Project Gutenberg's Latin for Beginners, by Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Latin for Beginners Author: Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge Release Date: April 25, 2006 [EBook #18251] Language: English Character set encoding: ASCII *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS *** Produced by Louise Hope, Dave Maddock and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of public domain material by TextKit.com) [Transcriber's Notes: This stripped-down text file is intended for users whose computers or text readers cannot display any of the more complete versions: UTF-8 (best), Latin-1 (Windows) or Mac format. As much information as possible has been preserved, but some changes were necessary to make the text readable. Long vowels are shown as a: e: i: o: u: y: A: E: I: O: U: in the introductory section on pronunciation (Secs. 1-18), in vocabulary lists, and in charts of inflectional endings. Elsewhere in the text, long-vowel markings have generally been omitted. The breve symbol, representing a short vowel, has also been omitted. This symbol was used only in the pronunciation section and in one or two vocabulary entries. The notation [oo] represents short "oo". Letters shown with combined breve and macron have been expanded as "-ei or -e:i", "-ius or -i:us". To make this unpaginated e-text easier to use, each chapter's Special Vocabulary has been included with its chapter _in addition to_ its original location near the end of the book. The same was done with the irregular verbs. The vocabulary lists are at the beginning of each chapter, as far as possible from the Exercises. Boldface ("heavy type"), when needed, is shown by /diagonals\. Italics are shown by _lines_. Bracketed passages in the original are shown in [[double brackets]].] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * LATIN FOR BEGINNERS BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D. Professor in the Michigan State Normal College Ginn and Company Boston - New York - Chicago - London Copyright, 1909, 1911 by Benjamin L. D'Ooge Entered at Stationers' Hall All Rights Reserved 013.4 The Athenaeum Press Ginn and Company - Proprietors - Boston - U.S.A. * * * * * PREFACE To make the course preparatory to Caesar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons. The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials. Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar. Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed. It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers: The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions. The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge's "Dictionary of Secondary Latin" and Browne's "Latin Word List" as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Caesarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Caesar five or more times. The few words not Caesarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Caesar can easily do so, as the Caesarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Caesar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Caesar. The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together. Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Caesar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course. Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Caesar's army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation. Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar. The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times. A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout. As an aid to teachers using this book a "Teacher's Manual" has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution. BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE CONTENTS Lesson Page TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction 1-4 PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT, HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11 PART II. WORDS AND FORMS I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--_Subject and Predicate, Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object, Indirect Object, etc._--DIALOGUE 12-24 VII-VIII. FIRST OR _A_-DECLENSION--_Gender, Agreement of Adjectives, Word Order_ 25-30 IX-X. SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION--_Predicate Noun, Apposition_--DIALOGUE 31-35 XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 36-37 XII. NOUNS IN -ius AND -ium--GERMANIA 38-39 XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)--Nouns in -er and -ir--ITALIA--DIALOGUE 39-41 XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 42-43 XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--_Cause, Means, Accompaniment, Manner_--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR 44-46 XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 46-47 XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE /is, ea, id\--DIALOGUE 48-50 XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of /sum\-- DIALOGUE 51-53 XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF amo AND moneo 54-56 XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF amo AND moneo-- _Meaning of the Imperfect_--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN 56-57 XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF amo AND moneo-- NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) 58-59 XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--_The Dative with Adjectives_-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS 59-61 XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF rego AND audio-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) 61-63 XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF rego AND audio-- _The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs_ 63-65 XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF rego AND audio 65-66 XXVI. VERBS IN -io--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active Indicative of /capio\--_The Imperative_ 66-68 XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative of /amo\ and /moneo\--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA 68-71 XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF rego AND audio--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 72-73 XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF -io VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE 73-75 XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM--_Place from Which, Separation, Personal Agent_ 75-78 XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF sum-- DIALOGUE 79-81 XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS--_Meanings of the Perfect_--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 81-83 XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE-- PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE 84-85 XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) 86-87 XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE 88-90 XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--_Prepositions, Yes-or-No Questions_ 90-93 XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF possum--_The Infinitive used as in English_--_Accusative Subject of an Infinitive_-- THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA 93-96 XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN-- _Agreement of the Relative_--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_) 97-101 XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems 101-106 XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS 107 XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--_I_-Stems 108-110 XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION-- GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE OVER THE RHINE 111-112 XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS INVADE THE ENEMY'S COUNTRY 113-115 XLVI. THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION 116-117 XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--_Place to Which, Place from Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative_-- Declension of /domus\--DAEDALUS AND ICARUS 117-121 XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR _E_-DECLENSION--_Ablative of Time_ --DAEDALUS AND ICARUS (_Continued_) 121-123 XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DAEDALUS AND ICARUS (_Concluded_) 123-126 L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN ipse AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE idem--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE 126-127 LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES hic, iste, ille--A GERMAN CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) 128-130 LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) 130-132 LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133-135 LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--_Ablative with Comparatives_ 135-136 LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)-- Declension of /plus\ 137-138 LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)-- _Ablative of the Measure of Difference_ 138-139 LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 140-142 LVIII. NUMERALS--_Partitive Genitive_ 142-144 LIX. NUMERALS (_Continued_)--_Accusative of Extent_-- CAESAR IN GAUL 144-146 LX. DEPONENT VERBS--_Prepositions with the Accusative_ 146-147 PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present-- _Indicative and Subjunctive Compared_ 148-152 LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153 LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Sequence of Tenses_ 153-155 LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Substantive Clauses of Purpose_ 156-159 LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF possum--_Verbs of Fearing_ 160-161 LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension 161-164 LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS volo, nolo, malo-- _Ablative Absolute_ 164-166 LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB fio--_Subjunctive of Result_ 167-168 LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--_Predicate Accusative_ 169-171 LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH cum--_Ablative of Specification_ 171-173 LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Gerund and Gerundive_-- _Predicate Genitive_ 173-177 LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB eo--_Indirect Statements_ 177-180 LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB fero-- _Dative with Compounds_ 181-183 LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Subjunctive in Indirect Questions_ 183-185 LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Dative of Purpose or End for Which_ 185-186 LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Genitive and Ablative of Quality or Description_ 186-188 LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--_Review of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative_ 189-190 LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192 LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193 READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195 THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203 P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215 APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. 226-260 APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264 APPENDIX III. REVIEWS 265-282 SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298 LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331 ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343 INDEX 344-348 LATIN FOR BEGINNERS TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION What is Latin? If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters. [Footnote 1: Pronounce _La:'shi-um_.] The Spread of Latin. For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome's power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin. The Romans and the Greeks. In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets, artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preeminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art. Rome and the Modern World. After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Caesar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day. Latin and English. Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms. Why study Latin? The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning. Review Questions. Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome's power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin? PART I THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN THE ALPHABET _1._ The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no _w_ and no _j_. _2._ The vowels, as in English, are _a, e, i, o, u, y_. The other letters are consonants. _3._ _I_ is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called _I consonant_. Thus in Iu:-li-us the first _i_ is a consonant, the second a vowel. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1] [Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.] _4._ Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below. _5._ The vowels have the following sounds: VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES a: as in _father_ ha:c, sta:s a like the first _a_ in _aha'_, never as in _hat_ a'-mat, ca-na:s e: as in _they_ te:'-la, me:'-ta e as in _met_ te'-net, mer'-ce:s i: as in _machine_ ser'-ti:, pra:'-ti: i as in _bit_ si'-tis, bi'-bi: o: as in _holy_ Ro:'-ma, o:'-ris o as in _wholly_, never as in _hot_ mo'-do, bo'-no:s u: as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_ u:'-mor, tu:'-ber u as in _full_, or as _oo_ in _foot_ ut, tu:'-tus NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of _a_, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of _quantity_ but also of _quality_. [Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ^, short ones ... ] [Transcriber's Note: In this version of the text, long vowels are shown as a:, e:, i: ... and short vowels are unmarked, as described in the introductory notes.] _6._ In /diphthongs\ (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable. DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES /ae\ as _ai_ in _aisle_ tae'-dae /au\ as _ou_ in _out_ gau'-det /ei\ as _ei_ in _eight_ dein'-de /eu\ as _e'[oo]_ (a short _e_ followed by a short _u_ in one syllable) seu /oe\ like _oi_ in _toil_ foe'-dus /ui\ like _[oo]'i_ (a short _u_ followed by a short _i_ in one syllable. Cf. English _we_) cui, huic NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English. _7._ Consonants are pronounced as in English, except that CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES /c\ is always like _c_ in _cat_, never as in _cent_ ca'-do:, ci'-bus, ce:'-na /g\ is always like _g_ in _get_, never as in _gem_ ge'-mo:, gig'-no: /i consonant\ is always like _y_ in _yes_ iam, io'-cus /n\ before _c, qu_, or _g_ is like _ng_ in _sing_ (compare the sound of _n_ in _anchor_) an'-co-ra (ang'-ko-ra) /qu\, /gu\, and sometimes /su\ before a vowel have the sound of _qw, gw_, and _sw_. Here _u_ has the value of consonant _v_ and is not counted a vowel in'-quit, qui:, lin'-gua, san'-guis, sua:'-de-o: /s\ is like _s_ in _sea_, never as in _ease_ ro'-sa, is /t\ is always like _t_ in _native_, never as in _nation_ ra'-ti-o:, na:'-ti-o: /v\ is like _w_ in _wine_, never as in _vine_ vi:'-num, vir /x\ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and is like _x_ in _extract_, not as in _exact_ ex'-tra:, ex-a:c'-tus /bs\ is like _ps_ and /bt\ like _pt_ urbs, ob-ti'-ne-o: /ch\, /ph\, and /th\ are like _c_, _p_, _t_ pul'-cher, Phoe'-be:, the-a:'-trum _a._ In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce _tt_ as in _rat-trap_, not as in _rattle_; _pp_ as in _hop-pole_, not as in _upper_. Examples, /mit'-to:\, /Ap'pi-us\, /bel'-lum\. SYLLABLES _8._ A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus /aes-ta:'-te\ has three syllables, /au-di-en'-dus\ has four. _a._ Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English _inside_ with Latin i:n-si:'-de. _9._ Words are divided into syllables as follows: 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus /a-ma:'-bi-lis\, /me-mo'-ri-a\, /in-te'-re-a:\, /a'-best\, /pe-re:'-git\.[3] [Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as /inter-ea:\, /ab-est\, /sub-a:ctus\, /per-e:git\, contrary to the correct phonetic rule.] 2. Combinations of two or more consonants: _a._ A consonant followed by _l_ or _r_ goes with the _l_ or _r_. Thus /pu:'-bli-cus\, /a'-gri:\. EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also _ll_ and _rr_, follow rule _b_. Thus /ab'-lu-o:\, /ab-rum'-po:\, /il'-le\, /fer'-rum\. _b._ In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus /mag'-nus\, /e-ges'-ta:s\, /vic-to:'-ri-a\, /hos'-pes\, /an'-nus\, /su-ba:c'-tus\. [Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fu:nc-tus, sa:nc-tus.] 3. The last syllable of a word is called the _ul'-ti-ma_; the one next to the last, the _pe-nult'_; the one before the penult, the _an'-te-pe-nult'_. _10._ EXERCISE Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated: Va:'de ad formi:'cam, O: pi'ger, et co:nsi:'dera: vi'a:s e'ius et di'sce sapie'ntiam: quae cum no:n ha'beat du'cem nec praecepto:'rem nec pri:'ncipem, pa'rat in aesta:'te ci'bum si'bi et co'ngregat in me'sse quod co'medat. [[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]] QUANTITY _11._ The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity. _12._ Quantity of Vowels. Vowels are either long (^) or short. In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short. [Transcriber's Note: The wording of Sec. 12 is as in the original, except that the macron (long-vowel symbol) has been replaced with a caret ("hat"), and the breve (short-vowel symbol) has been omitted.] 1. A vowel is short before another vowel or _h_; as /po-e:'-ta\, /tra'-ho:\. 2. A vowel is short before _nt_ and _nd_, before final _m_ or _t_, and, except in words of one syllable, before final _l_ or _r_. Thus /a'-mant\, /a-man'-dus\, /a-ma:'-bam\, /a-ma:'-bat\, /a'-ni-mal\, /a'-mor\. 3. A vowel is long before _nf_, _ns_, _nx_, and _nct_. Thus /i:n'-fe-ro:\, /re'-ge:ns\, /sa:n'-xi:\, /sa:nc'-tus\. 4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked. _13._ Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels. 1. A syllable is short, _a._ If it ends in a short vowel; as /a'-mo:\, /pi'-gri\. NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word /me-mo'-ri-am\ contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant. 2. A syllable is long, _a._ If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as /cu:'-ro:\, /poe'-nae\, /aes-ta:'-te\. _b._ If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as /cor'-pus\, /mag'-nus\. NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in /ter'-ra\, /in'-ter\, the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like /saxum\ the first syllable is long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_). 3. In determining quantity _h_ is not counted a consonant. NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say /cur'-ro:\ as it does /cu:'-ro:\, and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare /mol'-lis\ and /mo:'-lis\, /a:-mis'-si:\ and /a:-mi'-si:\. ACCENT _14._ Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as /me:n'-sa\, /Cae'-sar\. _15._ Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus /mo-ne:'-mus\, /re'-gi-tur\, /a-gri'-co-la\, /a-man'-dus\. NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the _syllable_ and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. Sec. 13.2, Note.) _16._ Certain little words called _enclit'ics_[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are /-que\, _and_; /-ve\, _or_; and /-ne\, the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus /populus'que\, /dea'que\, /re:gna've\, /audit'ne\. [Footnote 5: Enclitic means _leaning back_, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.] HOW TO READ LATIN _17._ To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. Sec. 15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word. _18._ Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter. EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6] The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, 'mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Cade:bant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vi:cum Alpicum Gelu: nivequ(e) adole:sce:ns, Ve:xillum cum signo: fere:ns, Excelsior! His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior! Fro:ns tri:stis, micat oculus Velut e: va:gi:na: gladius; Sonantque simile:s tubae Accentu:s lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior! In domibus videt cla:ra:s Foco:rum lu:ce:s calida:s; Relucet glacie:s a:cris, Et rumpit gemitu:s labri:s, Excelsior! "Try not the Pass!" the old man said; "Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!" And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior! Di:cit senex, "Ne: tra:nsea:s! Supra: nigre:scit tempesta:s; La:tus et altus est torre:ns." Cla:ra ve:nit vo:x responde:ns, Excelsior! At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior! Iam lu:ce:sce:bat, et fra:tre:s Sa:ncti: Bernardi: vigile:s O:ra:bant prece:s solita:s, Cum vo:x cla:ma:vit per aura:s, Excelsior! A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Se:mi-sepultus via:tor Can(e) a: fi:do: reperi:tur, Compre:nde:ns pugno: gelido: Illud ve:xillum cum signo:, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior! Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lu:ce fri:gida: pulchrum; Et caelo: procul exie:ns Cadit vo:x, ut Stella cade:ns, Excelsior! [Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in _Praeco Latinus_, October, 1898.] PART II WORDS AND FORMS LESSON I FIRST PRINCIPLES _19._ Subject and Predicate. 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus, _Galba is a farmer_ Galba est agricola _The sailor fights_ Nauta pugnat In each of these sentences there are two parts: SUBJECT PREDICATE _Galba_ _is a farmer_ Galba _The sailor_ _fights_ Nauta pugnat 2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the same purpose. _a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, "instead of," and _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; /he\ is a sturdy fellow_. 3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers. _a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. _20._ The Object. In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The /doer\ of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the /subject\. /That to which something is done\ is the /direct object\ of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows: SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ _The boy_ _hit the ball_ (verb) (direct object) _a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a /transitive verb\. A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called /intransitive\, as, _I walk_, _he comes_. _21._ The Copula. The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the /copula\, that is, _the joiner_ or _link_. _22._ In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_: 1. America est patria mea _America is fatherland my_ 2. Agricola filiam amat _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_ 3. Filia est Iulia _(His) daughter is Julia_ 4. Iulia et agricola sunt in insula _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_ 5. Iulia aquam portat _Julia water carries_ 6. Rosam in comis habet _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_ 7. Iulia est puella pulchra _Julia is (a) girl pretty_ 8. Domina filiam pulchram habet _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_ _a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article /the\ or /a\_; thus _agricola_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_, or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he, she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. LESSON II FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) _23._ Inflection. Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer's; woman, women_. This is called /inflection\. The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its /declension\, that of a verb its /conjugation\. _24._ Number. Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare Naut-a pugnat _The sailor fights_ Naut-ae pugnant _The sailors fight_ _25._ RULE. _Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the plural_. _26._ Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each. agri'cola, _farmer_ (agriculture)[1] aqua, _water_ (aquarium) causa, _cause, reason_ do'mina, _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate) filia, _daughter_ (filial) fortu'na, _fortune_ fuga, _flight_ (fugitive) iniu'ria, _wrong, injury_ luna, _moon_ (lunar) nauta, _sailor_ (nautical) puel'la, _girl_ silva, forest (silvan) terra, _land_ (terrace) [Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as /causa\, _cause_, no comparison is needed.] _27._ Compare again the sentences Nauta pugna-t _The sailor fights_ Nautae pugna-nt _The sailors fight_ In the first sentence the verb /pugna-t\ is in the third person singular, in the second sentence /pugna-nt\ is in the third person plural. _28._ RULE. Agreement of Verb. _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._ _29._ RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt. The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called /personal endings\._ _30._ Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb's subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus /nauta pugnat\ is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_. ama-t _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable) labo:'ra-t " " " _labors, is laboring, does labor_ nu:ntia-t[2] " " " _announces, is announcing, does announce_ porta-t " " " _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter) pugna-t " " " _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious) [Footnote 2: The _u_ in /nu:ntio:\ is long by exception. (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)] _31._ EXERCISES I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries. II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Filia laborat, filiae laborant. 5. Nauta nuntiat, nautae nuntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat. [Illustration: DOMINA] LESSON III FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) _32._ Declension of Nouns. We learned above (Secs. 19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady. 1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences: Domina filiam amat Filiam domina amat Amat filiam domina Domina amat filiam _The lady loves her daughter_ Filia dominam amat Dominam filia amat Amat dominam filia Filia amat dominam _The daughter loves the lady_ _a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in -a and the object in -am. The _form_ of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning. 2. As stated above (Sec. 23), this change of ending is called /declension\, and each different ending produces what is called a /case\. When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding _'s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_ _33._ The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized: ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of _who?_ | and use | /domina\ | and use | | | | | and translation | | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | do'min-a | Nominative-- | | S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive-- | domin-ae | Genitive-- | | U | | case of the | _the lady's_ | case of the | | L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective-- | domin-am | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | domin-ae | Nominative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive-- | domin-a:'rum | Genitive-- | | R | | case of the | _the ladies'_ | case of the | | A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective-- | domin-a:s | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ When the nominative singular of a noun ends in -a, observe that _a._ The nominative plural ends in -ae. _b._ The genitive singular ends in -ae and the genitive plural in -a:rum. _c._ The accusative singular ends in -am and the accusative plural in -a:s. _d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending. _34._ EXERCISE Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses. 1. Silva, silvas, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrarum, terrae, terras. 4. Aquas, causam, lunas. 5. Filiae, fortunae, lunae. 6. Iniurias, agricolarum, aquarum. 7. Iniuriarum, agricolae, puellas. 8. Nautam, agricolas, nautas. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvarum. LESSON IV FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] [See Transcriber's Note at beginning of text.] NOUNS /dea\, _goddess_ (deity) Dia:'na, _Diana_ /fera\, _a wild beast_ (fierce) La:to:'na, _Latona_ /sagit'ta\, _arrow_ VERBS /est\, _he (she, it) is_; /sunt\, _they are_ /necat\, _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] /et\, _and_ PRONOUNS /quis\, interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ /cuius\ (pronounced _c[oo]i'y[oo]s_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] _35._ We learned from the table (Sec. 33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence: Filia agricolae nautam amat, _the farmer's daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_) _loves the sailor_ What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it? _36._ RULE. Nominative Subject. _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_ _37._ RULE. Accusative Object. _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_ _38._ RULE. Genitive of the Possessor. _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_ [Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT] _39._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. 1. Diana est dea. 2. Latona est dea. 3. Diana et Latona sunt deae. 4. Diana est dea lunae. 5. Diana est filia Latonae. 6. Latona Dianam amat. 7. Diana est dea silvarum. 8. Diana silvam amat. 9. Diana sagittas portat. 10. Diana feras silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrarum pugnant. For the order of words imitate the Latin above. II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona's daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers' daughters do labor. 4. The farmer's daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls' flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors' wrongs. 7. The farmer's daughter labors. 8. Diana's arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land. _40._ CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding. 1. Quis est Diana? 2. Cuius filia est Diana? 3. Quis Dianam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittas portat? 6. Cuius filiae laborant? LESSON V FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /coro:'na\, _wreath, garland, crown_ fa:'bula, _story_ (fable) /pecu:'nia\, _money_ (pecuniary) /pugna\, _battle_ (pugnacious) /victo:'ria\, _victory_ VERBS /dat\, _he (she, it) gives_ na:rrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] /quia\ or /quod\, _because_ /cui\ (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] _41._ The Dative Case. In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1] [Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called /prepositions\.] Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_. _42._ When the nominative singular ends in -a, the dative singular ends in -ae and the dative plural in -i:s. NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, -ae; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended. _a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: /fuga\, /causa\, /fortuna\, /terra\, /aqua\, /puella\, /agricola\, /nauta\, /domina\. _43._ The Dative Relation. The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_. These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists. _a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following? The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another. _44._ The Indirect Object. Examine the sentence Nauta fugam nuntiat, _the sailor announces the flight_ Here the verb, /nuntiat\, governs the direct object, /fugam\, in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons /to whom\ the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight /to the farmers\_, the verb will have two objects: 1. Its direct object, _flight_ (fugam) 2. Its indirect object, _farmers_ According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule: _45._ RULE. Dative Indirect Object. _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._ _a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object. _46._ We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have Nauta agricolis fugam nuntiat _47._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. _Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._ I. 1. Quis nautis pecuniam dat? 2. Filiae agricolae nautis pecuniam dant. 3. Quis fortunam pugnae nuntiat? 4. Galba agricolis fortunam pugnae nuntiat. 5. Cui domina fabulam narrat? 6. Filiae agricolae domina fabulam narrat. 7. Quis Dianae coronam dat? 8. Puella Dianae coronam dat quia Dianam amat. 9. Dea lunae sagittas portat et feras silvarum necat. 10. Cuius victoriam Galba nuntiat? 11. Nautae victoriam Galba nuntiat. Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise. II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (Sec. 22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana's. [Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.] LESSON VI FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] ADJECTIVES /bona\, _good_ /gra:ta\, _pleasing_ /magna\, _large, great_ /mala\, _bad, wicked_ /parva\, _small, little_ /pulchra\, _beautiful, pretty_ /so:la\, _alone_ NOUNS ancil'la, _maidservant_ Iu:lia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] /cu:r\, _why_ /no:n\, _not_ PRONOUNS /mea\, _my_; /tua\, _thy, your_ (possesives) /quid\, interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ /-ne\, the question sign, an enclitic (Sec. 16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as /amat\, _he loves_, but /amat'ne\? _does he love?_ /est\, _he is_; /estne\? _is he?_ Of course /-ne\ is not used when the sentence contains /quis\, /cu:r\, or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] _48._ The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab'la-tive._ _49._ When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -a: and the ablative plural in -i:s. _a._ Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the final -a: of the ablative is long, as, Nom. filia Abl. filia: _b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural. _c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: /fuga\, /causa\, /fortuna\, /terra\, /aqua\, /puella\, /agricola\, /nauta\, /domina\. _50._ The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes 1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_. 2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by _with_ or _by_. 3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by _in_ or _at_. _a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following? In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o'clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome. _51._ Prepositions. While, as stated above (Sec. 41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative. _52._ RULE. Object of a Preposition. _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._ _53._ Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are a:[1] or ab, _from, away from_ de:, _from, down from_ e:[1] or ex, _from, out from, out of_ cum, _with_ in, _in, on_ [Footnote 1: /a:\ and /e:\ are used only before words beginning with a consonant; /ab\ and /ex\ are used before either vowels or consonants.] 1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon. _54._ Adjectives. Examine the sentence Puella parva bonam deam amat, _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In this sentence /parva\ (_little_) and /bonam\ (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe. [Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ "When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter's morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 'My pretty boy,' said he, 'has your father a grindstone?' 'Yes, sir,' said I. 'You are a fine little fellow,' said he. 'Will you let me grind my ax on it?'"] You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of /parva\ shows that it belongs to /puella\, and the ending of /bonam\ that it belongs to /deam\. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_. _55._ Examine the sentences Puella est parva, _the girl is little_ Puella parva bonam deam amat, _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In the first sentence the adjective /parva\ is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives /parva\ and /bonam\ are closely attached to the nouns /puella\ and /deam\ respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._ _a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following: Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy. _56._ DIALOGUE JULIA AND GALBA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. Quis, Galba, est Diana? G. Diana, Iulia, est pulchra dea lunae et silvarum. I. Cuius filia, Galba, est Diana? G. Latonae filia, Iulia, est Diana. I. Quid Diana portat? G. Sagittas Diana portat. I. Cur Diana sagittas portat? G. Diana sagittas portat, Iulia, quod malas feras silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Latona filiam? G. Amat, et filia Latonam amat. I. Quid filia tua parva portat? G. Coronas pulchras filia mea parva portat. I. Cui filia tua coronas pulchras dat? G. Dianae coronas dat. I. Quis est cum filia tua? Estne sola? G. Sola non est; filia mea parva est cum ancilla mea. _a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the _voc'ative_ (Latin _vocare_, "to call"). _In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue. _b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ /Pugnatne nauta?\ you would say /Pugnat\, _he is fighting_, or /Non pugnat\, _he is not fighting._ LESSON VII THE FIRST OR _A:_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /casa, -ae\, f., _cottage_ ce:na, -ae, f., _dinner_ /galli:'na, -ae\, f., _hen, chicken_ /i:n'sula, ae\, f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS /de-in'de\, _then, in the next place_ /ubi\, _where_ PREPOSITION /ad\, _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN /quem\, interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha'bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) /laudat\, _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) /parat\, _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ /vocat\, _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) _57._ In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a. All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _A_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel /a\ plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table: +-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | SINGULAR | | +-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | Nom. | do'min-a | _the lady_ | The subject | | | | | | | Gen. | domin-ae | _of the lady_, | The possessor | | | | or _the lady's_ | of something | | | | | | | Dat. | domin-ae | _to_ or _for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady_ | _to_ or _for_, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | Acc. | domin-am | _the lady_ | The direct object | | | | | | | Abl. | domin-a: | _from, with, by, | Separation (_from_), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (_with, by_), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (_in, at_) | +-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | PLURAL | | +-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | Nom. | domin-ae | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | Gen. | domin-a:'rum | _of the ladies_, | | | | | or _the ladies'_ | | | | | | | | Dat. | domin-i:s | _to_ or _for | The same as | | | | the ladies_ | the singular | | | | | | | Acc. | domin-a:s | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | Abl. | domin-i:s | _from, with, by_, | | | | | _in, the ladies_ | | +-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ _58._ The Base. That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base. Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the termination of the nominative singular. _59._ Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally. /pugna\, /terra\, /luna\, /ancil'la\, /coro'na\, /in'sula\, /silva\ _60._ Gender. In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called /natural gender\. Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, "Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty." And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, "Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home." Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called /grammatical gender\. Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, /lapis\, _a stone_; /rupes\, _a cliff_; and /saxum\, _a rock_. /Lapis\ is _masculine_, /rupes\ _feminine_, and /saxum\ _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin. _61._ Gender of First-Declension Nouns. Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus /silva\ is feminine, but /nauta\, _sailor_, and /agricola\, _farmer_, are masculine. _62._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. I. 1. Agricola cum filia in casa habitat. 2. Bona filia agricolae cenam parat. 3. Cena est grata agricolae[1] et agricola bonam filiam laudat. 4. Deinde filia agricolae gallinas ad cenam vocat. 5. Gallinae filiam agricolae amant. 6. Malae filiae bonas cenas non parant. 7. Filia agricolae est grata dominae. 8. Domina in insula magna habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecuniam dat. II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting (parat) a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter's good dinner is pleasing to the farmer. [Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. Sec. 43.)] [Illustration] What Latin words are suggested by this picture? _63._ CONVERSATION Answer the questions in Latin. 1. Quis cum agricola in casa habitat? 2. Quid bona filia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne filia agricolae gallinas ad cenam? 5. Cuius filia est grata dominae? 6. Cui domina pecuniam dat? LESSON VIII FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /Italia, -ae\, f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ /tuba, -ae\, f., _trumpet_ (tube) /via, -ae\, f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES /alta\, _high, deep_ (altitude) /cla:ra\, _clear, bright; famous_ /la:ta\, _wide_ (latitude) /longa\, _long_ (longitude) /nova\, _new_ (novelty) _64._ We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (Sec. 54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase /silva magna\, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a. _65._ RULE. Agreement of Adjectives. _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._ _66._ Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows: NOUN ADJECTIVE domina (BASE domin-), bona (BASE bon-), f., _lady_ _good_ SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. do'mina bona -a Gen. dominae bonae -ae Dat. dominae bonae -ae Acc. dominam bonam -am Abl. domina: bona: -a: PLURAL Nom. dominae bonae -ae Gen. domina:'rum bona:'rum -a:rum Dat. domini:s boni:s -i:s Acc. domina:s bona:s -a:s Abl. domini:s boni:s -i:s _a._ In the same way decline together /puella mala\, _the bad girl_; /ancil'la parva\, _the little maid_; /fortu'na magna\, _great fortune._ _67._ The words /dea\, _goddess_, and /filia\, _daughter_, take the ending -a:bus instead of -i:s in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension: dea bona (BASES de- bon-) SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. dea bona deae bonae Gen. deae bonae dea:'rum bona:'rum Dat. deae bonae dea:'bus boni:s Acc. deam bonam dea:s bona:s Abl. dea: bona: dea'bus boni:s _a._ In the same way decline together /filia parva\. _68._ Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same. In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_. In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. Sec. 32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences _I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order) _/Last November\ I saw a game of football at Chicago_ _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of /football\_ 1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_; usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows: _subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_-- _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_ Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin._ 2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as filia mea, _my daughter_; mea filia, _/my\ daughter_; casa Galbae, _Galba's cottage_; Galbae casa, _/Galba's\ cottage_. Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways: Filia mea agricolis cenam parat (normal order) Mea filia agricolis parat cenam (/mea\ and /cenam\ emphatic) Agricolis filia mea cenam parat (/agricolis\ emphatic) 3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words. Filia mea casam parvam non amat (/parvam\ not emphatic) Filia mea parvam casam non amat (/parvam\ more emphatic) Parvam filia mea casam non amat (/parvam\ very emphatic) 4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English. 5. The copula (as /est\, /sunt\) is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well. _69._ EXERCISE First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. _Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._ 1. Longae non sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in mea casa? Non sunt. 3. Quis lata in silva habitat? Diana, lunae clarae pulchra dea, lata in silva habitat. 4. Nautae altas et latas amant aquas. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iulia? In tua casa est Lesbia et Iulia est in mea. 7. Estne Italia lata terra? Longa est Italia, non lata. 8. Cui Galba agricola fabulam novam narrat? Filiabus dominae clarae fabulam novam narrat. 9. Clara est insula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Latona? Latona laudat filiam. * * * * * First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, Secs. 502-505 * * * * * LESSON IX THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /bellum, -i:\, n., _war_ (re-bel) /co:nstantia, -ae\, f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -i:, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) /equus, -i:\, m., _horse_ (equine) /fru:mentum, -i:\, n., _grain_ /le:ga:tus, -i:\, m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) /Ma:rcus, -i:\, m., _Marcus, Mark_ /mu:rus, -i:\, m., _wall_ (mural) /oppida:nus, -i:\, m., _townsman_ /oppidum, -i:\, n., _town_ /pi:lum, -i:\, n., _spear_ (pile driver) /servus, -i:\, m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -i:, m., _Sextus_ VERBS /cu:rat\, _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. /properat\, _he (she, it) hastens_ _70._ Latin nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender. _71._ The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -i:. _72._ Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine. _73._ Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows: dominus (BASE domin-), pi:lum (BASE pi:l-), m., _master_ n., _spear_ TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR Nom. do'minus[1] -us pi:lum -um Gen. domini: -i: pi:li: -i: Dat. domino: -o: pi:lo: -o: Acc. dominum -um pi:lum -um Abl. domino: -o: pi:lo: -o: Voc. domine -e pi:lum -um PLURAL Nom. domini: -i: pi:la -a Gen. domino:'rum -o:rum pi:lo:'rum -o:rum Dat. domini:s -i:s pi:li:s -i:s Acc. domino:s -o:s pi:la -a Abl. domini:s -i:s pi:li:s -i:s [Footnote 1: Compare the declension of /domina\ and of /dominus\.] _a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. _b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -e, as /domine\, _O master_; /serve\, _O slave_. This is the most important exception to the rule in Sec. 56.a. _74._ Write side by side the declension of /domina\, /dominus\, and /pilum\. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions: _a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see Sec. 73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural. _b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a. _c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s. _d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike. _e._ Final -i and -o are always _long_; final -a is _short_, except in the ablative singular of the first declension. _75._ Observe the sentences Lesbia est bona, _Lesbia is good_ Lesbia est ancilla, _Lesbia is a maidservant_ We have learned (Sec. 55) that /bona\, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as /ancilla\, used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a /predicate noun\. _76._ RULE. Predicate Noun. _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._ [Illustration: PILA] _77._ DIALOGUE GALBA AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. G. Quis, Marce, est legatus cum pilo et tuba? M. Legatus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppido Sextus cum filiabus habitat. G. Amantne oppidani Sextum? M. Amant oppidani Sextum et laudant, quod magna cum constantia pugnat. G. Ubi, Marce, est ancilla tua? Cur non cenam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equo legati aquam et frumentum dat. G. Cur non servus Sexti equum domini curat? M. Sextus et servus ad murum oppidi properant. Oppidani bellum parant.[3] [Footnote 2: /habitat\ is here translated _does live_. Note the _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: /habitat\ _he lives_ _he is living_ _he does live_ Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.] [Footnote 3: Observe that the verb /paro\ means not only _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the accusative case.] [Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA] _78._ CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. 1. Ubi filiae Sexti habitant? 2. Quem oppidani amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equo legati dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla curat? 5. Quis ad murum cum Sexto properat? 6. Quid oppidani parant? LESSON X SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /ami:cus, -i:\, m., _friend_ (amicable) /Germa:nia, -ae\, f., _Germany_ /patria, -ae\, f., _fatherland_ /populus, -i:\, m., _people_ /Rhe:nus, -i:\, m., _the Rhine_ /vi:cus, -i:\, m., _village_ _79._ We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like /bona\, in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like /dominus\, and _neuters_ like pilum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows: MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE dominus bonus, _the good master_ pi:lum bonum, _the good spear_ BASES domin- bon- BASES pi:l- bon- TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR Nom. do'minus bonus -us pi:lum bonum -um Gen. domini: boni: -i: pi:li: boni: -i: Dat. domino: bono: -o: pi:lo: bono: -o: Acc. dominum bonum -um pi:lum bonum -um Abl. domino: bono: -o: pi:lo: bono: -o: Voc. domine bone -e pi:lum bonum -um PLURAL Nom. domini: boni: -i: pi:la bona -a Gen. domino:'rum bono:'rum -o:rum pi:lo:'rum bono:'rum -o:rum Dat. domini:s boni:s -is pi:li:s boni:s -i:s Acc. domino:s bono:s -o:s pi:la bona -a Abl. domini:s boni:s -i:s pi:li:s boni:s -i:s Decline together /bellum longum\, /equus parvus\, /servus malus\, /murus altus\, /frumentum novum\. _80._ Observe the sentences Lesbia ancilla est bona, _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ Filia Lesbiae ancillae est bona, _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat, _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_ In these sentences /ancilla\, /ancillae\, and /ancillam\ denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case. _81._ RULE. Apposition. _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._ _82._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Patria servi boni, vicus servorum bonorum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidi magni, in oppido magno, in oppidis magnis. 3. Cum pilis longis, ad pila longa, ad muros latos. 4. Legate male, amici legati mali, cena grata domino bono. 5. Frumentum equorum parvorum, domine bone, ad legatos claros. 6. Rhenus est in Germania, patria mea. 7. Sextus legatus pilum longum portat. 8. Oppidani boni Sexto legato clara pecuniam dant. 9. Mali servi equum bonum Marci domini necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iulia filia bona laborant. 11. Marcus nauta in insula Sicilia habitat. II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from (ex) a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer's daughter. [Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that /curat\ is transitive and governs a direct object.] [Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. Sec. 43.)] LESSON XI ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /arma, armo:rum\, n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons /fa:ma, -ae\, f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ /galea, -ae\, f., _helmet_ /praeda, -ae\, f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) /te:lum, -i:\, n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES /du:rus, -a, -um\, _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) /Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um\, _Roman_. As a noun, /Ro:ma:nus, -i:\, m., _a Roman_ _83._ Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows: MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR Nom. bonus bona bonum Gen. boni: bonae boni: Dat. bono: bonae bono: Acc. bonum bonam bonum Abl. bono: bona: bono: Voc. bone bona bonum PLURAL Nom. boni: bonae bona Gen. bono:rum bona:rum bono:rum Dat. boni:s boni:s boni:s Acc. bono:s bona:s bona Abl. boni:s boni:s boni:s _a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus giving the three genders for each case. _b._ Decline /gratus, -a, -um\; /malus, -a, -um\; /altus, -a, -um\; /parvus, -a, -um\. _84._ Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, /nauta\, _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective /bonus\ is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is /nauta bonus\. So, _the wicked farmer_ is /agricola malus\. Learn the following declensions: _85._ nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_ SINGULAR Nom. nauta bonus Gen. nautae boni: Dat. nautae bono: Acc. nautam bonum Abl. nauta: bono: Voc. nauta bone PLURAL Nom. nautae boni: Gen. nauta:rum bono:rum Dat. nauti:s boni:s Acc. nauta:s bono:s Abl. nauti:s boni:s Voc. nautae boni: _86._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Est[1] in vico nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amicus nautae boni. 3. Sextus nautae bono galeam dat. 4. Populus Romanus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nauta bono praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt anna et tela legati Romani? 7. Nautae boni ad bellum properant. 8. Fama nautarum bonorum est clara. 9. Pugnae sunt gratae nautis bonis. 10. Oppidani nautas bonos curant. 11. Cur, nautae boni, mali agricolae ad Rhenum properant? 12. Mali agricolae cum bonis nautis pugnant. II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba's daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers? [Footnote 1: /Est\, beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._] [Illustration: GALEAE] LESSON XII NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /fi:lius, fi:li:\, m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvi:, m., _river_ (fluent) /gladius, gladi:\, m., _sword_ (gladiator) /praesidium, praesi'di:\, n., _garrison, guard, protection_ /proelium, proeli:\, n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES /fi:nitimus, -a, -um\, _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, /fi:nitimi:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _neighbors_ /Germa:nus, -a, -um\, _German_. As a noun, /Germa:nus, -i:\, m., _a German_ /multus, -a, -um\, _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB /saepe\, _often_ _87._ Nouns of the second declension in -ius and -ium end in -i: in the genitive singular, _not_ in -ii:, and the accent rests on the penult; as, /fi:li:\ from /fi:lius\ (_son_), /praesi'di:\ from /praesi'dium\ (_garrison_). _88._ Proper names of persons in -ius, and /fi:lius\, end in -i: in the vocative singular, _not_ in -e, and the accent rests on the penult; as, /Vergi'li:\, _O Vergil_; /fi:li:\, _O son._ _a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike. _89._ praesidium (base praesidi-), fi:lius (base fi:li-), n., _garrison_ m., _son_ SINGULAR Nom. praesidium fi:lius Gen. praesi'di: fi:li: Dat. praesidio: fi:lio: Acc. praesidium fi:lium Abl. praesidio: fi:lio: Voc. praesidium fi:li: The plural is regular. Note that the -i- of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like /filius\. Decline together /praesidium parvum\; /filius bonus\; /fluvius longus\, _the long river_; /proelium clarum\, _the famous battle._ _90._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Frumentum bonae terrae, gladi mali, belli longi. 2. Constantia magna, praesidia magna, clare Vergili. 3. Male serve, O clarum oppidum, male fili, filii mali, fili mali. 4. Fluvi longi, fluvii longi, fluviorum longorum, fama praesi'di magni. 5. Cum gladiis parvis, cum deabus claris, ad nautas claros. 6. Multorum proeliorum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dura. GERMANIA II. Germania, patria Germanorum, est clara terra. In Germania sunt fluvii multi. Rhenus magnus et latus fluvius Germaniae est. In silvis latis Germaniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germanii in oppidis magnis et in vicis parvis habitant et multi sunt agricolae boni. Bella Germanorum sunt magna et clara. Populus Germaniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimis pugnat. Fluvius Rhenus est finitimus oppidis[1] multis et claris. [Footnote 1: Dative with /finitimus\. (See Sec. 43.)] LESSON XIII SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /ager, agri:\, m., _field_ (acre) /co:pia, -ae\, f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ /Corne:lius, Corne:'li:\, m., _Cornelius_ /lo:ri:'ca, -ae\, f., _coat of mail, corselet_ /praemium, praemi:\, n., _reward, prize_ (premium) /puer, pueri:\, m., _boy_ (puerile) /Ro:ma, -ae\, f., _Rome_ /scu:tum, -i:\, n., _shield_ (escutcheon) /vir, viri:\, m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES /legio:na:rius, -a, -um\,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, /legio:na:rii:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ /li:ber, li:bera, li:berum\, _free_ (liberty) As a noun. /li:beri:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) /pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\, _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION /apud\, _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION /sed\, _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii: and the vocative in -ie; not in -i:, as in nouns.] _91._ Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_. In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in -os. This -os later became -us in words like /servus\, and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in -r, like /puer\, _boy_; /ager\, _field_; and /vir\, _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows: _92._ puer, m., _boy_ ager, m., _field_ vir, m., _man_ BASE puer- BASE agr- BASE vir- SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. puer ager vir ---- Gen. pueri: agri: viri: -i: Dat. puero: agro: viro: -o: Acc. puerum agrum virum -um Abl. puero: agro: viro: -o: PLURAL Nom. pueri: agri: viri: -i: Gen. puero:rum agro:rum viro:rum -o:rum Dat. pueri:s agri:s viri:s -i:s Acc. puero:s agro:s viro:s -o:s Abl. pueri:s agri:s viri:s -i:s _a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (Sec. 74.a). _b._ The declension differs from that of /servus\ only in the nominative and vocative singular. _c._ Note that in /puer\ the /e\ remains all the way through, while in /ager\ it is present only in the nominative. In /puer\ the /e\ belongs to the base, but in /ager\ (base agr-) it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in -er are declined like /ager\. _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ /puer\ _or_ /ager\. _93._ Masculine adjectives in -er of the second declension are declined like nouns in -er. A few of them are declined like /puer\, but most of them like /ager\. The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus, MASC. FEM. NEUT. liber libera liberum (_free_) is like /puer\ pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_) is like /ager\ For the full declension in the three genders, see Sec. 469._b._ _c._ _94._ Decline together the words /vir liber\, /terra libera\, /frumentum liberum\, /puer pulcher\, /puella pulchra\, /oppidum pulchrum\ _95._ ITALIA[1] First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. Magna est Italiae fama, patriae Romanorum, et clara est Roma, domina orbis terrarum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Romanum, quis non laudat et pulchros fluvio finitimos agros? Altos muros, longa et dura bella, claras victorias quis non laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agri boni agricolis praemia dant magna, et equi agricolarum copiam frumenti ad oppida et vicos portant. In agris populi Romani laborant multi servi. Viae Italiae sunt longae et latae. Finitima Italiae est insula Sicilia. [Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.] [Footnote 2: /orbis terrarum\, _of the world_.] [Footnote 3: /Tiberim\, _the Tiber_, accusative case.] _96._ DIALOGUE MARCUS AND CORNELIUS C. Ubi est, Marce, filius tuus? Estne in pulchra terra Italia? M. Non est, Corneli, in Italia. Ad fluvium Rhenum properat cum copiis Romanis quia est[4] fama Novi belli cum Germanis. Liber Germaniae populus Romanos Non amat. C. Estne filius tuus copiarum Romanarum legatus? M. Legatus non est, sed est apud legionarios. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scutum magnum et loricam duram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae tela portat? M. Gladium et pilum longum portat. C. Amatne legatus filium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe filio meo praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germanorum? M. Terra Germanorum, Corneli est finitima Rheno, fluvio magno et alto. [Footnote 4: /est\, before its subject, _there is_; so /sunt\, _there are._] [Footnote 5: /Quae\, _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective pronoun.] [Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?] [Illustration: LEGIONARIUS] LESSON XIV THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /auxilium, auxi'li:\, n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) /castrum, -i:\, n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) /cibus, -i:\, m., _food_ /co:nsilium, co:nsi'li:\, n., _plan_ (counsel) /di:ligentia, -ae\, f.. _diligence, industry_ magister, magistri:, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES /aeger, aegra, aegrum\, _sick_ /cre:ber, cre:bra, cre:brum\, _frequent_ /miser, misera, miserum\, _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that /dominus\, as distinguished from /magister\, means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] _97._ Observe the sentences _This is my shield_ _This shield is mine_ In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_. _98._ The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions. SINGULAR _1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_ _2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own), its (own)_ PLURAL _1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_ _2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_ NOTE. /Meus\ has the irregular vocative singular masculine /mi:\, as /mi: fi:li:\, _O my son_. _a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in _Sextus is calling /his\ boy_ Sextus } suum puerum vocat _Julia is calling /her\ boy_ Iulia } Observe that /suum\ agrees with /puerum\, and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia. _b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use /tuus\; when to _more than one_, /vester\; as, _Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_ Coronae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_ Coronae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae _c._ /Suus\ is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus, /Vir suos servos vocat\ means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here _his_ (suos) refers to _man_ (vir), and could not refer to any one else. _d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. Sec. 22.a.) This is especially true of /suus, -a, -um\, which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc. _99._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. 1. Marcus amico Sexto consilium suum nuntiat 2. Est copia frumenti in agris nostris. 3. Amici mei bonam cenam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lorica, mi fili, est dura. 5. Scuta nostra et tela, mi amice, in castrls Romanis sunt. 6. Suntne viri patriae tuae liberi? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Corneli, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casa mea. 9. Pilum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iulia gallinas suas pulchras amat et gallinae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est copia praedae in castris vestris. 13. Amici tui miseris et aegris cibum et pecuniam saepe dant. II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark's industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant's food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours. [Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?] [Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like nouns.] [Footnote 3: Where should /sunt\ stand? Cf. I. 2 above.] [Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT] LESSON XV THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /carrus, -i:\, m., _cart, wagon_ /inopia, -ae\, f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of /co:pia\ /studium, studi:\, n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES /arma:tus, -a, -um\, _armed_ /i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um\, _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali'dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB /ma:tu:rat\, _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB /iam\, _already, now_ /-que\, conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. Sec. 16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as /arma tela'que\, _arms and weapons_. _100._ Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (Sec. 50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by /cum\. This will become clear from the following sentences: _a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness _a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of Mark's feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the /ablative of cause\: Marcus est infirmus inopia cibi _b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells /by means of what\ Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the /ablative of means\: Diana sagittis suis feras necat _c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but /in company with\ Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition /cum\, and the construction is called the /ablative of accompaniment\: Iulia est cum Sexto _d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of /manner\. This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with /cum\, unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case /cum\ may be omitted. This construction is called the /ablative of manner\: Viri (cum) constantia magna pugnant _101._ You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_: _102._ RULE. Ablative of Cause. _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_ _103._ RULE. Ablative of Means. _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_ N.B. /Cum\ must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means. _104._ RULE. Ablative of Accompaniment. _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with /cum\. This answers the question With whom?_ _105._ RULE. Ablative of Manner. _The ablative with /cum\ is used to denote the manner of an action. /Cum\ may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_ _106._ What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer? The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore. _107._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Romani, clarus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agris suis, vicis, oppidisque magno studio viri validi ad arma properant. Iam legati cum legionariis ex Italia ad Rhenum, fluvium Germaniae altum et latum, properant, et servi equis et carris cibum frumentumque ad castra Romana portant. Inopia bonorum telorum infirmi sunt Germani, sed Romani armati galeis, loricis, scutis, gladiis, pilisque sunt validi. II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba's cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons. LESSON XVI THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES _108._ There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders: MASC. FEM. NEUT. Gen. -i:us -i:us -i:us Dat. -i: -i: -i: Otherwise they are declined like /bonus, -a, -um\. Learn the list and the meaning of each: /alius, alia, aliud\, _other, another_ (of several) /alter, altera, alterum\, _the one, the other_ (of two) /u:nus, -a, -um\, _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ /u:llus, -a, -um\, _any_ /nu:llus, -a, -um\, _none, no_ /so:lus, -a, -um\, _alone_ /to:tus, -a, -um\, _all, whole, entire_ /uter, utra, utrum\, _which?_ (of two) /neuter, neutra, neutrum\, _neither_ (of two) _109._ PARADIGMS SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. nu:llus nu:lla nu:llum Gen. nu:lli:'us nu:lli:'us nu:lli:'us Dat. nu:lli: nu:lli: nu:lli: Acc. nu:llum nu:llam nu:llum Abl. nu:llo: nu:lla: nu:llo: MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. alius alia aliud Gen. ali:'us ali:'us ali:'us Dat. alii: alii: alii: Acc. alium aliam aliud Abl. alio: alia: alio: THE PLURAL IS REGULAR _a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in -d of /alius\. The genitive /ali:us\ is rare. Instead of it use /alteri:us\, the genitive of /alter\. _b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see Sec. 114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the /pronominal adjectives\. _110._ Learn the following idioms: /alter, -era, -erum\ ... /alter, -era, -erum\, _the one ... the other_ (of two) /alius, -a, -ud\ ... /alius, -a, -ud\, _one ... another _ (of any number) /alii, -ae, -a\ ... /alii, -ae, -a\, _some ... others_ EXAMPLES 1. Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum, _the one town is large, the other small_ (of two towns). 2. Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud infirmum, _one town is strong, another weak_ (of towns in general). 3. Alii gladios, alii scuta portant, _some carry swords, others shields._ _111._ EXERCISES I. 1. In utra casa est Iulia? Iulia est in neutra casa. 2. Nulli malo puero praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Alii viri aquam, alii terram amant. 5. Galba unus (_or_ solus) cum studio laborat. 6. Estne ullus carrus in agro meo? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterius domini, Tullia alterius. 8. Lesbia sola cenam parat. 9. Cena nullius alterius ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nulli alii viro cenam dat. NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns. II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain. LESSON XVII THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /agri: cultu:ra, -ae\, f., _agriculture_ /Gallia, -ae\, f., _Gaul_ /domicili:um, domi:ci'li:\, n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ /Gallus, -i\, m., _a Gaul_ /lacrima, -ae\, f., _tear_ /fe:mina, -ae\, f., _woman_ (female) /numerus, -i:\, m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE /ma:tu:rus, -a, -um\, _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quo:, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) /de:si:derat\, _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION /an\, _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, /Estne Romanus an Gallus?\ _112._ A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called /demonstrative pronouns\, in the latter /demonstrative adjectives\. _113._ Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is /is\, masculine; /ea\, feminine; /id\, neuter SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_ _114._ /Is\ is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of /alius\, Sec. 109. BASE e- SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. is ea id ei: eae ea (_or_ ii:) Gen. eius eius eius eo:rum ea:rum eo:rum Dat. ei: ei: ei: ei:s ei:s ei:s (_or_ ii:s ii:s ii:s) Acc. eum eam id eo:s ea:s ea Abl. eo: ea: eo: ei:s ei:s ei:s (_or_ ii:s ii:s ii:s) Note that the base e- changes to i- in a few cases. The genitive singular /eius\ is pronounced _eh'yus_. In the plural the forms with two /i\'s are preferred and the two /i\'s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce /ii:\ as /i:\ and /ii:s\ as /i:s\. _115._ Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, /is\ would have the following meanings: SINGULAR Nom. is, _he_; ea, _she_; id, _it_ Gen. eius, _of him_ or _his_; eius, _of her, her_, or _hers_; eius, _of it_ or _its_ Dat. ei:, _to_ or _for him_; ei:, _to_ or _for her_; ei:, _to_ or _for it_ Acc. eum, _him_; eam, _her_; id, _it_ Abl. eo:, _with, from_, etc., _him_; ea:, _with, from_, etc., _her_; eo:, _with, from_, etc., _it_ PLURAL Nom. ei: or ii:, eae, ea, _they_ Gen. eo:rum, ea:rum, eo:rum, _of them, their_ Dat. ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, _to_ or _for them_ Acc. eo:s, ea:s, ea, _them_ Abl. ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, _with, from_, etc., _them_ _116._ Comparison between _suus_ and _is_. We learned above (Sec. 98.c) that /suus\ is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by /eius\, the genitive singular of /is\, /ea\, /id\; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using /eorum\ to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and /earum\ to refer to a feminine one. EXAMPLES _Galba calls his_ (own) _son_, Galba suum filium vocat _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another's), Galba eius filium vocat _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_, Iulia suos liberos vocat _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another's), Iulia eius liberos vocat _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_, viri suos pueros laudant _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others'), viri eorum pueros laudant _117._ EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. 1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans. 4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns. _118._ DIALOGUE[1] CORNELIUS AND MARCUS M. Quis est vir, Corneli, cum puero parvo? Estne Romanus et liber? C. Romanus non est, Marce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvis Galliae. M. Estne puer filius eius servi an alterius? C. Neutrius filius est puer. Is est filius legati Sexti. M. Quo puer cum eo servo properat? C. Is cum servo properat ad latos Sexti agros.[2] Totum frumentum est iam maturum et magnus servorum numerus in Italiae[3] agris laborat. M. Agricolaene sunt Galli et patriae suae agros arant? C. Non agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Galli, non agri culturam. Apud eos viri pugnant et feminae auxilio liberorum agros arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster pueris puellisque gratas Gallorum fabulas saepe narrat et laudat eos saepe. C. Mala est fortuna eorum et saepe miseri servi multis cum lacrimis patriam suam desiderant. [Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.] [Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive, noun_.] [Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.] * * * * * Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, Secs. 506-509 * * * * * LESSON XVIII CONJUGATION THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF /SUM\ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS lu:dus, -i:, m.,_school_ /socius, soci:\, m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES /i:ra:tus, -a, -um\, _angry, furious_ (irate) /laetus, -a, -um\, _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodie:, _to-day_ /ibi\, _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future /nunc\, _now, the present moment_ /nu:per\, _lately, recently_, of the immediate past _119._ The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. Sec. 23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_. _120._ The Tenses. The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future: 1. /The present\, that is, _what is happening now_, or _what usually happens_, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE 2. /The past\, that is, _what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES 3. /The future\, that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES _121._ The Moods. Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_. _a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative. _122._ The Persons. There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. Sec. 22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that -t is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and -nt of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -o: _we_ -mus _2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis _3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt _123._ Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows: PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_ _2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_ _3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_ IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-a:'-mus, _we were_ _2d Pers._ er-a:-s, _you were_ er-a:'-tis, _you were_ _3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-a:-nt, _they were_ FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-o:, _I shall be_ er'-i-mus, _we shall be_ _2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er'-i-tis, _you will be_ _3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_ _a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult Secs. 12.2; 14; 15. [Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.] _124._ DIALOGUE THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. S. Ubi es, Marce? Ubi est Quintus? Ubi estis, amici? M. Cum Quinto, Sexte, in silva sum. Non soli sumus; sunt in silva multi alii pueri. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nuper non laetus eras. Cur miser eras? M. Miser eram quia amici mei erant in alio vico et eram solus. Nunc sum apud socios meos. Nunc laeti sumus et erimus. S. Eratisne in ludo hodie? M. Hodie non eramus in ludo, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in ludo? M. Amici mei ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) non ero. S. Cur non ibi eris? Magister, saepe iratus, inopiam tuam studi diligentiaeque non laudat. M. Nuper aeger eram et nunc infirmus sum. _125._ EXERCISE 1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be. 6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys' industry. [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO] LESSON XIX THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMO:_ AND _MONEO:_ _126._ There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive. [Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. Sec. 58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in Sec. 230.] Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._ DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. ama:'re, _to love_ ama:- a: II. mone:'re, _to advise_ mone:- e: III. re'gere, _to rule_ rege- e IV. audi:'re, _to hear_ audi- i: _a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping -re, the ending of the present infinitive. NOTE. The present infinitive of /sum\ is /esse\, and es- is the present stem. _127._ From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses. _128._ The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows: a'mo:, ama:'re (_love_) mo'neo:, mone:'re (_advise_) PRES. STEM ama:- PRES. STEM mone:- SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a'mo:, _I love_ mo'neo:, _I advise_ -o: 2. a'ma:s, _you love_ mo'ne:s, _you advise_ -s 3. a'mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo'net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t 1. ama:'mus, _we love_ mone:'mus, _we advise_ -mus 2. ama:'tis, _you love_ mone:'tis, _you advise_ -tis 3. a'mant, _they love_ mo'nent, _they advise_ -nt 1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses -o and not -m. The form /amo:\ is for /ama-o:\, the two vowels /a-o:\ contracting to /o:\. In /moneo:\ there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in -eo belong to the second conjugation._ 2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel (mone:-o: = mo'neo:), and before final -t (amat, monet) and -nt (amant, monent). Compare Sec. 12.2. _129._ Like /amo:\ and /moneo:\ inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]: [Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.] INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT a'ro, _I plow_ ara're, _to plow_ cu'ro, _I care for_ cura're, _to care for_ *de:'leo:, _I destroy_ de:le:'re, _to destroy_ desi'dero, _I long for_ desidera're, _to long for_ do,[3] _I give_ da're, _to give_ *ha'beo:, _I have_ habe:'re, _to have_ ha'bito, _I live, I dwell_ habita're, _to live, to dwell_ *iu'beo:, _I order_ iube:'re, _to order_ labo'ro, _I labor_ labora're, _to labor_ lau'do, _I praise_ lauda're, _to praise_ matu'ro, _I hasten_ matura're, _to hasten_ *mo'veo:, _I move_ move:'re, _to move_ nar'ro, _I tell_ narra're, _to tell_ ne'co, _I kill_ neca're, _to kill_ nun'tio, _I announce_ nuntia're, _to announce_ pa'ro, _I prepare_ para're, _to prepare_ por'to, _I carry_ porta're, _to carry_ pro'pero, _I hasten_ propera're, _to hasten_ pug'no, _I fight_ pugna're, _to fight_ *vi'deo:, _I see_ vide:'re, _to see_ vo'co, _I call_ voca're, _to call_ [Footnote 3: Observe that in /do:, dare\, the /a\ is _short_, and that the present stem is da- and not da:-. The only forms of /do:\ that have a long are /da:s\ (pres. indic.), /da:\ (pres. imv.), and /da:ns\ (pres. part.).] _130._ The Translation of the Present. In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression /habito\ covers all three of these expressions. _131._ EXERCISES Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form. I. 1. Vocamus, properatis, iubent. 2. Movetis, laudas, vides. 3. Deletis, habetis, dant. 4. Maturas, desiderat, videmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Narramus, moves, vident. 7. Laboratis, properant, portas, parant. 8. Delet, habetis, iubemus, das. N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention. II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce. LESSON XX IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMO:_ AND _MONEO:_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS /fo:rma, -ae\, f., _form, beauty_ /regi:na, -ae\, f., _queen_ (regal) /poena, -ae\, f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ /potentia, -ae\, f., _power_ (potent) /tri:sti:ti:a, -ae\, f., _sadness, sorrow_ ADJECTIVES /septem\, indeclinable, _seven_ /superbus, -a, -um\, _proud, haughty_ (superb) CONJUNCTIONS /no:n so:lum ... sed etiam\, _not only ... but also_ _132._ Tense Signs. Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called _tense signs_. _133._ Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect. The tense sign of the imperfect is -ba:-, which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING ama:- ba- m _loving_ _was_ _I_ The inflection is as follows: CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II PERSONAL SINGULAR ENDINGS 1. ama:'bam, _I was loving_ mone:'bam, _I was advising_ -m 2. ama:'ba:s, _you were loving_ mone:'ba:s, _you were advising_