The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Smaller History of Rome, by William Smith and Eugene Lawrence This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: A Smaller History of Rome Author: William Smith and Eugene Lawrence Release Date: November 1, 2006 [EBook #19694] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME *** Produced by Alicia Williams, Taavi Kalju and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net [Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED.] A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D. WITH A CONTINUATION TO A.D. 479. BY EUGENE LAWRENCE, A.M. [Illustration] Illustrated by Engravings on Wood. 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The present History has been drawn up chiefly for the lower forms in schools, at the request of several teachers, and is intended to range with the author's Smaller History of Greece. It will be followed by a similar History of England. The author is indebted in this work to several of the more important articles upon Roman history in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has been so arranged that the teacher can frame from it questions for the examination of his class, the answers to which will be found in the corresponding pages of the volume. The restoration of the Forum has been designed by Mr. P.W. Justyne. W.S. [Illustration: Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)] [Illustration: Julius Cæsar.] CONTENTS. B.C. Page CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS. Position of Italy 1 Its boundaries 1 Its two Divisions 1 I. Gallia Cisalpina 2 Liguria 2 Venetia 2 II. Italia, properly so called 2 Etruria 2 Umbria 2 Picenum 2 Sabini 3 Marsi 3 Peligni 3 Vestini 3 Marrucini 3 Frentani 3 Latium: its two senses 3 The Campagna 3 The Pontine Marshes 4 Campania 4 Bay of Naples 4 Samnium 4 Apulia 4 Calabria 4 Lucania 4 Bruttii 4 Fertility of Italy 5 Its productions 5 Its inhabitants 5 I. Italians proper 5 1. Latins 5 2. Umbro-Sabellians 5 II. Iapygians 5 III. Etruscans 5 Their name 5 Their language 5 Their origin 5 Their two confederacies 6 1. North of the Po 6 2. South of the Apennines 6 Foreign races-- IV. Greeks 6 Gauls 6 CHAPTER II. THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616. Position of Rome 7 Its inhabitants 7 1. Latins 7 2. Sabines 7 3. Etruscans 7 Remarks on early Roman history 8 Legend of Æneas 8 Legend of Ascanius 8 Foundation of Alba Longa 8 Legend of Rhea Silvia 8 Birth of Romulus and Remus 8 Their recognition by Numitor 9 753. Foundation of Rome 9 Roma Quadrata 9 Pomoerium 9 Death of Remus 10 753-716. Reign of Romulus 9 Asylum 10 Rape of Sabines 10 War with Sabines 10 Tarpeia 10 Sabine women 10 Joint reign of Romulus and Titus Tatius 11 Death of Titus Tatius 11 Sole reign of Romulus 11 Death of Romulus 11 Institutions ascribed to Romulus 12 Patricians & Clients 12 Three tribes--Ramnes, Tities, Luceres 12 Thirty Curiæ 12 Three Hundred Gentes 12 Comitia Curiata 12 The Senate 12 The Army 12 716-673. Reign of Numa Pompilius 12 Institutions ascribed to Numa Pompilius 12 Pontiffs 12 Augurs 13 Flamens 13 Vestal Virgins 13 Salii 13 Temple of Janus 13 673-641. Reign of Tullus Hostilius 13 War with Alba Longa 13 Battle of the Horatii and Curiatii 13 War with the Etruscans 14 Punishment of Mettius Fuffetius, Dictator of Alba Longa 14 Destruction of Alba Longa 14 Removal of its inhabitants to Rome 14 Origin of the Roman Plebs 14 Death of Tullus Hostilius 14 640-616. Reign of Ancus Marcius 14 War with the Latins 14 Increase of the Plebs 15 Ostia 15 Janiculum 15 Pons Sublicius 15 Death of Ancus Marcius 15 CHAPTER III. THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498. 616-578. Reign of Tarquinius Priscus 16 His early history 16 His removal to Rome 16 Becomes king 16 His wars 16 The Cloacæ 16 Circus Maximus 17 Increase of the Senate 17 Increase of the Equites 17 Attus Navius 17 Increase of the Vestal Virgins 17 Early history of Servius Tullius 17 Death of Tarquinius Priscus 18 578-534. Reign of Servius Tullius 18 I. Reform of the Roman Constitution 18 1. Division of the Roman territory into Thirty Tribes 18 2. Comitia Centuriata 18 Census 18 Five Classes 19 The Equites 19 Number of the Centuries 19 Three sovereign assemblies--Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Curiata, Comitia Tributa 20 II. Increase of the city: walls of Servius Tullius 20 III. Alliance with the Latins 20 Death of Servius Tullius 22 534-510. Reign of Tarquinius Superbus 22 His tyranny 22 His alliance with the Latins 23 His war with the Volscians 23 Foundation of the temple on the Capitoline Hill 23 The Sibylline books 23 Legend of the Sibyl 23 Capture of Gabii 23 King's sons and Brutus sent to consult the oracle at Delphi 23 Lucretia 24 Expulsion of the Tarquins 25 509. Establishment of the Republic 25 The Consuls 25 First attempt to restore the Tarquins 25 Execution of the sons of Brutus 25 War of the Etruscans with Rome 26 Death of Brutus 26 Defeat of the Etruscans 26 Valerius Publicola 26 Dedication of the Capitoline Temple by M. Horatius 26 508. Second attempt to restore the Tarquins 26 Lars Porsena 26 Horatius Cocles 26 Mucius Scævola 27 Cloelia 27 498. Third attempt to restore the Tarquins 28 War with the Latins 28 Battle of the Lake Regillus 28 496. Death of Tarquinius Superbus 28 CHAPTER IV. FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 498-451. Struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians 29 Ascendency of the Patricians 29 Sufferings of the Plebeians 30 Law of debtor and creditor 30 Ager Publicus 30 Object of the Plebeians to obtain a share in the political power and in the public land 30 494. Secession to the Sacred Mount 30 Fable of Menenius Agrippa 31 Institution of the Tribunes of the Plebs 31 486. Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius 31 Foreign wars 32 488. I. Coriolanus and the Volscians 32 477. II. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines 33 458. III. Cincinnatus and the Æquians 34 League between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans 35 CHAPTER V. THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449. 471. Publilian Law transferring the election of the Tribunes from the Comitia of Centuries to those of the Tribes 36 462. Proposal of the Tribune Terentilius Arsa for the appointment of Decemviri 37 460. Seizure of the Capitol by Herdonius the Sabine 37 454. Appointment of three Commissioners to visit Greece 37 452. Their return to Rome 37 451. Appointment of the Decemviri 37 The Ten Tables 37 450. New Decemviri appointed 37 Their tyranny 38 Two new Tables added, making twelve in all 38 449. The Decemviri continue in office 38 Death of Sicinius Dentatus 38 Death of Virginia 39 Second secession to the Sacred Mount 39 Resignation of the Decemvirs 39 Election of ten Tribunes 40 Valerian and Horatian Laws 40 Death of Appius Claudius 40 The Twelve Tables 40 CHAPTER VI. FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS. B.C. 448-390. 445. Third secession to the Sacred Mount 41 Lex Canuleia for intermarriage between the two orders 41 Institution of Military Tribunes with consular powers 41 443. Institution of the Censorship 41 421. Quæstorship thrown open to the Plebeians 42 440. Famine at Rome 42 Death of Sp. Mælius 42 Foreign wars 42 Roman colonies 43 War with the Etruscans 43 437. Spolia Opima won by A. Cornelius Cossus 43 426. Capture and destruction of Fidenæ 43 403. Commencement of siege of Veii 43 Tale of the Alban Lake 43 396. Appointment of Camillus as Dictator 43 Capture of Veii 44 394. War with Falerii 44 Tale of the Schoolmaster 44 Unpopularity of Camillus 44 391. He goes into exile 44 CHAPTER VII. FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE TWO ORDERS. B.C. 390-367. The Gauls, or Celts 45 391. Attack of Clusium by the Senones 45 Roman ambassadors sent to Clusium 45 They take part in the fight against the Senones 45 The Senones march upon Rome 46 390. Battle of the Allia 46 Destruction of Rome 46 Siege of the Capitol 46 Legend of M. Manlius 47 Appointment of Camillus as Dictator 47 He delivers Rome from the Gauls 47 Rebuilding of the city 47 Further Gallic wars 48 361. Legend of T. Manlius Torquatus 48 349. Legend of M. Valerius Corvus 48 385. Distress at Rome 48 384. M. Manlius comes forward as a patron of the poor 48 His fate 49 376. Licinian Rogations proposed 49 Violent opposition of the Patricians 50 367. Licinian Rogations passed 50 366. L. Sextius first Plebeian Consul 50 Institution of the Prætorship 50 356. First Plebeian Dictator 51 351. First Plebeian Censor 51 336. First Plebeian Prætor 51 300. Lex Ogulnia, increasing the number of the Pontiffs and Augurs, and enacting that a certain number of them should be taken from the Plebeians 51 339. Publilian Laws 51 286. Lex Hortensia 51 CHAPTER VIII. FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS. B.C. 367-290. 362. Pestilence at Rome 52 Death of Camillus 52 Tale of M. Curtius 53 The Samnites 53 Their history 53 Division into four tribes 53 Conquer Campania and Lucania 53 Samnites of the Apennines attack the Sidicini 53 Campanians assist the Sidicini 53 They are defeated by the Samnites 53 They solicit the assistance of Rome 53 343-341. FIRST SAMNITE WAR 54 Battle of Mount Gaurus 54 Peace concluded 54 Reasons for the conclusion of peace 54 340-338. THE LATIN WAR 54 The armies meet near Mount Vesuvius 55 Tale of Torquatus 55 Decisive battle 55 Self-sacrifice of Decius 55 Capture of Latin towns 56 Conclusion of the war 56 329. Conquest of the Volscian town of Privernum 56 Origin of the Second Samnite War 56 327. The Romans attack Palæopolis and Neapolis 56 326-304. SECOND SAMNITE WAR 57 _First Period._ Roman arms successful 57 325. Quarrel between L. Papirius Dictator and Q. Fabius, his master of the horse 57 321-315. _Second Period._ Success of the Samnites 57 321. Defeat of the Romans at the Caudine Forks by C. Pontius 68 Ignominious treaty rejected by the Romans 58 314-304. _Third Period._ Success of the Romans 58 311. War with the Etruscans 58 Defeat of the Etruscans 59 Defeat of the Samnites 59 304. Peace with Rome 59 300. Conquests of Rome in Central Italy 59 Coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Samnites against Rome 59 298-290. THIRD SAMNITE WAR 59 295. Decisive battle of Sentinum 59 Self-sacrifice of the younger Decius 59 292. C. Pontius taken prisoner and put to death 59 CHAPTER IX. FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY. B.C. 290-265. 283. War with the Etruscans and Gauls 60 Battle of the Lake Vadimo 60 282. State of Magna Græcia 60 The Romans assist Thurii 60 Their fleet is attacked by the Tarentines 61 Roman embassy to Tarentum 61 281. War declared against the Tarentines 61 They apply for aid to Pyrrhus 61 Pyrrhus arrives in Italy 62 280. His first campaign against the Romans 62 Battle of Heraclea 62 Remarks of Pyrrhus on the victory 62 He attempts to make peace with Rome 62 Failure of his minister Cineas 63 He marches upon Rome and arrives at Præneste 63 Retires into winter quarters at Tarentum 63 Embassy of Fabricius 63 279. Second campaign of Pyrrhus 64 Battle of Asculum 64 278. Treachery of the physician of Pyrrhus 64 Truce with Rome 64 Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily 64 276. He returns to Italy 64 274. Defeat of Pyrrhus 65 He returns to Greece 65 272. Subjugation of Tarentum 65 Conquest of Italy 65 273. Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome 65 Three classes of Italian population: I. Cives Romani, or Roman Citizens 66 1. Of the Thirty-three tribes 66 2. Of the Roman Colonies 66 3. Of the Municipal Towns 66 II. Nomen Latinum, or the Latin name 66 III. Socii, or Allies 66 312. Censorship of Appius Claudius 67 His dangerous innovation as to the Freedmen 67 304. Repealed in the Censorship of Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus 67 312. The Appian Way 67 The Appian Aqueduct 67 Cn. Flavius 67 CHAPTER X. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241. 814. Foundation of Carthage 68 Its empire 68 Its government 68 Its army 68 Its foreign conquests 68 Conquest of Messana by the Mamertini 69 Hiero attacks the Mamertini 69 They apply for assistance to Rome 69 264. The Consul Ap. Claudius crosses over to Sicily to aid them 70 He defeats the forces of Syracuse and Carthage 70 263. Hiero makes peace with the Romans 70 262. Capture of Agrigentum by the Romans 70 260. The Romans build a fleet 70 Naval victory of the Consul Duilius 71 256. The Romans invade Africa 72 Their naval victory 72 Brilliant success of Regulus in Africa 72 The Carthaginians sue in vain for peace 72 255. Arrival of the Lacedæmonian Xanthippus 72 He restores confidence to the Carthaginians 73 Defeat and capture of Regulus 73 Destruction of the Roman fleet by a storm 73 The Romans build another fleet 73 253. Again destroyed by a storm 73 The war confined to Sicily 73 250. Victory of Metellus at Panormus 73 Embassy of the Carthaginians to Rome 73 Heroic conduct of Regulus 74 250. Siege of Lilybæum 74 249. Defeat of the Consul Claudius at sea 75 Destruction of the Roman fleet a third time 75 247. Appointment of Hamilcar Barca to the Carthaginian command 75 He intrenches himself on Mount Herctè, near Panormus 75 He removes to Mount Eryx 75 241. Victory off the Ægatian Islands 76 Peace with Carthage 76 End of the War 76 CHAPTER XI. EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-219. 240-238. War of the Mercenaries with Carthage 77 She owes her safety to Hamilcar 77 238. The Romans seize Sardinia and Corsica 77 Hamilcar goes to Spain 78 235. Temple of Janus closed 78 Completion of the Thirty-five Roman Tribes 78 229. ILLYRIAN WAR 78 Conquest of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians 78 223. Honors paid to the Romans in the Grecian cities 78 232. Agrarian law of the Tribune Flaminius 78 225. GALLIC WAR 78 Defeat of the Gauls at Telamon in Etruria 79 224. Conquest of the Boii 79 223. The Romans cross the Po 79 222. Conquest of the Insubres 79 Marcellus wins the Spolia Opima 79 220. The Via Flaminia from Rome to Ariminum 79 218. Foundation of Colonies at Placentia and Cremona 79 219. SECOND ILLYRIAN WAR 79 235. Hamilcar in Spain 80 Oath of Hannibal 80 229. Death of Hamilcar 80 Hasdrubal succeeds him in the command 80 227. Treaty with Rome 80 221. Death of Hasdrubal 80 Hannibal succeeds him in the command 80 219. Siege of Saguntum 80 Its capture 81 War declared against Carthage 81 CHAPTER XII. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANNÆ B.C. 218-216. 218. Preparations of Hannibal 82 His march to the Rhone 83 Arrival of the Consul Scipio at Massilia 83 Hannibal crosses the Rhone 83 Scipio sends his brother to Spain, and returns himself to Italy 83 Hannibal crosses the Alps 83 Skirmish on the Ticinus 84 Battle of the Trebia 84 Defeat of the Romans 84 217. Hannibal's march through Etruria 86 Battle of the Lake Trasimenus 86 Great defeat of the Romans 86 Q. Fabius Maximus appointed Dictator 87 His policy 87 Rashness of Minucius, the Master of the Horse 87 216. Great preparations of the Romans 88 Battle of Cannæ 88 Great defeat of the Romans 88 Revolt of Southern Italy 88 Hannibal winters at Capua 89 Note on Hannibal's passage across the Alps 90 CHAPTER XIII. SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207. 215. Plan of the War 91 Hannibal's repulse before Nola 92 214. He attempts in vain to surprise Tarentum 92 213. He obtains possession of Tarentum 93 WAR IN SICILY-- 216. Death of Hiero 93 Succession of Hieronymus 93 His assassination 93 214. Arrival of Marcellus in Sicily 93 He takes Leontini 93 He lays siege to Syracuse 93 Defended by Archimedes 93 212. Capture of Syracuse 94 WAR IN SPAIN-- 212. Capture and death of the two Scipios 95 Siege of Capua 95 211. Hannibal marches upon Rome 95 Is compelled to retreat 96 The Romans recover Capua 96 Punishment of its inhabitants 93 209. The Romans recover Tarentum 96 208. Defeat and death of Marcellus 97 207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy 97 He besieges Placentia 97 March of the Consul Nero to join his colleague Livius in Umbria 97 Battle of the Metaurus 98 Defeat and death of Hasdrubal 98 CHAPTER XIV. SECOND PUNIC WAR: THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201. Character and early life of Scipio 99 210. He is elected Proconsul for Spain 100 He takes New Carthage 100 206. He subdues Spain 101 He crosses over into Africa and visits Syphax 101 He returns to Rome 102 205. His Consulship 102 He prepares to invade Africa 102 His project is opposed by Fabius and others 102 204. He arrives in Africa 103 203. He defeats the Carthaginians and Syphax 103 Masinissa and Sophonisba 103 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal 104 202. Battle of Zama, and defeat of Hannibal 104 Terms of peace 105 201. Conclusion of the war 105 Triumph of Scipio 105 CHAPTER XV. WARS IN THE EAST: THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS. B.C. 214-188. State of the East 106 Syria 106 Pontus 106 Galatia 106 Pergamus 106 Egypt 107 State of Greece 107 Macedonia 107 Achæan League 107 Ætolian League 107 Rhodes 107 Sparta 107 214-205. FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR-- Its indecisive character 108 211. Treaty of the Romans with the Ætolian League 108 205. Conclusion of the war 108 Philip's hostile acts 108 He assists the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama 108 His conduct in Greece 108 200-196. SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR-- 200. First campaign: the Consul Galba 108 199. Second campaign: the Consul Villius 109 198. Third campaign: the Consul Flamininus 109 197. Battle of Cynoscephalæ 109 196. Declaration of Grecian independence at the Isthmian Games 109 191-190. SYRIAN WAR-- Antiochus the Third 110 Intrigues of the Ætolians in Greece 110 They Invite Antiochus to Greece 110 Hannibal expelled from Carthage 110 He arrives in Syria 110 His advice to Antiochus 110 192. Antiochus crosses over to Greece 110 191. The Romans defeat him at Thermopylæ 110 He returns to Asia 110 190. The Romans invade Asia 111 Battle of Magnesia 111 Defeat of Antiochus by Scipio Asiaticus 111 Terms of peace 111 Hannibal flies to Prusias, king of Bithynia 111 189. ÆTOLIAN WAR-- Fulvius takes Ambracia 111 Terms of peace 111 189. GALATIAN WAR-- Manlius attacks the Galatians without the authority of the Senate or the People 112 187. He returns to Rome 113 Effects of the Eastern conquests upon the Roman character 113 CHAPTER XVI. WARS IN THE WEST: THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS. B.C. 200-175. 200. THE GALLIC WAR-- The Gauls take Placentia and lay siege to Cremona 113 Conquest of the Insubres and Cenomani 114 191. Conquest of the Boil 114 190. Colony founded at Bononia 114 180. Via Æmilia 114 200. THE LIGURIAN WAR-- Continued with intermissions for nearly 80 years 114 Character of the war 114 198. TWO PROVINCES FORMED IN SPAIN 114 195. THE SPANISH WAR-- The Consul M. Porcius Cato sent into Spain 114 His success 115 The Spaniards again take up arms 115 180. The war brought to a conclusion by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus 115 178. THE ISTRIAN WAR 115 177-175. THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN WAR 115 CHAPTER XVII. THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY. Review of the history of the Roman Constitution 116 Political equality of the Patricians and Plebeians 116 I. THE MAGISTRATES-- The Lex Annalis 117 1. The Quæstors 117 2. The Ædiles 117 3. The Prætors 117 4. The Consuls 118 5. The Dictators 118 6. The Censors 118 (_a_) The Census 118 (_b_) Control over the morals of the citizens 119 (_c_) Administration of the finances of the state 119 II. THE SENATE-- Its number 119 Its mode of Election 119 Its power and duties 119 III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES-- 1. The Comitia Curiata 120 2. The Comitia Centuriata: change in its constitution 120 3. The Comitia Tributa 121 The Tribunes 121 The Plebiscita 121 IV. FINANCES-- Tributum 121 Vectigalia 121 V. THE ARMY-- Number of the Legion 122 1. _First Period_--Servius Tullius 122 2. _Second Period_--The Great Latin War, B.C. 340 122 Hastati 122 Principes 122 Triarii 122 Rorarii and Accensi 123 3. _Third Period_--During the wars of the younger Scipio 123 Two legions assigned to each Consul 123 Division of the legion 123 The Maniples 123 The Cohorts 123 The Tribuni Militum 123 The Horse-soldiers 123 Infantry of the Socii 123 4. _Fourth Period_--From the times of the Gracchi to the downfall of the Republic 123 Changes introduced by Marius 124 Triumphs 124 CHAPTER XVIII. INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND SCIPIO. Effect of the Roman conquests in the East 126 Debasement of the Roman character 126 192. Infamous conduct of L. Flamininus 127 193. Worship of Bacchus 127 Gladiatorial exhibitions 127 Rise of the new nobility 127 191. Law against bribery 127 Decay of the peasant proprietors 128 M. Porcius Cato 128 234. His birth 128 His early life 128 204. His Quæstorship 129 198. His Prætorship 129 195. His Consulship 129 Repeal of the Oppian Law 130 191. Cato serves in the battle of Thermopylæ 130 Prosecution of the two Scipios 130 Haughty conduct of Scipio Africanus 130 Condemnation of Scipio Asiaticus 130 Prosecution of Scipio Africanus 130 He leaves Rome 131 188. His death 131 Death of Hannibal 132 184. Censorship of Cato 132 He studies Greek in his old age 132 His character 133 CHAPTER XIX. THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHÆAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146. 179. Death of Philip and accession of Perseus 134 172. Murder of Eumenes, king of Pergamus 135 171-168. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR-- 168. Battle of Pydna 135 Defeat of Perseus by L. Æmilius Paullus 135 167. Æmilius Paullus punishes the Epirotes 135 His triumph 135 His domestic misfortunes 136 Haughty conduct of Rome in the East 136 Embassy to Antiochus Epiphanes 136 Treatment of Eumenes, king of Pergamus 136 Mean conduct of Prusias, king of Bythinia 136 Treatment of the Rhodians 136 167. One thousand Achæans sent to Italy 136 151. The survivors allowed to return to Greece 137 140. A pretender lays claim to the throne of Macedonia 137 He is defeated and taken prisoner 137 147-146. THE ACHÆAN WAR-- 146. Corinth taken by L. Mummius 138 Final conquest of Greece 138 Rome jealous of Carthage 139 Advice of Scipio 139 War between Masinissa and Carthage 139 Conduct of the Romans 140 149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR-- 147. Scipio Africanus the younger, Consul 140 His parentage and adoption 140 His character 140 146. He takes Carthage 142 Formation of the Roman province of Africa 142 Later history of Carthage 142 CHAPTER XX. SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132. 153. War with the Celtiberians 143 152. Peace with the Celtiberians 143 151. War with the Lusitanians 143 150. Treacherous murder of the Lusitanians by Galba 144 Success of Viriathus against the Romans 144 The Celtiberians again take up arms--the Numantine War 144 140. Murder of Viriathus 145 138. Brutus conquers the Gallæci 145 137. The Consul Hostilius Mancinus defeated by the Numantines 145 He signs a peace with the Numantines 145 The Senate refuse to ratify it 145 142. Censorship of Scipio Africanus 145 134. Consul a second time 145 He carries on the war against Numantia 146 133. He takes Numantia 146 Increase of slaves 146 They rise in Sicily 146 They elect Eunus as their leader 146 Eunus assumes the title of king 146 134. He defeats the Roman generals 147 132. Is himself defeated and taken prisoner 147 133. Death of Attalus, last king of Pergamus 147 He bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans 147 131. Aristonicus lays claim to the kingdom of Pergamus 147 130. Is defeated and taken prisoner 147 129. Formation of the province of Asia 147 Extent of the Roman dominions 147 CHAPTER XXI. THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121. Necessity for reform 148 Early life of Tiberius Gracchus 149 137. Quæstor in Spain 149 133. Elected Tribune 150 Brings forward an Agrarian Law 150 Opposition of the landowners 150 The Tribune Octavius puts his veto upon it 150 Deposition of Octavius 151 The Agrarian Law enseted 151 Three Commissioners elected 151 Distribution of the treasures of Pergamus among the Roman people 151 Renewed opposition to Tiberius 151 He becomes a candidate for the Tribunate a second time 151 Riots 152 Death of Tiberius 152 132. Return of Scipio to Rome 152 He opposes the popular party 153 129. Death of Scipio 153 126. Expulsion of the Allies from Rome 154 125. M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes to give the franchise to the Italians 154 Revolt and destruction of Fregellæ 154 126. C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia as Quæstor 154 124. He returns to Rome 157 123. He is elected Tribune 157 His legislation 157 I. Laws for improving the condition of the people 157 1. Extension of the Agrarian Law 157 2. State provision for the poor 157 3. Soldiers equipped at the expense of the Republic 157 II. Laws to diminish the power of the Senate 157 1. Transference of the judicial power from the Senators to the Equites 157 2. Distribution of the Provinces before the election of the Consuls 158 122. C. Gracchus Tribune a second time 158 Proposes to confer the citizenship upon the Latins 158 Unpopularity of this proposal 158 The Tribune M. Livius Drusus outbids Gracchus 158 Foundation of a colony at Carthage 159 Decline of the popularity of Gracchus 159 121. His murder 160 Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi 160 CHAPTER XXII. JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104. C. MARIUS 161 134. Serves at the siege of Numantia 161 Attracts the notice of Scipio Africanus 161 119. Tribune of the Plebs 162 115. Prætor 162 149. Death of Masinissa 162 Accession of Micipsa 162 134. Jugurtha serves at the siege of Numantia 162 118. Death of Micipsa 162 Jugurtha assassinates Hiempsal 163 War between Jugurtha and Adherbal 163 117. Roman commissioners divide Numidia between Jugurtha and Adherbal 163 Fresh war between Jugurtha and Adherbal 163 Siege of Cirta 163 112. Death of Adherbal 163 111. The Romans declare war against Jugurtha 163 Jugurtha bribes the Consul Calpurnius Bestia 163 Indignation at Rome 163 Jugurtha comes to Rome 164 111. He murders Massiva 164 Renewal of the war 164 110. Incapacity of the Consul Sp. Postumius Albinus 164 Defeat of his brother Aulus 164 109. Bill of the Tribune C. Mamilius 164 Many Romans condemned 164 The Consul Q. Cæcilius Metellus lands in Africa 164 Accompanied by Marius as his lieutenant 165 Metellus defeats Jugurtha 165 Ambitious views of Marius 165 108. He quits Africa and arrives in Rome 166 Is elected Consul 166 Attacks the nobility 166 Campaign of Metellus as Proconsul 166 The people give Marius command of the Numidian War 166 107. First Consulship of Marius 166 He arrives in Africa 166 He defeats Jugurtha and Bocchus, king of Mauritania 167 106. Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla, the Quæstor of Marius 167 Early history of Sulla 167 His character 167 104. Triumph of Marius 168 His second Consulship 168 CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101. SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY, B.C. 103-101. Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones 169 Their probable origin 169 113. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Papirius Carbo 169 109. Defeat of the Consul M. Junius Silanus 169 107. Defeat of the Consul L. Cassius Longinus 169 105. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the Proconsul Cn. Servilius Cæpio 170 104. Second Consulship of Marius 170 The Cimbri invade Spain 170 103. Third Consulship of Marius 170 102. Fourth Consulship of Marius 170 The Cimbri return from Spain 170 102. Marius takes up his position near Arles 170 The Cimbri enter Italy by the Pass of Tridentum 170 Great defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aquæ Sextiæ 171 101. Fifth Consulship of Marius 171 Great defeat of the Teutones at Vercellæ by Marius and the Proconsul Catulus 171 Triumph of Marius and Catulus 171 103-101. Second Servile War in Sicily 171 Tryphon king of the Slaves 172 Succeeded by Athenio as king 172 101. The Consul Aquillius puts an end to the war 172 CHAPTER XXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES TO THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91. 100. Sixth Consulship of Marius 173 His league with the demagogues Saturninus and Glaucia 173 Agrarian Law of Saturninus 174 Banishment of Metellus 174 Saturninus declared a public enemy 174 He is put to death 175 Marius visits the East 175 92. Condemnation of Rutilius Lupus 175 91. Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus 175 His measures 176 Proposes to give the franchise to the Italian allies 176 His assassination 176 CHAPTER XXV. THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89. 90. The Allies take up arms 178 The war breaks out at Asculum in Picenum 178 Corfinium the new capital of the Italian confederation 178 Q. Pompædius Silo, a Marsian, and C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, the Italian Consuls 178 Defeat and death of the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus 179 Exploits of Marius 179 The Lex Julia 179 89. Success of the Romans 180 The Lex Plautia Papiria 180 The franchise given to the Allies 180 All the Allies lay down their arms except the Samnites and Lucanians 180 Ten new Tribes formed 180 CHAPTER XXVI. FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86. 88. Consulship of Sulla 181 Receives the command of the Mithridatic War 181 The Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus 182 He proposes to distribute the Italians among the thirty-five Tribes 182 Sulla flies from Rome to Nola 182 The people give Marius the command of the Mithridatic War 182 Sulla marches upon Rome 182 Sulpicius put to death 183 Marius flies from Rome 183 His adventures 183 Is seized at Minturnæ 183 Escapes to Africa 184 Sulla sails to the East 184 87. Riots at Rome 185 The Consul Cinna invites the assistance of Marius 185 Marius and Cinna march upon Rome 185 They enter the city 185 Proscription of their enemies 185 86. Seventh Consulship of Marius 185 His death 185 CHAPTER XXVII. FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84. Kingdom of Pontus 186 Its history 186 120. Accession of Mithridates VI 186 His early life 186 His attainments 187 His conquests 187 His disputes with the Romans 187 88. He invades Cappadocia and Bithynia 187 He invades the Roman province of Asia 188 Massacre of Romans and Italians 188 87. The Grecian states declare in favor of Mithridates 188 Sulla lands in Epirus 188 He lays siege to Athens and the Piræus 188 86. Takes these cities 188 Defeats Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, at Chæronea 188 85. Again defeats Archelaus at Orchomenus 189 84. Peace with Mithridates 189 Sulla attacks Fimbria, the Marian general, in Asia 189 83. He returns to Italy 189 CHAPTER XXVIII. SECOND CIVIL WAR--SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH. B.C. 83-78. 84. Consulship of Cinna and Carbo 190 Death of Cinna 190 83. Consulship of Scipio and Norbanus 190 Preparations for war 191 The Italians support the Marian party 191 Sulla marches from Brundusium to Campania 191 Defeats the Consul Norbanus 191 Pompey, Metellus Pius, Crasus, and others, join Sulla 192 83. Consulship of Papirus Carbo and the younger Marius 192 Defeat of Marius, who takes refuge in Præneste 192 Murder of Senators in Rome by order of Marius 192 Great battle before the Colline gate at Rome between Sulla and the Samnites 192 Defeat of the Samnites 193 Surrender of Præneste 193 Death of Marius 193 End of the war 193 Sulla master of Rome 193 Proscription 193 Dreadful scenes 194 81. Sulla dictator 194 He celebrates his triumph over Mithridates 194 His reforms in the constitution 194 His military colonies 194 73. He resigns the Dictatorship 195 He retires to Puteoli 195 73. His death 195 His funeral 196 LEGES CORNELLÆ-- I. _Laws relating to the Constitution_ 196 Deprive the Comitia Tribute of their legislative and judicial powers 196 Increase the power of the Senate 197 Increase the number of the Quæstors and Prætors 197 Deprive the Tribunes of all real power 197 II. _Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations_ 197 Repeal of the Lex Domitia 197 Increase of the number of Pontiffs and Augurs 197 III. _Laws relating to the Administration of Justice_ 197 Quæstiones Perpetuæ 197 Transference of the Judicia from the Equites to the Senators 198 IV. _Laws relating to the improvement of Public Morals_ 198 CHAPTER XXIX. FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. B.C. 78-70. 78. Consulship of Lepidus and Catulus 199 Lepidus attempts to repeal the laws of Sulla 199 Is opposed by Catulus 199 Is defeated at the Mulvian Bridge 199 Retires to Sardinia 200 His death 200 82. Sertorius in Spain 200 79. Carries on war against Metellus 200 CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS 200 His birth 200 89. Fights against the Italians under his father 200 83. Joins Sulla 200 82. Is sent into Sicily and Africa 200 80. Enters Rome in triumph 201 78. Supports the aristocracy against Lepidus 201 76. Is sent into Spain to assist Metellus 201 72. Assassination of Sertorius by Perperna 202 71. Pompey finishes the war in Spain 202 73. War of the Gladiators: Spartacus 202 72. Spartacus defeats both Consuls 202 71. Crassus appointed to the command of the war against the Gladiators 202 Defeats and slays Spartacus 203 Pompey cuts to pieces a body of Gladiators 203 70. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus 203 Pompey restores the Tribunitian power 203 Law of L. Aurelius Cotta, transferring the Judicia to the Senators, Equites, and Tribuni Ærarii 204 CHAPTER XXX. THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61. 83. SECOND MITHRIDATIC WAR-- Murena invades Pontus 205 83. Mithridates defeats Murena 205 End of the Second Mithridatic War 205 Preparations of Mithridates 206 71. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR-- Mithridates defeats the Consul Cotta 206 He lays siege to Cyzicus 206 73. The siege is raised by Lucullus 207 Lucullus defeats Mithridates 207 71. Mithridates takes refuge in Armenia 207 70. Lucullus settles the affairs of Asia 207 69. He invades Armenia and defeats Tigranes 208 68. Lucullus defeats Tigranes and Mithridates, and lays siege to Nisibis 208 67. Mithridates returns to Pontus and defeats the generals of Lucullus 208 Mutiny in the army of Lucullus 208 The command of the Mithridatic War given to Glabrio 209 WAR WITH THE PIRATES-- Account of the Pirates 209 Command of the war given by the Gabinian Law to Pompey 210 Success of Pompey 210 He finishes the war 210 66. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR CONTINUED 210 Command of the Mithridatic War given by the Manilian Law to Pompey 210 It is opposed by the aristocracy 211 It is supported by Cicero 211 Pompey defeats Mithridates 211 Mithridates retires into the Cimmerian Bosporus 211 Pompey invades Armenia 212 Submission of Tigranes 212 65. Pompey pursues Mithridates 212 He advances as far as the River Phasis 212 He returns to Pontus, which he reduces to the form of a Roman province 212 64. He marches into Syria, which he makes a Roman province 212 63. He subdues Phoenicia and Palestine 212 He takes Jerusalem 212 Preparations of Mithridates 213 Conspiracy against him 213 His death 213 Pompey settles the affairs of Asia 213 62. He returns to Italy 213 CHAPTER XXXI. INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST: THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. B.C. 69-61. C. JULIUS CÆSAR-- 100. His birth 214 His early history 214 Proscribed by Sulla 215 81. He serves in Asia 215 77. Accuses Dolabella 215 Taken by the Pirates 215 75. Studies in Rhodes 215 68. Quæstor 215 65. Curule Ædile 216 Restores the statues of Marius 216 M. TULLIUS CICERO-- 106. His birth 216 80. Serves in the Social War 216 81. His speech for P. Quintius 216 80. His speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria 216 79. He goes to Athens 216 78. He studies in Rome 216 77. He returns to Rome 216 76. Quæstor in Sicily 217 70. He accuses Verres 217 68. Ædile 217 66. Prætor 217 He speaks on behalf of the Manilian law 217 65. First conspiracy of Catiline 217 History of Catiline 218 63. Consulship of Cicero 219 Second conspiracy of Catiline 219 Catiline quits Rome 220 Cicero seizes the conspirators 220 They are put to death 221 62. Defeat and death of Catiline 221 Popularity of Cicero 221 Remarks upon the punishment of the conspirators 221 CHAPTER XXXII. FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL. B.C. 62-57. 62. Pompey arrives in Italy 223 61. Triumph of Pompey 223 State of parties in Rome 224 60. The Senate refuses to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia 224 63. Prætorship of Cæsar 224 61. Proprætor in Spain 224 60. His victories in Spain 224 He returns to Rome 225 FIRST TRIUMVIRATE 225 59. Consulship of Cæsar 225 Agrarian Law for the division of the Campanian land 225 Ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia 225 Marriage of Julia, Cæsar's daughter, with Pompey 225 Cæsar gains over the Equites 225 Vatinian Law, granting to Cæsar the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years 226 Transalpine Gaul added 226 62. Clodius profanes the rites of the Bona Dea 226 61. His trial and acquittal 227 His enmity against Cicero 227 58. Tribune of the Plebs 227 He accuses Cicero 227 Banishment of Cicero 227 57. Riots at Rome between Clodius and Milo 227 Return of Cicero from banishment 228 CHAPTER XXXIII. CÆSAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-51. 58. _First Campaign_ 229 He defeats the Helvetii 229 He defeats Ariovistus and the Germans 230 57. _Second Campaign_ 230 The Belgic War 230 Great victory over the Nervii 230 55. _Third Campaign_ 230 He defeats the Veneti 231 He defeats the Morini and Menapii 231 55. _Fourth Campaign_ 231 Cæsar crosses the Rhine 231 His first invasion of Britain 231 54. _Fifth Campaign_ 232 His second invasion of Britain 232 Revolt of the Eburones 232 They destroy the detachment of T. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta 232 They attack the camp of Q. Cicero 232 53. _Sixth Campaign_ 232 Cæsar puts down the revolt in Gaul 233 He crosses the Rhine a second time 233 52. _Seventh Campaign_ 233 Revolt of all Gaul 233 Headed by Vercingetorix 233 Cæsar takes Alesia and Vercingetorix 234 51. _Eighth Campaign_ 234 Pacification of Gaul 234 CHAPTER XXXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR: EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. B.C. 57-50. 57. Cicero supports the Triumvirs 235 56. Pompey and Crassus meet Cæsar at Luca 236 Fresh arrangements for the continuance of their power 236 55. Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus 236 The Trebonian Law, giving the two Spains to Pompey and Syria to Crassus, and prolonging Pompey's government for five years more 236 Dedication of Pompey's theatre 236 54. Crassus crosses the Euphrates 237 He winters in Syria 237 53. He again crosses the Euphrates 237 Is defeated and slain near Carrhæ 237 54. Death of Julia 237 53. Riots in Rome 238 52. Murder of Clodius by Milo 238 Pompey sole Consul 238 Trial and condemnation of Milo 238 51. Rupture between Cæsar and Pompey 239 Pompey joins the aristocratical party 239 49. Proposition that Cæsar should lay down his command 240 The Senate invest the Consuls with dictatorial power 240 The Tribunes Antony and Cassius fly to Cæsar's camp 240 Commencement of the Civil War 240 CHAPTER XXXV. THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO CÆSAR'S DEATH, B.C. 49-44. 49. Cæsar at Ravenna 241 He crosses the Rubicon 241 His triumphal progress through Italy 241 Pompey and his party fly from Rome to Brundusium 242 They are pursued by Cæsar 242 They embark for Greece 242 Cæsar goes to Rome 242 He sets out for Spain 242 He conquers L. Africanus and M. Petreius, Pompey's lieutenants in Spain 243 Is appointed Dictator, which office he holds only eleven days 243 He takes Massilia 243 48. He sails from Brundusium to Greece 243 He besieges Pompey at Dyrrhachium 244 Is compelled to retire 241 Battle of Pharsalia, and defeat of Pompey 244 Pompey flies to Egypt 245 His death 245 Cæsar is appointed Dictator a second time 245 The Alexandrine War 245 47. Conclusion of the Alexandrine War 246 Cæsar marches into Pontus and defeats Pharnaces 246 He sails to Africa 246 46. Battle of Thapsus, and defeat of the Pompeians 246 Siege of Utica 247 Death of Cato 247 Cæsar returns to Rome 247 His triumph 247 His reformation of the Calendar 247 Insurrection in Spain 248 Cæsar sets out for Spain 248 45. Battle of Munda, and defeat of the Pompeians 248 Cæsar returns to Rome 248 He is undisputed master of the Roman world 248 Honors conferred upon him 248 Use he made of his power 248 His vast projects 249 44. Conspiracy against Cæsar's life 249 Brutus and Cassius 249 Assassination of Cæsar on the Ides of March 250 Reflections on his death 250 His character and genius 250 CHAPTER XXXVI. FROM THE DEATH OF CÆSAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42. 44. Proceedings of the conspirators 252 Antony and Lepidus 253 Pretended reconciliation 253 Cæsar's will 253 His funeral 253 Popular indignation against the conspirators 253 They fly from Home 253 OCTAVIUS, Cæsar's nephew, at Illyricum 253 Is made Cæsar's heir 253 He proceeds to Rome 254 His opposition to Antony 254 He courts the Senate 254 Antony proceeds to Cisalpine Gaul, and lays siege to Mutina 254 43. Cicero's second Philippic 254 Octavian and the Consuls Hirtius and Pansa march against Antony 255 They attack Antony 255 Death of Hirtius and Pansa 255 Antony is defeated, and crosses the Alps 255 Octavian marches to Rome 255 Is declared Consul 255 Breaks with the Senate, and outlaws the murderers of Cæsar 255 Marches against Antony and Lepidus 255 Is reconciled with them 256 SECOND TRIUMVIRATE 256 The Triumvirs enter Rome 256 Dreadful Scenes 256 Death of Cicero 257 Sextus Pompey master of Sicily and the Mediterranean 257 He defeats the fleet of the Triumvirs 257 Brutus obtains possession of Macedonia 258 Cassius, of Syria 258 Their proceedings in the East 258 They plunder Asia Minor 258 42. They return to Europe to meet the Triumvirs 258 Battle of Philippi 261 Death of Brutus and Cassius 261 CHAPTER XXXVII. FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30. 41. Antony remains in the East 262 He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus 262 He accompanies her to Alexandria 263 Octavian returns to Rome 263 Confusion in Italy 263 Confiscation of lands 263 Fulvia, the wife of Antony, and L. Antonius, his brother, rise against Antony 263 They take refuge in Perusia 263 40. Capture of Perusia, and end of the war 263 The Parthians invade Syria 264 Antony joins Sextus Pompey and lays siege to Brundusium 264 Reconciliation between Antony and Octavian 264 Fresh division of the Roman world 264 Antony marries Octavia 264 39. Peace with Sextus Pompey at Misenum 264 Ventidius, the Legate of Antony, defeats the Parthians 265 38. He again defeats the Parthians 265 Death of Pacorus 265 War with Sextus Pompey 265 He destroys the fleet of Octavian 265 37. Antony comes to Tarentum 266 Triumvirate renewed for another period of five years 266 36. Renewal of the war with Sextus Pompey 266 His defeat 266 He flies to Asia 266 Lepidus deprived of his Triumvirate 266 35. Death of Pompey 266 30. Antony joins Cleopatra 267 His infatuation 267 He invades Parthia 267 His disastrous retreat 267 34. He invades Armenia 267 Octavian subdues the Dalmatians 267 His prudent conduct 267 33. Rupture between Octavian and Antony 267 32. War against Cleopatra 268 31. Battle of Actium 268 Defeat of Antony 268 He flies to Alexandria 268 30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra 269 Egypt made a Roman province 269 End of the Republic 269 29. Triumph of Octavian 269 27. He receives the title of Augustus 270 His policy 270 CHAPTER XXXVIII. SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS. Poetry-- Saturnian Metre 272 Commencement of Roman Literature 272 _The Drama_-- 240. M. Livius Andronicus 272 235. Cn. Nævius 273 239-169. Q. Ennius 273 254-184. T. Maccius Plautus 273 195-159. P. Terentius Afer 274 160. Q. Cæcilius 274 100. L. Afranius 274 220-180. M. Pacuvius 275 170-90. L. Accius 275 _Comoediæ Togatæ_ 274 _Comoediæ Palliatæ_ 274 _Comoediæ Prætextatæ_ 275 _Atellanæ Fabulæ_ 275 _Mimes_ 275 50. Dec. Laberius 275 P. Syrus 275 _Fescennine Songs_ 276 _Satire_ 276 148-103. C. Lucilius 276 95-51. T. Lucretius Carus 276 87-47. Valerius Catullus 276 70-19. P. Virgilius Maro 277 65-8. Q. Horatius Flaccus 278 30. Albius Tibullus 280 Aurelius Propertius 280 B.C. A.D. 43-18. P. Ovidius Naso 281 B.C. PROSE WRITERS-- _The Annalists_ 282 210. Q. Fabius Pictor 282 L. Cincius Alimentus 282 234-140. M. Porcius Cato 282 106-43. M. Tullius Cicero 282 117-28. M. Terentius Varro 283 100-41. C. Julius Cæsar 283 86-34. C. Sallustius Crispus 284 Cornelius Nepos 284 B.C. A.D. 53-17. Titus Livius 284 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14. Conduct of Augustus 286 His friends 286 Police of Rome 286 Condition of the empire 287 Italy, Gaul, and Spain 287 Africa 288 Egypt and Greece 288 Boundaries of the empire 289 The Prætorian guard 290 Army and navy 290 Augustus in Spain 291 His family 291 His wife, Livia 292 Marcellus, Julia, Tiberius 292 Cains and Lucius Cæsar 293 Birth of the Savior 293 Death of Augustus 294 His character and personal appearance 294 CHAPTER XL. FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96. Accession of Tiberius 295 Germanicus 296 His death 296 The Lex Majestas 297 The Delatores 297 Sejanus 297 Death of Sejanus 298 Death of Tiberius 299 Caligula 299 Claudius 300 His conduct 300 The Emperor Nero 301 His crimes 301 Vitellius 302 Vespasian 302 Fall of Jerusalem 303 Reign of Titus 304 The Colosseum 304 Reign of Domitian 305 He persecutes the Christians 305 CHAPTER XLI. PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.--COMMODUS, A.D. 180.--REIGN OF M. COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98. The Emperor Nerva 306 Prosperity of the empire 306 Trajan 307 His wise administration 307 The Dacian war 308 Conquests in the East 308 Trajan's public works 309 Reign of Hadrian 309 His travels 310 His death 312 Antoninus Pius 313 His excellent character 313 Marcus Aurelius 314 His conduct 315 He defeats the Barbarians 316 The depraved Commodus 316 His vices 316 Is assassinated 316 CHAPTER XLII. FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284. Pertinax made emperor 319 Is assassinated 319 Didius Julianus 319 Severus 320 His severe rule 320 Geta and Caracalla 321 Papinian executed 321 Cruelties of Caracalla 322 Elagabalus 322 Alexander Severus 322 Maximin 323 The Goths invade the empire 324 Valerian 325 Thirty tyrants 325 Zenobia 325 Aurelian 325 The Emperor Tacitus 326 Frugal habits of Carus 326 CHAPTER XLIII. FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337. Diocletian 327 His colleagues 328 Persecution of the Christians 329 Abdication of Diocletian 329 Constantine the Great 330 His administration 331 The Council of Nice 332 Constantinople 332 Its magnificence 333 The præfectures 334 Christianity the national religion 334 Taxes 334 Family of Constantine 335 He is baptized and dies 335 CHAPTER XLIV. FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, A.D. 476. The three sons of Constantine 336 Constantius jealous of Julian 337 Julian becomes emperor 337 Attempts to restore Paganism 337 Valentinian 338 The Huns appear in Europe 338 The Goths cross the Danube 338 Theodosius the Great 339 Stilicho 339 Alaric enters Italy 340 Luxury of the Romans 340 Sack of Rome 341 Arcadius and Honorius 341 The Vandals 342 The Huns 342 Romulus Augustulus 343 Extinction of the Empire of the West 343 CHAPTER XLV. ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476. Decline of letters 344 Epic poetry--Lucan 344 Silius Italicus 344 Claudian 345 Persius, Juvenal 345 Martial 346 History--Velleius Paterculus 346 Valerius Maximus 346 Tacitus 347 Quintus Curtius 347 Rhetoric--Seneca the elder 348 Quintilian 348 Appuleius 349 Philosophy--Seneca 349 The elder Pliny 349 His nephew 350 Grammarians--Macrobius 350 Marcellinus 350 Legal writers--Gains 350 Science and art 351 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The Roman Forum FRONTISPIECE Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens TITLE-PAGE Map of Italy Temple of Janus vi Julius Cæsar vii Virgil xxx Tivoli, the ancient Tibur 1 Gate of Arpinum 6 The Alban Hills 7 Plan of the City of Romulus 11 Salii carrying the Ancilia 13 Arch of Volaterræ 15 Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina 16 Cloaca Maxima 17 Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills 21 Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors 23 The Campagna of Rome 29 The Environs of Rome 33 Tarpeian Rock 36 View in the neighborhood of Veii 41 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored 45 Ruins at Capua 52 Coin of Pyrrhus 60 Temple of Vesta 67 Mount Ercta in Sicily 68 Columna Rostrata 71 Plan of Mount Ercta 76 Coin of Carthage 77 Coin of Hiero 81 Lake Trasimenus 82 Map of the coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the history of the Punic Wars 85 Route of Hannibal 89 Plain of Cannæ 91 Hannibal 99 The Capitoline Wolf 105 Coin of Antiochus the Great 106 Roman Soldiers 113 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 115 Lictors 116 A Roman general addressing the soldiers 125 Scipio Africanus 126 Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges 134 Plan of Carthage 141 Personification of the River Tiber 143 Stairs of the modern Capitol 148 The Forum in its present state 155 Temple of Saturn at Rome 160 A Roman Trophy 161 Soldiers blowing Tubæ and Cornua 168 Caius Marius 169 Fasces 172 Tomb of Metella Cæcilia 173 Beneventum in Samnium 177 Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation 178 Terracina 181 Mount Argæus in Cappadocia 186 Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia 189 Brundusium 190 Coin of Sulla 198 Cn. Pompeius Magnus 199 Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome 204 Coin of Mithridates 205 Coin of Tigranes 207 Cicero 214 Coin of Pompey 222 Julius Cæsar 223 Temple of Hercules at Rome 228 Temple of Nemausus (_Nimes_), now called the _Maison Carrée_ 229 Ruins on the Esquiline 235 Marcus Brutus 241 Coin of Julius Cæsar 250 Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga 251 M. Antonius 252 Philippi 259 Coin of Antony and Cleopatra 261 M. Agrippa 262 Plan of Actium 268 Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire 271 Horace 272 Mæcenas 285 Aureus of Augustus Cæsar 288 Gold Coin of Agrippa 292 The Carpentum or Chariot 293 Medal of Augustus 294 Medal of Nero 295 Roman Galley 299 Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius 306 Trajan's Pillar 308 Hadrian's Mausoleum restored 311 Reverse of a Brass Coin of Antoninus Pius 313 Commodus 317 Pertinax 318 Septimius Severus 319 Caracalla 321 Alexander Severus 323 Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spolatro 327 Constantino and Fausta 330 Arch of Constantine 331 Map of the Propontis, Hellespont, and Bosphorus 333 Map of Constantinople 333 Julian the Apostate 336 Juvenal 351 Coin of Augustus 361 [Illustration: Virgil.] HISTORY OF ROME. [Illustration: Tivoli, the ancient Tibur.] CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS. Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which project from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on the north by the chain of the Alps, which form a natural barrier, and it is surrounded on other sides by the sea. Its shores are washed on the west by the "Mare Inferum," or the Lower Sea, and on the east by the Adriatic, called by the Romans the "Mare Superum," or the Upper Sea. It may be divided into two parts, the northern consisting of the great plain drained by the River Padus, or _Po_, and its tributaries, and the southern being a long tongue of land, with the Apennines as a back-bone running down its whole extent from north to south. The extreme length of the peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 miles. The breadth of northern Italy is 350 miles, while that of the southern portion is on an average not more than 100 miles. But, till the time of the Empire, the Romans never included the plain of the Po in Italy. To this country they gave the general name of GALLIA CISALPINA, or Gaul on this (the Roman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited by Gauls. The western-most portion of the plain was peopled by Ligurian tribes, and was therefore called LIGURIA, while its eastern extremity formed the Roman province of VENETIA. The name ITALIA was originally applied to a very small tract of country. It was at first confined to the southern portion of Calabria, and was gradually extended northward, till about the time of the Punic wars it indicated the whole peninsula south of the Rivers Rubicon and Macra, the former separating Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, the latter Liguria and Etruria. Italy, properly so called, is a very mountainous country, being filled up more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the offshoots or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite to the sea, but in others leave a considerable space of level or low country. Excluding the plain of the Po, it was divided into the following districts:[1] 1. ETRURIA, which extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the River Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the Tiber also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from Umbria, afterward from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. Its inhabitants were called Etrusci, or Tusci, the latter form being still preserved in the name of _Tuscany_. Besides the Tiber it possesses only one other river of any importance, the Arnus, or Arno, upon which the city of _Florence_ now stands. Of its lakes the most considerable is the Lacus Trasimenus, about thirty-six miles in circumference, celebrated for the great victory which Hannibal there gained over the Romans. 2. UMBRIA, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from the valley of the Tiber to the shores of the Adriatic. It was separated on the north from Gallia Cisalpina by the Rubicon, and on the south by the Æsis from Picenum, and by the Nar from the Sabines. 3. PICENUM extended along the Adriatic from the mouth of the Æsis to that of the Matrinus and inland as far as the central ridge of the Apennines. It was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the south by the Vestini, and on the west by Umbria and the Sabini. Its inhabitants, the Picentes, were a Sabine race, as is mentioned below. 4. The SABINI inhabited the rugged mountain-country in the central chain of the Apennines, lying between Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, Latium, and the country of the Marsi and Vestini. They were one of the most ancient races of Italy, and the progenitors of the far more numerous tribes which, under the names of Picentes, Peligni, and Samnites, spread themselves to the east and south. Modern writers have given the general name of _Sabellians_ to all these tribes. The Sabines, like most other mountaineers, were brave, hardy, and frugal; and even the Romans looked up to them with admiration on account of their proverbial honesty and temperance. 5. The MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, and MARRUCINI inhabited the valleys of the central Apennines, and were closely connected, being probably all of Sabine origin. The MARSI dwelt inland around the basin of the Lake Fucinus, which is about thirty miles in circumference, and the only one of any extent in the central Apennines. The PELIGNI also occupied an inland district east of the MARSI. The VESTINI dwelt east of the Sabines, and possessed on the coast of the Adriatic a narrow space between the mouth of the Matrinus and that of the Aternus, a distance of about six miles. The MARRUCINI inhabited a narrow strip of country on the Adriatic, east of the Peligni, and were bounded on the north by the Vestini and on the south by the Frentani. 6. The FRENTANI dwelt upon the coast of the Adriatic from the frontiers of the Marrucini to those of Apulia. They were bounded on the west by the Samnites, from whom they were originally descended, but they appear in Roman history as an independent people. 7. LATIUM was used in two senses. It originally signified only the land of the Latini, and was a country of small extent, bounded by the Tiber on the north, by the Apennines on the east, by the sea on the west, and by the Alban Hills on the south. But after the conquest of the Volscians, Hernici, Æquians, and other tribes, originally independent, the name of Latium was extended to all the country which the latter had previously occupied. It was thus applied to the whole region from the borders of Etruria to those of Campania, or from the Tiber to the Liris. The original abode of the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban Mountains are a great volcanic mass, and several of the craters have been filled with water, forming lakes, of which the Alban Lake is one of the most remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called the _Campagna_, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating tract, intersected by numerous streams, which have cut themselves deep channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the soil is composed. The climate of Latium was not healthy even in ancient times. The malaria of the Campagna renders Rome itself unhealthy in the summer and autumn; and the Pontine Marshes, which extend along the coast in the south of Latium for a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential. 8. CAMPANIA extended along the coast from the Liris, which separated it from Latium, to the Silarus, which formed the boundary of Lucania. It is the fairest portion of Italy. The greater part of it is an unbroken plain, celebrated in ancient as well as in modern times for its extraordinary beauty and fertility. The _Bay of Naples_--formerly called Sinus Cumanus and Puteolanus, from the neighboring cities of Cumæ and Puteoli--is one of the most lovely spots in the world; and the softness of its climate, as well as the beauty of its scenery, attracted the Roman nobles, who had numerous villas along its coasts. 9. SAMNIUM was an inland district, bounded on the north by the Marsi and Peligni, on the east by the Frentani and Apulia, on the west by Latium and Campania, and on the south by Lucania. It is a mountainous country, being entirely filled with the masses of the Apennines. Its inhabitants, the Samnites, were of Sabine origin, as has been already mentioned, and they settled in the country at a comparatively late period. They were one of the most warlike races in Italy, and carried on a long and fierce struggle with the Romans. 10. APULIA extended along the coast of the Adriatic from the Frentani on the north to Calabria on the south, and was bounded on the west by the Apennines, which separated it from Samnium and Lucania. It consists almost entirely of a great plain, sloping down from the Apennines to the sea. 11. CALABRIA formed the heel of Italy, lying south of Apulia, and surrounded on every other side by the sea. It contains no mountains, and only hills of moderate elevation, the Apennines running to the southwest through Lucania and the Bruttii. 12. LUCANIA was bounded on the north by Campania and Samnium, on the east by Apulia, and on the south by the Bruttii. The Apennines run through the province in its whole extent. The Lucanians were a branch of the Samnite nation, which separated from the main body of that people, and pressed on still farther to the south. 13. The BRUTTII[2] inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, lying south of Lucania; and, like Lucania, their country is traversed throughout by the chain of the Apennines. Italy has been in all ages renowned for its beauty and fertility. The lofty ranges of the Apennines, and the seas which bathe its shores on both sides, contribute at once to temper and vary its climate, so as to adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate and the warmest parts of Europe. In the plains on either side of the Apennines corn is produced in abundance; olives flourish on the southern slopes of the mountains; and the vine is cultivated in every part of the peninsula, the vineyards of northern Campania being the most celebrated in antiquity. The early inhabitants of Italy may be divided into three great classes--the _Italians_ proper, the _Iapygians_, and the _Etruscans_, who are clearly distinguished from each other by their respective languages. (1.) The _Italians_ proper inhabited the centre of the peninsula. They were divided into two branches, the _Latins_ and the _Umbro-Sabellians_, including the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, and their numerous colonies. The dialects of the Latins and Umbro-Sabellians, though marked by striking differences, still show clearest evidence of a common origin, and both are closely related to the Greek. It is evident that at some remote period a race migrated from the East, embracing the ancestors of both the Greeks and Italians--that from it the Italians branched off--and that they again were divided into the Latins on the west and the Umbrians and Sabellians on the east. (2.) The _Iapygians_ dwelt in Calabria, in the extreme southeast corner of Italy. Inscriptions in a peculiar language have here been discovered, clearly showing that the inhabitants belonged to a different race from those whom we have designated as the Italians. They were doubtless the oldest inhabitants of Italy, who were driven toward the extremity of the peninsula as the Latins and Sabellians pressed farther to the south. (3.) The _Etruscans_, or, as they called themselves, _Rasena_, form a striking contrast to the Latins and Sabellians as well as to the Greeks. Their language is radically different from the other languages of Italy; and their manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races. Their religion was of a gloomy character, delighting in mysteries and in wild and horrible rites. Their origin is unknown. Most ancient writers relate that the Etruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to Italy; but this is very improbable, and it is now more generally believed that the Etruscans descended into Italy from, the Rhætian Alps. It is expressly stated by ancient writers that the Rhætians were Etruscans, and that they spoke the same language; while their name is perhaps the same as that of Rasena, the native name of the Etruscans. In more ancient times, before the Roman dominion, the Etruscans inhabited