], as forfeited
by its king, whom he helped to fight. From 1228 to 1232 he held the high
office of justiciar of Ireland. In 1234 he sided with the crown against
Richard, earl marshal, who fell in battle against him. Dying in 1243, he
was succeeded as lord of Connaught by his son Richard, and then (1248) by
his younger son Walter, who carried on the family warfare against the
native chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining (c.
1255) from Prince Edward a grant of "the county of Ulster," in consequence
of which he was styled later earl of Ulster. At his death in 1271, he was
succeeded by his son Richard as 2nd earl. In 1286 Richard ravaged and
subdued Connaught, and deposed Bryan O'Neill as chief native king,
substituting a nominee of his own. The native king of Connaught was also
attacked by him, in favour of that branch of the O'Conors whom his own
family supported. He led his forces from Ireland to support Edward I. in
his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315
Richard marched against him, but he had given his daughter Elizabeth in
marriage to Robert Bruce, afterwards king of Scotland, about 1304.
Occasionally summoned to English parliaments, he spent most of his forty
years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of his day,
usually fighting the natives or his Anglo-Norman rivals. The patent roll of
1290 shows that in addition to his lands in Ulster, Connaught and Munster,
he had held the Isle of Man, but had surrendered it to the king.

His grandson and successor William, the 3rd earl (1326-1333), was the son
of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare, sister and co-heir of the
last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314). He married a daughter of Henry, earl
of Lancaster, and was appointed lieutenant of Ireland in 1331, but was
murdered in his 21st year, leaving a daughter, the sole heiress, not only
of the de Burgh possessions, but of vast Clare estates. She was married in
childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III., who was recognized in her right as
earl of Ulster, and their direct representative, the duke of York, ascended
the throne in 1461 as Edward IV., since when the earldom of Ulster has been
only held by members of the royal family.

On the murder of the 3rd earl (1333), his male kinsmen, who had a better
right, by native Irish ideas, to the succession than his daughter, adopted
Irish names and customs, and becoming virtually native chieftains succeeded
in holding the bulk of the de Burgh territories. Their two main branches
were those of "MacWilliam Eighter" in southern Connaught, and "MacWilliam
Oughter" to the north of them, in what is now Mayo. The former held the
territory of Clanricarde, lying in the neighbourhood of Galway, and in 1543
their chief, as Ulick "Bourck, _alias_ Makwilliam," surrendered it to Henry
VIII., receiving it back to hold, by English custom, as earl of Clanricarde
and Lord Dunkellin. The 4th earl (1601-1635) distinguished himself on the
English side in O'Neill's rebellion and afterwards, and obtained the
English earldom of St Albans in 1628, his son Ulick receiving further the
Irish marquessate of Clanricarde (1646). His cousin and heir, the 6th earl
(1657-1666) was uncle of the 8th and 9th earls (1687-1722), both of whom
fought for James II. and paid the penalty for doing so in 1691, but the 9th
earl was restored in 1702, and his great-grandson, the 12th earl, was
created marquess of Clanricarde in 1789. He left no son, but the
marquessate was again revived in 1825, for his nephew the 14th earl, whose
heir is the present marquess. The family, which changed its name from
Bourke to de Burgh in 1752, and added that of Canning in 1862, still own a
vast estate in County Galway.

In 1603 "the MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke, similarly resigned his
territory in Mayo, and received it back to hold by English tenure. In 1627
he was created Viscount Mayo. The 2nd and 3rd viscounts (1629-1663)
suffered at Cromwell's hands, but the 4th was restored to his estates (some
50,000 acres) in 1666. The peerage became extinct or dormant on the death
of the 8th viscount in 1767. In 1781 John Bourke, a Mayo man, believed to
be descended from the line of "MacWilliam Oughter," was created Viscount
Mayo, and four years later earl of Mayo, a peerage still extant. In 1872
the 6th earl was murdered in the Andaman Islands when viceroy of India.

The baronies of Bourke of Connell (1580) and Bourke of Brittas (1618), both
forfeited in 1691, were bestowed on branches [v.04 p.0815] of the family
which has also still representatives in the baronetage and landed gentry of
Ireland.

The lords Burgh or Borough of Gainsborough (1487-1599) were a Lincolnshire
family believed to be descended from a younger son of Hubert de Burgh. The
5th baron was lord deputy of Ireland in 1597, and his younger brother, Sir
John (d. 1594), a distinguished soldier and sailor.

(J. H. R.)

BURGH, HUBERT DE (d. 1243), chief justiciar of England in the reign of John
and Henry III., entered the royal service in the reign of Richard I. He
traced his descent from Robert of Mortain, half brother of the Conqueror
and first earl of Cornwall; he married about 1200 the daughter of William
de Vernon, earl of Devon; and thus, from the beginning of his career, he
stood within the circle of the great ruling families. But he owed his high
advancement to exceptional ability as an administrator and a soldier.
Already in 1201 he was chamberlain to King John, the sheriff of three
shires, the constable of Dover and Windsor castles, the warden of the
Cinque Ports and of the Welsh Marches. He served with John in the
continental wars which led up to the loss of Normandy. It was to his
keeping that the king first entrusted the captive Arthur of Brittany.
Coggeshall is our authority for the tale, which Shakespeare has
immortalized, of Hubert's refusal to permit the mutilation of his prisoner;
but Hubert's loyalty was not shaken by the crime to which Arthur
subsequently fell a victim. In 1204 Hubert distinguished himself by a long
and obstinate defence of Chinon, at a time when nearly the whole of Poitou
had passed into French hands. In 1213 he was appointed seneschal of Poitou,
with a view to the invasion of France which ended disastrously for John in
the next year.

Both before and after the issue of the Great Charter Hubert adhered loyally
to the king; he was rewarded, in June 1215, with the office of chief
justiciar. This office he retained after the death of John and the election
of William, the earl marshal, as regent. But, until the expulsion of the
French from England, Hubert was entirely engaged with military affairs. He
held Dover successfully through the darkest hour of John's fortunes; he
brought back Kent to the allegiance of Henry III.; he completed the
discomfiture of the French and their allies by the naval victory which he
gained over Eustace the Monk, the noted privateer and admiral of Louis, in
the Straits of Dover (Aug. 1217). The inferiority of the English fleet has
been much exaggerated, for the greater part of the French vessels were
transports carrying reinforcements and supplies. But Hubert owed his
success to the skill with which he manoeuvred for the weather-gage, and his
victory was not less brilliant than momentous. It compelled Louis to accept
the treaty of Lambeth, under which he renounced his claims to the crown and
evacuated England. As the saviour of the national cause the justiciar
naturally assumed after the death of William Marshal (1219) the leadership
of the English loyalists. He was opposed by the legate Pandulf (1218-1221),
who claimed the guardianship of the kingdom for the Holy See; by the
Poitevin Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester, who was the young king's
tutor; by the foreign mercenaries of John, among whom Falkes de Bréauté
took the lead; and by the feudal party under the earls of Chester and
Albemarle. On Pandulf's departure the pope was induced to promise that no
other legate should be appointed in the lifetime of Archbishop Stephen
Langton. Other opponents were weakened by the audacious stroke of 1223,
when the justiciar suddenly announced the resumption of all the castles,
sheriffdoms and other grants which had been made since the king's
accession. A plausible excuse was found in the next year for issuing a
sentence of confiscation and banishment against Falkes de Bréauté. Finally
in 1227, Hubert having proclaimed the king of age, dismissed the bishop of
Winchester from his tutorship.

Hubert now stood at the height of his power. His possessions had been
enlarged by four successive marriages, particularly by that which he
contracted in 1221 with Margaret, the sister of Alexander II. of Scotland;
in 1227 he received the earldom of Kent, which had been dormant since the
disgrace of Odo of Bayeux. But the favour of Henry III. was a precarious
foundation on which to build. The king chafed against the objections with
which his minister opposed wild plans of foreign conquest and inconsiderate
concessions to the papacy. They quarrelled violently in 1229, at
Portsmouth, when the king was with difficulty prevented from stabbing
Hubert, because a sufficient supply of ships was not forthcoming for an
expedition to France. In 1231 Henry lent an ear to those who asserted that
the justiciar had secretly encouraged armed attacks upon the aliens to whom
the pope had given English benefices. Hubert was suddenly disgraced and
required to render an account of his long administration. The blow fell
suddenly, a few weeks after his appointment as justiciar of Ireland. It was
precipitated by one of those fits of passion to which the king was prone;
but the influence of Hubert had been for some time waning before that of
Peter des Roches and his nephew Peter des Rievaux. Some colour was given to
their attacks by Hubert's injudicious plea that he held a charter from King
John which exempted him from any liability to produce accounts. But the
other charges, far less plausible than that of embezzlement, which were
heaped upon the head of the fallen favourite, are evidence of an intention
to crush him at all costs. He was dragged from the sanctuary at Bury St
Edmunds, in which he had taken refuge, and was kept in strait confinement
until Richard of Cornwall, the king's brother, and three other earls
offered to be his sureties. Under their protection he remained in
honourable detention at Devizes Castle. On the outbreak of Richard
Marshal's rebellion (1233), he was carried off by the rebels to the Marshal
stronghold of Striguil, in the hope that his name would add popularity to
their cause. In 1234 he was admitted, along with the other supporters of
the fallen Marshal, to the benefit of a full pardon. He regained his
earldom and held it till his death, although he was once in serious danger
from the avarice of the king (1239), who was tempted by Hubert's enormous
wealth to revive the charge of treason.

In his lifetime Hubert was a popular hero; Matthew Paris relates how, at
the time of his disgrace, a common smith refused with an oath to put
fetters on the man "who restored England to the English." Hubert's ambition
of founding a great family was not realized. His earldom died with him,
though he left two sons. In constitutional history he is remembered as the
last of the great justiciars. The office, as having become too great for a
subject, was now shorn of its most important powers and became politically
insignificant.

See Roger of Wendover's _Flores Historiarum_, edited for the English
Historical Society by H.O. Coxe (4 vols., 1841-1844); the _Chronica Majora_
of Matthew Paris, edited by H.R. Luard for the Rolls Series (7 vols.,
1872-1883); the _Histoire des ducs de Normandie_, edited by F. Michel for
the Soc. de l'Hist. de France (Paris, 1840); the _Histoire de Guillaume le
Marechal_, edited by Paul Meyer for the same society (3 vols., Paris, 1891,
&c.); J.E. Doyle's _Official Baronage of England_, ii. pp. 271-274; R.
Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol. iii.; W. Stubbs's _Constitutional
History of England_, vol. ii.

(H. W. C. D.)

BURGHERSH, HENRY (1292-1340), English bishop and chancellor, was a younger
son of Robert, Baron Burghersh (d. 1305), and a nephew of Bartholomew, Lord
Badlesmere, and was educated in France. In 1320 owing to Badlesmere's
influence Pope John XXII. appointed him bishop of Lincoln in spite of the
fact that the chapter had already made an election to the vacant bishopric,
and he secured the position without delay. After the execution of
Badlesmere in 1322 Burghersh's lands were seized by Edward II., and the
pope was urged to deprive him; about 1326, however, his possessions were
restored, a proceeding which did not prevent him from joining Edward's
queen, Isabella, and taking part in the movement which led to the
deposition and murder of the king. Enjoying the favour of the new king,
Edward III., the bishop became chancellor of England in 1328; but he failed
to secure the archbishopric of Canterbury which became vacant about the
same time, and was deprived of his office of chancellor and imprisoned when
Isabella lost her power in 1330. But he was soon released and again in a
position of influence. He was treasurer of England from 1334 to 1337, and
high in the favour and often in the company of Edward III.; he was sent on
several important [v.04 p.0816] errands, and entrusted with important
commissions. He died at Ghent on the 4th of December 1340.

The bishop's brother, Bartholomew Burghersh (d. 1355), became Baron
Burghersh on the death of his brother Stephen in 1310. He acted as
assistant to Badlesmere until the execution of the latter; and then,
trusted by Edward III., was constable of Dover Castle and warden of the
Cinque Ports. He filled other important positions, served Edward III. both
as a diplomatist and a soldier, being present at the battle of Crecy in
1346; and retaining to the last the royal confidence, died in August 1355.
His son and successor, Bartholomew (d. 1369), was one of the first knights
of the order of the Garter, and earned a great reputation as a soldier,
specially distinguishing himself at the battle of Poitiers in 1356.

BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (1521-1508), was born, according to his own
statement, on the 13th of September 1521 at the house of his mother's
father at Bourne, Lincolnshire. Pedigrees, elaborated by Cecil himself with
the help of Camden, the antiquary, associated him with the Cecils or
Sitsyllts of Altyrennes in Herefordshire, and traced his descent from an
Owen of the time of King Harold and a Sitsyllt of the reign of Rufus. The
connexion with the Herefordshire family is not so impossible as the descent
from Sitsyllt; but the earliest authentic ancestor of the lord treasurer is
his grandfather, David, who, according to Burghley's enemies, "kept the
best inn" in Stamford. David somehow secured the favour of Henry VII., to
whom he seems to have been yeoman of the guard. He was serjeant-at-arms to
Henry VIII. in 1526, sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532, and a justice of
the peace for Rutland. His eldest son, Richard, yeoman of the wardrobe (d.
1554), married Jane, daughter of William Heckington of Bourne, and was
father of three daughters and Lord Burghley.

William, the only son, was put to school first at Grantham and then at
Stamford. In May 1535, at the age of fourteen, he went up to St John's
College, Cambridge, where he was brought into contact with the foremost
educationists of the time, Roger Ascham and John Cheke, and acquired an
unusual knowledge of Greek. He also acquired the affections of Cheke's
sister, Mary, and was in 1541 removed by his father to Gray's Inn, without,
after six years' residence at Cambridge, having taken a degree. The
precaution proved useless, and four months later Cecil committed one of the
rare rash acts of his life in marrying Mary Cheke. The only child of this
marriage, Thomas, the future earl of Exeter, was born in May 1542, and in
February 1543 Cecil's first wife died. Three years later he married (21st
of December 1546) Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who was ranked by
Ascham with Lady Jane Grey as one of the two most learned ladies in the
kingdom, and whose sister, Anne, became the wife of Sir Nicholas, and the
mother of Sir Francis, Bacon.

Cecil, meanwhile, had obtained the reversion to the office of _custos
rotulorum brevium_, and, according to his autobiographical notes, sat in
parliament in 1543; but his name does not occur in the imperfect
parliamentary returns until 1547, when he was elected for the family
borough of Stamford. Earlier in that year he had accompanied Protector
Somerset on his Pinkie campaign, being one of the two "judges of the
Marshalsea," _i.e._ in the courts-martial. The other was William Patten,
who states that both he and Cecil began to write independent accounts of
the campaign, and that Cecil generously communicated his notes for Patten's
narrative, which has been reprinted more than once.

In 1548 he is described as the protector's master of requests, which
apparently means that he was clerk or registrar of the court of requests
which the protector, possibly at Latimer's instigation, illegally set up in
Somerset House "to hear poor men's complaints." He also seems to have acted
as private secretary to the protector, and was in some danger at the time
of the protector's fall (October 1549). The lords opposed to Somerset
ordered his detention on the 10th of October, and in November he was in the
Tower. On the 25th of January 1550 he was bound over in recognizances to
the value of a thousand marks. However, he soon ingratiated himself with
Warwick, and on the 15th of September 1550 he was sworn one of the king's
two secretaries. He was knighted on the 11th of October 1551, on the eve of
Somerset's second fall, and was congratulated on his success in escaping
his benefactor's fate. In April he became chancellor of the order of the
Garter. But service under Northumberland was no bed of roses, and in his
diary Cecil recorded his release in the phrase _ex misero aulico factus
liber et mei juris_. His responsibility for Edward's illegal "devise" of
the crown has been studiously minimized by Cecil himself and by his
biographers. Years afterwards, he pretended that he had only signed the
"devise" as a witness, but in his apology to Queen Mary he did not venture
to allege so flimsy an excuse; he preferred to lay stress on the extent to
which he succeeded in shifting the responsibility on to the shoulders of
his brother-in-law, Sir John Cheke, and other friends, and on his intrigues
to frustrate the queen to whom he had sworn allegiance. There is no doubt
that he saw which way the wind was blowing, and disliked Northumberland's
scheme; but he had not the courage to resist the duke to his face. As soon,
however, as the duke had set out to meet Mary, Cecil became the most active
intriguer against him, and to these efforts, of which he laid a full
account before Queen Mary, he mainly owed his immunity. He had, moreover,
had no part in the divorce of Catherine or in the humiliation of Mary in
Henry's reign, and he made no scruple about conforming to the religious
reaction. He went to mass, confessed, and out of sheer zeal and in no
official capacity went to meet Cardinal Pole on his pious mission to
England in December 1554, again accompanying him to Calais in May 1555. It
was rumoured in December 1554 that Cecil would succeed Sir William Petre as
secretary, an office which, with his chancellorship of the Garter, he had
lost on Mary's accession. Probably the queen had more to do with the
falsification of this rumour than Cecil, though he is said to have opposed
in the parliament of 1555--in which he represented Lincolnshire--a bill for
the confiscation of the estates of the Protestant refugees. But the story,
even as told by his biographer (Peck, _Desiderata Curiosa_, i. 11), does
not represent Cecil's conduct as having been very courageous; and it is
more to his credit that he found no seat in the parliament of 1558, for
which Mary had directed the return of "discreet and good Catholic members."

By that time Cecil had begun to trim his sails to a different breeze. He
was in secret communication with Elizabeth before Mary died, and from the
first the new queen relied on Cecil as she relied on no one else. Her
confidence was not misplaced; Cecil was exactly the kind of minister
England then required. Personal experience had ripened his rare natural
gift for avoiding dangers. It was no time for brilliant initiative or
adventurous politics; the need was to avoid Scylla and Charybdis, and a
_via media_ had to be found in church and state, at home and abroad. Cecil
was not a political genius; no great ideas emanated from his brain. But he
was eminently a safe man, not an original thinker, but a counsellor of
unrivalled wisdom. Caution was his supreme characteristic; he saw that
above all things England required time. Like Fabius, he restored the
fortunes of his country by deliberation. He averted open rupture until
England was strong enough to stand the shock. There was nothing heroic
about Cecil or his policy; it involved a callous attitude towards
struggling Protestants abroad. Huguenots and Dutch Were aided just enough
to keep them going in the struggles which warded danger off from England's
shores. But Cecil never developed that passionate aversion from decided
measures which became a second nature to his mistress. His intervention in
Scotland in 1559-1560 showed that he could strike on occasion; and his
action over the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, proved that he was
willing to take responsibility from which Elizabeth shrank. Generally he
was in favour of more decided intervention on behalf of continental
Protestants than Elizabeth would admit, but it is not always easy to
ascertain the advice he gave. He has left endless memoranda lucidly setting
forth the pros and cons of every course of action; but there are few
indications of the line which he actually recommended when it came to a
decision. How far he was personally responsible for the Anglican
Settlement, the Poor Laws, and the foreign policy of the reign, how far he
was [v.04 p.0817] thwarted by the baleful influence of Leicester and the
caprices of the queen, remains to a large extent a matter of conjecture.
His share in the settlement of 1559 was considerable, and it coincided
fairly with his own somewhat indeterminate religious views. Like the mass
of the nation, he grew more Protestant as time wore on; he was readier to
persecute Papists than Puritans; he had no love for ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, and he warmly remonstrated with Whitgift over his persecuting
Articles of 1583. The finest encomium was passed on him by the queen
herself, when she said, "This judgment I have of you, that you will not be
corrupted with any manner of gifts, and that you will be faithful to the
state."

From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost
indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth and from the history of England.
Of personal incident, apart from his mission to Scotland in 1560, there is
little. He represented Lincolnshire in the parliament of 1559, and
Northamptonshire in that of 1563, and he took an active part in the
proceedings of the House of Commons until his elevation to the peerage; but
there seems no good evidence for the story that he was proposed as speaker
in 1563. In January 1561 he was given the lucrative office of master of the
court of wards in succession to Sir Thomas Parry, and he did something to
reform that instrument of tyranny and abuse. In February 1559 he was
elected chancellor of Cambridge University in succession to Cardinal Pole;
he was created M.A. of that university on the occasion of Elizabeth's visit
in 1564, and M.A. of Oxford on a similar occasion in 1566. On the 25th of
February 1571 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Burghley of Burghley[1]
(or Burleigh); the fact that he continued to act as secretary after his
elevation illustrates the growing importance of that office, which under
his son became a secretaryship of state. In 1572, however, the marquess of
Winchester, who had been lord high treasurer under Edward, Mary and
Elizabeth, died, and Burghley succeeded to his post. It was a signal
triumph over Leicester; and, although Burghley had still to reckon with
cabals in the council and at court, his hold over the queen strengthened
with the lapse of years. Before he died, Robert, his only surviving son by
his second wife, was ready to step into his shoes as the queen's principal
adviser. Having survived all his rivals, and all his children except Robert
and the worthless Thomas, Burghley died at his London house on the 4th of
August 1598, and was buried in St Martin's, Stamford.

Burghley's private life was singularly virtuous; he was a faithful husband,
a careful father and a considerate master. A book-lover and antiquary, he
made a special hobby of heraldry and genealogy. It was the conscious and
unconscious aim of the age to reconstruct a new landed aristocracy on the
ruins of the old, and Burghley was a great builder and planter. All the
arts of architecture and horticulture were lavished on Burghley House and
Theobalds, which his son exchanged for Hatfield. His public conduct does
not present itself in quite so amiable a light. As the marquess of
Winchester said of himself, he was sprung from the willow rather than the
oak, and he was not the man to suffer for convictions. The interest of the
state was the supreme consideration, and to it he had no hesitation in
sacrificing individual consciences. He frankly disbelieved in toleration;
"that state," he said, "could never be in safety where there was a
toleration of two religions. For there is no enmity so great as that for
religion; and therefore they that differ in the service of their God can
never agree in the service of their country." With a maxim such as this, it
was easy for him to maintain that Elizabeth's coercive measures were
political and not religious. To say that he was Machiavellian is
meaningless, for every statesman is so more or less; especially in the 16th
century men preferred efficiency to principle. On the other hand,
principles are valueless without law and order; and Burghley's craft and
subtlety prepared a security in which principles might find some scope.

The sources and authorities for Burghley's life are endless. The most
important collection of documents is at Hatfield, where there are some ten
thousand papers covering the period down to Burghley's death; these have
been calendared in 8 volumes by the Hist. MSS. Comm. At least as many
others are in the Record Office and British Museum, the Lansdowne MSS.
especially containing a vast mass of his correspondence; see the catalogues
of Cotton, Harleian, Royal, Sloane, Egerton and Additional MSS. in the
British Museum, and the Calendars of Domestic, Foreign, Spanish, Venetian,
Scottish and Irish State Papers.

Other official sources are the _Acts of the Privy Council_ (vols.
i.-xxix.); Lords' and Commons' Journals, D'Ewes' Journals, Off. Ret.
M.P.'s; Rymer's _Foedera_; Collins's _Sydney State Papers_; Nichols's
_Progresses of Elizabeth_. See also Strype's Works (26 vols.), Parker, Soc.
Publ. (56 vols.); Camden's _Annales_; Holinshed, Stow and Speed's _Chron._;
Hayward's _Annals_; Machyn's _Diary_, Leycester Corr., Egerton Papers
(Camden Soc.). For Burghley's early life, see Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._;
Baker's _St John's Coll., Camb._, ed.  Mayor; _Letters and. Papers of Henry
VIII._; Tytler's _Edward VI._; Nichols's _Lit. Remains of Edward VI._;
Leadam's _Court of Requests, Chron. of Queen Jane_ (Camden Soc.) and
throughout Froude's _Hist._ No satisfactory life of Burghley has yet
appeared; some valuable anonymous notes, probably by Burghley's servant
Francis Alford, were printed in Peck's _Desiderata Curiosa_ (1732), i.
1-66; other notes are in Naunton's _Fragmenta Regalia_. Lives by Collins
(1732), Charlton and Melvil (1738), were followed by Nares's biography in
three of the most ponderous volumes (1828-1831) in the language; this
provoked Macaulay's brilliant but misleading essay. M.A.S. Hume's _Great
Lord Burghley_ (1898) is largely a piecing together of the references to
Burghley in the same author's _Calendar of Simancas MSS._ The life by Dr
Jessopp (1904) is an expansion of his article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; it
is still only a sketch, though the volume contains a mass of genealogical
and other incidental information by other hands.

(A. F. P.)

[1] This was the form always used by Cecil himself.

BURGKMAIR, HANS or JOHN (1473-? 1531), German painter and engraver on wood,
believed to have been a pupil of Albrecht Dürer, was born at Augsburg.
Professor Christ ascribes to him about 700 woodcuts, most of them
distinguished by that spirit and freedom which we admire in the works of
his supposed master. His principal work is the series of 135 prints
representing the triumphs of the emperor Maximilian I. They are of large
size, executed in chiaroscuro, from two blocks, and convey a high idea of
his powers. Burgkmair was also an excellent painter in fresco and in
distemper, specimens of which are in the galleries of Munich and Vienna,
carefully and solidly finished in the style of the old German school.

BURGLARY (_burgi latrocinium_; in ancient English law, _hamesucken_[1]), at
common law, the offence of breaking and entering the dwelling-house of
another with intent to commit a felony. The offence and its punishment are
regulated in England by the Larceny Act 1861. The four important points to
be considered in connexion with the offence of burglary are (1) the time,
(2) the place, (3) the manner and (4) the intent. The _time_, which is now
the essence of the offence, was not considered originally to have been very
material, the gravity of the crime lying principally in the invasion of the
sanctity of a man's domicile. But at some period before the reign of Edward
VI. it had become settled that time was essential to the offence, and it
was not adjudged burglary unless committed by night. The day was then
accounted as beginning at sunrise, and ending immediately after sunset, but
it was afterwards decided that if there were left sufficient daylight or
twilight to discern the countenance of a person, it was no burglary. This,
again, was superseded by the Larceny Act 1861, for the purpose of which
night is deemed to commence at nine o'clock in the evening of each day, and
to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the next succeeding day.

The _place_ must, according to Sir E. Coke's definition, be a
mansion-house, _i.e._ a man's dwelling-house or private residence. No
building, although within the same curtilage as the dwelling-house, is
deemed to be a part of the dwelling-house for the purposes of burglary,
unless there is a communication between such building and dwelling-house
either immediate or by means of a covered and enclosed passage leading from
the one to the other. Chambers in a college or in an inn of court are the
dwelling-house of the owner; so also are rooms or lodgings in a private
house, provided the owner dwells elsewhere, or enters by a different outer
door from his lodger, otherwise the lodger is merely an inmate and his
apartment a parcel of the one dwelling-house.

[v.04 p.0818] As to the _manner_, there must be both a breaking and an
entry. Both must be at night, but not necessarily on the same night,
provided that in the breaking and in the entry there is an intent to commit
a felony. The breaking may be either an actual breaking of any external
part of a building; or opening or lifting any closed door, window, shutter
or lock; or entry by means of a threat, artifice or collusion with persons
inside; or by means of such a necessary opening as a chimney. If an entry
is obtained through an open window, it will not be burglary, but if an
inner door is afterwards opened, it immediately becomes so. Entry includes
the insertion through an open door or window, or any aperture, of any part
of the body or of any instrument in the hand to draw out goods. The entry
may be before the breaking, for the Larceny Act 1861 has extended the
definition of burglary to cases in which a person enters another's dwelling
with intent to commit felony, or being in such house commits felony
therein, and in either case _breaks out_ of such dwelling-house by night.

Breaking and entry must be with the _intent_ to commit a felony, otherwise
it is only trespass. The felony need not be a larceny, it may be either
murder or rape. The punishment is penal servitude for life, or any term not
less than three years, or imprisonment not exceeding two years, with or
without hard labour.

_Housebreaking_ in English law is to be distinguished from burglary, in
that it is not essential that it should be committed at night, nor in a
dwelling-house. It may, according to the Larceny Act 1861, be committed in
a school-house, shop, warehouse or counting-house. Every burglary involves
housebreaking, but every housebreaking does not amount to burglary. The
punishment for housebreaking is penal servitude for any term not exceeding
fourteen years and not less than three years, or imprisonment for any term
not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour.

In the United States the common-law definition of burglary has been
modified by statute in many states, so as to cover what is defined in
England as housebreaking; the maximum punishment nowhere exceeds
imprisonment for twenty years.

AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen,
_History of Criminal Law_; Archbold, _Pleading and Evidence in Criminal
Cases_; Russell, _On Crimes and Misdemeanours_; Stephen, _Commentaries_.

[1] In Scots law, the word _hamesucken_ meant the feloniously beating or
assaulting a man in his own house.

BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM (1813-1888), English divine, was born at Smyrna on the
21st of August 1813, the son of a Turkey merchant, who was a skilled
numismatist and afterwards became an assistant in the antiquities
department of the British Museum. His mother was a Greek. After a few years
of business life, Burgon went to Worcester College, Oxford, in 1841, gained
the Newdigate prize, took his degree in 1845, and won an Oriel fellowship
in 1846. He was much influenced by his brother-in-law, the scholar and
theologian Henry John Rose (1800-1873), a churchman of the old conservative
type, with whom he used to spend his long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his
headquarters, while holding a living at some distance. In 1863 he was made
vicar of St Mary's, having attracted attention by his vehement sermons
against _Essays and Reviews_. In 1867 he was appointed Gresham professor of
divinity. In 1871 he published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve
last verses of St Mark's Gospel. He now began an attack on the proposal for
a new lectionary for the Church of England, based largely upon his
objections to the principles for determining the authority of MS. readings
adopted by Westcott and Hort, which he assailed in a memorable article in
the _Quarterly Review_ for 1881. This, with his other articles, was
reprinted in 1884 under the title of _The Revision Revised_. His
biographical essays on H.L. Mansel and others were also collected, and
published under the title of _Twelve Good Men_ (1888). Protests against the
inclusion of Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the nomination of
Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the university of Oxford, and against
the address in favour of toleration in the matter of ritual, followed in
succession. In 1876 Burgon was made dean of Chichester. He died on the 4th
of August 1888. His life was written by Dean E.M. Goulburn (1892). Vehement
and almost passionate in his convictions, Burgon nevertheless possessed a
warm and kindly heart. He may be described as a high churchman of the type
prevalent before the rise of the Tractarian school. His extensive
collection of transcripts from the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of
the New Testament, was bequeathed to the British Museum.

BURGONET, or BURGANET (from Fr. _bourguignote_, Burgundian helmet), a form
of light helmet or head-piece, which was in vogue in the 16th and 17th
centuries. In its normal form the burgonet was a large roomy cap with a
brim shading the eyes, cheek-pieces or flaps, a comb, and a guard for the
back of the neck. In many cases a vizor, or other face protection, and a
chin-piece are found in addition, so that this piece of armour is sometimes
mistaken for an armet (_q.v._), but it can always be distinguished by the
projecting brim in front. The morion and cabasset have no face, cheek or
neck protection. The typical head-piece of the 17th-century soldier in
England and elsewhere is a burgonet skull-cap with a straight brim,
neck-guard and often, in addition, a fixed vizor of three thin iron bars
which are screwed into, and hang down from, the brim in front of the eyes.

BURGOS, a province of northern Spain; bounded on the N.E. by Biscay and
Álava, E. by Logroño, S.E. by Soria, S. by Segovia, S.W. by Valladolid, W.
by Palencia, and N.W. by Santander. Pop. (1900) 338,828; area, 5480 sq. m.
Burgos includes the isolated county of Treviño, which is shut in on all
sides by territory belonging to Álava. The northern and north-eastern
districts of the province are mountainous, and the central and southern
form part of the vast and elevated plateau of Old Castile. The extreme
northern region is traversed by part of the great Cantabrian chain.
Eastwards are the highest peaks of the province in the Sierra de la Demanda
(with the Cerro de San Millan, 6995 ft. high) and in the Sierra de Neila.
On the eastern frontier, midway between these highlands and the Cantabrian
chain, two comparatively low ranges, running east and west of Pancorbo,
kave a gap through which run the railway and roads connecting Castile with
the valley of the Ebro. This Pancorbo Pass has often been called the "Iron
Gates of Castile," as a handful of men could hold it against an army. South
and west of this spot begins the plateau, generally covered with snow in
winter, and swept by such cold winds that Burgos is considered, with Soria
and Segovia, one of the coldest regions of the peninsula. The Ebro runs
eastwards through the northern half of the province, but is not navigable.
The Douro, or Duero, crosses the southern half, running west-north-west; it
also is unnavigable in its upper valley. The other important streams are
the Pisuerga, flowing south towards Palencia and Valladolid, and the
Arlanzón, which flows through Burgos for over 75m.

The variations of temperature are great, as from 9° to 20° of frost have
frequently been recorded in winter, while the mean summer temperature is
64° (Fahr.). As but little rain falls in summer, and the soil is poor,
agriculture thrives only in the valleys, especially that of the Ebro. In
live-stock, however, Burgos is one of the richest of Spanish provinces.
Horses, mules, asses, goats, cattle and pigs are bred in considerable
numbers, but the mainstay of the peasantry is sheep-farming. Vast ranges of
almost uninhabited upland are reserved as pasture for the flocks, which at
the beginning of the 20th century contained more than 500,000 head of
sheep. Coal, china-clay and salt are obtained in small quantities, but, out
of more than 150 mines registered, only 4 were worked in 1903. The other
industries of the province are likewise undeveloped, although there are
many small potteries, stone quarries, tanneries and factories for the
manufacture of linen and cotton of the coarsest description. The ancient
cloth and woollen industries, for which Burgos was famous in the past, have
almost disappeared. Trade is greatly hindered by the lack of adequate
railway communication, and even of good roads. The Northern railways from
Madrid to the French frontier cross the province in the central districts;
the Valladolid-Bilbao line traverses the Cantabrian mountains, in the
north; and the Valladolid-Saragossa line skirts the Douro valley, in the
south. The only [v.04 p.0819] important town in the province is Burgos, the
capital (pop. 30,167). Few parts of Spain are poorer; education makes
little progress, and least of all in the thinly peopled rural districts,
with their widely scattered hamlets. The peasantry have thus every
inducement to migrate to the Basque Provinces, Catalonia and other
relatively prosperous regions; and consequently the population does not
increase, despite the excess of births over deaths.

BURGOS, the capital formerly of Old Castile, and since 1833 of the Spanish
province of Burgos, on the river Arlanzón, and on the Northern railways
from Madrid to the French frontier. Pop. (1900) 30,167. Burgos, in the form
of an amphitheatre, occupies the lower slopes of a hill crowned by the
ruins of an ancient citadel. It faces the Arlanzón, a broad and swift
stream, with several islands in mid-channel. Three stone bridges lead to
the suburb of La Vega, on the opposite bank. On all sides, except up the
castle hill, fine avenues and public gardens are laid out, notably the
Paseo de la Isla, extending along the river to the west. Burgos itself was
originally surrounded by a wall, of which few fragments remain; but
although its streets and broad squares, such as the central Plaza Mayór, or
Plaza de la Constitucion, have often quite a modern appearance, the city
retains much of its picturesque character, owing to the number and beauty
of its churches, convents and palaces. Unaffected by the industrial
activity of the neighbouring Basque Provinces, it has little trade apart
from the sale of agricultural produce and the manufacture of paper and
leathern goods.

But it is rich in architectural and antiquarian interest. The citadel was
founded in 884 by Diego Rodriguez Porcelos, count of Castile; in the 10th
century it was held against the kings of Leon by Count Fernan Gonzalez, a
mighty warrior; and even in 1812 it was successfully defended by a French
garrison against Lord Wellington and his British troops. Within its walls
the Spanish national hero, the Cid Campeador, was wedded to Ximena of
Oviedo in 1074; and Prince Edward of England (afterwards King Edward I.) to
Eleanor of Castile in 1254. Statues of Porcelos, Gonzalez and the Cid, of
Nuño Rasura and Lain Calvo, the first elected magistrates of Burgos, during
its brief period of republican rule in the 10th century, and of the emperor
Charles V., adorn the massive Arco de Santa Maria, which was erected
between 1536 and 1562, and commemorates the return of the citizens to their
allegiance, after the rebellion against Charles V. had been crushed in
1522. The interior of this arch serves as a museum. Tradition still points
to the site of the Cid's birthplace; and a reliquary preserved in the town
hall contains his bones, and those of Ximena, brought hither after many
changes, including a partial transference to Sigmaringen in Germany.

Other noteworthy buildings in Burgos are the late 15th century Casa del
Cordón, occupied by the captain-general of Old Castile; the Casa de
Miranda, which worthily represents the best domestic architecture of Spain
in the 16th century; and the barracks, hospitals and schools. Burgos is the
see of an archbishop, whose province comprises the diocese of Palencia,
Pamplona, Santander and Tudela. The cathedral, founded in 1221 by Ferdinand
III. of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of Burgos, is a fine example
of florid Gothic, built of white limestone (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate II.
fig. 65). It was not completed until 1567, and the architects principally
responsible for its construction were a Frenchman in the 13th century and a
German in the 15th. Its cruciform design is almost hidden by the fifteen
chapels added at all angles to the aisles and transepts, by the beautiful
14th-century cloister on the north-west and the archiepiscopal palace on
the south-west. Over the three central doorways of the main or western
façade rise two lofty and graceful towers. Many of the monuments within the
cathedral are of considerable artistic and historical interest. The chapel
of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid is said to have filled
with sand and subsequently pawned for a large sum to the credulous Jews of
Burgos. The legend adds that he redeemed his pledge. In the aisleless
Gothic church of Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadéa, tradition relates that the
Cid compelled Alphonso VI. of Leon, before his accession to the throne of
Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the murder of Sancho his
brother and predecessor on the throne. San Estéban, completed between 1280
and 1350, and San Nicolás, dating from 1505, are small Gothic churches,
each with a fine sculptured doorway. Many of the convents of Burgos have
been destroyed, and those which survive lie chiefly outside the city. At
the end of the Paseo de la Isla stands the nunnery of Santa Maria la Real
de las Huelgas, originally a summer palace (_huelga_, "pleasure-ground") of
the kings of Castile. In 1187 it was transformed into a Cistercian convent
by Alphonso VIII., who invested the abbess with almost royal prerogatives,
including the power of life and death, and absolute rule over more than
fifty villages. Alphonso and his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry II. of
England, are buried here. The Cartuja de Miraflores, a Carthusian convent,
founded by John II. of Castile (1406-1454), lies 2 m. south-east of Burgos.
Its church contains a monument of exceptional beauty, carved by Gil de
Siloë in the 15th century, for the tomb of John and his second wife,
Isabella of Portugal. The convent of San Pedro de Cardeña, 7 m. south-east
of Burgos, was the original burial-place of the Cid, in 1099, and of
Ximena, in 1104. About 50 m. from the city is the abbey of Silos, which
appears to have been founded under the Visigothic kings, as early as the
6th century. It was restored in 919 by Fernan Gonzalez, and in the 11th
century became celebrated throughout Europe, under the rule of St Dominic
or Domingo. It was reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks.

The known history of Burgos begins in 884 with the foundation of the
citadel. From that time forward it steadily increased in importance,
reaching the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, when,
alternately with Toledo, it was occupied as a royal residence, but rapidly
declining when the court was finally removed to Madrid in 1560. Being on
one of the principal military roads of the kingdom, it suffered severely
during the Peninsular War. In 1808 it was the scene of the defeat of the
Spanish army by the French under Marshal Soult. It was unsuccessfully
besieged by Wellington in 1812, but was surrendered to him at the opening
of the campaign of the following year.

Of the extensive literature relating to Burgos, much remains unedited and
in manuscript. A general description of the city and its monuments is given
by A. Llacayo y Santa Maria in _Burgos, &c._ (Burgos, 1889). See also
_Architectural, Sculptural and Picturesque Studies in Burgos and its
Neighbourhood_, a valuable series of architectural drawings in folio, by
J.B. Waring (London, 1852). The following are monographs on particular
buildings:--_Historia de la Catedral de Burgos, &c._, by P. Orcajo (Burgos,
1856); _El Castillo de Burgos_, by E. de Oliver-Copons (Barcelona, 1893);
_La Real Cartuja de Miraflores_, by F. Tarin y Juaneda (Burgos, 1896). For
the history of the city see _En Burgos_, by V. Balaguér (Burgos, 1895);
_Burgos en las comunidades de Castilla_ and _Cosas de la vieja Burgos_,
both by A. Salvá (Burgos, 1895 and 1892). The following relate both to the
city and to the province of Burgos:--_Burgos, &c._, by R. Amador de los
Ríos, in the series entitled _España_ (Barcelona, 1888); _Burgos y su
provincia_, anon. (Vitoria, 1898); _Intento de un diccionario biográfico y
bibliográfico de autores de la prov. de Burgos_, by M. Anibarro and M.
Rives (Madrid, 1890).

BURGOYNE, JOHN (1722-1792), English general and dramatist, entered the army
at an early age. In 1743 he made a runaway marriage with a daughter of the
earl of Derby, but soon had to sell his commission to meet his debts, after
which he lived abroad for seven years. By Lord Derby's interest Burgoyne
was then reinstated at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and in 1758 he
became captain and lieutenant-colonel in the foot guards. In 1758-1759 he
participated in expeditions made against the French coast, and in the
latter year he was instrumental in introducing light cavalry into the
British army. The two regiments then formed were commanded by Eliott
(afterwards Lord Heathfield) and Burgoyne. In 1761 he sat in parliament for
Midhurst, and in the following year he served as brigadier-general in
Portugal, winning particular distinction by his capture of Valencia
d'Alcantara and of Villa Velha. In 1768 he became M.P. for Preston, and for
the next few years he occupied himself chiefly with his parliamentary
duties, in which he was remarkable for his general outspokenness [v.04
p.0820] and, in particular, for his attacks on Lord Clive. At the same time
he devoted much attention to art and drama (his first play, _The Maid of
the Oaks_, being produced by Garrick in 1775), and gambled recklessly. In
the army he had by this time become a major-general, and on the outbreak of
the American War of Independence he was appointed to a command. In 1777 he
was at the head of the British reinforcements designed for the invasion of
the colonies from Canada. In this disastrous expedition he gained
possession of Ticonderoga (for which he was made a lieutenant-general) and
Fort Edward; but, pushing on, was detached from his communications with
Canada, and hemmed in by a superior force at Saratoga (_q.v._). On the 17th
of October his troops, about 3500 in number, laid down their arms. The
success was the greatest the colonists had yet gained, and it proved the
turning-point in the war. The indignation in England against Burgoyne was
great, but perhaps unjust. He returned at once, with the leave of the
American general, to defend his conduct, and demanded, but never obtained,
a trial. He was deprived of his regiment and a governorship which he held.
In 1782, however, when his political friends came into office, he was
restored to his rank, given a colonelcy, and made commander-in-chief in
Ireland and a privy councillor. After the fall of the Rockingham government
in 1783, Burgoyne withdrew more and more into private life, his last public
service being his participation in the impeachment of Warren Hastings. In
his latter years he was principally occupied in literary and dramatic work.
His comedy, _The Heiress_, which appeared in 1786, ran through ten editions
within a year, and was translated into several foreign tongues. He died
suddenly on the 4th of June 1792. General Burgoyne, whose wife died in June
1776 during his absence in Canada, had several natural children (born
between 1782 and 1788) by Susan Caulfield, an opera singer, one of whom
became Field Marshal Sir J.F. Burgoyne. His _Dramatic and Poetical Works_
appeared in two vols., 1808.

See E.B. de Fonblanque, _Political and Military Episodes from the Life and
Correspondence of Right Hon. J. Burgoyne_ (1876); and W.L. Stone, _Campaign
of Lieut.-Gen. J. Burgoyne, &c._ (Albany, N.Y., 1877).

BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN FOX, Bart. (1782-1871), British field marshal, was an
illegitimate son of General John Burgoyne (_q.v._). He was educated at Eton
and Woolwich, obtained his commission in 1798, and served in 1800 in the
Mediterranean. In 1805, when serving on the staff of General Fox in Sicily,
he was promoted second captain. He accompanied the unfortunate Egyptian
expedition of 1807, and was with Sir John Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in
Portugal in 1808-9. In the Corunna campaign Burgoyne held the very
responsible position of chief of engineers with the rear-guard of the
British army (see PENINSULAR WAR). He was with Wellesley at the Douro in
1809, and was promoted captain in the same year, after which he was engaged
in the construction of the lines of Torres Vedras in 1810. He blew up Fort
Concepcion on the river Turones, and was present at Busaco and Torres
Vedras. In 1811 he was employed in the unsuccessful siege of Badajoz, and
in 1812 he won successively the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel,
for his skilful performance of engineer duties at the historic sieges of
Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. He was present in the same year (1812) at the
siege and battle of Salamanca, and after the battle of Vittoria in 1813 he
became commanding engineer on Lord Wellington's staff. At the close of the
war he received the C.B., a reward which, he justly considered, was not
commensurate with his services. In 1814-1815 he served at New Orleans and
Mobile. Burgoyne was largely employed, during the long peace which followed
Waterloo, in other public duties as well as military work. He sat on
numerous commissions, and served for fifteen years as chairman of the Irish
board of public works. He became a major-general and K.C.B. in 1838, and
inspector-general of fortifications in 1845. In 1851 he was promoted
lieutenant-general, and in the following year received the G.C.B. When the
Crimean War broke out he accompanied Lord Raglan's headquarters to the
East, superintended the disembarkation at Old Fort, and was in effect the
principal engineer adviser to the English commander during the first part
of the siege of Sevastopol. He was recalled early in 1855, and though he
was at first bitterly criticized by the public for his part in the earlier
and unsuccessful operations against the fortress the wisdom of his advice
was ultimately recognized. In 1856 he was created a baronet, and promoted
to the full rank of general. In 1858 he was present at the second funeral
of Napoleon I. as Queen Victoria's representative, and in 1865 he was made
constable of the Tower of London. Three years later, on resigning his post
as inspector-general of fortifications, he was made a field marshal.
Parliament granted him, at the same time, a pension of £1500. He died on
the 7th of October 1871, a year after the tragic death of his only son,
Captain Hugh Talbot Burgoyne, V.C. (1833-1870), who was in command of
H.M.S. "Captain" when that vessel went down in the Bay of Biscay (September
7, 1870).

See _Life and Correspondence of F.M. Sir John Fox Burgoyne_ (edited by
Lt.-Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, R.E., London, 1873); Sir Francis Head, _A
Sketch of the Life and Death of F.M. Sir John Burgoyne_ (London, 1872);
_Military Opinions of General Sir John Burgoyne_ (ed. Wrottesley, London,
1859), a collection of the most important of Burgoyne's contributions to
military literature.

BURGRAVE, the Eng. form, derived through the Fr., of the Ger. _Burggraf_
and Flem. _burg_ or _burch-graeve_ (med. Lat. _burcgravius_ or
_burgicomes_), _i.e._ count of a castle or fortified town. The title is
equivalent to that of castellan (Lat. _castellanus_) or _châtelain_
(_q.v._). In Germany, owing to the peculiar conditions of the Empire,
though the office of burgrave had become a sinecure by the end of the 13th
century, the title, as borne by feudal nobles having the status of princes
of the Empire, obtained a quasi-royal significance. It is still included
among the subsidiary titles of several sovereign princes; and the king of
Prussia, whose ancestors were burgraves of Nuremberg for over 200 years, is
still styled burgrave of Nuremberg.

BURGRED, king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 852, and in 852 or 853
called upon Æthelwulf of Wessex to aid him in subduing the North Welsh. The
request was granted and the campaign proved successful, the alliance being
sealed by the marriage of Burgred to Æthelswith, daughter of Æthelwulf. In
868 the Mercian king appealed to Æthelred and Alfred for assistance against
the Danes, who were in possession of Nottingham. The armies of Wessex and
Mercia did no serious fighting, and the Danes were allowed to remain
through the winter. In 874 the march of the Danes from Lindsey to Repton
drove Burgred from his kingdom. He retired to Rome and died there.

See _Saxon Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), years 852-853, 868, 874.

BURGUNDIO, sometimes erroneously styled BURGUNDIUS, an Italian jurist of
the 12th century. He was a professor at the university of Paris, and
assisted at the Lateran Council in 1179, dying at a very advanced age in
1194. He was a distinguished Greek scholar, and is believed on the
authority of Odofredus to have translated into Latin, soon after the
Pandects were brought to Bologna, the various Greek fragments which occur
in them, with the exception of those in the 27th book, the translation of
which has been attributed to Modestinus. The Latin translations ascribed to
Burgundio were received at Bologna as an integral part of the text of the
Pandects, and form part of that known as _The Vulgate_ in distinction from
the Florentine text.

BURGUNDY. The name of Burgundy (Fr. _Bourgogne_, Lat. _Burgundia_) has
denoted very diverse political and geographical areas at different periods
of history and as used by different writers. The name is derived from the
Burgundians (_Burgundi, Burgondiones_), a people of Germanic origin, who at
first settled between the Oder and the Vistula. In consequence of wars
against the Alamanni, in which the latter had the advantage, the
Burgundians, after having taken part in the great invasion of Radagaisus in
407, were obliged in 411 to take refuge in Gaul, under the leadership of
their chief Gundicar. Under the title of allies of the Romans, they
established themselves in certain cantons of the Sequani and of upper
Germany, receiving a part of the lands, houses and serfs that belonged to
the inhabitants. Thus was founded the first kingdom of Burgundy, the
boundaries of which were widened at different times by Gundicar and his son
[v.04 p.0821] Gunderic; its chief towns being Vienne, Lyons, Besançon,
Geneva, Autun and Mâcon. Gundibald (d. 516), grandson of Gunderic, is
famous for his codification of the Burgundian law, known consequently as
_Lex Gundobada, _in French _Loi Gombette_. His son Sigismund, who was
canonized by the church, founded the abbey of St Maurice at Agaunum. But,
incited thereto by Clotilda, the daughter of Chilperic (a brother of
Gundibald, and assassinated by him), the Merovingian kings attacked
Burgundy. An attempt made in 524 by Clodomer was unsuccessful; but in 534
Clotaire (Chlothachar) and his brothers possessed themselves of the lands
of Gundimar, brother and successor of Sigismund, and divided them between
them. In 561 the kingdom of Burgundy was reconstructed by Guntram, son of
Clotaire I., and until 613 it formed a separate state under the government
of a prince of the Merovingian family.

After 613 Burgundy was one of the provinces of the Frankish kingdom, but in
the redistributions that followed the reign of Charlemagne the various
parts of the ancient kingdom had different fortunes. In 843, by the treaty
of Verdun, Autun, Chalon, Mâcon, Langres, &c., were apportioned to Charles
the Bald, and Lyons with the country beyond the Saône to Lothair I. On the
death of the latter the duchy of Lyons (Lyonnais and Viennois) was given to
Charles of Provence, and the diocese of Besançon with the country beyond
the Jura to Lothair, king of Lorraine. In 879 Boso founded the kingdom of
Provence, wrongly called the kingdom of Cisjuran Burgundy, which extended
to Lyons, and for a short time as far as Mâcon (see PROVENCE).

In 888 the kingdom of Juran Burgundy was founded by Rudolph I., son of
Conrad, count of Auxerre, and the German king Arnulf could not succeed in
expelling the usurper, whose authority was recognized in the diocese of
Besançon, Basel, Lausanne, Geneva and Sion. For a short time his son and
successor Rudolph II. (912-937) disputed the crown of Italy with Hugh of
Provence, but finally abandoned his claims in exchange for the ancient
kingdom of Provence, _i.e._ the country bounded by the Rhône, the Alps and
the Mediterranean. His successor, Conrad the Peaceful (93 7-993), whose
sister Adelaide married Otto the Great, was hardly more than a vassal of
the German kings. The last king of Burgundy, Rudolph III. (993-1032), being
deprived of all but a shadow of power by the development of the secular and
ecclesiastical aristocracy--especially by that of the powerful feudal
houses of the counts of Burgundy (see FRANCHE-COMTÉ), Savoy and
Provence--died without issue, bequeathing his lands to the emperor Conrad
II. Such was the origin of the imperial rights over the kingdom designated
after the 13th century as the kingdom of Arles, which extended over a part
of what is now Switzerland (from the Jura to the Aar), and included
Franche-Comté, Lyonnais, Dauphiné, Savoy and Provence.

The name of Burgundy now gradually became restricted to the countship of
that name, which included the district between the Jura and the Saône, in
later times called Franche-Comté, and to the _duchy_ which had been created
by the Carolingian kings in the portion of Burgundy that had remained
French, with the object of resisting Boso. This duchy had been granted to
Boso's brother, Richard the Justiciary, count of Autun. It comprised at
first the countships of Autun, Mâcon, Chalon-sur-Saône, Langres, Nevers,
Auxerre and Sens, but its boundaries and designations changed many times in
the course of the 10th century. Duke Henry died in 1002; and in 1015, after
a war which lasted thirteen years, the French king Robert II. reunited the
duchy to his kingdom, despite the opposition of Otto William, count of
Burgundy, and gave it to his son Henry, afterwards King Henry I. As king of
France, the latter in 1032 bestowed the duchy upon his brother Robert, from
whom sprang that first ducal house of Burgundy which flourished until 1361.
A grandson of this Robert, who went to Spain to fight the Arabs, became the
founder of the kingdom of Portugal; but in general the first Capet dukes of
Burgundy were pacific princes who took little part in the political events
of their time, or in that religious movement which was so marked in
Burgundy, at Cluny to begin with, afterwards among the disciples of William
of St Bénigne of Dijon, and later still among the monks of Cîteaux. In the
12th and 13th centuries we may mention Duke Hugh III. (1162-1193), who
played an active part in the wars that marked the beginning of Philip
Augustus's reign; Odo (Eudes) III. (1193-1218), one of Philip Augustus's
principal supporters in his struggle with King John of England; Hugh IV.
(1218-1272), who acquired the countships of Châlon and Auxonne, Robert II.
(1272-1309), one of whose daughters, Margaret, married Louis X. of France,
and another, Jeanne, Philip of Valois; Odo (Eudes) IV. (1315-1350), who
gained the countship of Artois in right of his wife, Jeanne of France,
daughter of Philip V. the Tall and of Jeanne, countess of Burgundy.

In 1361, on the death of Duke Philip de Rouvres, son of Jeanne of Auvergne
and Boulogne, who had married the second time John II. of France, surnamed
the Good, the duchy of Burgundy returned to the crown of France. In 1363
John gave it, with hereditary rights, to his son Philip, surnamed the Bold,
thus founding that second Capet house of Burgundy which filled such an
important place in the history of France during the 14th and 15th
centuries, acquiring as it did a territorial power which proved redoubtable
to the kingship itself. By his marriage with Margaret of Flanders Philip
added to his duchy, on the death of his father-in-law, Louis of Male, in
1384, the countships of Burgundy and Flanders; and in the same year he
purchased the countship of Charolais from John, count of Armagnac. On the
death of Charles V. in 1380 Philip and his brothers, the dukes of Anjou and
Berry, had possessed themselves of the regency, and it was he who led
Charles VI. against the rebellious Flemings, over whom the young king
gained the victory of Roosebeke in 1382. Momentarily deprived of power
during the period of the "Marmousets'" government, he devoted himself to
the administration of his own dominions, establishing in 1386 an
audit-office (_chambre des comptes_) at Dijon and another at Lille. In 1396
he refused to take part personally in the expedition against the Turks
which ended in the disaster of Nicopolis, and would only send his son John,
then count of Nevers. In 1392 the king's madness caused Philip's recall to
power along with the other princes of the blood, and from this time dates
that hostility between the party of Burgundy and the party of Orleans which
was to become so intense when in May 1404 Duke Philip had been succeeded by
his son, John the Fearless.

In 1407 the latter caused the assassination of his political rival, Louis
of Orleans, the king's brother. Forced to quit Paris for a time, he soon
returned, supported in particular by the gild of the butchers and by the
university. The monk Jean Petit pronounced an apology for the murder
(1408).

The victory of Hasbain which John achieved on the 23rd of September 1408
over the Liégeois, who had attacked his brother-in-law, John of Bavaria,
bishop of Liége, still further strengthened his power and reputation, and
during the following years the struggle between the Burgundians and the
partisans of the duke of Orleans--or Armagnacs, as they were called--went
on with varying results. In 1413 a reaction took place in Paris; John the
Fearless was once more expelled from the capital, and only returned there
in 1418, thanks to the treason of Perrinet Leclerc, who yielded up the town
to him. In 1419, just when he was thinking of making advances towards the
party of the dauphin (Charles VII.), he was assassinated by members of that
party, during an interview between himself and the dauphin at the bridge of
Montereau.

This event inclined the new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, towards an
alliance with England. In 1420 he signed the treaty of Troyes, which
recognized Henry V. as the legitimate successor of Charles VI.; in 1423 he
gave his sister Anne in marriage to John, duke of Bedford; and during the
following years the Burgundian troops supported the English pretender. But
a dispute between him and the English concerning the succession in Hainaut,
their refusal to permit the town of Orleans to place itself under his rule,
and the defeats sustained by them, all combined to embroil him with his
allies, and in 1435 he concluded the treaty of Arras with Charles VII. The
king relieved the duke of all homage for his estates during his lifetime,
[v.04 p.0822] and gave up to him the countships of Mâcon, Auxerre,
Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu; and, reserving the right of redemption, the
towns of the Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Péronne, &c.). Besides this Philip
had acquired Brabant and Holland in 1433 as the inheritance of his mother.
He gave an asylum to the dauphin Louis when exiled from Charles VII.'s
court, but refused to assist him against his father, and henceforth rarely
intervened in French affairs. He busied himself particularly with the
administration of his state, founding the university of Dôle, having
records made of Burgundian customs, and seeking to develop the commerce and
industries of Flanders. A friend to letters and the arts, he was the
protector of writers like Olivier de la Marche, and of sculptors of the
school of Dijon. He also desired to revive ancient chivalry as he conceived
it, and in 1429 founded the order of the Golden Fleece; while during the
last years of his life he devoted himself to the preparation of a crusade
against the Turks. Neither these plans, however, nor his liberality,
prevented his leaving a well-filled treasury and enlarged dominions when he
died in 1467.

Philip's successor was his son by his third wife, Isabel of Portugal,
Charles, surnamed the Bold, count of Charolois, born in 1433. To him his
father had practically abandoned his authority during his last years.
Charles had taken an active part in the so-called wars "for the public
weal," and in the coalitions of nobles against the king which were so
frequent during the first years of Louis XI.'s reign. His struggle against
the king is especially marked by the interview at Péronne in 1468, when the
king had to confirm the duke in his possession of the towns of the Somme,
and by a fruitless attempt which Charles the Bold made on Beauvais in 1472.
Charles sought above all to realize a scheme already planned by his father.
This was to annex territory which would reunite Burgundy with the northern
group of her possessions (Flanders, Brabant, &c.), and to obtain the
emperor's recognition of the kingdom of "Belgian Gaul." In 1469 he bought
the landgraviate of Alsace and the countship of Ferrette from the archduke
Sigismund of Austria, and in 1473 the aged duke Arnold ceded the duchy of
Gelderland to him. In the same year he had an interview at Trier with the
emperor Frederick III., when he offered to give his daughter and heiress,
Mary of Burgundy, in marriage to the emperor's son Maximilian in exchange
for the concession of the royal title. But the emperor, uneasy at the
ambition of the "grand-duke of the West," did not pursue the negotiations.

Meanwhile the tyranny of the duke's lieutenant Peter von Hagenbach, who was
established at Ferrette as governor (_grand bailli_ or _Landvogt_) of Upper
Alsace, had brought about an insurrection. The Swiss supported the cause of
their allies, the inhabitants of the free towns of Alsace, and Duke René
II. of Lorraine also declared war against Charles. In 1474 the Swiss
invaded Franche-Comté and achieved the victory of Hericourt. In 1475
Charles succeeded in conquering Lorraine, but an expedition against the
Swiss ended in the defeat of Grandson (February 1476). In the same year the
duke was again beaten at Morat, and the Burgundian nobles had to abandon to
the victors a considerable amount of booty. Finally the duke of Lorraine
returned to his dominions; Charles advanced against him, but on the 6th of
January 1477 he was defeated and killed before Nancy.

By his wife, Isabella of Bourbon, he only left a daughter, Mary, and Louis
XI. claimed possession of her inheritance as guardian to the young
princess. He succeeded in getting himself acknowledged in the duchy and
countship of Burgundy, which were occupied by French garrisons. But Mary,
alarmed by this annexation, and by the insurrection at Ghent (secretly
fomented by Louis), decided to marry the archduke Maximilian of Austria, to
whom she had already been promised (August 1477), and hostilities soon
broke out between the two princes. Mary died through a fall from her horse
in March 1482, and in the same year the treaty of Arras confirmed Louis XI.
in possession of the duchy. Franche-Comté and Artois were to form the dowry
of the little Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Mary and Maximilian, who
was promised in marriage to the dauphin. As to the lands proceeding from
the succession of Charles the Bold, which had returned to the Empire
(Brabant, Hainaut, Limburg, Namur, Gelderland, &c.), they constituted the
"Circle of Burgundy" from 1512 onward.

We know that the title of duke of Burgundy was revived in 1682 for a short
time by Louis XIV. in favour of his grandson Louis, the pupil of Fénelon.
But from the 16th to the 18th century Burgundy constituted a military
government bounded on the north by Champagne, on the south by Lyonnais, on
the east by Franche-Comté, on the west by Bourbonnais and Nivernais. It
comprised Dijonnais, Autunois, Auxois, and the _pays de la montagne_ or
Country of the Mountain (Châtillon-sur-Seine), with the "counties" of
Chalonnais, Mâconnais, Auxerrois and Bar-sur-Seine, and, so far as
administration went, the annexes of Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the country
of Gex. Burgundy was a _pays d'états_. The estates, whose privileges the
dukes at first, and later Louis XI., had to swear to maintain, had their
assembly at Dijon, usually under the presidency of the governor of the
province, the bishop of Autun as representing the clergy, and the mayor of
Dijon representing the third estate. In the judiciary point of view the
greater part of Burgundy depended on the parlement of Dijon; but Auxerrois
and Mâconnais were amenable to the parlement of Paris.

See also U. Plancher, _Histoire générale et particulière de Bourgogne_
(Dijon, 1739--1781, 4 vols. 8vo); Courtépée, _Description générale et
particulière du duché de Bourgogne_ (Dijon, 1774-1785, 7 vols. 8vo); O.
Jahn. _Geschichte der Burgundionen_ (Halle, 1874, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Petit de
Vausse, _Histoire des dues de Bourgogne de la race capétienne_ (Paris,
1885-1905, 9 vols. 8vo); B. de Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de
la maison de Valois_ (Paris, 1833--1836, 13 vols. 8vo); the marquis Léon
E.S.J. de Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne: Études sur les lettres, les arts
et l'industrie pendant le XV siècle_ (Paris, 1849-1851, 3 vols. 8vo).

(R. PO.)

BURHANPUR, a town of British India in the Nimar district of the Central
Provinces, situated on the north bank of the river Tapti, 310 m. N.E. of
Bombay, and 2 m. from the Great Indian Peninsula railway station of
Lalbagh. It was founded in A.D. 1400 by a Mahommedan prince of the Farukhi
dynasty of Khandesh, whose successors held it for 200 years, when the
Farukhi kingdom was annexed to the empire of Akbar. It formed the chief
seat of the government of the Deccan provinces of the Mogul empire till
Shah Jahan removed the capital to Aurangabad in 1635. Burhanpur was
plundered in 1685 by the Mahrattas, and repeated battles were fought in its
neighbourhood in the struggle between that race and the Mussulmans for the
supremacy of India. In 1739 the Mahommedans finally yielded to the demand
of the Mahrattas for a fourth of the revenue, and in 1760 the Nizam of the
Deccan ceded Burhanpur to the peshwa, who in 1778 transferred it to
Sindhia. In the Mahratta War the army under General Wellesley, afterwards
the duke of Wellington, took Burhanpur (1803), but the treaty of the same
year restored it to Sindhia. It remained a portion of Sindhia's dominions
till 1860-1861, when, in consequence of certain territorial arrangements,
the town and surrounding estates were ceded to the British government.
Under the Moguls the city covered an area of about 5 sq. m., and was about
10½ m. in circumference. In the _Ain-í-Akbari_ it is described as a "large
city, with many gardens, inhabited by all nations, and abounding with
handicraftsmen." Sir Thomas Roe, who visited it in 1614, found that the
houses in the town were "only mud cottages, except the prince's house, the
chan's and some few others." In 1865-1866 the city contained 8000 houses,
with a population of 34,137, which had decreased to 33,343 in 1901.
Burhanpur is celebrated for its muslins, flowered silks, and brocades,
which, according to Tavernier, who visited it in 1668, were exported in
great quantities to Persia, Egypt, Turkey, Russia and Poland. The gold and
silver wires used in the manufacture of these fabrics are drawn with
considerable care and skill; and in order to secure the purity of the
metals employed for their composition, the wire-drawing under the native
rule was done under government inspection. The town of Burhanpur and its
manufactures were long on the decline, but during recent times have made a
slight recovery. The buildings of interest [v.04 p.0823] in the town are a
palace, built by Akbar, called the Lal Kila or the Red Fort, and the Jama
Masjid or Great Mosque, built by Ali Khan, one of the Farukhi dynasty, in
1588. A considerable number of Boras, a class of commercial Mahommedans,
reside here.

BURI, or BURE, in Norse mythology, the grandfather of Odin. In the creation
of the world he was born from the rocks, licked by the cow Andhumla
(darkness). He was the father of Bor, and the latter, wedded to Bestla, the
daughter of the giant Bolthorn (evil), became the father of Odin, the
Scandinavian Jove.

BURIAL and BURIAL ACTS (in O. Eng. _byrgels_, whence _byriels_, wrongly
taken as a plural, and so Mid. Eng. _buryel_, from O. Eng. _byrgan_,
properly to protect, cover, to bury). The main lines of the law of burial
in England may be stated very shortly. Every person has the right to be
buried in the churchyard or burial ground of the parish where he dies, with
the exception of executed felons, who are buried in the precincts of the
prison or in a place appointed by the home office. At common law the person
under whose roof a death takes place has a duty to provide for the body
being carried to the grave decently covered; and the executors or legal
representatives of the deceased are bound to bury or dispose of the body in
a manner becoming the estate of the deceased, according to their
discretion, and they are not bound to fulfil the wishes he may have
expressed in this respect. The disposal must be such as will not expose the
body to violation, or offend the feelings or endanger the health of the
living; and cremation under proper restrictions is allowable. In the case
of paupers dying in a parish house, or shipwrecked persons whose bodies are
cast ashore, the overseers or guardians are responsible for their burial;
and in the case of suicides the coroner has a similar duty. The expenses of
burial are payable out of the deceased's estate in priority to all other
debts. A husband liable for the maintenance of his wife is liable for her
funeral expenses; the parents for those of their children, if they have the
means of paying. Legislation has principally affected (1) places of burial,
(2) mode of burial, (3) fees for burial, and (4) disinterment.

1. The overcrowded state of churchyards and burial grounds gradually led to
the passing of a group of statutes known as the Burial Acts, extending from
1852 up to 1900. By these acts a general system was set up, the aim of
which was to remedy the existing deficiencies of accommodation by providing
new burial grounds and closing old ones which should be dangerous to
health, and to establish a central authority, the home office (now for most
purposes the Local Government Board) to superintend all burial grounds with
a view to the protection of the public health and the maintenance of public
decency in burials. The Local Government Board thus has the power to obtain
by order in council the closing of any burial ground it thinks fit, while
its consent is necessary to the opening of any new burial ground; and it
also has power to direct inspection of any burial ground or cemetery, and
to regulate burials in common graves in statutory cemeteries and to compel
persons in charge of vaults or places of burial to take steps necessary for
preventing their becoming dangerous or injurious to health. The vestry of
any parish, whether a common-law or ecclesiastical one, was thus authorized
to provide itself with a new burial ground, if its existing one was no
longer available; such ground might be wholly or partly consecrated, and
chapels might be provided for the performance of burial service. The ground
was put under the management of a burial board, consisting of ratepayers
elected by the vestry, and the consecrated portion of it took the place of
the churchyard in all respects. Disused churchyards and burial grounds in
the metropolis may be used as open spaces for recreation, and only
buildings for religious purposes can be built on them (1881, 1884, 1887).
The Local Government Act 1894 introduced a change into the government of
burial grounds (consequent on the general change made in parochial
government) by transferring, or allowing to be transferred, the powers,
duties, property and liabilities of the burial boards in urban districts to
the district councils, and in rural parishes to the parish councils and
parish meetings; and by allowing rural parishes to adopt the Burials Acts,
and provide and manage new burial grounds by the parish council, or a
burial board elected by the parish meeting.

2. The mode of burial is a matter of ecclesiastical cognizance; in the case
of churchyards and elsewhere it is in the discretion of the owners of the
burial ground. The Local Government Board now makes regulations for burials
in burial grounds provided under the Burial Acts; for cemeteries provided
under the Public Health Act 1879. Private cemeteries and burial grounds
make their own regulations. Burial may now take place either with or
without a religious service in consecrated ground. Before 1880 no body
could be buried in consecrated ground except with the service of the
Church, which the incumbent of the parish or a person authorized by him was
bound to perform; but the canons and prayer-book refused the use of the
office for excommunicated persons, _majori excommunicatione_, for some
grievous and notorious crime, and no person able to testify of his
repentance, unbaptized persons, and persons against whom a verdict of _felo
de se_ had been found. But by the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880, the
bodies of persons entitled to be buried in parochial burial grounds,
whether churchyards or graveyards, may be buried there, on proper notice
being given to the minister, without the performance of the service of the
Church of England, and either without any religious service or with a
Christian and orderly religious service at the grave, which may be
conducted by any person invited to do so by the person in charge of the
funeral. Clergymen of the Church of England are also by the act allowed,
but are not obliged, to use the burial service in any unconsecrated burial
ground or cemetery, or building therein, in any case in which it could be
used in consecrated ground. In cases where it may not be so used, and where
such is the wish of those in charge of the service, the clergy may use a
form of service approved by the bishop without being liable to any
ecclesiastical or temporal penalty. Except as altered by this act, it is
still the law that "the Church knows no such indecency as putting a body
into consecrated ground without the service being at the same time
performed"; and nothing in the act authorizes the use of the service on the
burial of a _felo de se_, which, however, may take place in any way allowed
by the act of 1880. The proper performance of the burial office is provided
for by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874. Statutory provision is made
by the criminal law in this act for the preservation of order in burial
grounds and protection of funeral services.

3. Fees are now payable by custom or under statutory powers on all burials.
In a churchyard the parson must perform the office of burial for
parishioners, even if the customary fee is denied, and it is doubtful who
is liable to pay it. The custom must be immemorial and invariable. If not
disputed, its payment can be enforced in the ecclesiastical court; if
disputed, its validity must be tried by a temporal court. A special
contract for the payment of an annual fee in the case of a non-parishioner
can be enforced in the latter court. In the case of paupers and shipwrecked
persons the fees are payable by the parish. In other parochial burial
grounds and cemeteries the duties and rights to fees of the incumbents,
clerks and sextons of the parishes for which the ground has been provided
are the same as in burials in the churchyard. Burial authorities may fix
the fees payable in such grounds, subject to the approval of the home
secretary; but the fees for services rendered by ministers of religion and
sextons must be the same in the consecrated as in the unconsecrated part of
the burial ground, and no incumbent of a parish or a clerk may receive any
fee upon burials except for services rendered by them (act of 1900). On
burials under the act of 1880 the same fees are payable as if the burial
had taken place with the service of the Church.

4. A corpse is not the subject of property, nor capable of holding
property. If interred in consecrated ground, it is under the protection of
the ecclesiastical court; if in unconsecrated, it is under that of the
temporal court. In the former case it is an ecclesiastical offence, and in
either case it is a misdemeanour, to disinter or remove it without proper
authority, [v.04 p.0824] whatever the motive for such an act may be. Such
proper authority is (1) a faculty from the ordinary, where it is to be
removed from one consecrated place of burial to another, and this is often
done on sanitary grounds or to meet the wishes of relatives, and has been
done for secular purposes, _e.g._ widening a thoroughfare, by allowing part
of the burial ground (disused) to be thrown into it; but it has been
refused where the object was to cremate the remains, or to transfer them
from a churchyard to a Roman Catholic burial ground; (2) a licence from the
home secretary, where it is desired to transfer remains from one
unconsecrated place of burial to another; (3) by order of the coroner, in
cases of suspected crime. There has been considerable discussion as to the
boundary line of jurisdiction between (1) and (2), and whether the
disinterment of a body from consecrated ground for purposes of
identification falls within, (1) only or within both (1) and (2); and an
attempt by the ecclesiastical court to enforce a penalty for that purpose
without a licence has been prohibited by the temporal court.

See also CHURCHYARD; and, for methods of disposal of the dead, CEMETERY;
CREMATION, and FUNERAL RITES.

AUTHORITIES.--Baker, _Law of Burials_ (6th ed. by Thomas, London, 1898);
Phillimore, _Ecclestastical Law_ (2nd ed., London, 1895); Cripps, _Law of
Church and Clergy_ (6th ed., London, 1886).

(G. G. P.*)

BURIAL SOCIETIES, a form of friendly societies, existing mainly in England,
and constituted for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions,
for insuring money to be paid on the death of a member, or for the funeral
expenses of the husband, wife or child of a member, or of the widow of a
deceased member. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)

BURIATS, a Mongolian race, who dwell in the vicinity of the Baikal Lake,
for the most part in the government of Irkutsk and the Trans-Baikal
Territory. They are divided into various tribes or clans, which generally
take their names from the locality they frequent. These tribes are
subdivided according to kinship. The Buriats are a broad-shouldered race
inclined to stoutness, with small slanting eyes, thick lips, high
cheekbones, broad and flat noses and scanty beards. The men shave their
heads and wear a pigtail like the Chinese. In summer they dress in silk and
cotton gowns, in winter in furs and sheepskins. Their principal occupation
is the rearing of cattle and horses. The Buriat horse is famous for its
power of endurance, and the attachment between master and animal is very
great. At death the horse should, according to their religion, be
sacrificed at its owner's grave; but the frugal Buriat heir usually
substitutes an old hack, or if he has to tie up the valuable steed to the
grave to starve he does so only with the thinnest of cords so that the
animal soon breaks his tether and gallops off to join the other horses. In
some districts the Buriats have learned agriculture from the Russians, and
in Irkutsk are really better farmers than the latter. They are
extraordinarily industrious at manuring and irrigation. They are also
clever at trapping and fishing. In religion the Buriats are mainly
Buddhists; and their head lama (Khambo Lama) lives at the Goose Lake
(Guisinoe Ozero). Others are Shamanists, and their most sacred spot is the
Shamanic stone at the mouth of the river Angar. Some thousands of them
around Lake Baikal are Christians. A knowledge of reading and writing is
common, especially among the Trans-Baikal Buriats, who possess books of
their own, chiefly translated from the Tibetan. Their own language is
Mongolian, and of three distinct dialects. It was in the 16th century that
the Russians first came in touch with the Buriats, who were long known by
the name of Bratskiye, "Brotherly," given them by the Siberian colonists.
In the town of Bratskiyostrog, which grew up around the block-house built
in 1631 at the confluence of the Angara and Oka to bring them into
subjection, this title is perpetuated. The Buriats made a vigorous
resistance to Russian aggression, but were finally subdued towards the end
of the 17th century, and are now among the most peaceful of Russian
peoples.

See J.G. Gruelin, _Siberia_; Pierre Simon Pallas, _Sammlungen historischer
Nachrichten über die mongolischen Volkerschaften_ (St Petersburg,
1776-1802); M.A. Castrén, _Versuch einer buriatischen Sprachlehre_ (1857);
Sir H.H. Howorth, _History of the Mongols_ (1876-1888).

BURIDAN, JEAN [JOANNES BURIDANUS] (c. 1297-c. 1358), French philosopher,
was born at Béthune in Artois. He studied in Paris under William of Occam.
He was professor of philosophy in the university of Paris, was rector in
1327, and in 1345 was deputed to defend its interests before Philip of
Valois and at Rome. He was more than sixty years old in 1358, but the year
of his death is not recorded. The tradition that he was forced to flee from
France along with other nominalists, and founded the university of Vienna
in 1356, is unsupported and in contradiction to the fact that the
university was founded by Frederick II. in 1237. An ordinance of Louis XI.,
in 1473, directed against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of his
works. In philosophy Buridan was a rationalist, and followed Occam in
denying all objective reality to universals, which he regarded as mere
words. The aim of his logic is represented as having been the devising of
rules for the discovery of syllogistic middle terms; this system for aiding
slow-witted persons became known as the _pons asinorum_. The parts of logic
which he treated with most minuteness are modal propositions and modal
syllogisms. In commenting on Aristotle's _Ethics_ he dealt in a very
independent manner with the question of free will, his conclusions being
remarkably similar to those of John Locke. The only liberty which he admits
is a certain power of suspending the deliberative process and determining
the direction of the intellect. Otherwise the will is entirely dependent on
the view of the mind, the last result of examination. The comparison of the
will unable to act between two equally balanced motives to an ass dying of
hunger between two equal and equidistant bundles of hay is not found in his
works, and may have been invented by his opponents to ridicule his
determinism. That he was not the originator of the theory known as "liberty
of indifference" (_liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_) is shown in G.
Fonsegrive's _Essai sur le libre arbitre_, pp. 119, 199 (1887).

His works are:--_Summula de dialectica_ (Paris, 1487); _Compendium logicae_
(Venice, 1489); _Quaestiones in viii. libros physicorum_ (Paris, 1516); _In
Aristotelis Metaphysica_ (1518); _Quaestiones in x. libros ethicorum
Aristotelis_ (Paris, 1489; Oxford, 1637); _Quaestiones in viii. libros
politicorum Aristotelis_ (1500). See K. Prantl's _Geschichte der Logik_,
bk. iv. 14-38; Stöckl's _Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters_, ii.
1023-1028; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. (1897).

BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797), British statesman and political writer. His is
one of the greatest names in the history of political literature. There
have been many more important statesmen, for he was never tried in a
position of supreme responsibility. There have been many more effective
orators, for lack of imaginative suppleness prevented him from penetrating
to the inner mind of his hearers; defects in delivery weakened the
intrinsic persuasiveness of his reasoning; and he had not that commanding
authority of character and personality which has so often been the secret
of triumphant eloquence. There have been many subtler, more original and
more systematic thinkers about the conditions of the social union. But no
one that ever lived used the general ideas of the thinker more successfully
to judge the particular problems of the statesman. No one has ever come so
close to the details of practical politics, and at the same time remembered
that these can only be understood and only dealt with by the aid of the
broad conceptions of political philosophy. And what is more than all for
perpetuity of fame, he was one of the great masters of the high and
difficult art of elaborate composition.

A certain doubtfulness hangs over the circumstances of Burke's life
previous to the opening of his public career. The very date of his birth is
variously stated. The most probable opinion is that he was born at Dublin
on the 12th of January 1729, new style. Of his family we know little more
than his father was a Protestant attorney, practising in Dublin, and that
his mother was a Catholic, a member of the family of Nagle. He had at least
one sister, from whom descended the only existing representatives of
Burke's family; and he had at least two brothers, Garret Burke and Richard
Burke, the one older and the other younger than Edmund. The sister,
afterwards Mrs French, was brought up and remained throughout life in the
religious faith of her [v.04 p.0825] mother; Edmund and his brothers
followed that of their father. In 1741 the three brothers were sent to
school at Ballitore in the county of Kildare, kept by Abraham Shackleton,
an Englishman, and a member of the Society of Friends. He appears to have
been an excellent teacher and a good and pious man. Burke always looked
back on his own connexion with the school at Ballitore as among the most
fortunate circumstances of his life. Between himself and a son of his
instructor there sprang up a close and affectionate friendship, and, unlike
so many of the exquisite attachments of youth, this was not choked by the
dust of life, nor parted by divergence of pursuit. Richard Shackleton was
endowed with a grave, pure and tranquil nature, constant and austere, yet
not without those gentle elements that often redeem the drier qualities of
his religious persuasion. When Burke had become one of the most famous men
in Europe, no visitor to his house was more welcome than the friend with
whom long years before he had tried poetic flights, and exchanged all the
sanguine confidences of boyhood. And we are touched to think of the
simple-minded guest secretly praying, in the solitude of his room in the
fine house at Beaconsfield, that the way of his anxious and overburdened
host might be guided by a divine hand.

In 1743 Burke became a student at Trinity College, Dublin, where Oliver
Goldsmith was also a student at the same time. But the serious pupil of
Abraham Shackleton would not be likely to see much of the wild and squalid
sizar. Henry Flood, who was two years younger than Burke, had gone to
complete his education at Oxford. Burke, like Goldsmith, achieved no
academic distinction. His character was never at any time of the academic
cast. The minor accuracies, the limitation of range, the treading and
re-treading of the same small patch of ground, the concentration of
interest in success before a board of examiners, were all uncongenial to a
nature of exuberant intellectual curiosity and of strenuous and
self-reliant originality. His knowledge of Greek and Latin was never
thorough, nor had he any turn for critical niceties. He could quote Homer
and Pindar, and he had read Aristotle. Like others who have gone through
the conventional course of instruction, he kept a place in his memory for
the various charms of Virgil and Horace, of Tacitus and Ovid; but the
master whose page by night and by day he turned with devout hand, was the
copious, energetic, flexible, diversified and brilliant genius of the
declamations for Archias the poet and for Milo, against Catiline and
against Antony, the author of the disputations at Tusculum and the orations
against Verres. Cicero was ever to him the mightiest of the ancient names.
In English literature Milton seems to have been more familiar to him than
Shakespeare, and Spenser was perhaps more of a favourite with him than
either.

It is too often the case to be a mere accident that men who become eminent
for wide compass of understanding and penetrating comprehension, are in
their adolescence unsettled and desultory. Of this Burke is a signal
illustration. He left Trinity in 1748, with no great stock of well-ordered
knowledge. He neither derived the benefits nor suffered the drawbacks of
systematic intellectual discipline.

After taking his degree at Dublin he went in the year 1750 to London to
keep terms at the Temple. The ten years that followed were passed in
obscure industry. Burke was always extremely reserved about his private
affairs. All that we know of Burke exhibits him as inspired by a resolute
pride, a certain stateliness and imperious elevation of mind. Such a
character, while free from any weak shame about the shabby necessities of
early struggles, yet is naturally unwilling to make them prominent in after
life. There is nothing dishonourable in such an inclination. "I was not
swaddled and rocked and dandled into a legislator," wrote Burke when very
near the end of his days: "_Nitor in adversum_ is the motto for a man like
me. At every step of my progress in life (for in every step I was traversed
and opposed), and at every turnpike I met, I was obliged to show my
passport. Otherwise no rank, no toleration even, for me."

All sorts of whispers have been circulated by idle or malicious gossip
about Burke's first manhood. He is said to have been one of the numerous
lovers of his fascinating countrywoman, Margaret Woffington. It is hinted
that he made a mysterious visit to the American colonies. He was for years
accused of having gone over to the Church of Rome, and afterwards
recanting. There is not a tittle of positive evidence for these or any of
the other statements to Burke's discredit. The common story that he was a
candidate for Adam Smith's chair of moral philosophy at Glasgow, when Hume
was rejected in favour of an obscure nobody (1751), can be shown to be
wholly false. Like a great many other youths with an eminent destiny before
them, Burke conceived a strong distaste for the profession of the law. His
father, who was an attorney of substance, had a distaste still stronger for
so vagrant a profession as letters were in that day. He withdrew the annual
allowance, and Burke set to work to win for himself by indefatigable
industry and capability in the public interest that position of power or
pre-eminence which his detractors acquired either by accident of birth and
connexions or else by the vile arts of political intrigue. He began at the
bottom of the ladder, mixing with the Bohemian society that haunted the
Temple, practising oratory in the free and easy debating societies of
Covent Garden and the Strand, and writing for the booksellers.

In 1756 he made his first mark by a satire upon Bolingbroke entitled _A
Vindication of Natural Society_. It purported to be a posthumous work from
the pen of Bolingbroke, and to present a view of the miseries and evils
arising to mankind from every species of artificial society. The imitation
of the fine style of that magnificent writer but bad patriot is admirable.
As a satire the piece is a failure, for the simple reason that the
substance of it might well pass for a perfectly true, no less than a very
eloquent statement of social blunders and calamities. Such acute critics as
Chesterfield and Warburton thought the performance serious. Rousseau, whose
famous discourse on the evils of civilization had appeared six years
before, would have read Burke's ironical vindication of natural society
without a suspicion of its irony. There have indeed been found persons who
insist that the _Vindication_ was a really serious expression of the
writer's own opinions. This is absolutely incredible, for various reasons.
Burke felt now, as he did thirty years later, that civil institutions
cannot wisely or safely be measured by the tests of pure reason. His
sagacity discerned that the rationalism by which Bolingbroke and the
deistic school believed themselves to have overthrown revealed religion,
was equally calculated to undermine the structure of political government.
This was precisely the actual course on which speculation was entering in
France at that moment. His _Vindication_ is meant to be a reduction to an
absurdity. The rising revolutionary school in France, if they had read it,
would have taken it for a demonstration of the theorem to be proved. The
only interest of the piece for us lies in the proof which it furnishes,
that at the opening of his life Burke had the same scornful antipathy to
political rationalism which flamed out in such overwhelming passion at its
close.

In the same year (1756) appeared the _Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin
of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful_, a crude and narrow performance
in many respects, yet marked by an independent use of the writer's mind,
and not without fertile suggestion. It attracted the attention of the
rising aesthetic school in Germany. Lessing set about the translation and
annotation of it, and Moses Mendelssohn borrowed from Burke's speculation
at least one of the most fruitful and important ideas of his own
influential theories on the sentiments. In England the _Inquiry_ had
considerable vogue, but it has left no permanent trace in the development
of aesthetic thought.

Burke's literary industry in town was relieved by frequent excursions to
the western parts of England, in company with William Burke. There was a
lasting intimacy between the two namesakes, and they seem to have been
involved together in some important passages of their lives; but we have
Edmund Burke's authority for believing that they were probably not kinsmen.
The seclusion of these rural sojourns, originally dictated by delicate
health, was as wholesome to the mind as to [v.04 p.0826] the body. Few men,
if any, have ever acquired a settled mental habit of surveying human
affairs broadly, of watching the play of passion, interest, circumstance,
in all its comprehensiveness, and of applying the instruments of general
conceptions and wide principles to its interpretation with respectable
constancy, unless they have at some early period of their manhood resolved
the greater problems of society in independence and isolation. By 1756 the
cast of Burke's opinions was decisively fixed, and they underwent no
radical change.

He began a series of _Hints on the Drama_. He wrote a portion of an
_Abridgment of the History of England_, and brought it down as far as the
reign of John. It included, as was natural enough in a warm admirer of
Montesquieu, a fragment on law, of which he justly said that it ought to be
the leading science in every well-ordered commonwealth. Burke's early
interest in America was shown by an _Account of the European Settlements_
on that continent. Such works were evidently a sign that his mind was
turning away from abstract speculation to the great political and economic
fields, and to the more visible conditions of social stability and the
growth of nations. This interest in the concrete phenomena of society
inspired him with the idea of the _Annual Register_ (1759), which he
designed to present a broad grouping of the chief movements of each year.
The execution was as excellent as the conception, and if we reflect that it
was begun in the midst of that momentous war which raised England to her
climax of territorial greatness in East and West, we may easily realize how
the task of describing these portentous and far-reaching events would be
likely to strengthen Burke's habits of wide and laborious observation, as
well as to give him firmness and confidence in the exercise of his own
judgment. Dodsley gave him £100 for each annual volume, and the sum was
welcome enough, for towards the end of 1756 Burke had married. His wife was
the daughter of a Dr Nugent, a physician at Bath. She is always spoken of
by his friends as a mild, reasonable and obliging person, whose amiability
and gentle sense did much to soothe the too nervous and excitable
temperament of her husband. She had been brought up, there is good reason
to believe, as a Catholic, and she was probably a member of that communion
at the time of her marriage. Dr Nugent eventually took up his residence
with his son-in-law in London, and became a popular member of that famous
group of men of letters and artists whom Boswell has made so familiar and
so dear to all later generations. Burke, however, had no intention of being
dependent. His consciousness of his own powers animated him with a most
justifiable ambition, if ever there was one, to play a part in the conduct
of national affairs. Friends shared this ambition on his behalf; one of
these was Lord Charlemont. He introduced Burke to William Gerard Hamilton
(1759), now only remembered by the nickname "single-speech," derived from
the circumstance of his having made a single brilliant speech in the House
of Commons, which was followed by years of almost unbroken silence.
Hamilton was by no means devoid of sense and acuteness, but in character he
was one of the most despicable men then alive. There is not a word too many
nor too strong in the description of him by one of Burke's friends, as "a
sullen, vain, proud, selfish, cankered-hearted, envious reptile." The
reptile's connexion, however, was for a time of considerable use to Burke.
When he was made Irish secretary, Burke accompanied him to Dublin, and
there learnt Oxenstiern's eternal lesson, that awaits all who penetrate
behind the scenes of government, _quam parva sapientia mundus regitur_.

The penal laws against the Catholics, the iniquitous restrictions on Irish
trade and industry, the selfish factiousness of the parliament, the jobbery
and corruption of administration, the absenteeism of the landlords, and all
the other too familiar elements of that mischievous and fatal system, were
then in full force. As was shown afterwards, they made an impression upon
Burke that was never effaced. So much iniquity and so much disorder may
well have struck deep on one whose two chief political sentiments were a
passion for order and a passion for justice. He may have anticipated with
something of remorse the reflection of a modern historian, that the
absenteeism of her landlords has been less of a curse to Ireland than the
absenteeism of her men of genius. At least he was never an absentee in
heart. He always took the interest of an ardent patriot in his unfortunate
country; and, as we shall see, made more than one weighty sacrifice on
behalf of the principles which he deemed to be bound up with her welfare.

When Hamilton retired from his post, Burke accompanied him back to London,
with a pension of £300 a year on the Irish Establishment. This modest
allowance he hardly enjoyed for more than a single year. His patron having
discovered the value of so laborious and powerful a subaltern, wished to
bind Burke permanently to his service. Burke declined to sell himself into
final bondage of this kind. When Hamilton continued to press his odious
pretensions they quarrelled (1765), and Burke threw up his pension. He soon
received a more important piece of preferment than any which he could ever
have procured through Hamilton.

The accession of George III. to the throne in 1760 had been followed by the
disgrace of Pitt, the dismissal of Newcastle, and the rise of Bute. These
events marked the resolution of the court to change the political system
which had been created by the Revolution of 1688. That system placed the
government of the country in the hands of a territorial oligarchy, composed
of a few families of large possessions, fairly enlightened principles, and
shrewd political sense. It had been preserved by the existence of a
Pretender. The two first kings of the house of Hanover could only keep the
crown on their own heads by conciliating the Revolution families and
accepting Revolution principles. By 1760 all peril to the dynasty was at an
end. George III., or those about him, insisted on substituting for the
aristocratic division of political power a substantial concentration of it
in the hands of the sovereign. The ministers were no longer to be the
members of a great party, acting together in pursuance of a common policy
accepted by them all as a united body; they were to become nominees of the
court, each holding himself answerable not to his colleagues but to the
king, separately, individually and by department. George III. had before
his eyes the government of his cousin the great Frederick; but not every
one can bend the bow of Ulysses, and, apart from difference of personal
capacity and historic tradition, he forgot that a territorial and
commercial aristocracy cannot be dealt with in the spirit of the barrack
and the drill-ground. But he made the attempt, and resistance to that
attempt supplies the keynote to the first twenty-five years of Burke's
political life.

Along with the change in system went high-handed and absolutist tendencies
in policy. The first stage of the new experiment was very short. Bute, in a
panic at the storm of unpopularity that menaced him, resigned in 1763.
George Grenville and the less enlightened section of the Whigs took his
place. They proceeded to tax the American colonists, to interpose
vexatiously against their trade, to threaten the liberty of the subject at
home by general warrants, and to stifle the liberty of public discussion by
prosecutions of the press. Their arbitrary methods disgusted the nation,
and the personal arrogance of the ministers at last disgusted the king. The
system received a temporary check. Grenville fell, and the king was forced
to deliver himself into the hands of the orthodox section of the Whigs. The
marquess of Rockingham (July 10, 1765) became prime minister, and he was
induced to make Burke his private secretary. Before Burke had begun his
duties, an incident occurred which illustrates the character of the two
men. The old duke of Newcastle, probably desiring a post for some nominee
of his own, conveyed to the ear of the new minister various absurd rumours
prejudicial to Burke,--that he was an Irish papist, that his real name was
O'Bourke, that he had been a Jesuit, that he was an emissary from St
Omer's. Lord Rockingham repeated these tales to Burke, who of course denied
them with indignation. His chief declared himself satisfied, but Burke,
from a feeling that the indispensable confidence between them was impaired,
at once expressed a strong desire to resign his post. Lord Rockingham
prevailed upon him to reconsider his resolve, and from that day until Lord
Rockingham's death in [v.04 p.0827] 1782, their relations were those of the
closest friendship and confidence.

The first Rockingham administration only lasted a year and a few days,
ending in July 1766. The uprightness and good sense of its leaders did not
compensate for the weakness of their political connexions. They were unable
to stand against the coldness of the king, against the hostility of the
powerful and selfish faction of Bedford Whigs, and, above all, against the
towering predominance of William Pitt. That Pitt did not join them is one
of the many fatal miscarriages of history, as it is one of the many serious
reproaches to be made against that extraordinary man's chequered and uneven
course. An alliance between Pitt and the Rockingham party was the surest
guarantee of a wise and liberal policy towards the colonies. He went
further than they did, in holding, like Lord Camden, the doctrine that
taxation went with representation, and that therefore parliament had no
right to tax the unrepresented colonists. The ministry asserted, what no
competent jurist would now think of denying, that parliament is sovereign;
but they went heartily with Pitt in pronouncing the exercise of the right
of taxation in the case of the American colonists to be thoroughly
impolitic and inexpedient. No practical difference, therefore, existed upon
the important question of the hour. But Pitt's prodigious egoism,
stimulated by the mischievous counsels of men of the stamp of Lord
Shelburne, prevented the fusion of the only two sections of the Whig party
that were at once able, enlightened and disinterested enough to carry on
the government efficiently, to check the arbitrary temper of the king, and
to command the confidence of the nation. Such an opportunity did not
return.

The ministerial policy towards the colonies was defended by Burke with
splendid and unanswerable eloquence. He had been returned to the House of
Commons for the pocket borough of Wendover, and his first speech (January
27, 1766) was felt to be the rising of a new light. For the space of a
quarter of a century, from this time down to 1790, Burke was one of the
chief guides and inspirers of a revived Whig party. The "age of small
factions" was now succeeded by an age of great principles, and selfish ties
of mere families and persons were transformed into a union resting on
common conviction and patriotic aims. It was Burke who did more than any
one else to give to the Opposition, under the first half of the reign of
George III., this stamp of elevation and grandeur. Before leaving office
the Rockingham government repealed the Stamp Act; confirmed the personal
liberty of the subject by forcing on the House of Commons one resolution
against general warrants, and another against the seizure of papers; and
relieved private houses from the intrusion of officers of excise, by
repealing the cider tax. Nothing so good was done in an English parliament
for nearly twenty years to come. George Grenville, whom the Rockinghams had
displaced, and who was bitterly incensed at their formal reversal of his
policy, printed a pamphlet to demonstrate his own wisdom and statesmanship.
Burke replied in his _Observations on a late Publication on the Present
State of the Nation_ (1769), in which he showed for the first time that he
had not only as much knowledge of commerce and finance, and as firm a hand,
in dealing with figures as Grenville himself, but also a broad, general and
luminous way of conceiving and treating politics, in which neither then nor
since has he had any rival among English publicists.

It is one of the perplexing points in Burke's private history to know how
he lived during these long years of parliamentary opposition. It is
certainly not altogether mere impertinence to ask of a public man how he
gets what he lives upon, for independence of spirit, which is so hard to
the man who lays his head on the debtor's pillow, is the prime virtue in
such men. Probity in money is assuredly one of the keys to character,
though we must be very careful in ascertaining and proportioning all the
circumstances. Now, in 1769, Burke bought an estate at Beaconsfield, in the
county of Buckingham. It was about 600 acres in extent, was worth some £500
a year, and cost £22,000. People have been asking ever since how the
penniless man of letters was able to raise so large a sum in the first
instance, and how he was able to keep up a respectable establishment
afterwards. The suspicions of those who are never sorry to disparage the
great have been of various kinds. Burke was a gambler, they hint, in Indian
stock, like his kinsmen Richard and William, and like Lord Verney, his
political patron at Wendover. Perhaps again, his activity on behalf of
Indian princes, like the raja of Tanjore, was not disinterested and did not
go unrewarded. The answer to all these calumnious innuendoes is to be found
in documents and title-deeds of decisive authority, and is simple enough.
It is, in short, this. Burke inherited a small property from his elder
brother, which he realized. Lord Rockingham advanced him a certain sum
(£6000). The remainder, amounting to no less than two-thirds of the
purchase-money, was raised on mortgage, and was never paid off during
Burke's life. The rest of the story is equally simple, but more painful.
Burke made some sort of income out of his 600 acres; he was for a short
time agent for New York, with a salary of £700; he continued to work at the
_Annual Register_ down to 1788. But, when all is told, he never made as
much as he spent; and in spite of considerable assistance from Lord
Rockingham, amounting it is sometimes said to as much as £30,000, Burke,
like the younger Pitt, got every year deeper into debt. Pitt's debts were
the result of a wasteful indifference to his private affairs. Burke, on the
contrary, was assiduous and orderly, and had none of the vices of
profusion. But he had that quality which Aristotle places high among the
virtues--the noble mean of Magnificence, standing midway between the two
extremes of vulgar ostentation and narrow pettiness. He was indifferent to
luxury, and sought to make life, not commodious nor soft, but high and
dignified in a refined way. He loved art, filled his house with statues and
pictures, and extended a generous patronage to the painters. He was a
collector of books, and, as Crabbe and less conspicuous men discovered, a
helpful friend to their writers. Guests were ever welcome at his board; the
opulence of his mind and the fervid copiousness of his talk naturally made
the guests of such a man very numerous. _Non invideo equidem, miror magis_,
was Johnson's good-natured remark, when he was taken over his friend's fine
house and pleasant gardens. Johnson was of a very different type. There was
something in this external dignity which went with Burke's imperious
spirit, his spacious imagination, his turn for all things stately and
imposing. We may say, if we please, that Johnson had the far truer and
loftier dignity of the two; but we have to take such men as Burke with the
defects that belong to their qualities. And there was no corruption in
Burke's outlay. When the Pitt administration was formed in 1766, he might
have had office, and Lord Rockingham wished him to accept it, but he
honourably took his fate with the party. He may have spent £3000 a year,
where he would have been more prudent to spend only £2000. But nobody was
wronged; his creditors were all paid in time, and his hands were at least
clean of traffic in reversions, clerkships, tellerships and all the rest of
the rich sinecures which it was thought no shame in those days for the
aristocracy of the land and the robe to wrangle for, and gorge themselves
upon, with the fierce voracity of famishing wolves. The most we can say is
that Burke, like Pitt, was too deeply absorbed in beneficent service in the
affairs of his country, to have for his own affairs the solicitude that
would have been prudent.

In the midst of intense political preoccupations, Burke always found time
to keep up his intimacy with the brilliant group of his earlier friends. He
was one of the commanding figures at the club at the Turk's Head, with
Reynolds and Garrick, Goldsmith and Johnson. The old sage who held that the
first Whig was the Devil, was yet compelled to forgive Burke's politics for
the sake of his magnificent gifts. "I would not talk to him of the
Rockingham party," he used to say, "but I love his knowledge, his genius,
his diffusion and affluence of conversation." And everybody knows Johnson's
vivid account of him: "Burke, Sir, is such a man that if you met him for
the first time in the street, where you were stopped by a drove of oxen,
and you and he stepped aside to take shelter but for five minutes, he'd
talk [v.04 p.0828] to you in such a manner that when you parted you would
say, 'This is an extraordinary man.'" They all grieved that public business
should draw to party what was meant for mankind. They deplored that the
nice and difficult test of answering Berkeley had not been undertaken, as
was once intended, by Burke, and sighed to think what an admirable display
of subtlety and brilliance such a contention would have afforded them, had
not politics "turned him from active philosophy aside." There was no
jealousy in this. They did not grudge Burke being the first man in the
House of Commons, for they admitted that he would have been the first man
anywhere.

With all his hatred for the book-man in politics, Burke owed much of his
own distinction to that generous richness and breadth of judgment which had
been ripened in him by literature and his practice in it. He showed that
books are a better preparation for statesmanship than early training in the
subordinate posts and among the permanent officials of a public department.
There is no copiousness of literary reference in his work, such as
over-abounded in the civil and ecclesiastical publicists of the 17th
century. Nor can we truly say that there is much, though there is certainly
some, of that tact which literature is alleged to confer on those who
approach it in a just spirit and with the true gift. The influence of
literature on Burke lay partly in the direction of emancipation from the
mechanical formulae of practical politics; partly in the association which
it engendered, in a powerful understanding like his, between politics and
the moral forces of the world, and between political maxims and the old and
great sentences of morals; partly in drawing him, even when resting his
case on prudence and expediency, to appeal to the widest and highest
sympathies; partly, and more than all, in opening his thoughts to the many
conditions, possibilities and "varieties of untried being," in human
character and situation, and so giving an incomparable flexibility to his
methods of political approach.

This flexibility is not to be found in his manner of composition. That
derives its immense power from other sources; from passion, intensity,
imagination, size, truth, cogency of logical reason. Those who insist on
charm, on winningness in style, on subtle harmonies and fine exquisiteness
of suggestion, are disappointed in Burke: they even find him stiff and
over-coloured. And there are blemishes of this kind. His banter is nearly
always ungainly, his wit blunt, as Johnson said, and often unseasonable. As
is usual with a man who has not true humour, Burke is also without true
pathos. The thought of wrong or misery moved him less to pity for the
victim than to anger against the cause. Again, there are some gratuitous
and unredeemed vulgarities; some images that make us shudder. But only a
literary fop can be detained by specks like these.

The varieties of Burke's literary or rhetorical method are very striking.
It is almost incredible that the superb imaginative amplification of the
description of Hyder Ali's descent upon the Carnatic should be from the
same pen as the grave, simple, unadorned _Address to the King_ (1777),
where each sentence falls on the ear with the accent of some golden-tongued
oracle of the wise gods. His stride is the stride of a giant, from the
sentimental beauty of the picture of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, or the
red horror of the tale of Debi Sing in Rungpore, to the learning,
positiveness and cool judicial mastery of the _Report on the Lords'
Journals_ (1794), which Philip Francis, no mean judge, declared on the
whole to be the "most eminent and extraordinary" of all his productions.
But even in the coolest and driest of his pieces there is the mark of
greatness, of grasp, of comprehension. In all its varieties Burke's style
is noble, earnest, deep-flowing, because his sentiment was lofty and
fervid, and went with sincerity and ardent disciplined travail of judgment.
He had the style of his subjects; the amplitude, the weightiness, the
laboriousness, the sense, the high flight, the grandeur, proper to a man
dealing with imperial themes, with the fortunes of great societies, with
the sacredness of law, the freedom of nations, the justice of rulers. Burke
will always be read with delight and edification, because in the midst of
discussions on the local and the accidental, he scatters apophthegms that
take us into the regions of lasting wisdom. In the midst of the torrent of
his most strenuous and passionate deliverances, he suddenly rises aloof
from his immediate subject, and in all tranquillity reminds us of some
permanent relation of things, some enduring truth of human life or human
society. We do not hear the organ tones of Milton, for faith and freedom
had other notes in the 18th century. There is none of the complacent and
wise-browed sagacity of Bacon, for Burke's were days of personal strife and
fire and civil division. We are not exhilarated by the cheerfulness, the
polish, the fine manners of Bolingbroke, for Burke had an anxious
conscience, and was earnest and intent that the good should triumph. And
yet Burke is among the greatest of those who have wrought marvels in the
prose of our English tongue.

Not all the transactions in which Burke was a combatant could furnish an
imperial theme. We need not tell over again the story of Wilkes and the
Middlesex election. The Rockingham ministry had been succeeded by a
composite government, of which it was intended that Pitt, now made Lord
Chatham and privy seal, should be the real chief. Chatham's health and mind
fell into disorder almost immediately after the ministry had been formed.
The duke of Grafton was its nominal head, but party ties had been broken,
the political connexions of the ministers were dissolved, and, in truth,
the king was now at last a king indeed, who not only reigned but governed.
The revival of high doctrines of prerogative in the crown was accompanied
by a revival of high doctrines of privilege in the House of Commons, and
the ministry was so smitten with weakness and confusion as to be unable to
resist the current of arbitrary policy, and not many of them were even
willing to resist it. The unconstitutional prosecution of Wilkes was
followed by the fatal recourse to new plans for raising taxes in the
American colonies. These two points made the rallying ground of the new
Whig opposition. Burke helped to smooth matters for a practical union
between the Rockingham party and the powerful triumvirate, composed of
Chatham, whose understanding had recovered from its late disorder, and of
his brothers-in-law, Lord Temple and George Grenville. He was active in
urging petitions from the freeholders of the counties, protesting against
the unconstitutional invasion of the right of election. And he added a
durable masterpiece to political literature in a pamphlet which he called
_Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents_ (1770). The immediate
object of this excellent piece was to hold up the court scheme of weak,
divided and dependent administrations in the light of its real purpose and
design; to describe the distempers which had been engendered in parliament
by the growth of royal influence and the faction of the king's friends; to
show that the newly formed Whig party had combined for truly public ends,
and was no mere family knot like the Grenvilles and the Bedfords; and,
finally, to press for the hearty concurrence both of public men and of the
nation at large in combining against "a faction ruling by the private
instructions of a court against the general sense of the people." The
pamphlet was disliked by Chatham on the one hand, on no reasonable grounds
that we can discover; it was denounced by the extreme popular party of the
Bill of Rights, on the other hand, for its moderation and conservatism. In
truth, there is as strong a vein of conservative feeling in the pamphlet of
1770 as in the more resplendent pamphlet of 1790. "Our constitution," he
said, "stands on a nice equipoise, with steep precipices and deep waters
upon all sides of it. In removing it from a dangerous leaning towards one
side, there may be a risk of oversetting it on the other. Every project of
a material change in a government so complicated as ours is a matter full
of difficulties; in which a considerate man will not be too ready to
decide, a prudent man too ready to undertake, or an honest man too ready to
promise." Neither now nor ever had Burke any other real conception of a
polity for England than government by the territorial aristocracy in the
interests of the nation at large, and especially in the interests of
commerce, to the vital importance of which in our economy he was always
keenly and wisely alive. The policy of George III., and the support which
it found among [v.04 p.0829] men who were weary of Whig factions, disturbed
this scheme, and therefore Burke denounced both the court policy and the
court party with all his heart and all his strength.

Eloquence and good sense, however, were impotent in the face of such forces
as were at this time arrayed against a government at once strong and
liberal. The court was confident that a union between Chatham and the
Rockinghams was impossible. The union was in fact hindered by the
waywardness and the absurd pretences of Chatham, and the want of force in
Lord Rockingham. In the nation at large, the late violent ferment had been
followed by as remarkable a deadness and vapidity, and Burke himself had to
admit a year or two later that any remarkable robbery at Hounslow Heath
would make more conversation than all the disturbances of America. The duke
of Grafton went out, and Lord North became the head of a government, which
lasted twelve years (1770-1782), and brought about more than all the
disasters that Burke had foretold as the inevitable issue of the royal
policy. For the first six years of this lamentable period Burke was
actively employed in stimulating, informing and guiding the patrician
chiefs of his party. "Indeed, Burke," said the duke of Richmond, "you have
more merit than any man in keeping us together." They were well-meaning and
patriotic men, but it was not always easy to get them to prefer politics to
fox-hunting. When he reached his lodgings at night after a day in the city
or a skirmish in the House of Commons, Burke used to find a note from the
duke of Richmond or the marquess of Rockingham, praying him to draw a
protest to be entered on the Journals of the Lords, and in fact he drew all
the principal protests of his party between 1767 and 1782. The accession of
Charles James Fox to the Whig party, which took place at this time, and was
so important an event in its history, was mainly due to the teaching and
influence of Burke. In the House of Commons his industry was almost
excessive. He was taxed with speaking too often, and with being too
forward. And he was mortified by a more serious charge than murmurs about
superfluity of zeal. Men said and said again that he was Junius. His very
proper unwillingness to stoop to deny an accusation, that would have been
so disgraceful if it had been true, made ill-natured and silly people the
more convinced that it was not wholly false. But whatever the London world
may have thought of him, Burke's energy and devotion of character impressed
the better minds in the country. In 1774 he received the great distinction
of being chosen as one of its representatives by Bristol, then the second
town in the kingdom.

In the events which ended in the emancipation of the American colonies from
the monarchy, Burke's political genius shone with an effulgence that was
worthy of the great affairs over which it shed so magnificent an
illumination. His speeches are almost the one monument of the struggle on
which a lover of English greatness can look back with pride and a sense of
worthiness, such as a churchman feels when he reads Bossuet, or an Anglican
when he turns over the pages of Taylor or of Hooker. Burke's attitude in
these high transactions is really more impressive than Chatham's, because
he was far less theatrical than Chatham; and while he was no less nobly
passionate for freedom and justice, in his passion was fused the most
strenuous political argumentation and sterling reason of state. On the
other hand he was wholly free from that quality which he ascribed to Lord
George Sackville, a man "apt to take a sort of undecided, equivocal, narrow
ground, that evades the substantial merits of the question, and puts the
whole upon some temporary, local, accidental or personal consideration." He
rose to the full height of that great argument. Burke here and everywhere
else displayed the rare art of filling his subject with generalities, and
yet never intruding commonplaces. No publicist who deals as largely in
general propositions has ever been as free from truisms; no one has ever
treated great themes with so much elevation, and yet been so wholly secured
against the pitfalls of emptiness and the vague. And it is instructive to
compare the foundation of all his pleas for the colonists with that on
which they erected their own theoretic declaration of independence. The
American leaders were impregnated with the metaphysical ideas of rights
which had come to them from the rising revolutionary school in France.
Burke no more adopted the doctrines of Jefferson in 1776 than he adopted
the doctrines of Robespierre in 1793. He says nothing about men being born
free and equal, and on the other hand he never denies the position of the
court and the country at large, that the home legislature, being sovereign,
had the right to tax the colonies. What he does say is that the exercise of
such a right was not practicable; that if it were practicable, it was
inexpedient; and that, even if this had not been inexpedient, yet, after
the colonies had taken to arms, to crush their resistance by military force
would not be more disastrous to them than it would be unfortunate for the
ancient liberties of Great Britain. Into abstract discussion he would not
enter. "Show the thing you contend for to be reason; show it to be common
sense; show it to be the means of attaining some useful end." "The question
with me is not whether you have a right to render your people miserable,
but whether it is not your interest to make them happy." There is no
difference in social spirit and doctrine between his protests against the
maxims of the English common people as to the colonists, and his protests
against the maxims of the French common people as to the court and the
nobles; and it is impossible to find a single principle either asserted or
implied in the speeches on the American revolution which was afterwards
repudiated in the writings on the revolution in France.

It is one of the signs of Burke's singular and varied eminence that hardly
any two people agree precisely which of his works to mark as the
masterpiece. Every speech or tract that he composed on a great subject
becomes, as we read it, the rival of every other. But the _Speech on
Conciliation_ (1775) has, perhaps, been more universally admired than any
of his other productions, partly because its maxims are of a simpler and
less disputable kind than those which adorn the pieces on France, and
partly because it is most strongly characterized by that deep ethical
quality which is the prime secret of Burke's great style and literary
mastery. In this speech, moreover, and in the only less powerful one of the
preceding year upon American taxation, as well as in the _Letter to the
Sheriffs of Bristol_ in 1777, we see the all-important truth conspicuously
illustrated that half of his eloquence always comes of the thoroughness
with which he gets up his case. No eminent man has ever done more than
Burke to justify the definition of genius as the consummation of the
faculty of taking pains. Labour incessant and intense, if it was not the
source, was at least an inseparable condition of his power. And magnificent
rhetorician though he was, his labour was given less to his diction than to
the facts; his heart was less in the form than the matter. It is true that
his manuscripts were blotted and smeared, and that he made so many
alterations in the proofs that the printer found it worth while to have the
whole set up in type afresh. But there is no polish in his style, as in
that of Junius for example, though there is something a thousand times
better than polish. "Why will you not allow yourself to be persuaded," said
Francis after reading the _Reflections_, "that polish is material to
preservation?" Burke always accepted the rebuke, and flung himself into
vindication of the sense, substance and veracity of what he had written.
His writing is magnificent, because he knew so much, thought so
comprehensively, and felt so strongly.

The succession of failures in America, culminating in Cornwallis's
surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, wearied the nation, and at length
the persistent and powerful attacks of the opposition began to tell. "At
this time," wrote Burke, in words of manly self-assertion, thirteen years
afterwards, "having a momentary lead (1780-1782), so aided and so
encouraged, and as a feeble instrument in a mighty hand--I do not say I
saved my country--I am sure I did my country important service. There were
few indeed at that time that did not acknowledge it. It was but one voice,
that no man in the kingdom better deserved an honourable provision should
be made for him." In the spring of 1782 Lord North resigned. It seemed as
if the court system which Burke had been denouncing [v.04 p.0830] for a
dozen years was now finally broken, and as if the party which he had been
the chief instrument in instructing, directing and keeping together must
now inevitably possess power for many years to come. Yet in a few months
the whole fabric had fallen, and the Whigs were thrown into opposition for
the rest of the century. The story cannot be omitted in the most summary
account of Burke's life. Lord Rockingham came into office on the fall of
North. Burke was rewarded for services beyond price by being made paymaster
of the forces, with the rank of a privy councillor. He had lost his seat
for Bristol two years before, in consequence of his courageous advocacy of
a measure of tolerance for the Catholics, and his still more courageous
exposure of the enormities of the commercial policy of England towards
Ireland. He sat during the rest of his parliamentary life (to 1794) for
Malton, a pocket borough first of Lord Rockingham's, then of Lord
Fitzwilliam's. Burke's first tenure of office was very brief. He had
brought forward in 1780 a comprehensive scheme of economical reform, with
the design of limiting the resources of jobbery and corruption which the
crown was able to use to strengthen its own sinister influence in
parliament. Administrative reform was, next to peace with the colonies, the
part of the scheme of the new ministry to which the king most warmly
objected. It was carried out with greater moderation than had been
foreshadowed in opposition. But at any rate Burke's own office was not
spared. While Charles Fox's father was at the pay-office (1765-1778) he
realized as the interest of the cash balances which he was allowed to
retain in his hands, nearly a quarter of a million of money. When Burke
came to this post the salary was settled at £4000 a year. He did not enjoy
the income long. In July 1782 Lord Rockingham died; Lord Shelburne took his
place; Fox, who inherited from his father a belief in Lord Shelburne's
duplicity, which his own experience of him as a colleague during the last
three months had made stronger, declined to serve under him. Burke, though
he had not encouraged Fox to take this step, still with his usual loyalty
followed him out of office. This may have been a proper thing to do if
their distrust of Shelburne was incurable, but the next step, coalition
with Lord North against him, was not only a political blunder, but a shock
to party morality, which brought speedy retribution. Either they had been
wrong, and violently wrong, for a dozen years, or else Lord North was the
guiltiest political instrument since Strafford. Burke attempted to defend
the alliance on the ground of the substantial agreement between Fox and
North in public aims. The defence is wholly untenable. The Rockingham Whigs
were as substantially in agreement on public affairs with the Shelburne
Whigs as they were with Lord North. The movement was one of the worst in
the history of English party. It served its immediate purpose, however, for
Lord Shelburne found himself (February 24, 1783) too weak to carry on the
government, and was succeeded by the members of the coalition, with the
duke of Portland for prime minister (April 2, 1783). Burke went back to his
old post at the pay-office and was soon engaged in framing and drawing the
famous India Bill. This was long supposed to be the work of Fox, who was
politically responsible for it. We may be sure that neither he nor Burke
would have devised any government for India which they did not honestly
believe to be for the advantage both of that country and of England. But it
cannot be disguised that Burke had thoroughly persuaded himself that it was
indispensable in the interests of English freedom to strengthen the party
hostile to the court. As we have already said, dread of the peril to the
constitution from the new aims of George III. was the main inspiration of
Burke's political action in home affairs for the best part of his political
life. The India Bill strengthened the anti-court party by transferring the
government of India to seven persons named in the bill, and neither
appointed nor removable by the crown. In other words, the bill gave the
government to a board chosen directly by the House of Commons; and it had
the incidental advantage of conferring on the ministerial party patronage
valued at £300,000 a year, which would remain for a fixed term of years out
of reach of the king. In a word, judging the India Bill from a party point
of view, we see that Burke was now completing the aim of his project of
economic reform. That measure had weakened the influence of the crown by
limiting its patronage. The measure for India weakened the influence of the
crown by giving a mass of patronage to the party which the king hated. But
this was not to be. The India Bill was thrown out by means of a royal
intrigue in the Lords, and the ministers were instantly dismissed (December
18, 1783). Young William Pitt, then only in his twenty-fifth year, had been
chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Shelburne's short ministry, and had
refused to enter the coalition government from an honourable repugnance to
join Lord North. He was now made prime minister. The country in the
election of the next year ratified the king's judgment against the Portland
combination; and the hopes which Burke had cherished for a political
lifetime were irretrievably ruined.

The six years that followed the great rout of the orthodox Whigs were years
of repose for the country, but it was now that Burke engaged in the most
laborious and formidable enterprise of his life, the impeachment of Warren
Hastings for high crimes and misdemeanours in his government of India. His
interest in that country was of old date. It arose partly from the fact of
William Burke's residence there, partly from his friendship with Philip
Francis, but most of all, we suspect, from the effect which he observed
Indian influence to have in demoralizing the House of Commons. "Take my
advice for once in your life," Francis wrote to Shee; "lay aside 40,000
rupees for a seat in parliament: in this country that alone makes all the
difference between somebody and nobody." The relations, moreover, between
the East India Company and the government were of the most important kind,
and occupied Burke's closest attention from the beginning of the American
war down to his own India Bill and that of Pitt and Dundas. In February
1785 he delivered one of the most famous of all his speeches, that on the
nabob of Arcot's debts. The real point of this superb declamation was
Burke's conviction that ministers supported the claims of the fraudulent
creditors in order to secure the corrupt advantages of a sinister
parliamentary interest. His proceedings against Hastings had a deeper
spring. The story of Hastings's crimes, as Macaulay says, made the blood of
Burke boil in his veins. He had a native abhorrence of cruelty, of
injustice, of disorder, of oppression, of tyranny, and all these things in
all their degrees marked Hastings's course in India. They were, moreover,
concentrated in individual cases, which exercised Burke's passionate
imagination to its profoundest depths, and raised it to such a glow of
fiery intensity as has never been rivalled in our history. For it endured
for fourteen years, and was just as burning and as terrible when Hastings
was acquitted in 1795, as in the select committee of 1781 when Hastings's
enormities were first revealed. "If I were to call for a reward," wrote
Burke, "it would be for the services in which for fourteen years, without
intermission, I showed the most industry and had the least success, I mean
in the affairs of India; they are those on which I value myself the most;
most for the importance; most for the labour; most for the judgment; most
for constancy and perseverance in the pursuit." Sheridan's speech in the
House of Commons upon the charge relative to the begums of Oude probably
excelled anything that Burke achieved, as a dazzling performance abounding
in the most surprising literary and rhetorical effects. But neither
Sheridan nor Fox was capable of that sustained and overflowing indignation
at outraged justice and oppressed humanity, that consuming moral fire,
which burst forth again and again from the chief manager of the
impeachment, with such scorching might as drove even the cool and intrepid
Hastings beyond all self-control, and made him cry out with protests and
exclamations like a criminal writhing under the scourge. Burke, no doubt,
in the course of that unparalleled trial showed some prejudice; made some
minor overstatements of his case; used many intemperances; and suffered
himself to be provoked into expressions of heat and impatience by the
cabals of the defendant and his party, and the intolerable incompetence of
the tribunal. It is one of the inscrutable perplexities of human affairs,
that in the logic of practical [v.04 p.0831] life, in order to reach
conclusions that cover enough for truth, we are constantly driven to
premises that cover too much, and that in order to secure their right
weight to justice and reason good men are forced to fling the two-edged
sword of passion into the same scale. But these excuses were mere trifles,
and well deserve to be forgiven, when we think that though the offender was
in form acquitted, yet Burke succeeded in these fourteen years of laborious
effort in laying the foundations once for all of a moral, just,
philanthropic and responsible public opinion in England with reference to
India, and in doing so performed perhaps the most magnificent service that
any statesman has ever had it in his power to render to humanity.

Burke's first decisive step against