Project Gutenberg's Latin for Beginners, by Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Latin for Beginners Author: Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge Release Date: April 25, 2006 [EBook #18251] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS *** Produced by Louise Hope, Dave Maddock and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of public domain material by TextKit.com) [Transcriber's Notes: This text file is intended for users whose computers or text readers cannot display either of the utf-8 versions (plain text or html). A few necessary changes have been made. The macron (straight line, representing long vowels) has been replaced everywhere by a circumflex accent: ā ź ī ō ū Ā Ź Ī Ō Ū The "y" in "Pythia", "Lydia" and "peristylum" is also long, and is marked "y:" in vocabulary lists. The breve symbol, representing a short vowel, has been omitted. This symbol was used only in the introductory section on pronunciation (§1-18), and in one or two vocabulary entries. The notation [oo] represents short "oo". Letters shown with combined breve and macron have been expanded as "-ei or -źi", "-ius or -īus". To make this unpaginated e-text easier to use, each chapter's Special Vocabulary has been included with its chapter _in addition to_ its original location near the end of the book. The same was done with the irregular verbs. The vocabulary lists are at the beginning of each chapter, as far as possible from the Exercises. Boldface is shown by «guillemets», italics by _lines_. The variation between "ę" (English text) and "ae" (Latin text) is as in the original. Bracketed passages in the original are shown in [[double brackets]].] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * LATIN FOR BEGINNERS BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D. Professor in the Michigan State Normal College Ginn and Company Boston · New York · Chicago · London Copyright, 1909, 1911 by Benjamin L. D'Ooge Entered at Stationers' Hall All Rights Reserved 013.4 The Athenęum Press Ginn and Company · Proprietors · Boston · U.S.A. * * * * * PREFACE To make the course preparatory to Cęsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons. The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials. Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar. Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed. It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers: The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions. The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge's "Dictionary of Secondary Latin" and Browne's "Latin Word List" as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cęsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cęsar five or more times. The few words not Cęsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cęsar can easily do so, as the Cęsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cęsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cęsar. The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together. Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cęsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course. Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cęsar's army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation. Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar. The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times. A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout. As an aid to teachers using this book a "Teacher's Manual" has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution. BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE CONTENTS Lesson Page TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction 1-4 PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT, HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11 PART II. WORDS AND FORMS I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--_Subject and Predicate, Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object, Indirect Object, etc._--DIALOGUE 12-24 VII-VIII. FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION--_Gender, Agreement of Adjectives, Word Order_ 25-30 IX-X. SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION--_Predicate Noun, Apposition_--DIALOGUE 31-35 XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 36-37 XII. NOUNS IN «-ius» AND «-ium»--GERMĀNIA 38-39 XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)--Nouns in «-er» and «-ir»--ITALIA--DIALOGUE 39-41 XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 42-43 XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--_Cause, Means, Accompaniment, Manner_--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR 44-46 XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 46-47 XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE «is, ea, id»--DIALOGUE 48-50 XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of «sum»-- DIALOGUE 51-53 XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō» 54-56 XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- _Meaning of the Imperfect_--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN 56-57 XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) 58-59 XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--_The Dative with Adjectives_-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS 59-61 XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) 61-63 XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- _The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs_ 63-65 XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō» 65-66 XXVI. VERBS IN «-iō»--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active Indicative of «capiō»--_The Imperative_ 66-68 XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative of «amō» and «moneō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA 68-71 XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 72-73 XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «-iō» VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE 73-75 XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM--_Place from Which, Separation, Personal Agent_ 75-78 XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF «sum»-- DIALOGUE 79-81 XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS--_Meanings of the Perfect_--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 81-83 XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE-- PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE 84-85 XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) 86-87 XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE 88-90 XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--_Prepositions, Yes-or-No Questions_ 90-93 XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF «possum»--_The Infinitive used as in English_--_Accusative Subject of an Infinitive_-- THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA 93-96 XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN-- _Agreement of the Relative_--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_) 97-101 XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems 101-106 XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS 107 XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--_I_-Stems 108-110 XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION-- GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE OVER THE RHINE 111-112 XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS INVADE THE ENEMY'S COUNTRY 113-115 XLVI. THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION 116-117 XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--_Place to Which, Place from Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative_-- Declension of «domus»--DĘDALUS AND ICARUS 117-121 XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR _Ź_-DECLENSION--_Ablative of Time_ --DĘDALUS AND ICARUS (_Continued_) 121-123 XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DĘDALUS AND ICARUS (_Concluded_) 123-126 L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN «ipse» AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE «īdem»--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE 126-127 LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES «hic», «iste», «ille»--A GERMAN CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) 128-130 LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) 130-132 LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133-135 LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--_Ablative with Comparatives_ 135-136 LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)-- Declension of «plūs» 137-138 LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)-- _Ablative of the Measure of Difference_ 138-139 LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 140-142 LVIII. NUMERALS--_Partitive Genitive_ 142-144 LIX. NUMERALS (_Continued_)--_Accusative of Extent_-- CĘSAR IN GAUL 144-146 LX. DEPONENT VERBS--_Prepositions with the Accusative_ 146-147 PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present-- _Indicative and Subjunctive Compared_ 148-152 LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153 LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Sequence of Tenses_ 153-155 LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Substantive Clauses of Purpose_ 156-159 LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF «possum»--_Verbs of Fearing_ 160-161 LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension 161-164 LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS «volō», «nōlō», «mālō»-- _Ablative Absolute_ 164-166 LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «fīō»--_Subjunctive of Result_ 167-168 LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--_Predicate Accusative_ 169-171 LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH «cum»--_Ablative of Specification_ 171-173 LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Gerund and Gerundive_-- _Predicate Genitive_ 173-177 LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «eō»--_Indirect Statements_ 177-180 LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB «ferō»-- _Dative with Compounds_ 181-183 LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Subjunctive in Indirect Questions_ 183-185 LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Dative of Purpose or End for Which_ 185-186 LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Genitive and Ablative of Quality or Description_ 186-188 LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--_Review of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative_ 189-190 LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192 LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193 READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195 THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203 P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215 APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. 226-260 APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264 APPENDIX III. REVIEWS 265-282 SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298 LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331 ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343 INDEX 344-348 LATIN FOR BEGINNERS TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION «What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters. [Footnote 1: Pronounce _Lā“shi-um_.] «The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome's power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin. «The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets, artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preėminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art. «Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cęsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day. «Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms. «Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning. «Review Questions». Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome's power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin? PART I THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN THE ALPHABET «1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no _w_ and no _j_. «2.» The vowels, as in English, are _a, e, i, o, u, y_. The other letters are consonants. «3.» _I_ is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called _I consonant_. Thus in Iū-li-us the first _i_ is a consonant, the second a vowel. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1] [Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.] «4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below. «5.» The vowels have the following sounds: VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES ā as in _father_ hāc, stās a like the first _a_ in _aha“_, never as in _hat_ a“-mat, ca-nās ź as in _they_ tź“-la, mź“-ta e as in _met_ te“-net, mer“-cźs ī as in _machine_ ser“-tī, prā“-tī i as in _bit_ si“-tis, bi“-bī ō as in _holy_ Rō“-ma, ō“-ris o as in _wholly_, never as in _hot_ mo“-do, bo“-nōs ū as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_ ū“-mor, tū“-ber u as in _full_, or as _oo_ in _foot_ ut, tū“-tus NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of _a_, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of _quantity_ but also of _quality_. [Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ^, short ones ... ] [Transcriber's Note: In this version of the text, long vowels are shown with a circumflex accent ("hat") and short vowels are unmarked, as described in the introductory notes.] «6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable. DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES «ae» as _ai_ in _aisle_ tae“-dae «au» as _ou_ in _out_ gau“-det «ei» as _ei_ in _eight_ dein“-de «eu» as _e“[oo]_ (a short _e_ followed by a short _u_ in one syllable) seu «oe» like _oi_ in _toil_ foe“-dus «ui» like _[oo]“i_ (a short _u_ followed by a short _i_ in one syllable. Cf. English _we_) cui, huic NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English. «7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except that CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES «c» is always like _c_ in _cat_, never as in _cent_ ca“-dō, ci“-bus, cź“-na «g» is always like _g_ in _get_, never as in _gem_ ge“-mō, gig“-nō «i consonant» is always like _y_ in _yes_ iam, io“-cus «n» before _c, qu_, or _g_ is like _ng_ in _sing_ (compare the sound of _n_ in _anchor_) an“-co-ra (ang“-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of _qw, gw_, and _sw_. Here _u_ has the value of consonant _v_ and is not counted a vowel in“-quit, quī, lin“-gua, san“-guis, suā“-de-ō «s» is like _s_ in _sea_, never as in _ease_ ro“-sa, is «t» is always like _t_ in _native_, never as in _nation_ ra“-ti-ō, nā“-ti-ō «v» is like _w_ in _wine_, never as in _vine_ «vī“-num», «vir» «x» has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and is like _x_ in _extract_, not as in _exact_ «ex“-trā», «ex-āc“-tus» «bs» is like _ps_ and «bt» like _pt_ «urbs», «ob-ti“-ne-ō» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like _c_, _p_, _t_ «pul“-cher», «Phoe“-bź», «the-ā“-trum» _a._ In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce _tt_ as in _rat-trap_, not as in _rattle_; _pp_ as in _hop-pole_, not as in _upper_. Examples, «mit“-tō», «Ap“pi-us», «bel“-lum.» SYLLABLES «8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tā“-te» has three syllables, «au-di-en“-dus» has four. _a._ Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English _inside_ with Latin īn-sī“-de. «9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows: 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «a-mā“-bi-lis», «me-mo“-ri-a», «in-te“-re-ā», «a“-best», «pe-rź“-git».[3] [Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eā», «ab-est», «sub-āctus», «per-źgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.] 2. Combinations of two or more consonants: _a._ A consonant followed by _l_ or _r_ goes with the _l_ or _r_. Thus «pū“-bli-cus», «a“-grī». EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also _ll_ and _rr_, follow rule _b_. Thus «ab“-lu-ō», «ab-rum“-pō», «il“-le», «fer“-rum». _b._ In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «mag“-nus», «e-ges“-tās», «vic-tō“-ri-a», «hos“-pes», «an“-nus», «su-bāc“-tus». [Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fūnc-tus, sānc-tus.] 3. The last syllable of a word is called the _ul“-ti-ma_; the one next to the last, the _pe-nult“_; the one before the penult, the _an“-te-pe-nult“_. «10.» EXERCISE Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated: Vā“de ad formī“cam, Ō pķger, et cōnsī“derā vķās éius et dķsce sapiéntiam: quae cum nōn hįbeat dścem nec praeceptō“rem nec prī“ncipem, pįrat in aestā“te cķbum sķbi et cóngregat in mésse quod cómedat. [[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]] QUANTITY «11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity. «12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (^) or short. In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short. [Transcriber's Note: The wording of § 12 is as in the original, except that the macron (long-vowel symbol) has been replaced with a circumflex accent ("hat"), and the breve (short-vowel symbol) has been omitted.] 1. A vowel is short before another vowel or _h_; as «po-ź“-ta», «tra“-hō». 2. A vowel is short before _nt_ and _nd_, before final _m_ or _t_, and, except in words of one syllable, before final _l_ or _r_. Thus «a“-mant», «a-man“-dus», «a-mā“-bam», «a-mā“-bat», «a“-ni-mal», «a“-mor». 3. A vowel is long before _nf_, _ns_, _nx_, and _nct_. Thus «īn“-fe-rō», «re“-gźns», «sān“-xī», «sānc“-tus». 4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked. «13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels. 1. «A syllable is short», _a._ If it ends in a short vowel; as «a“-mō», «pi“-gri». NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «me-mo“-ri-am» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant. 2. «A syllable is long», _a._ If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cū“-rō», «poe“-nae», «aes-tā“-te». _b._ If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor“-pus», «mag“-nus». NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter“-ra», «in“-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_). 3. In determining quantity _h_ is not counted a consonant. NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cur“-rō» as it does «cū“-rō», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mol“-lis» and «mō“-lis», «ā-mis“-sī» and «ā-mi“-sī». ACCENT «14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mźn“-sa», «Cae“-sar». «15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nź“-mus», «re“-gi-tur», «a-gri“-co-la», «a-man“-dus». NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the _syllable_ and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.) «16.» Certain little words called _enclit“ics_[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», _and_; «-ve», _or_; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus“que», «dea“que», «rźgna“ve», «audit“ne». [Footnote 5: Enclitic means _leaning back_, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.] HOW TO READ LATIN «17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word. «18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter. EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6] The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, 'mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Cadźbant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vīcum Alpicum Gelū nivequ(e) adolźscźns, Vźxillum cum signō ferźns, Excelsior! His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior! Frōns trīstis, micat oculus Velut ź vāgīnā gladius; Sonantque similźs tubae Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior! In domibus videt clārās Focōrum lūcźs calidās; Relucet glaciźs ācris, Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs, Excelsior! "Try not the Pass!" the old man said; "Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!" And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior! Dīcit senex, "Nź trānseās! Suprā nigrźscit tempestās; Lātus et altus est torrźns." Clāra vźnit vōx respondźns, Excelsior! At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior! Iam lūcźscźbat, et frātrźs Sānctī Bernardī vigilźs Ōrābant precźs solitās, Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās, Excelsior! A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Sźmi-sepultus viātor Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur, Comprźndźns pugnō gelidō Illud vźxillum cum signō, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior! Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum; Et caelō procul exiźns Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadźns, Excelsior! [Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in _Praeco Latinus_, October, 1898.] PART II WORDS AND FORMS LESSON I FIRST PRINCIPLES «19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus, _Galba is a farmer_ «Galba est agricola» _The sailor fights_ «Nauta pugnat» In each of these sentences there are two parts: SUBJECT PREDICATE _Galba_ _is a farmer_ «Galba» _The sailor_ _fights_ «Nauta» «pugnat» 2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the same purpose. _a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, "instead of," and _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_. 3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers. _a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. «20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows: SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ _The boy_ _hit the ball_ (verb) (direct object) _a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_, _he comes_. «21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_. «22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_: 1. «America est patria mea» _America is fatherland my_ 2. «Agricola fīliam amat» _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_ 3. «Fīlia est Iūlia» _(His) daughter is Julia_ 4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā» _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_ 5. «Iūlia aquam portat» _Julia water carries_ 6. «Rosam in comīs habet» _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_ 7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra» _Julia is (a) girl pretty_ 8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet» _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_ _a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article «the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_, or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he, she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. LESSON II FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer's; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation». «24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare «Naut-a pugnat» _The sailor fights_ «Naut-ae pugnant» _The sailors fight_ «25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural_. «26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each. «agri“cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1] «aqua», _water_ (aquarium) «causa», _cause, reason_ «do“mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate) «filia», _daughter_ (filial) «fortū“na», _fortune_ «fuga», _flight_ (fugitive) «iniū“ria», _wrong, injury_ «lūna», _moon_ (lunar) «nauta», _sailor_ (nautical) «puel“la», _girl_ «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», _land_ (terrace) [Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», _cause_, no comparison is needed.] «27.» Compare again the sentences «Nauta pugna-t» _The sailor fights_ «Nautae pugna-nt» _The sailors fight_ In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural. «28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._ «29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings»._ «30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb's subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_. «ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable) «labō“ra-t» " " " _labors, is laboring, does labor_ «nūntia-t»[2] " " " _announces, is announcing, does announce_ «porta-t» " " " _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter) «pugna-t» " " " _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious) [Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nūntiō» is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)] «31.» EXERCISES I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries. II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat. [Illustration: DOMINA] LESSON III FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady. 1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences: «Domina fīliam amat» «Fīliam domina amat» «Amat fīliam domina» «Domina amat fīliam» _The lady loves her daughter_ «Fīlia dominam amat» «Dominam fīlia amat» «Amat dominam fīlia» «Fīlia amat dominam» _The daughter loves the lady_ _a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning. 2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding _'s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_ «33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized: ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of _who?_ | and use | «domina» | and use | | | | | and translation | | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «do“min-a» | Nominative-- | | S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ae» | Genitive-- | | U | | case of the | _the lady's_ | case of the | | L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-am» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «domin-ae» | Nominative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ā“rum» | Genitive-- | | R | | case of the | _the ladies'_ | case of the | | A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-ās» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that _a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae». _b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ārum». _c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural in «-ās». _d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending. «34.» EXERCISE Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses. 1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum. LESSON IV FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] [See Transcriber's Note at beginning of text.] NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diā“na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lātō“na, _Latona_ «sagit“ta», _arrow_ VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_ PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _c[oo]i“y[oo]s_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence: «Fīlia agricolae nautam amat», _the farmer's daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_) _loves the sailor_ What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it? «36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_ «37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_ «38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_ [Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT] «39.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant. For the order of words imitate the Latin above. II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona's daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers' daughters do labor. 4. The farmer's daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls' flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors' wrongs. 7. The farmer's daughter labors. 8. Diana's arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land. «40.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding. 1. Quis est Diāna? 2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna? 3. Quis Diānam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittās portat? 6. Cuius fīliae labōrant? LESSON V FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «corō“na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fā“bula, _story_ (fable) «pecū“nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victō“ria», _victory_ VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_ «cui» (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1] [Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».] Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_. «42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs». NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended. _a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_. These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists. _a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following? The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another. «44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence «Nauta fugam nūntiat», _the sailor announces the flight_ Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects: 1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, _farmers_ According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule: «45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._ _a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object. «46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have «Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat» «47.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. _Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._ I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat. Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise. II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana's. [Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.] LESSON VI FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grāta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sōla», _alone_ NOUNS ancil“la, _maidservant_ Iūlia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] «cūr», _why_ «nōn», _not_ PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ «-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat“ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] «48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab“la-tive._ «49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs». _a._ Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as, _Nom._ fīlia _Abl._ fīliā _b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural. _c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes 1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_. 2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by _with_ or _by_. 3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by _in_ or _at_. _a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following? In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o'clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome. «51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative. «52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._ «53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are «ā»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_ «dź», _from, down from_ «ź»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_ «cum», _with_ «in», _in, on_ [Footnote 1: «ā» and «ź» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.] 1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon. «54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe. [Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ "When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter's morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 'My pretty boy,' said he, 'has your father a grindstone?' 'Yes, sir,' said I. 'You are a fine little fellow,' said he. 'Will you let me grind my ax on it?'"] You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_. «55.» Examine the sentences «Puella est parva», _the girl is little_ «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._ _a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following: Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy. «56.» DIALOGUE JULIA AND GALBA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna? G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum. I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna? G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna. I. Quid Diāna portat? G. Sagittās Diāna portat. I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat? G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam? G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat. I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat? G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat. I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat? G. Diānae corōnās dat. I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla? G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā. _a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the _voc“ative_ (Latin _vocāre_, "to call"). _In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue. _b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nōn pugnat», _he is not fighting._ LESSON VII THE FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cźna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallī“na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «īn“sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS «de-in“de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_ PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha“bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) «57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _Ā_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table: +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | SINGULAR | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | do“min-a | _the lady_ | The subject | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ae | _of the lady_, | The possessor | | | | or _the lady's_ | of something | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-ae | _to_ or _for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady_ | _to_ or _for_, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-am | _the lady_ | The direct object | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-ā | _from, with, by, | Separation (_from_), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (_with, by_), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (_in, at_) | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | PLURAL | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | domin-ae | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ā“rum | _of the ladies_, | | | | | or _the ladies'_ | | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-īs | _to_ or _for | The same as | | | | the ladies_ | the singular | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-ās | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-īs | _from, with, by_, | | | | | _in, the ladies_ | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ «58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base». Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular. «59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally. «pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil“la», «corō“na», «īn“sula», «silva» «60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, "Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty." And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, "Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home." Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender». Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rūpźs», _a cliff_; and «saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rūpźs» _feminine_, and «saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin. «61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine. «62.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cźnam parat. 3. Cźna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cźnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cźnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat. II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter's good dinner is pleasing to the farmer. [Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)] [Illustration] What Latin words are suggested by this picture? «63.» CONVERSATION Answer the questions in Latin. 1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat? 2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cźnam? 5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecūniam dat? LESSON VIII FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clāra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lāta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty) «64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a». «65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._ «66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows: NOUN ADJECTIVE «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»), f., _lady_ _good_ SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ do“mina bona -a _Gen._ dominae bonae -ae _Dat._ dominae bonae -ae _Acc._ dominam bonam -am _Abl._ dominā bonā -ā PLURAL _Nom._ dominae bonae -ae _Gen._ dominā“rum bonā“rum -ārum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominās bonās -ās _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs _a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_; «ancil“la parva», _the little maid_; «fortū“na magna», _great fortune._ «67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fīlia», _daughter_, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension: «dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-») SINGULAR PLURAL _Nom._ dea bona deae bonae _Gen._ deae bonae deā“rum bonā“rum _Dat._ deae bonae deā“bus bonīs _Acc._ deam bonam deās bonās _Abl._ deā bonā dea“bus bonīs _a._ In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva». «68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same. In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_. In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences _I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order) _«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_ _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_ 1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_; usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows: _subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_-- _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_ Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin._ 2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as «fīlia mea», _my daughter_; «mea fīlia», _«my» daughter_; «casa Galbae», _Galba's cottage_; «Galbae casa», _«Galba's» cottage_. Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways: «Fīlia mea agricolīs cźnam parat» (normal order) «Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cźnam» («mea» and «cźnam» emphatic) «Agricolīs fīlia mea cźnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic) 3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words. «Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic) «Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic) «Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic) 4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English. 5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well. «69.» EXERCISE First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. _Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._ 1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam. * * * * * «First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505» * * * * * LESSON IX THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine) «frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_ «lźgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -ī», n., _town_ «pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_ VERBS «cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_ «70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender. «71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-ī». «72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine. «73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows: «dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»), m., _master_ n., _spear_ TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do“minus[1] -us pīlum -um _Gen._ dominī -ī pīlī -ī _Dat._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Acc._ dominum -um pīlum -um _Abl._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Voc._ domine -e pīlum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominī -ī pīla -a _Gen._ dominō“rum -ōrum pīlō“rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs -ōs pīla -a _Abl._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs [Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».] _a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. _b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in «-us» ends in «-e», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a. «74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions: _a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural. _b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in «-a». _c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in «-m» and the accusative plural in «-s». _d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike. _e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_, except in the ablative singular of the first declension. «75.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia est bona», _Lesbia is good_ «Lesbia est ancilla», _Lesbia is a maidservant_ We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a «predicate noun». «76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._ [Illustration: PILA] «77.» DIALOGUE GALBA AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. G. Quis, Mārce, est lźgātus cum pīlō et tubā? M. Lźgātus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat. G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum? M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat. G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cźnam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lźgātī aquam et frūmentum dat. G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat? M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum parant.[3] [Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: «habitat» _he lives_ _he is living_ _he does live_ Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.] [Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the accusative case.] [Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA] «78.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. 1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant? 2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equō lźgātī dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat? 5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat? 6. Quid oppidānī parant? LESSON X SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -ī», m., _people_ «Rhźnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_ «vīcus, -ī», m., _village_ «79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and _neuters_ like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows: MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE «dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pīlum bonum», _the good spear_ BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon- TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do“minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um _Gen._ dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī _Dat._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Acc._ dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um _Abl._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Voc._ domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a _Gen._ dominō“rum bonō“rum -ōrum īlō“rum bonō“rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum». «80.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia ancilla est bona», _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona», _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat», _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_ In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case. «81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._ «82.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lźgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cźna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lźgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhźnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lźgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lźgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat. II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer's daughter. [Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is transitive and governs a direct object.] [Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)] LESSON XI ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «tźlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_ «83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows: MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō _Voc._ bone bona bonum PLURAL _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus giving the three genders for each case. _b._ Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»; «parvus, -a, -um». «84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions: «85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_ SINGULAR _Nom._ nauta bonus _Gen._ nautae bonī _Dat._ nautae bonō _Acc._ nautam bonum _Abl._ nautā bonō _Voc._ nauta bone PLURAL _Nom._ nautae bonī _Gen._ nautārum bonōrum _Dat._ nautīs bonīs _Acc._ nautās bonōs _Abl._ nautīs bonīs _Voc._ nautae bonī «86.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt anna et tźla lźgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhźnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant. II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba's daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers? [Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._] [Illustration: GALEAE] LESSON XII NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi“dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelī», n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB «saepe», _often_ «87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (_son_), «praesi“dī» from «praesi“dium» (_garrison_). «88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, _not_ in «-e», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi“lī», _O Vergil_; «fīlī», _O son._ _a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike. «89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-), n., _garrison_ m., _son_ SINGULAR _Nom._ praesidium fīlius _Gen._ praesi“dī fīlī _Dat._ praesidiō fīliō _Acc._ praesidium fīlium _Abl._ praesidiō fīliō _Voc._ praesidium fīlī The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius». Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», _the long river_; «proelium clārum», _the famous battle._ «90.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi“lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi“dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra. GERMĀNIA II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhźnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germānii in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhźnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et clārīs. [Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)] LESSON XIII SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre) «cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornźlius, Cornź“lī», m., _Cornelius_ «lōrī“ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum», m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.] «91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_; and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows: «92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_ BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir ---- _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō PLURAL _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a). _b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the nominative and vocative singular. _c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e» belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager». «93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus, MASC. FEM. NEUT. līber lībera līberum (_free_) is like «puer» pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_) is like «ager» For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._ «94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum» «95.» ITALIA[1] First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia. [Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.] [Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», _of the world_.] [Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.] «96.» DIALOGUE MARCUS AND CORNELIUS C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā? M. Nōn est, Cornźlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhźnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat. C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lźgātus? M. Lźgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae tźla portat? M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat. C. Amatne lźgātus fīlium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum? M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornźlī est fīnitima Rhźnō, fluviō magnō et altō. [Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt», _there are._] [Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective pronoun.] [Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?] [Illustration: LEGIONARIUS] LESSON XIV THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «auxilium, auxi“lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -ī», m., _food_ «cōnsilium, cōnsi“lī», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crźber, crźbra, crźbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] «97.» Observe the sentences _This is my shield_ _This shield is mine_ In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_. «98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions. SINGULAR _1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_ _2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own), its (own)_ PLURAL _1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_ _2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_ NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as «mī fīlī», _O my son_. _a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in _Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat» _Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iūlia» } Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia. _b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to _more than one_, «vester»; as, _Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae» _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae» _c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus, «Vir suōs servōs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here _his_ («suōs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any one else. _d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. §22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc. «99.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cźnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tźla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornźlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant. II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark's industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant's food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours. [Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?] [Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like nouns.] [Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.] [Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT] LESSON XV THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia» «studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES «armātus, -a, -um», _armed_ «īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali“dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB «mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB «iam», _already, now_ «-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tźla“que», _arms and weapons_. «100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences: _a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness _a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of Mark's feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of cause»: «Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī» _b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of means»: «Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat» _c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called the «ablative of accompaniment»: «Iūlia est cum Sextō» _d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum», unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum» may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of manner»: «Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant» «101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_: «102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_ «103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_ N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means. «104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_ «105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_ «106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer? The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore. «107.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lźgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhźnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tźlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī. II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba's cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons. LESSON XVI THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders: MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Gen._ -īus -īus -īus _Dat._ -ī -ī -ī Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each: «alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several) «alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two) «ūnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ «ūllus, -a, -um», _any_ «nūllus, -a, -um», _none, no_ «sōlus, -a, -um», _alone_ «tōtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_ «uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two) «neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two) «109.» PARADIGMS SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ nūllus nūlla nūllum _Gen._ nūllī“us nūllī“us nūllī“us _Dat._ nūllī nūllī nūllī _Acc._ nūllum nūllam nūllum _Abl._ nūllō nūllā nūllō MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alī“us alī“us alī“us _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō THE PLURAL IS REGULAR _a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius». The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the genitive of «alter». _b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the «pronominal adjectives». «110.» Learn the following idioms: «alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_ (of two) «alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any number) «aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», _some ... others_ EXAMPLES 1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is large, the other small_ (of two towns). 2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», _one town is strong, another weak_ (of towns in general). 3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», _some carry swords, others shields._ «111.» EXERCISES I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (_or_ sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cźnam parat. 9. Cźna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cźnam dat. NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns. II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain. LESSON XVII THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilīum, domīci“lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fźmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE «mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quō, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dźsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?» «112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives». «113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is «is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_ «114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109. BASE «e-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ is ea id eī eae ea (_or_ iī) _Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum _Dat._ eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) _Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea _Abl._ eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced _eh“yus_. In the plural the forms with two «i»'s are preferred and the two «i»'s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs». «115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings: SINGULAR _Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_ _Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_; «eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_; «eius», _of it_ or _its_ _Dat._ «eī», _to_ or _for him_; «eī», _to_ or _for her_; «eī», _to_ or _for it_ _Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_ _Abl._ «eō», _with, from_, etc., _him_; «eā», _with, from_, etc., _her_; «eō», _with, from_, etc., _it_ PLURAL _Nom._ «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», _they_ _Gen._ «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», _of them, their_ _Dat._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _to_ or _for them_ _Acc._ «eōs, eās, ea», _them_ _Abl._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _with, from_, etc., _them_ «116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one. EXAMPLES _Galba calls his_ (own) _son_, «Galba suum fīlium vocat» _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another's), «Galba eius fīlium vocat» _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_, «Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat» _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another's), «Iūlia eius līberōs vocat» _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_, «virī suōs puerōs laudant» _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others'), «virī eōrum puerōs laudant» «117.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. 1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans. 4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns. «118.» DIALOGUE[1] CORNELIUS AND MARCUS M. Quis est vir, Cornźlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber? C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvīs Galliae. M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus? C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lźgātī Sextī. M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat? C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat. M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant? C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs virī pugnant et fźminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe nārrat et laudat eōs saepe. C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs patriam suam dźsīderant. [Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.] [Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive, noun_.] [Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.] * * * * * «Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509» * * * * * LESSON XVIII «CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM» [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m.,_school_ «socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES «īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodiź, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past «119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_. «120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future: 1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or _what usually happens_, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE 2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES 3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES «121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_. _a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative. «122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ō _we_ -mus _2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis _3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt «123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows: PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_ _2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_ _3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_ IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-ā“-mus, _we were_ _2d Pers._ er-ā-s, _you were_ er-ā“-tis, _you were_ _3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-ā-nt, _they were_ FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-ō, _I shall be_ er“-i-mus, _we shall be_ _2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er“-i-tis, _you will be_ _3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_ _a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§12.2; 14; 15. [Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.] «124.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī? M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā multī aliī puerī. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās? M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus. S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiź? M. Hodiź nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in lūdō? M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nōn erō. S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī dīligentiaeque nōn laudat. M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum. «125.» EXERCISE 1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be. 6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys' industry. [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO] LESSON XIX THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ «126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive. [Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. §58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in §230.] Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._ DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. «amā“re», _to love_ «amā-» «ā» II. «monź“re», _to advise_ «monź-» «ź» III. «re“gere», _to rule_ «rege-» «e» IV. «audī“re», _to hear_ «audi-» «ī» _a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive. NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem. «127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses. «128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows: «a“mō, amā“re» (_love_) «mo“neō, monź“re» (_advise_) PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monź-» SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a“mō, _I love_ mo“neō, _I advise_ -ō 2. a“mās, _you love_ mo“nźs, _you advise_ -s 3. a“mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo“net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t 1. amā“mus, _we love_ monź“mus, _we advise_ -mus 2. amā“tis, _you love_ monź“tis, _you advise_ -tis 3. a“mant, _they love_ mo“nent, _they advise_ -nt 1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In «moneō» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in «-eo» belong to the second conjugation._ 2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel («monź-ō» = «mo“neō»), and before final «-t» («amat», «monet») and «-nt» («amant», «monent»). Compare §12.2. «129.» Like «amō» and «moneō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]: [Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.] INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT a“rō, _I plow_ arā“re, _to plow_ cū“rō, _I care for_ cūrā“re, _to care for_ *dź“leō, _I destroy_ dźlź“re, _to destroy_ dźsī“derō, _I long for_ dźsīderā“re, _to long for_ dō,[3] _I give_ da“re, _to give_ *ha“beō, _I have_ habź“re, _to have_ ha“bitō, _I live, I dwell_ habitā“re, _to live, to dwell_ *iu“beō, _I order_ iubź“re, _to order_ labō“rō, _I labor_ labōrā“re, _to labor_ lau“dō, _I praise_ laudā“re, _to praise_ mātū“rō, _I hasten_ mātūrā“re, _to hasten_ *mo“veō, _I move_ movź“re, _to move_ nār“rō, _I tell_ nārrā“re, _to tell_ ne“cō, _I kill_ necā“re, _to kill_ nūn“tiō, _I announce_ nūntiā“re, _to announce_ pa“rō, _I prepare_ parā“re, _to prepare_ por“tō, _I carry_ portā“re, _to carry_ pro“perō, _I hasten_ properā“re, _to hasten_ pug“nō, _I fight_ pugnā“re, _to fight_ *vi“deō, _I see_ vidź“re, _to see_ vo“cō, _I call_ vocā“re, _to call_ [Footnote 3: Observe that in «dō, dare», the «a» is _short_, and that the present stem is «da-» and not «dā-». The only forms of «dō» that have a long are «dās» (pres. indic.), «dā» (pres. imv.), and «dāns» (pres. part.).] «130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression «habitō» covers all three of these expressions. «131.» EXERCISES Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form. I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movźtis, laudās, vidźs. 3. Dźlźtis, habźtis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dźsīderat, vidźmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movźs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant, portās, parant. 8. Dźlet, habźtis, iubźmus, dās. N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention. II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce. LESSON XX IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fōrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_ «regīna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal) «poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ «potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent) «trīstītīa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_ ADJECTIVES «septem», indeclinable, _seven_ «superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb) CONJUNCTIONS «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called _tense signs_. «133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of the imperfect is «-bā-», which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «ba-» «m» _loving_ _was_ _I_ The inflection is as follows: CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II PERSONAL SINGULAR ENDINGS 1. amā“bam, _I was loving_ monź“bam, _I was advising_ -m 2. amā“bās, _you were loving_ monź“bās, _you were advising_ -s 3. amā“bat, _he was loving_ monź“bat, _he was advising_ -t PLURAL 1. amābā“mus, _we were loving_ monźbā“mus, _we were advising_ -mus 2. amābā“tis, _you were loving_ monźbā“tis, _you were advising_ -tis 3. amā“bant, _they were loving_ monź“bant, _they wereadvising_ -nt _a._ Note that the «ā» of the tense sign «-bā-» is shortened before «-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.) In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129. «134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs. «135.» EXERCISES I. 1. Vidźbāmus, dźsīderābat, mātūrābās. 2. Dabant, vocābātis, dźlźbāmus. 3. Pugnant, laudābās, movźbātis. 4. Iubźbant, properābātis, portābāmus. 5. Dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis. 6. Vidźbant, movźbās, nūntiābāmus. 7. Necābat, movźbam, habźbat, parābātis. II. 1. You were having (_sing. and plur._), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (_sing. and plur._). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising. «136.» NI“OBE AND HER CHILDREN First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. Niobź, rźgina Thźbānōrum, erat pulchra fźmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā[1] suā marītīque potentiā[1] sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō.[1] Nam habźbat[2] septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rźgīnae[3] causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs[3] causa dūrae poenae. NOTE. The words «Niobź», «Thźbānōrum», and «marītī» will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words. [Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.] [Footnote 2: Translate _had_; it denotes a past situation. (See §134.)] [Footnote 3: Dative, cf. §43.] LESSON XXI FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS sacrum, -ī, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_ «verbum, -ī», n., _word_ (verb) VERBS sedeō, -źre, _sit_ (sediment) volō, -āre, _fly_ (volatile) ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_ «ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative. «137.» The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is «-bi-». This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «bi-» «s» _love_ _will_ _you_ «138.» The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows. CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II SINGULAR 1. amā“bō, _I shall love_ monź“bō, _I shall advise_ 2. amā“bis, _you will love_ monź“bis, _you will advise_ 3. amā“bit, _he will love_ monź“bit, _he will advise_ PLURAL 1. amā“bimus, _we shall love_ monź“bimus, _we shall advise_ 2. amā“bitis _you will love_ monź“bitis, _you will advise_ 3. amā“bunt, _they will love_ monź“bunt, _they will advise_ _a._ The personal endings are as in the present. The ending «-bō» in the first person singular is contracted from «-bi-ō». The «-bi-» appears as «-bu-» in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». _Pay especial attention to the accent._ In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129. «139.» EXERCISES I. 1. Movźbitis, laudābis, arābō. 2. Dźlźbitis, vocābitis, dabunt. 3. Mātūrābis, dźsīderābit, vidźbimus. 4. Habźbit, movźbunt, necābit. 5. Nārrābimus, monźbis, vidźbunt. 6. Labōrābitis, cūrābunt, dabis. 7. Habitābimus, properābitis, iubźbunt, parābit. 8. Nūntiābō, portābimus, iubźbō. II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (_plur._). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (_sing. and plur._), he will destroy. «140.» NI“OBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Iīs Thźbānī sacra crźbra parābant.[1] Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rźgīnae erat molestum. "Cūr," inquit, "Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?" Lātōna iīs verbīs[2] īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīs[3] suīs miserōs līberōs rźgīnae superbae dźlent. Niobź, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs[4] eōs dźsīderat. NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for «Apollō», «inquit», «duōs», and «quattuordecim». Try to remember the meaning of all the other words. [Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, _used to prepare_, _were in the habit of preparing_; so «amābant» denotes a past situation of affairs. (See §134.)] [Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.] [Footnote 3: Ablative of means.] [Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.] LESSON XXII REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «disciplīna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_ «Gāius, Gāī», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n., _ornament, jewel_ Tiberius, Tibe“rī, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name VERB «doceō, -źre», _teach_ (doctrine) ADVERB «maximź», _most of all, especially_ ADJECTIVE «antīquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique) «141.» Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of «sum» and the verbs in §129. «142.» We learned in §43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in §44 that one of its commonest uses is with _verbs_ to express the indirect object. It is also very common with _adjectives_ to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where «grātus», _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had «molestus», _annoying to_, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule: «143.» RULE. «Dative with Adjectives.» _The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning «near», also «fit», «friendly», «pleasing», «like», and their opposites._ «144.» Among such adjectives memorize the following: «idōneus, -a, -um», _fit, suitable_ (for) «amīcus, -a, -um», _friendly_ (to) «inimicus, -a, -um», _hostile_ (to) «grātus, -a, -um», _pleasing_ (to), _agreeable_ (to) «molestus, -a, -um», _annoying_ (to), _troublesome_ (to) «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _neighboring_ (to) «proximus, -a, -um», _nearest, next_ (to) «145.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rōmānī terram idōneam agrī cultūrae habent. 2. Gallī cōpiīs Rōmānīs inimīcī erant. 3. Cui dea Lātōna amīca non erat? 4. Dea Lātōna superbae rźgīnae amīca nōn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mārce, erit armātīs virīs grātus. 6. Quid erat molestum populīs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallīs erant molesta populīs Italiae. 8. Agrī Germānōrum fluviō Rhźnō fīnitimī erant. 9. Rōmānī ad silvam oppidō proximam castra movźbant. 10. Nōn sōlum fōrma sed etiam superbia rźgīnae erat magna. 11. Mox rźgīna pulchra erit aegra trīstitiā. 12. Cūr erat Niobź, rźgīna Thźbānōrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobź multīs fīliīs et fīliābus. II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls. [Footnote 1: Why not the dative?] «146.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Apud antīquās dominās, Cornźlia, Āfricānī fīlia, erat[2] maximź clāra. Fīliī eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gāius Gracchus. Iī puerī cum Cornźliā in oppidō Rōmā, clārō Italiae oppidō, habitābant. Ibi eōs cūrābat Cornźlia et ibi magnō cum studiō eōs docźbat. Bona fźmina erat Cornźlia et bonam disciplīnam maximź amābat. NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words. [Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. §134.)] LESSON XXIII PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ «147.» As we learned in §126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in «-e», and of the fourth in «-ī». The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows: CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV «re“gō, re“gere» (_rule_) «au“dio, audī“re» (_hear_) PRES. STEM «rege-» PRES. STEM «audī-» SINGULAR 1. re“gō, _I rule_ au“diō, _I hear_ 2. re“gis, _you rule_ au“dīs, _you hear_ 3. re“git, _he (she, it) rules_ au“dit, _he (she, it) hears_ PLURAL 1. re“gimus, _we rule_ audī“mus, _we hear_ 2. re“gitis, _you rule_ audī“tis, _you hear_ 3. re“gunt, _they rule_ au“diunt, _they hear_ 1. The personal endings are the same as before. 2. The final short «-e-» of the stem «rege-» combines with the «-ō» in the first person, becomes «-u-» in the third person plural, and becomes «-i-» elsewhere. The inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». 3. In «audiō» the personal endings are added regularly to the stem «audī-». In the third person plural «-u-» is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as «audi-u-nt». Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final «-t» just as in «amō» and «moneō». (Cf. §12.2.) Note that «-i-» is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. §12.1, 2.) «148.» Like «regō» and «audiō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs: INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT agō, _I drive_ agere, _to drive_ dīcō, _I say_ dīcere, _to say_ dūcō, _I lead_ dūcere, _to lead_ mittō, _I send_ mittere, _to send_ mūniō, _I fortify_ mūnīre, _to fortify_ reperiō, _I find_ reperīre, _to find_ veniō, _I come_ venīre, _to come_ «149.» EXERCISES I. 1. Quis agit? Cūr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dūcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mūniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venīmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dūcitis? Quid dīcunt? 5. Mūnīmus, venītis, dīcit. 6. Agimus, reperītis, mūnīs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dīcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus. II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (_sing. and plur._). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (_all plur._). «150.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) Proximum domicīliō Cornźliae erat pulchrae Campānae domicilium. Campāna erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā sed maximź ōrnāmentīs suīs. Ea[1] laudābat semper. "Habźsne tū ūlla ornāmenta, Cornźlia?" inquit. "Ubi sunt tua ōrnāmenta?" Deinde Cornźlia fīliōs suōs Tiberium et Gāium vocat. "Puerī meī," inquit, "sunt mea ōrnāmenta. Nam bonī līberī sunt semper bonae fźminae ōrnāmenta maximź clāra." NOTE. The only new words here are «Campāna», «semper», and «tū». [Footnote 1: «Ea», accusative plural neuter.] [Illustration: "PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA"] LESSON XXIV IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS «151.» PARADIGMS CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. regź“bam, _I was ruling_ audiź“bam, _I was hearing_ 2. regź“bās, _you were riding_ audiź“bās, _you were hearing_ 3. regź“bat, _he was ruling_ audiź“bat, _he was hearing_ PLURAL 1. regźbā“mus, _we were ruling_ audiźbā“mus, _we were hearing_ 2. regźbā“tis, _you were ruling_ audiźbā“tis, _you were hearing_ 3. regź“bant, _they were ruling_ audiź“bant, _they were hearing_ 1. The tense sign is «-bā-», as in the first two conjugations. 2. Observe that the final «-e-» of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign «-bā-». This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. «monźbam» and «regźbam»). 3. In the fourth conjugation «-ź-» is inserted between the stem and the tense sign «-bā-» («audi-ź-ba-m»). 4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §148. «152.» EXERCISES I. 1. Agźbat, veniźbat, mittźbat, dūcźbant. 2. Agźbant, mittźbant, dūcźbas, mūniźbant. 3. Mittźbāmus, dūcźbātis, dīcźbant. 4. Mūniźbāmus, veniźbātis, dīcźbās. 5. Mittźbās, veniźbāmus, reperiźbat. 6. Reperiźbās, veniźbās, audiźbātis. 7. Agźbāmus, reperiźbātis, mūniźbat. 8. Agźbātis, dīcźbam, mūniźbam. II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (_sing. and plur._), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (_sing. and plur._), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (_sing. and plur._), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (_sing. and plur._), we were coming, they were ruling. «153.» «The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.» We learned above (§20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an _intransitive_ verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.) «crźdō, crźdere», _believe_ (give belief to) «faveō, favźre», _favor_ (show favor to) «noceō, nocźre», _injure_ (do harm to) «pāreō, pārźre», _obey_ (give obedience to) «persuādeō, persuādźre», _persuade_ (offer persuasion to) «resistō, resistere», _resist_ (offer resistance to) «studeō, studźre», _be eager for_ (give attention to) «154.» RULE. «Dative with Intransitive Verbs.» _The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crźdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning._ «155.» EXERCISE 1. Crźdisne verbīs sociōrum? Multī verbīs eōrum nōn crźdunt. 2. Meī fīnitimī cōnsiliō tuō nōn favźbunt, quod bellō student. 3. Tiberius et Gāius disciplīnae dūrae nōn resistźbant et Cornźliae pārźbant. 4. Dea erat inimīca septem fīliābus rźgīnae. 5. Dūra poena et perpetua trīstitia rźgīnae nōn persuādźbunt. 6. Nūper ea resistźbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lātōnae. 7. Mox sagittae volābunt et līberīs miserīs nocźbunt. LESSON XXV FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ «156.» In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using «-bi-», as in the first and second conjugations, we use «-ā-»[1] in the first person singular and «-ź-» in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final «-e-» of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final «-ī-» of the stem is retained.[2] [Footnote 1: The «-ā-» is shortened before «-m» final, and «-ź-» before «-t» final and before «-nt». (Cf. §12.2.)] [Footnote 2: The «-ī-» is, of course, shortened, being before another vowel. (Cf. §12.1.)] «157.» PARADIGMS CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. re“gam, _I shall rule_ au“diam, _I shall hear_ 2. re“gźs, _you will rule_ au“diźs, _you will hear_ 3. re“get, _he will rule_ au“diet, _he will hear_ PLURAL 1. regź“mus, _we shall rule_ audiź“mus, _we shall hear_ 2. regź“tis, _you will rule_ audiź“tis, _you will hear_ 3. re“gent, _they will rule_ au“dient, _they will hear_ 1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular. 2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in §148. «158.» EXERCISES I. 1. Dīcet, dūcźtis, mūniźmus. 2. Dīcent, dīcźtis, mittźmus. 3. Mūnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dūcet, mittźs, veniet, aget. 5. Mūniet, reperiźtis, agźmus. 6. Mittam, veniźmus, regent. 7. Audiźtis, veniźs, reperiźs. 8. Reperiet, agam, dūcźmus, mittet. 9. Vidźbitis, sedźbō, vocābimus. II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (_sing. and plur._), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send. 6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle. [Footnote 3: Remember that «quis», _who_, is singular in number.] [Footnote 4: Express by «ego», because it is emphatic.] LESSON XXVI VERBS IN _-IŌ_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD «159.» There are a few common verbs ending in «-iō» which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. §126.) Compare «audiō, audī“re» (_hear_), fourth conjugation «capiō, ca“pere» (_take_), third conjugation «160.» The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of «capiō» are inflected as follows: «capiō, capere», _take_ PRES. STEM «cape-» PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE SINGULAR 1. ca“piō capiź“bam ca“piam 2. ca“pis capiź“bās ca“piźs 3. ca“pit capiź“bat ca“piet PLURAL 1. ca“pimus capiźbā“mus capiź“mus 2. ca“pitis capiźbā“tis capiź“tis 3. ca“piunt capiź“bant ca“pient 1. Observe that «capiō» and the other «-iō» verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in succession._ (Cf. capiō, audiō; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.) 2. Like «capiō», inflect «faciō, facere», _make, do_ «fugiō, fugere», _flee_ «iaciō, iacere», _hurl_ «rapiō, rapere», _seize_ «161.» «The Imperative Mood.» The imperative mood expresses a command; as, _come!_ _send!_ The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. _The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding «-te» to the singular._ CONJUGATION SINGULAR PLURAL I. amā, _love thou_ amā“te, _love ye_ II. monź, _advise thou_ monź“te, _advise ye_ III. (_a_) rege, _rule thou_ re“gite, _rule ye_ (_b_) cape, _take thou_ ca“pite, _take ye_ IV. audī, _hear thou_ audī“te, _hear ye_ sum (irregular) es, _be thou_ este, _be ye_ 1. In the third conjugation the final -e- of the stem becomes -i- in the plural. 2. The verbs «dīcō», _say_; «dūcō», _lead_; and «faciō», _make_, have the irregular forms «dīc», «dūc», and «fac» in the singular. 3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of «veniō», «dūcō», «vocō», «doceō», «laudō», «dīcō», «sedeō», «agō», «faciō», «mūniō», «mittō», «rapiō». «162.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciźbat. 2. Dźlź, nūntiāte, fugiunt. 3. Venīte, dīc, faciźtis. 4. Dūcite, iaciam, fugiźbant. 5. Fac, iaciźbāmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedźte, reperī, docźte. 7. Fugiźmus, iacient, rapiźs. 8. Reperient, rapiźbātis, nocent. 9. Favźte, resistź, pārźbitis. 10. Volā ad multās terrās et dā auxilium. 11. Ego tźla mea capiam et multās ferās dźlźbō. 12. Quis fābulae tuae crźdet? 13. Este bonī, puerī, et audīte verba grāta magistrī. II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children. [Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. §99.II.3.)] [Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as in English.] * * * * * «Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§510-512» * * * * * LESSON XXVII THE PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «āla, -ae», f., _wing_ «deus, -ī», m., _god_ (deity)[A] «monstrum, -ī», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_ ōrāculum, -ī, n., _oracle_ VERB «vāstō, -āre», _lay waste, devastate_ ADJECTIVES «commōtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_ «maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_ ADVERBS «ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_ «tum», _then, at that time_ [Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468] «163.» «The Voices.» Thus far the verb forms have been in the _active voice_; that is, they have represented the subject as _performing_ an action; as, The lion ---> _killed_ ---> the hunter A verb is said to be in the _passive voice_ when it represents its subject as _receiving_ an action; as, The lion <--- _was killed_ <--- by the hunter Note the direction of the arrows. «164.» «Passive Personal Endings.» In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -r, _I_ 1. -mur, _we_ 2. -ris, -re, _you_ 2. -minī, _you_ 3. -tur, _he, she, it_ 3. -ntur, _they_ _a._ Observe that the letter «-r» appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the _passive sign_. «165.» PARADIGMS «amō, amāre» «monźo, monźre» PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monź-» PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL ENDINGS SINGULAR a“mor, _I am loved_ mo“neor, _I am advised_ -or[1] amā“ris or amā“re, monź“ris or monź“re. -ris or -re _you are loved_ _you are advised_ amā“tur, _he is loved_ monź“tur, _he is advised_ -tur PLURAL amā“mur, _we are loved_ monź“mur, _we are advised_ -mur amā“minī, _you are loved_ monź“minī, _you are advised_ -mini aman“tur, _they are loved_ monen“tur, _they are advised_ -ntur [Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person singular is «-or».] IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN «-bā-») SINGULAR amā“bar, monź“bar, -r _I was being loved_ _I was being advised_ amābā“ris or amābā“re, monźbā“ris or monźbā“re -ris or -re _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amābā“tur, monźbā“tur, -tur _he was being loved_ _he was being advised_ PLURAL amābā“mur, monźbā“mur, -mur _we were being loved_ _we were being advised_ amābā“minī, monźbā“minī, -minī _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amāban“tur, monźban“tur, -ntur _they were being loved_ _they were being advised_ FUTURE (TENSE SIGN «-bi-») SINGULAR amā“bor, monź“bor, -r _I shall be loved_ _I shall be advised_ amā“beris, _or_ amā“bere monź“beris _or_ monź“bere, -ris or -re _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amā“bitur, monź“bitur, -tur _he will be loved_ _he will be advised_ PLURAL amā“bimur, monź“bimur, -mur _we shall be loved_ _we shall be advised_ amābi“minī, monźbi“minī, -minī _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amābun“tur, monźbun“tur, -ntur _they will be loved_ _they will be advised_ 1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active. 2. In the future the tense sign «-bi-» appears as «-bo-» in the first person, «-be-» in the second, singular number, and as «-bu-» in the third person plural. 3. Inflect «laudō», «necō», «portō», «moveō», «dźleō», «iubeō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive. «166.» Intransitive verbs, such as «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «habitō», _I dwell_, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject. «167.» EXERCISES I. 1. Laudāris _or_ laudāre, laudās, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidźminī, vidźtis. 3. Vocābat, vocābātur, dźlźbitis, dźlźbiminī. 4. Parābātur, parābat, cūrās, cūrāris _or_ cūrāre. 5. Portābantur, portābant, vidźbimur, vidźbimus. 6. Iubźris _or_ iubźre, iubźs, laudābāris _or_ laudābāre, laudābās. 7. Movźberis or movźbere, movźbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dźlentur, dźlent, parābāmur, parābāmus. II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved. [Illustration: PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT] «168.» PER“SEUS AND ANDROM“EDA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Perseus fīlius erat Iovis,[2] maximī[3] deōrum. Dź eō multās fabulās nārrant poźtae. Eī favent deī, eī magica arma et ālās dant. Eīs tźlīs armātus et ālīs frźtus ad multās terrās volābat et mōnstra saeva dźlźbat et miserīs īnfīrmīsque auxilium dabat. Aethiopia est terra Āfricae. Eam terram Cźpheus[4] regźbat. Eī[5] Neptūnus, maximus aquārum deus, erat īrātus et mittit[6] mōnstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mōnstrum nōn sōlum lātīs pulchrīsque Aethiopiae agrīs nocźbat sed etiam domicilia agricolārum dźlźbat, et multōs virōs, fźminās, līberōsque necābat. Populus ex agrīs fugiźbat et oppida mūrīs validīs mūniźbat. Tum Cźpheus magnā trīstitiā commōtus ad Iovis ōrāculum properat et ita dīcit: "Amīcī meī necantur; agrī meī vāstantur. Audī verba mea, Iuppiter. Dā miserīs auxilium. Age mōnstrum saevum ex patriā." [Footnote 2: «Iovis», the genitive of «Iuppiter».] [Footnote 3: Used substantively, _the greatest_. So below, l. 4, «miserīs» and «īnfīrmīs» are used substantively.] [Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, _Ce“pheus_.] [Footnote 5: «Eī», _at him_, dative with «īrātus».] [Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and exciting.] LESSON XXVIII PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] VERBS «respondeō, -źre», _respond, reply_ «servō, -āre», _save, preserve_ ADJECTIVE «cārus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish) CONJUNCTION «autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first NOUN «vīta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital) «169.» Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of «regō» and «audiō», and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§490, 491). _a._ Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§164) are added instead of the active ones. _b._ Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final «-e-» of the stem is not changed to «-i-», as it is in the active. We therefore have «re“geris» or «re“gere», _not_ «re“giris», «re“gire». _c._ Inflect «agō», «dīcō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive. «170.» EXERCISES I. 1. Agźbat, agźbātur, mittźbat, mittźbātur, dūcźbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mūniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dūcźre, dūcere. 4. Dīcźmur, dīcimus, dīcźmus, dīcimur, mūniźbaminī. 5. Dūcitur, dūciminī, reperīmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agźbāmus, agźbāmur, reperīris, reperiźminī. 7. Mūnīminī, veniźbam, dūcźbar, dīcźtur. 8. Mittiminī, mittitis, mittźris, mitteris, agźbāminī. 9. Dīcitur, dīcit, mūniuntur, reperient, audientur. II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (_sing. and plur._). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (_sing. and plur._). «171.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Tum ōrāculum ita respondet: "Mala est fortūna tua. Neptūnus, magnus aquārum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimīcus, eās poenās mittit. Sed parā īrātō deō sacrum idōneum et mōnstrum saevum ex patriā tuā agźtur. Andromeda fīlia tua est mōnstrō grāta. Dā eam mōnstrō. Servā cāram patriam et vītam populī tuī." Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amābat Cźpheus maximź. LESSON XXIX PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IŌ_ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE [Special Vocabulary] VERB «superō, -āre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable) NOUNS «cūra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_ «locus, -ī», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc. «perīculum, -ī», n., _danger, peril_ ADVERBS «semper», _always_ «tamen», _yet, nevertheless_ PREPOSITIONS «dź», with abl., _down from; concerning_ «per», with acc., _through_ CONJUNCTION «si», _if_ «172.» Review the active voice of «capiō», present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§492). _a._ The present forms «capior» and «capiuntur» are like «audior, audiuntur», and the rest of the tense is like «regor». _b._ In like manner inflect the passive of «iaciō» and «rapiō». «173.» «The Infinitive.» The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, «amāre», _to love_. Infinitive means _unlimited_. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited, verb forms. «174.» The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows: CONJ. PRES. PRES. INFINITIVE PRES. INFINITIVE STEM ACTIVE PASSIVE I. «amā-» amā“re, amā“rī, _to love_ _to be loved_ II. «monź-» monź“re, monź“rī, _to advise_ _to be advised_ III. «rege-» re“gere, re“gī, _to rule_ _to be ruled_ «cape-» ca“pere ca“pī, _to take_ _to be taken_ IV. «audī-» audī“re, audīrī, _to hear_ _to be heard_ 1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add «-re» to the present stem. _a._ The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse». There is no passive. 2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final «-e» to «-ī», except in the third conjugation, which changes final «-ere» to «-ī». 3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of «doceō», «sedeō», «volō», «cūrō», «mittō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «iaciō», «rapiō.» «175.» The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows: ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE CONJ. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL I. «a“mā» amā“te amā“re, amā“minī, _be thou loved_ _be ye loved_ II. «mo“nź» monź“te monź“re, monź“minī, _be thou advised_ _be ye advised_ III. «re“ge» re“gite re“gere, regi“minī, _be thou ruled _ _be ye ruled_ «ca“pe» ca“pite ca“pere, capi“minī, _be thou taken_ _be ye taken_ IV. «au“dī» audī“te audī“re, audī“minī, _be thou heard_ _be ye heard_ 1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative. 2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in §174.3. [Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from §161.] [Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending «-re». A form like «amāre» may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.] «176.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. I. 1. Tum Perseus ālīs ad terrās multās volabit. 2. Mōnstrum saevum per aquās properat et mox agrōs nostrōs vāstābit. 3. Sī autem Cźpheus ad ōrāculum properābit, ōrāculum ita respondźbit. 4. Quis tźlīs Perseī superābitur? Multa mōnstra tźlīs eius superābuntur. 5. Cum cūrīs magnīs et lacrimīs multīs agricolae ex domiciliīs cārīs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vāstābantur et multa oppida dźlźbantur. 7. Mōnstrum est validum, tamen superābitur. 8. Crźdźsne semper verbīs ōrāculī? Ego iīs non semper crźdam. 9. Pārźbitne Cźpheus ōrāculō? Verba ōrāculī eī persuādźbunt. 10. Si nōn fugiźmus, oppidum capiźtur et oppidānī necābuntur. 11. Vocāte puerōs et nārrāte fābulam clāram dź mōnstrō saevō. II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified. LESSON XXX SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _FROM_ [Special Vocabulary] VERBS «absum, abesse», irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with separative abl. «adpropinquō, -āre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineō, -źre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain) «discźdō, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl. «egeō, -źre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl. «interficiō, -ere», _kill_ «prohibeō, -źre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit) «vulnerō, -āre», _wound_ (vulnerable) NOUNS «prōvincia, -ae», f., _province_ «vīnum, -ī», n., _wine_ ADJECTIVE «dźfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_ ADVERB «longź», _far, by far, far away_ [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.] «177.» You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1] CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a“mō a“mor mo“neō mo“neor _Imperf._ amā“bam amā“bar monź“bam monź“bar _Fut._ amā“bo amā“bor monź“bo monź“bor [Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.] CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II IMPERATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a“mā amā“re mo“nź monź“re INFINITIVE _Pres._ amā“re amā“rī monź“re monź“rī CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III («-iō» verbs) INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ re“gō re“gor ca“piō ca“pior _Imperf._ regź“bam regź“bar capiź“bam capiź“bar _Fut._ re“gam re“gar ca“piam ca“piar IMPERATIVE _Pres._ re“ge re“gere ca“pe ca“pere INFINITIVE _Pres._ re“gere re“gī ca“pere ca“pī CONJUGATION IV INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ au“diō au“dior _Imperf._ audiź“bam audiź“bar _Fut._ au“diam au“diar IMPERATIVE _Pres._ au“dī audī“re INFINITIVE _Pres._ audī“re audī“rī 1. Give the synopsis of «rapiō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «doceō», «videō», «dīcō», «agō», «laudō», «portō», and vary the person and number. «178.» We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition _from._ This is sometimes called the _separative ablative_, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below. «179.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place From.» _The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions «ā» or «ab», «dź», «ź» or «ex»._ «Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt», _the farmers come from the fields_ _a._ «ā» or «ab» denotes _from near_ a place; «ź» or «ex», _out from_ it; and «dź», _down from_ it. This may be represented graphically as follows: _________ | | «ā» or «ab» | | «ź» or «ex» /_____________| ___________________\ \ | Place | / |_________| | | «dź» | V «180.» RULE. «Ablative of Separation.» _Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._ _a._ If the separation is _actual_ and _literal_ of one material thing from another, the preposition «ā» or «ab», «ź» or «ex», or «dź» is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary. (a) «Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat» _Perseus frees the land from monsters_ (literal separation--actual motion is expressed) (b) «Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat» _Perseus frees the land from sorrow_ (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed) «181.» RULE. «Ablative of the Personal Agent.» _The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab»._ _a._ In this construction the English translation of «ā», «ab» is _by_ rather than _from_. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the _person by whom_ the act was performed. «Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur», _the monster is being slain by_ (lit. _from_) _Perseus_ _b._ Note that the active form of the above sentence would be «Perseus monstrum necat», _Perseus is slaying the monster_. In the passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the personal agent_, with «ā» or «ab». _c._ Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition _by_. (Cf. §100. _b._) _Means is a «thing»; the agent or actor is a «person»_. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has «ā» or «ab». Compare «Fera sagittā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_ «Fera ā Diānā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by Diana_ «Sagittā», in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; «ā Diānā», in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent. «182.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. I. 1. Viri inopiā cibī dźfessī ab eō locō discźdent. 2. Gerinānī castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquābant, tamen lźgātus cōpiās ā proeliō continźbat. 3. Multa Gallōrum oppida ab Rōmanīs capientur. 4. Tum Rōmānī tōtum populum eōrum oppidōrum gladiīs pīlīsque interficient. 5. Oppidānī Rōmānīs resistent, sed defessī longō proelīo fugient. 6. Multī ex Galliā fugiźbant et in Germānōrum vicīs habitābant. 7. Miserī nautae vulnerantur ab inimīcīs[2] saevīs et cibō egent. 8. Discźdite et date virīs frūmentum et cōpiam vīnī. 9. Cōpiae nostrae ā proeliō continźbantur ab Sextō lźgatō. 10. Id oppidum ab prōvinciā Rōmānā longź aberat. II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness. [Footnote 2: «inimīcīs», here used as a noun. See vocabulary.] LESSON XXXI PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF _SUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS aurum, -ī, n., _gold_ (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., _delay_ «nāvigium, nāvi“gī», n., _boat, ship_ «ventus, -ī», m., _wind_ (ventilate) VERB «nāvigō, -āre», _sail_ (navigate) ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_ «dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy) ADVERB «anteā», _before, previously_ PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., _without_ «183.» «Principal Parts.» There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the _principal parts._ The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as _go, went, gone_; _see, saw, seen_, etc. The principal parts of the Latin verb are the _first person singular of the present indicative_, the _present infinitive_, the _first person singular of the perfect indicative_, and _the perfect passive participle._ «184.» «Conjugation Stems.» From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the «present stem», which is found from the present infinitive (cf. §126.a). The other two stems are the «perfect stem» and the «participial stem». «185.» «The Perfect Stem.» The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be _found by dropping «-ī» from the first person singular of the perfect_, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses: THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT) THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively. «186.» «The Endings of the Perfect.» The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -ī, _I_ 1. -imus, _we_ 2. -istī, _you_ 2. -istis, _you_ 3. -it, _he, she, it_ 3. -źrunt or -źre, _they_ «187.» Inflection of «sum» in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative: PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PRIN. PARTS sum esse fuī PERFECT STEM fu- PERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL fu“ī, _I have been, I was_ fu“imus, _we have been, we were_ fuis“tī, fuis“tis, _you have been, you were_ _you have been, you were_ fu“it, _he has been, he was_ fuź“runt _or_ fuź“re, _they have been, they were_ PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-erā-») fu“eram, _I had been_ fuerā“mus, _we had been_ fu“erās, _you had been_ fuerā“tis, _you had been_ fu“erat, _he had been_ fu“erant, _they had been_ FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-eri-») fu“erō, _I shall have been_ fue“rimus, _we shall have been_ fu“eris, _you will have been_ fue“ritis, _you will have been_ fu“erit, _he will have been_ fu“erint, _they will have been_ 1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. 2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding «eram», the imperfect of «sum», to the perfect stem. The tense sign is «-erā-». 3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding «erō», the future of «sum», to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in «-erint», not in «-erunt». The tense sign is «-eri-». 4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way. «188.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quīnte? T. Ego in meō lūdō fuī et Quīntus in suō lūdō fuit. Bonī puerī fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vīcō hodiź? M. Fuit. Nūper per agrōs proximōs fluviō properābat. Ibi is et Cornźlius habent nāvigium. T. _Nāvigium_ dīcis? Aliī[1] nārrā eam fābulam! M. Vźrō (_Yes, truly_), pulchrum et novum nāvigium! Q. Cuius pecūniā[2] Sextus et Cornźlius id nāvigium parant? Quis iīs pecūniam dat? M. Amīcī Cornźlī multum habent aurum et puer pecūniā nōn eget. T. Quō puerī nāvigābunt? Nāvigābuntne longź ā terrā? M. Dubia sunt cōnsilia eōrum. Sed hodiź, crźdō, sī ventus erit idōneus, ad maximam īnsulam nāvigābunt. Iam anteā ibi fuźrunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerī magnō in perīculō erant. Q. Aqua ventō commōta est inimīca nautīs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nāvigia rapit, agit, dźletque. Iī puerī, sī nōn fuerint maximź attentī, īrātā aquā et validō ventō superābuntur et ita interficientur. [Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. §109.)] [Footnote 2: Ablative of means.] «189.» EXERCISE 1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4] [Footnote 3: The expletive _there_ is not expressed, but the verb will precede the subject, as in English.] [Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to agree with _we_.] LESSON XXXII THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «animus, -ī», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) «bracchium, bracchī», n., _forearm, arm_ «porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal) ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_ «plźnus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty) PREPOSITION «prō», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_ ADVERB «diū», _for a long time, long_ «190.» «Meanings of the Perfect.» The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with _have_, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, _I have finished my work_. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the «perfect definite». The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened _sometime in the past_; as, _I finished my work._ As no definite time is specified, this is called the «perfect indefinite». It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense. _a._ Note carefully the difference between the following tenses: _I {was finishing } my work_ (imperfect, §134) {used to finish} _I finished my work_ (perfect indefinite) _I have finished my work_ (perfect definite) When telling a story the Latin uses the _perfect indefinite_ to mark the different _forward steps_ of the narrative, and the _imperfect_ to _describe situations and circumstances_ that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used? "Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home." «191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows: CONJ. I «amāvī» _I have loved_, _I loved_ or _did love_ CONJ. II «monuī» _I have advised_, _I advised_ or _did advise_ CONJ. III «rźxī» _I have ruled_, _I ruled_ or _did rule_ «cźpī» _I have taken_, _I took_ or _did take_ CONJ. IV «audīvī» _I have heard_, _I heard_ or _did hear_ PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rźx-» «cźp-» «audīv-» SINGULAR 1. amā“vī mo“nuī rź“xī cź“pī audī“vī 2. amāvis“tī monuis“tī rźxis“tī cźpis“tī audīvis“tī 3. amā“vit mo“nuit rź“xit cź“pit audī“vit PLURAL 1. amā“vimus monu“imus rź“ximus cź“pimus audī“vimus 2. amāvis“tis monuis“tis rźxis“tis cźpis“tis audīvis“tis 3. amāvź“runt monuź“runt rźxź“runt cźpź“runt audīvź“runt _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ amāvź“re monuź“re rźxź“re cźpź“re audīvź“re 1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. _This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly._ 2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding «-vī» to the present stem. Like «amāvī» inflect «parāvī», «vocāvī», «cūrāvī», «laudāvī». 3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it. «192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects: PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. dō dare dedī _give_ dźleō dźlźre dźlźvī _destroy_ habeō habźre habuī _have_ moveō movźre mōvī _move_ pāreō pārźre pāruī _obey_ prohibeō prohibźre prohībuī _restrain, keep from_ videō vidźre vīdī _see_ dīcō dīcere dīxī _say_ discźdō discźdere discessī _depart_ dūcō dūcere dūxī _lead_ faciō facere fźcī _make, do_ mittō mittere mīsī _send_ mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī _fortify_ veniō venīre vźnī _come_ «193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Cźpheus, adversā fortūnā maximź commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dźplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cźpheus cum plźnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longź discessźrunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvźrunt. Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frźtus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dźscendit. Tum Cźpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: "Pārźbō verbīs ōrāculī, et prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiźs et Andromedam servābis, tibi (_to you_) eam dabō." LESSON XXXIII PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE «194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV «amō» «moneō» «regō» «capiō» «audiō» PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rźx-» «cźp-» «audīv-» PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-erā-» SINGULAR I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard 1. amā“veram monu“eram rź“xeram cź“peram audī“veram 2. amā“verās monu“erās rź“xerās cź“perās audī“verās 3. amā“verat monu“erat rź“xerat cź“perat audī“verat PLURAL 1. amāverā“mus monuerā“mus rźxerā“mus cźperā“mus audīverā“mus 2. amāverā“tis monuerā“tis rźxerā“tis cźperā“tis audīverā“tis 3. ama“verant monu“erant rź“xerant cź“perant audī“verant FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-eri-» SINGULAR I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have loved advised ruled taken heard 1. amā“verō monu“erō rź“xerō cź“perō audī“verō 2. amā“veris monu“eris rź“xeris cź“peris audī“veris 3. amā“verit monu“erit rź“xerit cź“perit audī“verit PLURAL 1. amāve“rimus monue“rimus rźxe“rimus cźpe“rimus audīve“rimus 2. amāve“ritis monue“ritis rźxe“ritis cźpe“ritis audīve“ritis 3. amā“verint monu“erint rź“xerint cź“perint audī“verint 1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here. 2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of «dō», «portō», «dźleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discźdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō.» «195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem. CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE I. amāv- amāvis“se, _to have loved_ II. monu- monuis“se, _to have advised_ III. (_a_) rźx- rźxis“se, _to have ruled_ (_b_) cźp- cźpis“se, _to have taken_ IV. audīv» audīvis“se, _to have heard_ sum fu- fuis“se, _to have been_ 1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dō», «portō», «dźleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discźdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō». «196.» EXERCISES I. 1. Habuistī, mōvźrunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruźrunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dźlźvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vźnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vźnerās, fźcisse, dederātis, portāveris. 8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cźpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cźpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dźlźverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet. II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (_sing. and plur._). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (_sing. and plur._). 6. I have given, you had moved (_sing. and plur._), we had said. 7. You will have made (_sing. and plur._), they will have led, to have given. 8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did. [Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?] [Footnote 2: _Did ... obey_, perfect tense.] [Footnote 3: What case?] LESSON XXXIV REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE [Special Vocabulary] ADVERBS «celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity) «dźnique», _finally_ «graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity) «subitō», _suddenly_ VERB «reportō, -āre, -āvī», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report) «197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation: { PRESENT = First of the principal parts TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bō, Conj. I and II INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV { PERFECT = Third of the principal parts { PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m { FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erō «198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amō», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī» PRES. STEM «amā-» { _Pres._ amō INDIC. { _Imperf._ amābam { _Fut._ amābō PRES. IMV. amā PRES. INFIN. amāre PERF. STEM «amāv-» { _Perf._ amāvī INDIC. { _Pluperf._ amāveram { _Fut. perf._ amāverō PERF. INFIN. amāvisse 1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of «parō», «dō», «laudō», «dźleō», «habeō», «moveō», «pāreō», «videō», «dīcō», «discźdō», «dūcō», «mittō», «capiō», «muniō», «veniō».[1] [Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.] «199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2] PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. IRREGULAR VERBS sum esse fuī _be_ ab“sum abes“se ā“fuī _be away_ dō dare dedī _give_ CONJUGATION II contineō continźre continuī _hold in, keep_ doceō docźre docuī _teach_ egeō egźre eguī _need_ faveō favźre fāvī _favor_ iubeō iubźre iussī _order_ noceō nocźre nocuī _injure_ persuādeō persuādźre persuāsī _persuade_ respondeō respondźre respondī _reply_ sedeō sedźre sźdī _sit_ studeō studźre studuī _be eager_ CONJUGATION III agō agere źgī _drive_ crźdō crźdere crźdidī _believe_ fugiō fugere fūgī _flee_ iaciō iacere iźcī _hurl_ interficiō interficere interfźcī _kill_ rapiō rapere rapuī _seize_ resis“tō resis“tere re“stitī _resist_ CONJUGATION IV repe“riō reperī“re rep“perī _find_ [Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the perfect is the only new form to be learned.] «200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story. Perseus semper proeliō studźbat[3] et respondit,[3] "Verba tua sunt maximź grāta," et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.[3] Subitō mōnstrum vidźtur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longź absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.[3] Subitō dźscendit[3] et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.[3] Diū pugnātur,[4] diū proelium est dubium. Dźnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfźcit[3] et victōriam reportāvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vźnit[3] et Andromedam līberāvit[3] et eam ad Cźpheum dūxit.[3] Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit[3]: "Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda." Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat[3] et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.[3] [Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and imperfects in this passage.] [Footnote 4: The verb pugnātur means, literally, _it is fought_; translate freely, _the battle is fought_, or _the contest rages_. The verb pugnō in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by _it_, is called impersonal.] LESSON XXXV THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE «201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». _From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects._ 1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full: CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART. I. amō amā“-re amā“v-ī amā“t-us This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation. II. mo“neō monź“-re mo“nu-ī mo“nit-us III. regō re“ge-re rźx-ī rźct-us ca“piō ca“pe-re cźp-ī capt-us IV. au“diō audī“-re audī“v-ī audī“t-us 2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from the perfect passive participle. «202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb _to be_ and the past participle; as, _I have been loved_, _I had been loved_, _I shall have been loved._ Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as Perfect passive, «amā“tus sum», _I have been_ or _was loved_ Pluperfect passive, «amā“tus eram», _I had been loved_ Future perfect passive, «amā“tus erō», _I shall have been loved_ 1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō», and give the English meanings. «203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case. «204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb. EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR «Vir laudātus est», _the man was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Puella laudāta est», _the girl was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Cōnsilium laudātum est», _the plan was praised_, or _has been praised_ EXAMPLES IN PLURAL «Virī laudātī sunt», _the men were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Puellae laudātae sunt», _the girls were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Cōnsilia laudāta sunt», _the plans were praised_, or _have been praised_ 1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō» (§§488-492). «205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amā“t-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been loved_; mo“nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been advised_. 1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regō», «capiō», «audiō», and give the English meanings. «206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ūrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amō» is amat-ū“rus (-a, -um) «esse», _to be about to love_. _a._ Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems: Present, amāre (present stem), _to love_ Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), _to have loved_ Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), _to be about to love_ 1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», with the English meanings. «207.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lźgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cźnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat. II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard. LESSON XXXVI REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS _YES_-OR-_NO_ QUESTIONS [Special Vocabulary] «dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_ «frūstrā», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate) «gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_; «bellum gerere», _to wage war_ «occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», _seize, take possession of_ (occupy) «postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», _demand_ (ex-postulate) «recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», _refuse_ «stō, stāre, stetī, status», _stand_ «temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_ «teneō, tenźre, tenuī, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious) The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mōnstrum audīvźrunt, fūgźrunt», _when they heard the monster, they fled_ 2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba lives_ «ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place «in which»._ «208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ūrus», which appears in the principal parts instead. IRREGULAR VERBS «sum» «esse» «fuī» «futūrus» _be_ «absum» «abesse» «āfuī» «āfutūrus» _be away_ «dō»[1] «dare» «dedī» «datus» _give_ [Footnote 1: «dō» is best classed with the irregular verbs because of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.] CONJUGATION I «portō» «portāre» «portāvī» «portātus» _carry_ So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used. CONJUGATION II «contineō» «continźre» «continuī» «contentus» _hold in, keep_ «dźleō» «dźlźre» «dźlźvī» «dźlźtus» _destroy_ «doceō» «docźre» «docuī» «doctus» _teach_ «egeō» «egźre» «eguī» ---- _lack_ «faveō» «favźre» «fāvī» «fautūrus» _favor_ «iubeō» «iubźre» «iussī» «iussus» _order_ «moveō» «movźre» «mōvī» «mōtus» _move_ «noceō» «nocźre» «nocuī» «nocitūrus» _injure_ «pāreō» «pārźre» «pāruī» ---- _obey_ «persuādeō» «persuādźre» «persuāsī» «persuāsus» _persuade (from)_ «prohibeō» «prohibźre» «prohibuī» «prohibitus» _restrain, keep_ «respondeō» «respondźre» «respondī» «respōnsus» _reply_ «sedeō» «sedźre» «sźdī» «-sessus» _sit_ «studeō» «studźre» «studuī» ---- _be eager_ «videō» «vidźre» «vīdī» «vīsus» _see_ CONJUGATION III «agō» «agere» «źgī» «āctus» _drive_ «crźdō» «crźdere» «crźdidī» «crźditus» _believe_ «dīcō» «dīcere» «dīxī» «dictus» _say_ «discźdō» «discźdere» «discessī» «discessus» _depart_ «dūcō» «dūcere» «dūxī» «ductus» _lead_ «faciō»[2] «facere» «fźcī» «factus» _make_ «fugiō» «fugere» «fūgī» «fugitūrus» _flee_ «iaciō» «iacere» «iźcī» «iactus» _hurl_ «interficiō» «interficere» «interfźcī» «interfectus» _kill_ «mittō» «mittere» «mīsī» «missus» _send_ «rapiō» «rapere» «rapuī» «raptus» _seize_ «resistō» «resistere» «restitī» ---- _resist_ CONJUGATION IV «mūniō» «mūnīre» «mūnīvī» «mūnītus» _fortify_ «reperiō» «reperīre» «rep“perī» «repertus» _find_ «veniō» «venīre» «vźnī» «ventus» _come_ [Footnote 2: «faciō» has an irregular passive which will be presented later.] «209.» «Prepositions.» 1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the _accusative_ and the _ablative_ are used with prepositions, and that prepositions expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have had are here summarized. The table following should be learned. «ā» or «ab», _from, by_ «cum», _with_ «dź», _down from, concerning_ «ź» or «ex», _out from, out of_ «prō», _before, in front of; for, in behalf of_ «sine», _without_ 2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the _accusative_ (§52). Of these we have had the following: «ad», _to_; «apud», _among_; «per», _through_ There are many others which you will meet as we proceed. 3. The preposition «in» when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the _ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the ablative) «in» governs the _accusative_. «210.» «_Yes_-or-_No_ Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like _who, why, when_, etc., but expecting the answer _yes_ or _no_, may take one of three forms: 1. _Is he coming?_ (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to the answer expected.) 2. _Is he not coming?_ (Expecting the answer _yes_.) 3. _He isn“t coming, is he?_ (Expecting the answer _no_.) These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows: 1. «Venitne?» _is he coming?_ 2. «Nōnne venit?» _is he not coming?_ 3. «Num venit?» _he isn“t coming, is he?_ _a._ «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first. _b._ We learned in §56.b that _yes_-or-_no_ questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, «ita», «vźrō», «certź», etc. (_so, truly, certainly_, etc.) may be used for _yes_, and «nōn», «minimź», etc. for _no_ if the denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_. «211.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. I. 1. Nōnne habźbat Cornźlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habźbat. 2. Num Sextus lźgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerźbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerźbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plźnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vźrō, sed iī recūsāvźrunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dźlźtum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dźfessī et armīs egźbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvźrunt? Minimź. II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn“t have the lady's gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back. * * * * * «Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516» * * * * * LESSON XXXVII CONJUGATION OF _POSSUM_ · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH [Special Vocabulary] «neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_; «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «castellum, -ī», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle) «cotīdiź», adv., _daily_ cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, _cease_, with the infin. «incipiō, incipere, incźpī, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», _storm, assail_ «petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», _aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask_ (petition) «pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», _place, put_ (position); «castra pōnere», _to pitch camp_ «possum, posse, potuī, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin. «vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeō», _command_ «vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible) «vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive) «212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», _I am able_, _I can_, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.) _a._ «Possum», _I can_, is a compound of «potis», _able_, and «sum», _I am_. «213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The _infinitive_ (cf. §173) is a _verbal noun_. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English. 1. In English certain verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, _he commanded the men to flee_. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive. Similarly in Latin, some verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virōs fugere iussit», _he commanded the men to flee_. «214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» _The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative._ «215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, _the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls_. This is called the _complementary_ infinitive, as the predicate is not _complete_ without the added infinitive. Similarly in Latin, _verbs of incomplete predication_ are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», _I am able, I can_; «properō», «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «temptō», _I attempt_; as «Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt», _the Romans are able to_ (or _can_) _conquer the Gauls_ «Bellum gerere mātūrant», _they hasten to wage war_ _a._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. «Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt», _bad boys are not able to_ (or _cannot_) _be good._ Observe that «bonī» agrees with «puerī». «216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, _To conquer_ (= conquering) _is pleasing; To see_ (= seeing) _is to believe_ (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as «Superāre est grātum», _to conquer is pleasing_ «Vidźre est crźdere», _to see is to believe_ _a._ In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as «Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs», _for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many_ _b._ An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence «superāre est grātum», the predicate adjective «grātum» is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superāre» the subject. «217.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egźre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuźrunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lźgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī[1] fugere incźpźrunt, lźgātus ab vestrīs[1] captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petźbant. 8. Fźminae prō domiciliīs sedźbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studźbant Gallōs dź mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī[2] cessāvźrunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis. II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town. [Footnote 1: Supply _men_. «nostri», «vestrī», and «suī» are often used as nouns in this way.] [Footnote 2: Not _children_. The Romans used «līberī» either as an adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby signifying their _free-born children_. The word was never applied to children of slaves.] [Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.] «218.» THE FAITHLESS TARPE“IA Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerźbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longź perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crźdźbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tźla iaciźbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petźbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cźpźrunt.[4] Tarpźia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiź aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī[5] nōn nocźbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fźminīs līberīsque gerźbant. Tarpźia autem maximź amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiź Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidźbat et mox ea dźsīderāre incipiźbat. Eī ūnus ex[6] Sabīnīs dīxit, "Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpźia, et maxima erunt praemia tua." [Footnote 4: «cōnsilium capere», _to make a plan_. Why is the _perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.] [Footnote 5: Dative with «nocźbant». (Cf. §154.)] [Footnote 6: «ex», _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best translated _of_.] [Illustration: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA] LESSON XXXVIII THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN «219.» Sentences are _simple, compound_, or _complex_. _a._ A _simple sentence_ is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: _The Romans approached the town._ _b._ A _compound sentence_ is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: _The Romans approached the town_ | and | _the enemy fled._ NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement. _c._ A _complex sentence_ is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: _When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled._ NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus _the enemy fled_ is independent, and _when the Romans approached the town_ is dependent or subordinate. _d._ The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called _clauses_. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the _main clause_ and the dependent statement the _subordinate clause._ «220.» Examine the complex sentence _The Romans killed the men who were taken_ Here are two clauses: _a._ The main clause, _The Romans killed the men_ _b._ The subordinate clause, _who were taken_ The word _who_ is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun _men_. It also connects the subordinate clause _who were taken_ with the noun _men_. Hence the clause is an _adjective clause_. A pronoun that connects an _adjective clause_ with a substantive is called a _relative pronoun_, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its _antecedent_. The relative pronouns in English are _who, whose, whom, which, what, that_. «221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quī», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quī» «quae» «quod» «quī» «quae» «quae» _Gen._ «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quōrum» «quārum» «quōrum» _Dat._ «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» _Acc._ «quem» «quam» «quod» «quōs» «quās» «quae» _Abl._ «quō» «quā» «quō» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» 1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms «quī», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms showing new endings. NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced _c[oo]i“y[oo]s_ (two syllables) and _c[oo]i_ (one syllable). «222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1] MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ _who, that_ _which, what, that_ _Gen._ _of whom, whose_ _of which, of what, whose_ _Dat._ _to_ or _for whom_ _to_ or _for which_, _to_ or _for what_ _Acc._ _whom, that_ _which, what, that_ _Abl._ _from_, etc., _whom_ _from_, etc., _which_ or _what_ [Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.] _a._ We see from the table above that «quī», when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_, or _that_. «223.» Note the following sentences: _The Romans killed the men who were taken_ _The Romans killed the woman who was taken_ «Rōmānī interfźcźrunt virōs quī captī sunt» «Rōmānī interfźcźrunt fźminam quae capta est» In the first sentence _who_ («quī») refers to the antecedent _men_ («virōs»), and is _masculine plural_. In the second, _who_ («quae») refers to _woman_ («fźminam»), and _feminine singular_. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in _gender_ and _number_. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virōs» and «fźminam» are accusatives, and «quī» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence «224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» _A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause._ «225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are _who?_ _which?_ _what?_ In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quī?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective). «226.» Examine the sentences _a._ _Who is the man?_ «Quis est vir?» _b._ _What man is leading them?_ «Quī vir eōs dūcit?» In _a_, _who_ is an interrogative _pronoun_. In _b_, _what_ is an interrogative _adjective_. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the _pronoun_ and «quī», «quae», «quod» is the _adjective_. «227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quī», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.) 2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quī», «quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows: MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quis», _who?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Gen._ «cuius», _whose?_ «cuius», _whose?_ _Dat._ «cui», _to_ or _for whom?_ «cui», _to_ or _for_ _what_ or _which?_ _Acc._ «quem», _whom?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Abl._ «quō», _from_, etc., _whom?_ «quō», _from_, etc., _which_ or _what?_ NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid. «228.» EXERCISES I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habźs? Scūtum habeō quod lźgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lźgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvźbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhźnō Germānī vīvźbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germānī bellum gerźbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studźbant, Germānī bellum gerźbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tźlīs cōpiae nostrae eguźrunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguźrunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenźbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenźbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favźbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favźbunt. [Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.] [Illustration: GERMANI ANTIQUI] II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay. «229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_)[2] Tarpźia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: "Date mihi[3] ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam." Nec Sabīnī recūsāvźrunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvźrunt quō[1] Tarpźia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in[2] Tarpźiam scūta graviter iźcźrunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerźbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpźia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvźrunt. [Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.] [Footnote 3: _to me._] [Footnote 1: quō = _whither_, _to the place where_. Here «quo» is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_] [Footnote 2: _upon_.] LESSON XXXIX THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun, «barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_ «dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō» «eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, _m., judge_ «lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary) «mīles, mīlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian) «pźs, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal) «prīnceps, prīncipis», m., _chief_ (principal) «rźx, rźgis», m., _king_ (regal) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «virtūs, virtūtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue) [Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and _short_ in the other cases.] «230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-ā» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portā-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-». These stem vowels, «-ā-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the _Ā_- and _O_-Declensions. «231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or _I_-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the _stem_ ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a _consonant stem_; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»_stem_. _In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In_ «i-»_stems the stem is formed by adding_ «-i-» _to the base._ The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one. «232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes: I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular. CLASS I «233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows: «prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., _chief_ _soldier_ m., _stone_ BASES OR STEMS «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ prīnceps mīles lapis -s _Gen._ prīn“cipis mīlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prīn“cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī _Acc._ prīn“cipem mīlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prīn“cipe mīlite lapide -e PLURAL _Nom._ prīn“cipźs mīlitźs lapidźs -źs _Gen._ prīn“cipum mīlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prīnci“pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prīn“cipźs mīlitźs lapidźs -źs _Abl._ prīnci“pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus «rźx», «iūdex», «virtūs», f., m., _king_ m.,_judge_ _manliness_ BASES OR STEMS «rźg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ rźx iūdex virtūs -s _Gen._ rźgis iūdicis virtū“tis -is _Dat._ rźgī iūdicī virtū“tī -ī _Acc._ rźgem iūdicem virtū“tem -em _Abl._ rźge iūdice virtū“te -e PLURAL _Nom._ rźgźs iūdicźs virtū“tźs -źs _Gen._ rźgum iūdicum virtū“tum -um _Dat._ rźgibus iūdicibus virtū“tibus -ibus _Acc._ rźgźs iūdicźs virtū“tźs -źs _Abl._ rźgibus iūdicibus virtū“tibus -ibus 1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive singular. 2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prīnceps» («prīncip-»), «mīles» («mīlit-»), «iūdex» («iūdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the nominative. _a._ «lapis» is an exception to this rule. 3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative: _a._ A final «-t» or «-d» is dropped before «-s»; thus «mīles» for «mīlets», «lapis» for «lapids», «virtūs» for «virtūts». _b._ A final «-c» or «-g» unites with «-s» and forms «-x»; thus «iūdec» + «s» = «iūdex», «rźg» + «s» = «rźx». 4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. In like manner decline «dux, ducis», m., _leader_; «eques, equitis», m., _horseman_; «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_; «pźs, pedis», m.,_foot_. «234.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Neque peditźs neque equitźs occupāre castellum Rōmānum poterant. 2. Summā virtūte mūrōs altōs cotīdiź oppugnābant. 3. Pedes mīlitum lapidibus quī dź mūrō iaciźbantur saepe vulnerābantur. 4. Quod novum cōnsilium dux cźpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrīs ōrnāmentīs temptāvit. 6. Quid puella fźcit? 7. Puella commōta aurō mīlitźs per portās dūxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summō studiō petīverat nōn reportāvit. 9. Apud Rōmānōs antīquōs Tarpźia nōn est laudāta. II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That («illud») ship is the _Victory_. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal. [Illustration: NAVIGIUM] LESSON XL THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] «Caesar, -aris», m., _Cęsar_ «captīvus, -ī», m., _captive, prisoner_ «cōnsul, -is», m., _consul_ «frāter, frātris», m., _brother_ (fraternity) «homō, hominis», m., _man, human being_ «impedīmentum, -ī», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur. «impedīmenta, -ōrum», _baggage_ «imperātor, imperātōris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor) «legiō, legiōnis», f., _legion_ «māter, mātris», f., _mother_ (maternal) «ōrdō, ōrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order) «pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal) «salūs, salūtis», f., _safety_ (salutary) «soror, sorōris», f., _sister_ (sorority) CLASS II «235.» Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add «-s.» They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. «236.» PARADIGMS MASCULINES AND FEMININES «cōnsul», «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES OR STEMS «cōnsul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- _Gen._ cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī _Acc._ cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e PLURAL _Nom._ cōnsulźs legiōnźs ōrdinźs patrźs -źs _Gen._ cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cōnsulźs legiōnźs ōrdinźs patrźs -źs _Abl._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus 1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way. 2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-). 3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-). 4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. _Always learn this with the nominative._ «237.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Audīsne tubās, Mārce? Nōn sōlum tubās audiō sed etiam ōrdinźs militum et carrōs impedīmentōrum plźnōs vidźre possum. 2. Quās legiōnźs vidźmus? Eae legiōnźs nūper ex Galliā vźnźrunt. 3. Quid ibi fźcźrunt? Studźbantne pugnāre an sine virtūte erant? 4. Multa proelia fźcźrunt[1] et magnās victōriās et multōs captīvōs reportāvźrunt. 5. Quis est imperātor eārum legiōnum? Caesar, summus Rōmānōrum imperātor. 6. Quis est eques quī pulchram corōnam gerit? Is eques est frāter meus. Eī corōna ā cōnsule data est quia summā virtūte pugnāverat et ā barbarīs patriam servāverat. II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now («nūper»). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cęsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed. [Footnote 1: «proelium facere» = _to fight a battle._] [Footnote 2: «contineō.» Cf. §180.] [Footnote 3: Abl. iniūriā.] LESSON XLI THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Concluded_) [Special Vocabulary] «calamitās, calamitātis», f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., _head_ (capital) «flūmen, flūminis», n., _river_ (flume) «labor, labōris», m., _labor, toil_ «opus, operis», n., _work, task_ «ōrātor, ōrātōris», m., _orator_ «rīpa, -ae», f., _bank_ (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., _time_ (temporal) «terror, terrōris», m., _terror, fear_ «victor, victōris», m., _victor_ «accipiō, accipere, accźpī, acceptus», _receive, accept_ «cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus», _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm) «238.» Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows: «flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES OR STEMS «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flūminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flūminī temperī operī capitī -ī _Acc._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flūmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL _Nom._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flūminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus 1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. 2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-. 3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-. «239.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. 1. Barbarī ubi Rōmam cźpźrunt, maxima rźgum opera dźlźvźrunt. 2. Rōmānī multās calamitātźs ā barbarīs accźpźrunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidānōs, animī dubiī eōrum ab ōrātōre clarō cōnfīrmāti sunt. 4. Rōma est in rīpīs fiūminis magnī. 5. Ubi Caesar imperātor mīlitźs suōs arma capere iussit, iī ā proeliō continźrī nōn potuźrunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperātor reperīrī nōn potuit. 7. Imperātor sagittā in capite vulnerātus erat et stāre nōn poterat. 8. Eum magnō labōre pedes ex proeliō portāvit. 9. Is bracchiīs suīs imperātōrem tenuit et eum ex perīculīs summīs servāvit. 10. Virtūte suā bonus mīles ab imperātōre corōnam accźpit. II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, "By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster." 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task. [Illustration: Corona] LESSON XLII REVIEW LESSON «240.» Review the paradigms in §§233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection. TERROR CIMBRICUS[1] Ōlim Cimbrī et Teutonźs, populī Germāniae, cum fźminīs līberīsque Italiae adpropinquāverant et cōpiās Rōmānās maximō proeliō vīcerant. Ubi fuga legiōnum nūntiāta est, summus erat terror tōtīus Rōmae, et Rōmānī, graviter commōtī, sacra crźbra deīs faciźbant et salūtem petźbant. Tum Mānlius ōrātor animōs populī ita cōnfīrmāvit:--"Magnam calamitātem accźpimus. Oppida nostra ā Cimbrīs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrī vāstantur, cōpiae barbarōrum Rōmae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novīs animīs proelium novum faciźmus et Germānōs ex patriā nostrā sine morā agźmus, erit nūlla salūs fźminīs nostrīs līberīsque. Servāte līberōs! Servāte patriam! Anteā superātī sumus quia imperātōrźs nostrī fuźrunt īnfīrmī. Nunc Marius, clārus imperātor, quī iam multās aliās victōriās reportāvit, legiōnźs dūcet et animōs nostrōs terrōre Cimbricō līberāre mātūrābit." Marius tum in Āfricā bellum gerźbat. Sine morā ex Āfricā in Italiam vocātus est. Cōpiās novās nōn sōlum tōtī Italiae sed etiam prōvinciīs sociōrum imperāvit.[2] Disciplīnā autem dūrā labōribusque perpetuīs mīlitźs exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quī iam proeliō studźbant, ad Germānōrum castra celeriter properāvit. Diū et ācriter pugnātum est.[3] Dźnique barbarī fūgźrunt et multī in fugā ab equitibus sunt interfectī. Marius pater patriae vocātus est. [Footnote 1: About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the _terror Cimbricus_ continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.] [Footnote 2: _He made a levy_ (of troops) _upon_, «imperāvit» with the acc. and the dat.] [Footnote 3: Cf. §200. II. 2.] LESSON XLIII THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «animal, animālis (-ium[A])», n., _animal_ «avis, avis (-ium)», f., _bird_ (aviation) «caedźs, caedis (-ium)», f., _slaughter_ calcar, calcāris (-ium), n., _spur_ «cīvis, cīvis (-ium)», m. and f., _citizen_ (civic) «cliźns, clientis (-ium)», m., _retainer, dependent_ (client) «fīnis, fīnis (-ium)», m., _end, limit_ (final); plur., _country, territory_ «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimīcus», which means a _personal_ enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., _fire_ (ignite) «īnsigne, īnsignis (-ium)», n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., _sea_ (marine) «nāvis, nāvis (-ium)», f., _ship_ (naval); «nāvis longa», _man-of-war_ «turris, turris (-ium)», f., _tower_ (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., _city_ (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum». [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending «-ium» is written to mark the i-stems.] [Footnote B: The genitive plural of «mare» is not in use.] «241.» To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an «i»-stem. Nouns with «i»-stems are 1. Masculines and feminines: _a._ Nouns in «-źs» and «-īs» with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus «caedźs, caedis», is an «i»-stem, but «mīles, mīlitis», is a consonant stem. _b._ Nouns in «-ns» and «-rs». _c._ Nouns of one syllable in «-s» or «-x» preceded by a consonant. 2. Neuters in «-e», «-al», and «-ar». «242.» The declension of «i»-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences: _a._ Masculines and feminities have «-ium» in the genitive plural and «-īs» or «-źs» in the accusative plural. _b._ Neuters have «-ī» in the ablative singular, and an «-i-» in every form of the plural. «243.» «Masculine and Feminine _I_-Stems.» Masculine and feminine «i»-stems are declined as follows: «caedźs», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliźns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ caedźs hostis urbs cliźns[1] -s, -is, _or_ -źs _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī) PLURAL _Nom._ caedźs hostźs urbźs clientźs -źs _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedīs, -źs hostīs, -źs urbīs, -źs clientīs, -źs -īs, -źs _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus [Footnote 1: Observe that the vowel before «-ns» is long, but that it is shortened before «-nt». Cf. §12.2, 3.] 1. «avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis» have the ablative singular in «-ī» or «-e». 2. «turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre». «244.» «Neuter _I_-Stems.» Neuter «i»-stems are declined as follows: «īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ īnsignis animālis calcāris -is _Dat._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī _Acc._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī PLURAL _Nom._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Gen._ īnsignium animālium calcārium -ium _Dat._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus _Acc._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Abl._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus 1. Review §74 and see how it applies to this declension. 2. The final «-i-» of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to «-e». 3. A long vowel is shortened before final «-l» or «-r». (Cf. §12.2.) «245.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. 1. Quam urbem vidźmus? Urbs quam vidźtis est Rōma. 2. Cīvźs Rōmānī urbem suam turribus altīs et mūrīs longīs mūnīverant. 3. Ventī nāvīs longās prohibźbant fīnibus hostium adpropinquāre. 4. Imperātor a clientibus suīs calcāria aurī et alia īnsignia accźpit. 5. Mīlitźs Rōmānī cum hostibus bella saeva gessźrunt et eōs caede magnā superāvźrunt. 6. Alia animālia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nāvźs longae quae auxilium ad imperātōrem portābant ignī ab hostibus dźlźtae sunt. 8. In eō marī avis multās vīdimus quae longź ā terrā volāverant. 9. Nōnne vīdistis nāvīs longās hostium et ignīs quibus urbs nostra vāstābātur? Certź, sed nec caedem cīvium nec fugam clientium vīdimus. 10. Avźs et alia animālia, ubi ignem vīdźrunt, salūtem fugā petere celeriter incźpźrunt. 11. Num. iūdex in peditum ōrdinibus stābat? Minimź, iūdex erat apud equitźs et equus eius īnsigne pulchrum gerźbat. [Illustration: NAVES LONGAE] II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, "Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain." 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3] [Footnote 2: Place first.] [Footnote 3: Not the accusative. Why?] LESSON XLIV IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] «arbor, arboris», f., _tree_ (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., _hill_ «dźns, dentis (-ium)», m., _tooth_ (dentist) fōns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_ «iter, itineris», n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary) «mźnsis, mźnsis (-ium)», m., _month_ «moenia, -ium», n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. «mūrus» «mōns, montis (-ium)», m., _mountain_; «summus mōns», _top of the mountain_ «numquam», adv., _never_ «pōns, pontis», m., _bridge_ (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «trāns», prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic) «vīs (vīs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. _strength, force, violence_ (vim) «246.» PARADIGMS [Transcriber's Note: The original text gives «vī-» and «vīr-» as the "Bases" of «vīs», and omits the "Stems" for both words. The forms have been regularized to agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «vīs», f., _force_ «iter», n., _march_ STEMS «vī-» and «vīri-» «iter-» and «itiner-» BASES «v-» and «vīr-» «iter-» and «itiner-» SINGULAR _Nom._ vīs iter _Gen._ vīs (rare) itineris _Dat._ vī (rare) itinerī _Acc._ vim iter _Abl._ vī itinere PLURAL _Nom._ vīrźs itinera _Gen._ vīrium itinerum _Dat._ vīribus itineribus _Acc._ vīrīs, or -źs itinera _Abl._ vīribus itineribus «247.» There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered: 1. «Masculine» are nouns in «-or», «-ōs», «-er», «-es» (gen. «-itis»). _a._ «arbor», _tree_, is feminine; and «iter», _march_, is neuter. 2. «Feminine» are nouns in «-ō», «-is», «-x», and in «-s» preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but «ō». _a._ Masculine are «collis» (_hill_), «lapis», «mźnsis» (_month_), «ōrdō», «pźs», and nouns in «-nis» and «-guis»--as «ignis», «sanguis» (_blood_)--and the four monosyllables «dźns», _a tooth_; «mōns», _a mountain_ «pōns», _a bridge_; «fōns», _a fountain_ 3. «Neuters» are nouns in «-e», «-al», «-ar», «-n», «-ur», «-us», and «caput». [Footnote 1: Review §60. Words denoting males are, of course, masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.] «248.» Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined: «animal» «calamitās» «flūmen» «lapis» «nāvis» «avis» «caput» «ignis» «legiō» «opus» «caedźs» «eques» «īnsigne» «mare» «salūs» «calcar» «fīnis» «labor» «mīles» «urbs» «249.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. _The First Bridge over the Rhine._ Salūs sociōrum erat semper cāra Rōmānīs. Ōlim Gallī, amīcī Rōmānōrum, multās iniūriās ab Germānīs quī trāns flūmen Rhźnum vivźbant accźperant. Ubi lźgātī ab iīs ad Caesarem imperātōrem Rōmānum vźnźrunt et auxilium postulāvźrunt, Rōmānī magnīs itineribus ad hostium fīnīs properāvźrunt. Mox ad rīpās magnī flūminis vźnźrunt. Imperātor studźbat cōpiās suās trāns fluvium dūcere, sed nūllā viā[2] poterat. Nūllās nāvīs habźbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperātor autem, vir clārus, numquam adversā fortūnā commōtus, novum cōnsilium cźpit. Iussit suōs[3] in[4] lātō flūmine facere pontem. Numquam anteā pōns in Rhźnō vīsus erat. Hostźs ubi pontem quem Rōmānī fźcerant vīdźrunt, summō terrōre commōtī, sine morā fugam parāre incźpźrunt. II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near («ad») a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies' country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.[2] [Footnote 2: Abl. of manner.] [Footnote 3: «suōs», used as a noun, _his men_.] [Footnote 4: We say _build a bridge over_; the Romans, _make a bridge on_.] [Footnote 5: Place first.] * * * * * «Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§517-520» * * * * * LESSON XLV ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «ācer, ācris, ācre», _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) «brevis, breve», _short, brief_ «difficilis, difficile», _difficult_ «facilis, facile», _facile, easy_ «fortis, forte», _brave_ (fortitude) «gravis, grave», _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave) «omnis, omne», _every, all_ (omnibus) «pār», gen. «paris», _equal_ (par) «paucī, -ae, -a», _few, only a few_ (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus «signum, -ī», n., _signal, sign, standard_ «vźlōx», gen. «vźlōcis», _swift_ (velocity) «conlocō, conlocāre, conlocāvī, conlocātus», _arrange, station, place_ (collocation) «dźmōnstrō, dźmōnstrāre, dźmōnstrāvī, dźmōnstrātus», _point out, explain_ (demonstrate) «mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus», _commit, intrust_ (mandate) «250.» Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like «bonus», «aeger», or «līber»), or they are of the third declension. «251.» Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have «i»-_stems_, and they are declined almost like nouns with «i»-stems. «252.» Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, «bonus», m.; «bona», f.; «bonum», n. Such an adjective is called an _adjective of three endings_. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes: I. Adjectives of three endings-- a different form in the nominative for each gender. II. Adjectives of two endings-- masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different. III. Adjectives of one ending-- masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike. «253.» Adjectives of the third declension in «-er» have three endings; those in «-is» have two endings; the others have one ending. CLASS I «254.» Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows: «ācer, ācris, ācre», _keen, eager_ STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ācer ācris ācre ācrźs ācrźs ācria _Gen._ ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium _Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus _Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -źs ācrīs, -źs ācria _Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus CLASS II «255.» Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows: «omnis, omne», _every, all_[1] STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnźs omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnīs, -źs omnia _Abl._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus [Footnote 1: «omnis» is usually translated _every_ in the singular and _all_ in the plural.] CLASS III «256.» Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows: «pār», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pār pār parźs paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parī parī paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pār parīs, -źs paria _Abl._ parī parī paribus paribus 1. All «i»-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular. 2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural. 3. Decline «vir ācer», «legiō ācris», «animal ācre», «ager omnis», «scūtum omne», «proelium pār». «257.» There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems. «258.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. _The Romans invade the Enemy's Country._ Ōlim peditźs Rōmānī cum equitibus vźlōcibus in hostium urbem iter faciźbant. Ubi nōn longź āfuźrunt, rapuźrunt agricolam, quī eīs viam brevem et facilem dźmōnstrāvit. Iam Rōmānī moenia alta, turrīs validās aliaque opera urbis vidźre poterant. In moenibus stābant multī prīncipźs. Prīncipźs ubi vīdźrunt Rōmānōs, iussźrunt cīvīs lapidźs aliaque tźla dź mūrīs iacere. Tum mīlitźs fortźs continźrī ā proeliō nōn poterant et ācer imperātor signum tubā darī iussit. Summā vī omnźs mātūrāvźrunt. Imperātor Sextō lźgātō impedīmenta omnia mandāvit. Sextus impedīmenta in summō colle conlocāvit. Grave et ācre erat proelium, sed hostźs nōn parźs Rōmānīs erant. Aliī interfectī, aliī captī sunt. Apud captīvōs erant māter sororque rźgis. Paucī Rōmānōrum ab hostibus vulnerātī sunt. Secundum proelium Rōmānīs erat grātum. Fortūna fortibus semper favet. II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless. [Illustration: AQUILA LEGIONIS] LESSON XLVI THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] «adventus, -ūs», m., _approach, arrival_ (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date) «cornū, -ūs», n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia); «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_; «ā sinistrō cornū», _on the left wing_ «equitātus, -ūs», m., _cavalry_ «exercitus, -ūs», m., _army_ «impetus, -ūs», m., _attack_ (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., _to make an attack on_ «lacus, -ūs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., _lake_ «manus, -ūs», f., _hand; band, force_ (manual) «portus, -ūs», m., _harbor_ (port) «post», prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem) «cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātus», _burn_ (cremate) «exerceō, exercźre, exercuī, exercitus», _practice, drill, train_ (exercise) «259.» Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter. «260.» Masculine nouns end in «-us», neuters in «-ū». The genitive ends in «-ūs». _a._ Feminine by exception are «domus», _house_; «manus», _hand_; and a few others. PARADIGMS [Transcriber's Note: The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «adventus», «cornū», m., _arrival_ n., _horn_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornū -us -ū _Gen._ adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs _Dat._ adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū _Acc._ adventum cornū -um -ū _Abl._ adventū cornū -ū -ū PLURAL _Nom._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus 1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular. 2. «lacus», _lake_, has the ending «-ubus» in the dative and ablative plural; «portus», _harbor_, has either «-ubus» or «-ibus». 3. «cornū» is the only neuter that is in common use. «261.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vźlōcźs hostium equitźs ācrem impetum in castra fźcźrunt. 2. Continźre exercitum ā proeliō nōn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiōnźs ex castrīs dūcī. 4. Prō castrīs cum hostium equitātū pugnātum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitātus trāns flūmen fūgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperātor agrōs vāstāvit et vīcōs hostium cremāvit. 7. Castra autem nōn oppugnāvit quia mīlitźs erant dźfessī et locus difficilis. 8. Hostźs nōn cessāvźrunt iacere tźla, quae paucīs nocuźrunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principźs Gallōrum lźgātōs ad Caesarem mittere studźbant, sed populō persuādźre nōn poterant. II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (_fem_.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cęsar didn“t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength. LESSON XLVII EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF _DOMUS_ [Special Vocabulary] Athźnae, -ārum, f., plur., _Athens_ Corinthus, -ī, f., _Corinth_ «domus, -ūs», locative «domī», f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genāva, -ae», f., _Geneva_ Pompźii, -ōrum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_ rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rūra», n., _country_ (rustic) «tergum, tergī», n., _back_; «ā tergō», _behind, in the rear_ «vulnus, vulneris», n., _wound_ (vulnerable) «committō, committere, commīsī, commissus», _intrust, commit;_ «proelium committere», _join battle_ «convocō, convocāre, convocāvī, convocātus», _call together, summon_ (convoke) «timeō, timźre, timuī, ----», _fear; be afraid_ (timid) «vertō, vertere, vertī, versus», _turn, change_ (convert); «terga vertere», _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_ «262.» We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following: «Galba ad» (or «in») «oppidum properat» «Galba ab» («dź» or «ex») «oppidō properat» «Galba in oppidō habitat» From these expressions we may deduce the following rules: «263.» RULE. «Accusative of the Place to.» _The «place to which» is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?_ «264.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place from.» _The «place from which» is expressed by «ā» or «ab», «dź», «ź» or «ex», with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence?_ (Cf. Rule, §179.) «265.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place at or in.» _The «place at or in which» is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where?_ _a._ The ablative denoting the _place where_ is called the _locative ablative_ (cf. «locus», _place_). «266.» «Exceptions.» Names of towns, small islands,[1] «domus», _home_, «rūs», _country_, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as, «Galba Athźnās properat», _Galba hastens to Athens_ «Galba Athźnīs properat», _Galba hastens from Athens_ «Galba Athźnīs habitat», _Galba lives at_ (or _in_) _Athens_ «Galba domum properat», _Galba hastens home_ «Galba rūs properat», _Galba hastens to the country_ «Galba domō properat», _Galba hastens from home_ «Galba rūre properat», _Galba hastens from the country_ «Galba rūrī» (less commonly «rūre») «habitat», _Galba lives in the country_ _a._ Names of _countries_, like «Germānia», «Italia», etc., do not come under these exceptions. _With them prepositions must not be omitted._ [Footnote 1: Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.] «267.» «The Locative Case.» We saw above that the place-relation expressed by _at_ or _in_ is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the _locative case_. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, «domī», _at home_, and a few other words. «268.» RULE. «Locative and Locative Ablative.» _To express the «place in which» with names of towns and small islands, «if they are singular and of the first or second declension», use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as_, «Galba Rōmae habitat», _Galba lives at Rome_ «Galba Corinthī habitat», _Galba lives at Corinth_ «Galba domī habitat», _Galba lives at home_ Here «Rōmae», «Corinthī», and «domī» are _locatives_, being _singular_ and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in «Galba Athźnīs habitat», _Galba lives at Athens_, «Galba Pompźiīs habitat», _Galba lives at Pompeii_ «Athźnīs» and «Pompźiīs» are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives «Athźnae» and «Pompźiī» are_plural_ and there is no plural locative case form. «269.» The word «domus», _home, house_, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§468). «270.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. 1. Corinthī omnia īnsignia aurī ā ducibus victōribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genāvam exercitum magnīs itineribus dūxit. 3. Quem pontem hostźs cremāverant? Pontem in Rhźnō hostźs cremāverant. 4. Pompźiīs multās Rōmānōrum domōs vidźre poteritis. 5. Rōmā cōnsul equō vźlōcī rūs properāvit. 6. Domī cōnsulis hominźs multī sedźbant. 7. Imperātor iusserat lźgātum Athźnās cum multīs nāvibus longīs nāvigāre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ōrdinźs arborum altārum. 9. Propter arborźs altās nec lacum nec portum reperīre potuimus. 10. Proeliīs crźbrīs Caesar legiōnźs suās quae erant in Galliā exercźbat. 11. Cotīdiź in locō idoneō castra pōnźbat et mūniźbat. II. 1. Cęsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cęsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others because[3] of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.[4] 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country. [Footnote 2: Latin says "by a swift horse." What construction?] [Footnote 3: Distinguish between the English conjunction _because_ («quia» or «quod») and the preposition _because of_ («propter»).] [Footnote 4: _used to sit_, express by the imperfect.] [Illustration: DAEDALUS ET ICARUS] «271.» DAED“ALUS AND IC“ARUS Crźta est īnsula antīqua quae aquā altā magnī maris pulsātur. Ibi ōlim Mīnōs erat rźx. Ad eum vźnit Daedalus quī ex Graeciā patriā fugiźbat. Eum Mīnōs rźx benignīs verbīs accźpit et eī domicilium in Crźtā dedit. [5]Quō in locō Daedalus sine cūrā vīvebat et rźgī multa et clāra opera faciźbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam cāram dźsīderāre incźpit. Domum properāre studźbat, sed rźgī persuādźre nōn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetābat. [Footnote 5: _And in this place_; «quō» does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a _connecting relative_, and is translated by _and_ and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.] LESSON XLVIII THE FIFTH OR Ź-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME [Special Vocabulary] «aciźs, -źī», f., _line of battle_ «aestās, aestātis», f., _summer_ «annus, -ī», m., _year_ (annual) «diźs, diźī», m., _day_ (diary) «fidźs, fideī», no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word; protection_; «in fidem venīre», _to come under the protection_ «fluctus, -ūs», m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., _winter_ «hōra, -ae», f., _hour_ «lūx, lūcis», f., _light_ (lucid); «prīma lux», _daybreak_ «merīdiźs», acc. -em, abl. -ź, no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., _night_ (nocturnal) «prīmus, -a, -um», _first_ (prime) «rźs, reī», f., _thing, matter_ (real); «rźs gestae», _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_); «rźs adversae», _adversity_; «rźs secundae», _prosperity_ «spźs, speī», f., _hope_ «272.» «Gender.» Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except «diźs», _day_, and «merīdiźs», _midday_, which are usually masculine. «273.» PARADIGMS [Transcriber's Note: The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «diźs», «rźs», f., m., _day_ _thing_ STEMS «diź-» «rź-» BASES «di-» «r-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diźs rźs -źs _Gen._ diźī reī -źī _or_ -eī _Dat._ diźī reī -źī _or_ -eī _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diź rź -ź PLURAL _Nom._ diźs rźs -źs _Gen._ diźrum rźrum -źrum _Dat._ diźbus rźbus -źbus _Acc._ diźs rźs -źs _Abl._ diźbus rźbus -źbus 1. The vowel «e» which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending «-eī» after a consonant, as in «r-eī»; and before «-m» in the accusative singular, as in «di-em». (Cf. §12.2.) 2. Only «diźs» and «rźs» are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. «Aciźs», _line of battle_, and «spźs», _hope_, have the nominative and accusative plural. «274.» The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions _at, in_, or _on_ may refer not only to place, but also to time, as _at noon, in summer, on the first day_. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the _ablative of time_. «275.» RULE. «The Ablative of Time.» _The time «when» or «within which» anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition._ _a._ Occasionally the preposition «_in_» is found. Compare the English _Next day we started_ and _«On» the next day we started_. «276.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294. I. _Galba the Farmer._ Galba agricola rūrī vīvit. Cotīdiź prīmā lūce labōrāre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiō suō cessat. Merīdiź Iūlia fīlia eum ad cźnam vocat. Nocte pedźs dźfessōs domum vertit. Aestāte fīliī agricolae auxilium patrī dant. Hieme agricola eōs in lūdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multās fābulās dź rźbus gestīs Caesaris nārrat. Aestāte fīliī agricolae perpetuīs labōribus exercentur nec grave agrī opus est iīs molestum. Galba sine ūllā cūrā vivit nec rźs adversās timet. II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cęsar's line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cęsar's protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast's teeth. «277.» DAED“ALUS AND IC“ARUS (_Continued_) Tum Daedalus gravibus cūrīs commōtus fīliō suō Īcarō ita dixit: "Animus meus, Īcare, est plźnus trīstitiae nec oculī lacrimīs egent. Discźdere ex Crźtā, Athźnās properāre, maximź studeō; sed rźx recūsat audīre verba mea et omnem reditūs spem źripit. Sed numquam rźbus adversīs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimīca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam." Tum in artīs ignōtās animum dīmittit et mīrum capit cōnsilium. Nam pennās in ōrdine pōnit et vźrās ālās facit. LESSON XLIX PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] «amīcitia, -ae», f., _friendship_ (amicable) «itaque», conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_ «littera, -ae», f., _a letter_ of the alphabet; plur., _a letter, an epistle_ «metus, metūs», m., _fear_ «nihil, indeclinable», n., _nothing_ (nihilist) «nūntius, nūntī», m., _messenger_. Cf. «nūntiō» «pāx, pācis», f., _peace_ (pacify) «rźgnum, -ī», n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_ «supplicum, suppli“cī», n., _punishment_; «supplicum sūmere dź», with abl., _inflict punishment on_; «supplicum dare», _suffer punishment_. Cf. «poena» «placeō, placźre, placuī, placitus», _be pleasing to, please_, with dative. Cf. §154 «sūmō, sūmere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», _take up, assume_ «sustineō, sustinźre, sustinuī, sustentus», _sustain_ «278.» We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes: 1. «Personal pronouns», which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, «ego», _I_; «tū», _you_; «is», _he_. (Cf. §279. etc.) 2. «Possessive pronouns», which denote possession; as, «meus», «tuus», «suus», etc. (Cf. §98.) 3. «Reflexive pronouns», used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, _he saw himself_. (Cf. §281.) 4. «Intensive pronouns», used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, _I myself saw it_. (Cf. §285.) 5. «Demonstrative pronouns», which point out persons or things; as, «is», _this, that_. (Cf. §112.) 6. «Relative pronouns», which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, «quī», _who_. (Cf. §220.) 7. «Interrogative pronouns», which ask a question; as, «quis», _who?_ (Cf. §225.) 8. «Indefinite pronouns», which point out indefinitely; as, _some one, any one, some, certain ones_, etc. (Cf. §296.) «279.» The demonstrative pronoun «is», «ea», «id», as we learned in §115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_, etc.). «280.» The personal pronouns of the first person are «ego», _I_; «nōs», _we_; of the second person, «tū», _thou_ or _you_; «vōs», _ye_ or _you_. They are declined as follows: SINGULAR FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON _Nom._ ego, _I_ tū, _you_ _Gen._ meī, _of me_ tuī, _of you_ _Dat._ mihi, _to_ or _for me_ tibi, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ mź, _me_ tź, _you_ _Abl._ mź, _with, from_, etc., _me_ tź, _with, from_, etc., _you_ PLURAL _Nom._ nōs, _we_ vōs, _you_ _Gen._ nostrum or nostrī, _of us_ vestrum or vestrī, _of you_ _Dat._ nōbīs, _to_ or _for us_ vōbīs, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ nōs, _us_ vōs, _you_ _Abl._ nōbīs, _with, from_, vōbīs, _with, from_, etc., _you_ etc., _us_ 1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast. «281.» «The Reflexive Pronouns.» 1. The personal pronouns «ego» and «tū» may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as, «videō mź», _I see myself_ «vidźmus nōs», _we see ourselves_ «vidźs tź», _you see yourself_ «vidźtis vōs», _you see yourselves_ 2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (_himself, herself, itself, themselves_) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural. SINGULAR AND PLURAL _Gen._ suī _Acc._ sź _Dat._ sibi _Abl._ sź EXAMPLES «Puer sź videt», _the boy sees himself_ «Puella sź videt», _the girl sees herself_ «Animal sź videt», _the animal sees itself_ «Iī sź vident», _they see themselves_ _a._ The form «sź» is sometimes doubled, «sźsź», for emphasis. 3. Give the Latin for _I teach myself_ _We teach ourselves_ _You teach yourself_ _You teach yourselves_ _He teaches himself_ _They teach themselves_ «282.» The preposition «cum», when used with the ablative of «ego», «tū», or «suī», is appended to the form, as, «mźcum», _with me_; «tźcum», _with you_; «nōbīscum», _with us_; etc. «283.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294. I. 1. Mea māter est cāra mihi et tua māter est cāra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grātae nōbis et nostrae litterae erant grātae vōbīs. 3. Nūntius rźgis quī nōbīscum est nihil respondźbit. 4. Nūntiī pācem amīcitiamque sibi et suīs sociīs postulāvźrunt. 5. Sī tū arma sūmźs, ego rźgnum occupābō. 6. Uter vestrum est cīvis Rōmānus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eō tempore multī supplicium dedźrunt quia rźgnum petierant. 8. Sūme supplicium, Caesar, dź hostibus patriae ācribus. 9. Prīmā lūce aliī metū commōtī sźsź fugae mandāvźrunt; aliī autem magnā virtūte impetum exercitūs nostrī sustinuźrunt. 10. Soror rźgis, ubi dź adversō proeliō audīvit, sźsź Pompźiīs interfźcit. II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us[1] the way? The gods will show you[1] the way. [Footnote 1: Not accusative.] DAED“ALUS AND IC“ARUS (_Concluded_) «284.» Puer Īcarus ūnā[2] stābat et mīrum patris opus vidźbat. Postquam manus ultima[3] ālīs imposita est, Daedalus eās temptāvit et similis avī in aurās volāvit. Tum ālās umerīs fīlī adligāvit et docuit eum volāre et dīxit, "Tź vetō, mī fīlī, adpropinquāre aut sōlī aut marī. Sī fluctibus adpropinquāveris,[4] aqua ālīs tuīs nocźbit, et sī sōlī adpropinquāveris,[4] ignis eās cremābit." Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Ālās movent et aurae sźsź committunt. Sed stultus puer verbīs patris nōn pāret. Sōlī adpropinquat. Ālae cremantur et Īcarus in mare dźcidit et vitam āmittit. Daedalus autem sine ūllō perīculō trāns fluctūs ad īnsulam Siciliam volāvit. [Footnote 2: Adverb, see vocabulary.] [Footnote 3: «manus ultima», _the finishing touch_. What literally?] [Footnote 4: Future perfect. Translate by the present.] LESSON L THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN _IPSE_ AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE _ĪDEM_ [Special Vocabulary] «corpus, corporis», n., _body_ (corporal) «dźnsus, -a, -um», _dense_ «īdem, e“adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_ «mīrus, -a, -um», _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) «ōlim», adv., _formerly, once upon a time_ «pars, partis (-ium)», f., _part, region, direction_ «quoque», adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes «sōl, sōlis», m., _sun_ (solar) «vźrus, -a, -um», _true, real_ (verity) «dźbeō, dźbźre, dźbuī, dźbitus», _owe, ought_ (debt) «źripiō, źripere, źripuī, źreptus», _snatch from_ «285.» «Ipse» means _-self_ (_him-self, her-self_, etc.) or is translated by _even_ or _very_. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective. _a._ «Ipse» must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive «suī». The latter is always used as a pronoun, while «ipse» is regularly adjective. Compare «Homō sź videt», _the man sees himself_ (reflexive) «Homō ipse perīculum videt», _the man himself_ (intensive) _sees the danger_ «Homō ipsum perīculum videt», _the man sees the danger itself_ (intensive) «286.» Except for the one form «ipse», the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§108, 109). Learn the declension (§481). «287.» The demonstrative «īdem», meaning _the same_, is a compound of «is». It is declined as follows: SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ īdem e“adem idem _Gen._ eius“dem eius“dem eius“dem _Dat._ eī“dem eī“dem eī“dem _Acc._ eun“dem ean“dem idem _Abl._ eō“dem eā“dem eō“dem PLURAL _Nom._ iī“dem eae“dem e“adem eī“dem _Gen._ eōrun“dem eārun“dem eōrun“dem _Dat._ iīs“dem iīs“dem iīs“dem eīs“dem eīs“dem eīs“dem _Acc._ eōs“dem eās“dem e“adem _Abl._ iīs“dem iīs“dem iīs“dem eīs“dem eīs“dem eīs“dem _a._ From forms like «eundem» (eum + -dem), «eōrundem» (eōrum + -dem), we learn the rule that «m» before «d» is changed to «n». _b._ The forms «iīdem», «iīsdem» are often spelled and pronounced with one «ī». «288.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. 1. Ego et tū[1] in eādem urbe vīvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nōn timźmus sed ferās saevās quae in silvā dźnsā esse dīcuntur. 3. Ōlim nōs ipsī idem iter fźcimus. 4. Eō tempore multās ferās vīdimus. 5. Sed nōbīs nōn nocuźrunt. 6. Caesar ipse scūtum dź manibus mīlitis źripuit et in ipsam aciem properāvit. 7. Itaque mīlitźs summā virtūte tźla in hostium corpora iźcźrunt. 8. Rōmānī quoque gravia vulnera accźpźrunt. 9. Dźnique hostźs terga vertźrunt et ommīs in partīs[2] fūgźrunt. 10. Eādem hōrā litterae Rōmam ab imperātōre ipsō missae sunt. 11. Eōdem mźnse captīvī quoque in Italiam missī sunt. 12. Sed multī propter vulnera iter difficile trāns montīs facere recūsābant et Genāvae esse dīcźbantur. II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story. [Footnote 1: Observe that in Latin we say _I and you_, not _you and I_.] [Footnote 2: Not _parts_, but _directions_.] [Footnote 3: Cf. §210.] «289.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4] Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rźx Rōmānōrum, ubi in exsilium ab īrātīs Rōmānīs źiectus est, ā Porsenā, rźge Etrūscōrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnīs cum cōpiīs Rōmam vźnit, et ipsa urbs summō in perīculō erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rōmānus victus erat. Iam rźx montem Iāniculum[5] occupāverat. Numquam anteā Rōmānī tantō metū tenźbantur. Ex agrīs in urbem properabānt et summō studiō urbem ipsam mūniźbant. [Footnote 4: The story of Horatius has been made familiar by Macaulay's well-known poem "Horatius" in his _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Read the poem in connection with this selection.] [Footnote 5: The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from Rome.] LESSON LI THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS _HIC_, _ISTE_, _ILLE_ [Special Vocabulary] «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine); _he, she, it_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder); _he, she, it_ «invīsus, -a, -um», _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours); _he, she, it_ «lībertās, -ātis», f., _liberty_ «modus, -ī», m., _measure; manner, way, mode_ «nōmen, nōminis», n., _name_ (nominate) «oculus, -ī», m., _eye_ (oculist) «prīstinus, -a, -um», _former, old-time_ (pristine) «pūblicus, -a, -um», _public, belonging to the state;_ «rźs pūblica, reī pūblicae», f., _the commonwealth, the state, the republic_ «vestīgium, vestī“gī», n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_ «vōx, vōcis», f., _voice_ «290.» We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun «is» and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use «hic», «iste», or «ille». These demonstratives, like «is», are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus: «hic» «iste» «ille» SPEAKER ------------->-------------->---------------> _this_, _he_; _that_, _he_; _that_, _he_ (near); (remote); (more remote) _a._ In dialogue «hic» refers to a person or thing near the speaker; «iste», to a person or thing near the person addressed; «ille», to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, §293, which should be carefully studied and imitated. «291.» «Hic» is declined as follows: SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ hic haec hoc _Gen._ huius huius huius _Dat._ huic huic huic _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc _Abl._ hōc hāc hōc PLURAL _Nom._ hī hae haec _Gen._ hōrum hārum hōrum _Dat._ hīs hīs hīs _Acc._ hōs hās haec _Abl._ hīs hīs hīs _a._ «Huius» is pronounced _h[oo]“y[oo]s_, and «huic» is pronounced _h[oo]ic_ (one syllable). «292.» The demonstrative pronouns «iste», «ista», «istud», and «ille», «illa», «illud», except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms «istud» and «illud», are declined exactly like «ipse», «ipsa», «ipsum». (See §481.) «293.» «MODEL SENTENCES» _Is this horse_ (of mine) _strong?_ «Estne hic equus valīdus?» _That horse_ (of yours) _is strong, but that one_ (yonder) _is weak_ «Iste equus est validus, sed ille est īnfīrmus» _Are these_ (men by me) _your friends?_ «Suntne hī amīcī tuī?» _Those_ (men by you) _are my friends, but those_ (men yonder) _are enemies_ «Istī sunt amīcī meī, sed illī sunt inimīcī» «294.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. _A German Chieftain addresses his Followers._ Ille fortis Germānōrum dux suōs convocāvit et hōc modō animōs eōrum cōnfirmāvit. "Vōs, quī in hīs fīnibus vīvitis, in hunc locum convocāvī[1] quia mźcum dźbźtis istōs agrōs et istās domōs ab iniūriīs Rōmānōrum liberāre. Hoc nōbīs nōn difficile erit, quod illī hostźs hās silvās dźnsās, ferās saevās quārum vestīgia vident, montźs altōs timent. Sī fortźs erimus, deī ipsī nōbīs viam salūtis dźmonstrābunt. Ille sōl, istī oculī calamītātźs nostrās vīdźrunt.[1] Itaque nōmen illīus reī pūblicae Rōmānae nōn sōlum nōbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quī lībertātem amant, est invīsum. Ad arma vōs vocō. Exercźte istam prīstinam virtūtem et vincźtis." [Footnote 1: The perfect definite. (Cf. §190.)] II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2. This bird (of mine)[2] sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don“t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For («propter») these deeds («rźs») we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment. [Footnote 2: English words in parentheses are not to be translated. They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. (Cf. §290.)] [Footnote 3: _both ... and_, «et ... et».] [Illustration: HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT] «295.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) Altera urbis pars mūrīs, altera flūmine satis mūnīrī vidźbātur. Sed erat pōns in flūmine quī hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horātius Cocles, fortis vir, magnā vōce dīxit, "Rescindite pontem, Rōmānī! Brevī tempore Porsena in urbem cōpiās suās trādūcet." Iam hostźs in ponte erant, sed Horātius cum duōbus (cf. §479) comitibus ad extrźmam pontis partem properāvit, et hi sōli aciem hostium sustinuźrunt. Tum vźrō cīvźs Rōmānī pontem ā tergō rescindere incipiunt, et hostźs frūstrā Horātium superāre temptant. LESSON LII THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] «incolumis, -e», _unharmed_ «nź ... quidem», adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between «nź» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., _unless, if ... not_ «paene», adv., _almost_ (pen-insula) «satis», adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», _so great_ «vźrō», adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_, usually stands second, never first. «dźcidō, dźcidere, dźcidī, ----», _fall down_ (deciduous) «dźsiliō, dźsilīre, dźsiluī, dźsultus», _leap down, dismount_ «maneō, manźre, mānsī, mānsūrus», _remain_ «trādūcō, trādūcere, trādūxī, trāductus», _lead across_ «296.» The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to _some person_ or _some thing_, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns «quis» and «quī», which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of «quis» or «quī» and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§221, 227. «297.» Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites: MASC. FEM. NEUT. «quis» «quid», _some one, any one_ (substantive) «quī» «qua» or «quae» «quod», _some, any_ (adjective), §483 «aliquis» «aliquid», _some one, any one_ (substantive), §487 «aliquī» «aliqua» «aliquod», _some, any_ (adjective), §487 «quīdam» «quaedam» «quoddam», «quiddam», _a certain, a certain one_, §485 «quisquam» «quicquam» or «quidquam» (no plural), _any one_ (at all) (substantive), §486 «quisque» «quidque», _each one, every one_ (substantive), §484 «quisque» «quaeque» «quodque», _each, every_ (adjective), §484 [Transcriber's Note: In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were printed in the "masculine" column.] NOTE. The meanings of the neuters, _something_, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine. _a._ In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, «quis-»forms and «quid-»forms are mostly used as substantives, «quī-»forms and «quod-»forms as adjectives. _b._ The indefinites «quis» and «quī» never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after «sī», «nisi», «nź», «num» (as, «sī quis», _if any one_; «sī quid», _if anything_; «nisi quis», _unless some one_). Generally «aliquis» and «aliquī» are used instead. _c._ The forms «qua» and «aliqua» are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives «quī» and «aliquī» respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative «quī?» _d._ Observe that «quīdam» (quī + -dam) is declined like «quī», except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural «m» of «quī» becomes «n» (cf. §287.a): «quendam», «quandam», «quōrundam», «quārundam;» also that the neuter has «quiddam» (substantive) and «quoddam» (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. «Quīdam» is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so. _e._ «Quisquam» and «quisque» (substantive) are declined like «quis». _f._ «Quisquam», _any one_ («quicquam» or «quidquam», _anything_), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjective _any_ is «ūllus, -a, -um» (§108). «298.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. 1. Aliquis dź ponte in flūmen dźcidit sed sine ūllō perīculō servātus est. 2. Est vźrō in vītā cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortūna. 3. Nź mīlitum quidem[1] quisquam in castrīs mānsit. 4. Sī quem meae domī vidźs, iubź eum discźdere. 5. Sī quis pontem tenet, nź tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nōn satis mūnīta erat et merīdiź rźx quīdam paene cōpiās suās trāns pontem trādūxerat. 7. Dźnique mīles quīdam armātus in fluctūs dźsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rīpam oculōs vertit. 8. Quisque illī fortī mīlitī aliquid dare dźbet. 9. Tanta vźrō virtūs Rōmānus semper placuit. 10. Ōlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rōmae ipsī; nunc vźrō moenia dźcidźrunt et pauca vestīgia urbis illīus reperīrī possunt. 11. Quisque lībertātem amat, et aliquibus vźrō nōmen rźgis est invīsum. II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger. [Footnote 1: Observe that «quīdam» and «quidem» are different words.] «299.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mānsit, Horātius iussit comitźs discźdere et sōlus mīrā cōnstantiā impetum illius tōtius exercitūs sustinźbat. Dźnique magnō fragōre pōns in flūmen dźcīdit. Tum vźrō Horātius tergum vertit et armātus in aquās dźsiluit. In eum hostźs multa tźla iźcźrunt; incolumis autem per fiuctūs ad alteram rīpam trānāvit. Eī propter tantās rźs gestās populus Rōmānus nōn sōlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horāti in locō pūblicō posuit. * * * * * «Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§521-523» * * * * * LESSON LIII REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES [Special Vocabulary] «aquila, -ae», f., _eagle_ (aquiline) «audāx», gen. «audācis», adj., _bold, audacious_ «celer, celeris, celere», _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. «vźlōx» «explōratōr, -ōris», m., _scout, spy_ (explorer) «ingźns», gen. «ingentis», adj., _huge, vast_ «medius, -a, -um», _middle, middle part of_ (medium) «mźns, mentis (-ium)», f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportūnus, -a, -um», _opportune_ «quam», adv., _than_. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of _as possible_, as «quam» audācissimī virī, _men as bold as possible_ «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., _recent_ «tam», adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb «quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus», _ask, inquire, seek_ (question). Cf. «petō» «300.» The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix _-er_ for the comparative and _-est_ for the superlative; as, positive _high_, comparative _higher_, superlative _highest_. Less frequently we use the adverbs _more_ and _most_; as, positive _beautiful_, comparative _more beautiful_, superlative _most beautiful._ In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs. «301.» Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE clārus, -a, -um clārior, clārīus clārissimus, -a, -um (_bright_) (_brighter_) (_brightest_) (BASE clār-) brevis, breve brevior, brevius brevissimus, -a, -um (_short_) (_shorter_) (_shortest_) (BASE brev-) vźlōx vźlōcior, vźlōcius vźlōcissimus, -a, -um (_swift_) (_swifter_) (_swiftest_) (BASE veloc-) _a._ The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding «-ior» masc. and fem., and «-ius» neut.; the superlative by adding «-issimus, -issima, -issimum». «302.» Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs «magis», _more_; «maximź», _most_; as, «idōneus», _suitable_; «magis idōneus», _more suitable_; «maximź idōneus», _most suitable._ «303.» «Declension of the Comparative.» Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ clārior clārīus clārīōrźs clāriōra _Gen._ clāriōris clāriōris clāriōrum clāriōrum _Dat._ clāriōrī clāriōrī clāriōribus clāriōribus _Acc._ clāriōrem clārius clāriōrźs clāriōra _Abl._ clāriōre clāriōre clāriōribus clāriōribus _a._ Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension. _b._ Compare «longus», _long_; «fortis», _brave_; «recźns» (base, «recent-»), _recent_; and decline the comparative of each. «304.» Adjectives in «-er» form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding «-rimus», «-a», «-um» to the nominative masculine of the positive; as, POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE ācer, ācris, ācre ācrior, ācrius ācerrimus, -a, -um (BASE acr-) pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus, (BASE pulchr-) -a, -um līber, lībera, līberum līberior, līberius līberrimus, -a, -um (BASE līber-) _a._ In a similar manner compare «miser», «aeger», «crźber». «305.» The comparative is often translated by _quite, too_, or _somewhat_, and the superlative by _very_; as, «altior», _quite_ (_too, somewhat_) _high_; «altissimus», _very high._ «306.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Quid explōrātōrźs quaerźbant? Explōrātōrźs tempus opportfūissimum itinerī quaerźbant. 2. Mediā in silvā ignīs quam crźberrimōs fźcimus, quod ferās tam audācis numquam anteā vīderāmus. 3. Antīquīs temporibus Germānī erant fortiōrźs quam Gallī. 4. Caesar erat clārior quam inimīcī[1] quī eum necāvźrunt. 5. Quisque scūtum ingźns et pīlum longius gerźbat. 6. Apud barbarōs Germānī erant audācissimī et fortissimī. 7. Mźns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virī aliquārum terrārum sunt miserrimī. 9. Corpora Germānōrum erant ingentiōra quam Rōmānōrum. 10. Ācerrimī Gallōrum prīncipźs sine ūllā morā trāns flūmen quoddam equōs vźlōcissimōs trādūxźrunt. 11. Aestāte diźs sunt longiōrźs quam hieme. 12. Imperātor quīdam ab explōrātōribus dź recentī adventū nāvium longārum quaesīvit. II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cęsar.[3] 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general's friendship. [Footnote 1: Why is this word used instead of «hostźs»?] [Footnote 2: Use the superlative of «gravis».] [Footnote 3: Accusative. In a comparison the noun after «quam» is in the same case as the one before it.] N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.) LESSON LIV IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT _QUAM_ [Special Vocabulary] «alacer, alacris, alacre», _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity) «celeritās, -ātis», f., _speed_ (celerity) «clāmor, clāmōris», m., _shout, clamor_ «lźnis, lźne», _mild, gentle_ (lenient) «mulier, muli“eris», f., _woman_ «multitūdō, multitūdinis», f., _multitude_ «nźmo», dat. «nźminī», acc. «nźminem» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», from «nūllus»), no plur., m. and f., _no one_ «nōbilis, nōbile», _well known, noble_ «noctū», adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal) «statim», adv., _immediately, at once_ «subitō», adv., _suddenly_ «tardus, -a, -um», _slow_ (tardy) «cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus», _desire, wish_ (cupidity) «307.» The following six adjectives in «-lis» form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding «-limus» to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE facilis, -e, _easy_ facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e, _hard_ difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e, _like_ similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e, _unlike_ dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, _slender_ gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um «308.» From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence _Nothing is brighter than the sun_ «Nihil est clārius quam sōl» But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way, «Nihil est clārius sōle» which, literally translated, is _Nothing is brighter away from the sun_; that is, _starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter_. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative «sōle». Hence the rule «309.» RULE. «Ablative with Comparatives.» _The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative._ «310.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Nźmō mīlitźs alacriōrźs Rōmānīs vīdit. 2. Statim imperātor iussit nūntiōs quam celerrimōs litterās Rōmam portāre. 3. Multa flūmina sunt lźniōra Rhźnō. 4. Apud Rōmanōs quis erat clārior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rōmā vīdī. 6. Subitō multitūdo audacissima magnō clamōre proelium ācrius commīsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nōn vźrō tardus, sed celerior aquilā. 8. Ubi Romae fuī, nźmō erat mihi amicior Sextō. 9. Quaedam mulierźs cibum mīlitibus dare cupīvźrunt. 10. Rźx vetuit cīvis ex urbe noctū discźdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hāc muliere. 12. Explōrātor duās (_two_) viās, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliōrem, dźmōnstrāvit. II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king's mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory. [Illustration: ARMA ROMANA] LESSON LV IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] «aedificium, aedifi“cī», n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice) «imperium, impe“rī», n., _command, chief power; empire_ «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., _death_ (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur., _the rest_ (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., _crime_ «servitūs, -ūtis», f., _slavery_ (servitude) «vallźs, vallis (-ium)», f., _valley_ «abdō, abdere, abdidī, abditus», _hide_ «contendō, contendere, contendī, contentus», _strain, struggle; hasten_ (contend) «occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus», _cut down, kill_. Cf. «necō», «interficiō» «perterreō, perterrźre, perterruī, perterritus», _terrify, frighten_ «recipiō, recipere, recźpī, receptus», _receive, recover_; «sź recipere», _betake one's self, withdraw, retreat_ «trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus», _give over, surrender, deliver_ (traitor) «311.» Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as _good, better, best_; _many, more, most._ So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «bonus, -a, -um», _good_ «melior, melius» «optimus, -a, -um» «magnus, -a, -um», _great_ «maior, maius» «maximus, -a, -um» «malus, -a, -um», _bad_ «peior, peius» «pessimus, -a, -um» «multus, -a, -um», _much_ «----, plūs» «plūrimus, -a, -um» «multī, -ae, -a», _many_ «plūrźs, plūra» «plūrimī, -ae, -a» «parvus, -a, -um», _small_ «minor, minus» «minimus, -a, -um» «312.» The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses. «exterus, -a, -um», («exterior, -ius», { «extrźmus, -a, -um» } _outward_ _outer_) {(«extimus, -a, -um») } _outermost, last_ «īnferus, -a, -um», «īnferior, -ius», { «īnfimus, -a, -um» } _low_ _lower_ { «īmus, -a, -um» } _lowest_ «posterus, -a, -um», («posterior, -ius», { «postrźmus, -a, -um» } _next_ _later_) {(«postumus, -a, -um») } _last_ «superus, -a, -um», «superior, -ius» { «suprźmus, -a, -um» } _above_ _higher_ { «summus, -a, -um» } _highest_ «313.» «Plūs», _more_ (plural _more, many, several_), is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ---- plūs plūrźs plūra _Gen._ ---- plūris plūrium plūrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plūribus plūribus _Acc._ ---- plūs plūrīs, -źs plūra _Abl._ ---- plūre plūribus plūribus _a._ In the singular «plūs» is used only as a neuter substantive. «314.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Reliquī hostźs, quī ā dextrō cornū proelium commīserant, dź superiōre locō fūgźrunt et sźsź in silvam maximam recźpźrunt. 2. In extrźmā parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plūrimī captīvī ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductī sunt. 4. Caesar vźrō iussit eōs in servitūtem trādī. 5. Posterō diź magna multitūdō mulierum ab Rōmānīs in valle īmā reperta est. 6. Hae mulierźs maximź perterritae adventū Caesaris sźsź occīdere studźbant. 7. Eae quoque plūrīs fābulās dź exercitūs Rōmānī sceleribus audīverant. 8. Fāma illōrum mīlitum optima nōn erat. 9. In barbarōrum aedificiīs maior cōpia frūmentī reperta est. 10. Nźmō crźbrīs proeliīs contendere sine aliquō perīculō potest. II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime. LESSON LVI IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_) ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE [Special Vocabulary] «aditus, -ūs», m., _approach, access; entrance_ «cīvitās, cīvitātis», f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_ (city) «inter», prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., _for_ «obses, obsidis», m. and f., _hostage_ «paulō», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), _by a little, somewhat_ «incolō, incolere, incoluī, ----», transitive, _inhabit_; intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. «habitō», «vīvō» «relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus», _leave, abandon_ (relinquish) «statuō, statuere, statuī, statūtus», _fix, decide_ (statute), usually with infin. «315.» The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses. COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «citerior», _hither_ («citimus», _hithermost_) «interior», _inner_ («intimus», _inmost_) «prior», _former_ «prīmus», _first_ «propior», _nearer_ «proximus», _next, nearest_ «ulterior», _further_ «ultimus», _furthest_ «316.» In the sentence _Galba is a head taller than Sextus_, the phrase _a head taller_ expresses the «measure of difference» in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be _Galba is taller than Sextus «by a head»_. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the «ablative of the measure of difference». EXAMPLES «Galba est altior capite quam Sextus» _Galba is a head taller_ (taller by a head) _than Sextus_. «Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius» _That route to Italy is much shorter_ (shorter by much) «317.» RULE. «Ablative of the Measure of Difference.» _With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference._ _a._ Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives «eō», _by this, by that_ «nihilō»,[1] _by nothing_ «hōc», _by this_ «paulō», _by a little_ «multō», _by much_ [Footnote 1: «nihil» was originally «nihilum» and declined like «pīlum». There is no plural.] «318.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Barbarī proelium committere statuźrunt eō magis quod Rōmānī īnfīrmī esse vidźbantur. 2. Meum cōnsilium est multō melius quam tuum quia multō facilius est. 3. Haec via est multō lātior quam illa. 4. Barbarī erant nihilō tardiōrźs quam Rōmānī. 5. Tuus equus est paulō celerior quam meus. 6. Iī quī paulō fortiōrźs erant prohibuźrunt reliquōs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illās cīvitātźs Germānia mīlitźs habet optimōs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dūcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servī, quī agrōs citeriōrźs incolźbant, priōrźs dominōs relinquere nōn cupīvźrunt, quod eōs amābant. 10. Ultimae Germāniae partźs numquam in fidem Rōmānōrum vźnźrunt. 11. Nam trāns Rhźnum aditus erat multō difficilior exercituī Rōmānō. II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cęsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cęsar's recent victories. LESSON LVII FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS [Special Vocabulary] «aequus, -a, -um», _even, level; equal_ «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus», _run_ (course) «difficultās, -ātis», f., _difficulty_ «fossa, -ae», f., _ditch_ (fosse) «gźns, gentis (-ium)», f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile) «negōtium, negōtī», n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate) «regiō, -ōnis», f., _region, district_ «rūmor, rūmōris», m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fāma «simul atque», conj., _as soon as_ «suscipiō, suscipere, suscźpī, susceptus», _undertake_ «trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus», _drag, draw_ (ex-tract) «valeō, valźre, valuī, valitūrus», _be strong_; plūrimum valźre, _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus «319.» Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. _sweet_, adv. _sweetly_). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension. «320.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ cārus, _dear_ cārior cārissimus _Adv._ cārź, _dearly_ cārius cārissimź _Adj._ pulcher, _beautiful_ pulchrior pulcherrimus _Adv._ pulchrź, _beautifully_ pulchrius pulcherrimź _Adj._ līber, _free_ līberior līberrimus _Adv._ līberź, _freely_ līberius līberrimź _a._ The positive of the adverb is formed by adding «-ź» to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way. _b._ The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective. «321.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding «-iter» to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and «-ter» to the base of those of one ending;[1] as, POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ fortis, _brave_ fortior fortissimus _Adv._ fortiter, _bravely_ fortius fortissimź _Adj._ audāx, _bold_ audācior audācissimus _Adv._ audācter, _boldly_ audācius audācissimź [Footnote 1: This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.] «322.» «Case Forms as Adverbs.» As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as, _Adj._ facilis, _easy_ prīmus, _first_ _Adv._ facile (acc.), _easily_ prīmum (acc.), _first_ prīmō (abl.), _at first_ _Adj._ multus, _many_ plūrimus, _most_ _Adv._ multum (acc.), _much_ plūrimum (acc.), _most_ multō (abl.), _by much_ «323.» Learn the following irregular comparisons: bene, _well_ melius, _better_ optimź, _best_ diū, _long_ (time) diūtius, _longer_ diūtissimź, _longest_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximź, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimź, _least_ prope, _nearly, near_ propius, _nearer_ proximź, _nearest_ saepe, _often_ saepius, _oftener_ saepissimź, _oftenest_ «324.» Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: «laetus», «superbus», «molestus», «amīcus», «ācer», «brevis», «gravis», «recźns.» «325.» RULE. «Adverbs.» _Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs._ «326.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Nūlla rźs melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius multō minōre exercitū multō maiōrźs cōpiās Germānōrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audācter in Rōmānōrum cohortīs hostźs impetūs fźcźrunt 3. Marius autem omnźs hōs fortissimź sustinuit. 4. Barbarī nihilō fortiōrźs erant quam Rōmānī. 5. Prīmō barbarī esse superiōrźs vidźbantur, tum Rōmānī ācrius contendźrunt. 6. Dźnique, ubi iam diūtissimź paene aequō proeliō pugnātum est, barbarī fugam petiźrunt. 7. Quaedam Germānōrum gentźs, simul atque rūmōrem illīus calamitātis audīvźrunt, sźsź in ultimīs regiōnibus fīnium suōrum abdidźrunt. 8. Rōmānī saepius quam hostźs vīcźrunt, quod meliōra arma habźbant. 9. Inter omnīs gentīs Rōmānī plūrimum valźbant. 10. Hae cohortźs simul atque in aequiōrem regiōnem sź recźpźrunt, castra sine ūllā difficultāte posuźrunt. II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier's death were not true. [Footnote 2: «ille» standing after its noun means _that well-known, that famous_.] LESSON LVIII NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE [Special Vocabulary] «commeātus, -ūs», m.. _provisions_ «lātitūdō, -inis», f., _width_ (latitude) «longitūdō, -inis», f., _length_ (longitude) «magnitūdō, -inis», f., _size, magnitude_ «mercātor, mercātōris», m., _trader, merchant_ «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f., _fortification_ (munition) «spatium, spatī», n., _room, space, distance; time_ «cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», _learn_; in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize) «cōgō, cōgere, coźgī, coāctus», _collect; compel_ (cogent) «dźfendō, dźfendere, dźfendī, dźfźnsus», _defend_ «incendō, incendere, incendī, incźnsus», _set fire to, burn_ (incendiary). Cf. «cremō» «obtineō, obtinźre, obtinuī, obtentus», _possess, occupy, hold_ (obtain) «perveniō, pervenīre, pervźnī, perventus», _come through, arrive_ «327.» The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows: 1. «Cardinal Numerals», answering the question _how many?_ as, «ūnus», _one_; «duo», _two_; etc. 2. «Ordinal Numerals», derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question _in what order?_ as, «prīmus», _first_; «secundus», _second_; etc. 3. «Distributive Numerals», answering the question _how many at a time?_ as, «singulī», _one at a time_. «328.» «The Cardinal Numerals.» The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows: 1, «ūnus» 6, «sex» 11, «ūndecim» 16, «sźdecim» 2, «duo» 7, «septem» 12, «duodecim» 17, «septendecim» 3, «trźs» 8, «octō» 13, «tredecim» 18, «duodźvīgintī» 4, «quattuor» 9, «novem» 14, «quattuordecim» 19, «ūndźvīgintī» 5, «quīnque» 10, «decem» 15, «quīndecim» 20, «vīgintī» _a._ Learn also «centum» = 100, «ducentī» = 200, «mīlle» = 1000. «329.» «Declension of the Cardinals.» Of the cardinals only «ūnus», «duo», «trźs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun, are declinable. _a._ «ūnus» is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like «nūllus» (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of «ūnus» is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, «ūna castra», _one camp_; and with other nouns in the sense of _only_, as, «Gallī ūnī», _only the Gauls_. _b._ Learn the declension of «duo», _two_; «trźs», _three_; and «mīlle», _a thousand_. (§479.) _c._ The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of «bonus»; as, ducentī, -ae, -a ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum etc. etc. etc. «330.» We have already become familiar with sentences like the following: «Omnium avium aquila est vźlōcissima» _Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest_ «Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum» _This oracle was the most famous of all_ In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a «partitive genitive». «331.» RULE. «Partitive Genitive.» _Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the «partitive genitive»._ _a._ Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting «mīlle» regularly take the ablative with «ex» or «dź» instead of the partitive genitive. _b._ «Mīlle», _a thousand_, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, «mīlle mīlitźs», _a thousand soldiers_), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, «decem mīlia mīlitum», _ten thousand soldiers_). EXAMPLES: «Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī» _The bravest of these are the Germans_ «Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt» _Ten thousand_ (lit. _thousands_) _of the enemy were slain_ «Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rźgis» _One of the captives was the king's sister_ «332.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiōrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mūnītiōnis aquā flūminis dźlźta est. 3. Gallī huius regiōnis quīnque mīlia hominum coźgerant. 4. Duo ex meīs frātribus eundem rūmōrem audīvźrunt. 5. Quis Rōmānōrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quīnque cohortźs ex illā legiōne castra quam fortissimź dźfendźbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequō spatiō[1] ab castrīs Caesaris et castrīs Germānōrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervźnit, plūs commeātūs ab sociīs postulāvit. 9. Nōnne mercātōrźs magnitūdinem īnsulae cognōverant? Longitūdinem sed nōn lātitūdinem cognōverant. 10. Paucī hostium obtinźbant collem quem explōrātōrźs nostrī vīdźrunt. II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cęsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer[2] defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3] 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4] [Footnote 1: Ablative of the measure of difference.] [Footnote 2: Not «longius». Why?] [Footnote 3: Latin, _was distant by a small space._] [Footnote 4: Not the accusative.] LESSON LIX NUMERALS (_Continued_) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT [Special Vocabulary] «agmen, agminis», n., _line of march, column_; «prīmum agmen», _the van_; «novissimum agmen», _the rear_ «atque», «ac», conj., _and_; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci“lī», n., _council, assembly_ «Helvźtiī, -ōrum», m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «passus, passūs», m., _a pace_, five Roman feet; «mīlle passuum», _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile «quā dź causā», _for this reason, for what reason_ «vāllum, -ī», n., _earth-works, rampart_ «cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus», _fall_ (decadence) «dźdō, dźdere, dźdidī, dźditus», _surrender, give up_; with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one's self, submit_, with the dative of the indirect object «premō, premere, pressī, pressus», _press hard, harass_ «vexō, vexāre, vexāvī, vexātus», _annoy, ravage_ (vex) «333.» Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like «bonus». «334.» The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of «bonus». The first three are «singulī, -ae, -a», _one each, one by one_ «bīnī, -ae, -a», _two each, two by two_ «ternī, -ae, -a», _three each, three by three_ «335.» We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as «per plūrimōs annōs», _for a great many years_; «per tōtum diem», _for a whole day_. Here the space relation is one of _extent of time_. We could also say «per decem pedźs», _for ten feet_, where the space relation is one of _extent of space_. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as, «Vir tōtum diem cucurrit», _the man ran for a whole day_ «Caesar mūrum decem pedźs mōvit», _Cęsar moved the wall ten feet_ «336.» RULE. «Accusative of Extent.» _Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative._ _a._ This accusative answers the questions _how long? how far?_ _b._ Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time _how long_ and the ablative of time _when_, or _within which._ Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following: When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o'clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king's death. «337.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298. I. _Cęsar in Gaul_. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annōs gessit. Prīmō annō Helvźtiōs vīcit, et eōdem annō multae Germanōrum gentźs eī sźsź dźdidźrunt. Multōs iam annōs Germānī Gallōs vexabant[1] et ducźs Germānī cōpiās suās trāns Rhźnum saepe trādūcźbant.[1] Nōn singulī veniźbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendźbant. Quā dź causā prīncipźs Galliae concilium convocāvźrunt atque statuźrunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rūmōrem audīvit, cōpiās suās sine morā coźgit. Primā lūce fortiter cum Germanīs proelium commīsit. Tōtum diem ācriter pugnātum est. Caesar ipse ā dextrō cornū acicm dūxit. Magna pars exercitūs Germānī cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucī multa milia passuum ad flūmen fūgźrunt. II. 1. Cęsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon («in» _with acc._) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing. [Footnote 1: Translate as if pluperfect.] LESSON LX DEPONENT VERBS [Special Vocabulary] «aut», conj., _or_; «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «causā», abl. of «causa», _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it «ferź», adv., _nearly, almost_ «opīniō, -ōnis», f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «rźs frūmentāria, reī frūmentāriae», f. (lit. _the grain affair_), _grain supply_ «timor, -ōris», m., _fear_. Cf. «timeō» «undique», adv., _from all sides_ «cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum», _attempt, try_ «źgredior, źgredī, źgressus sum», _move out, disembark_; «prōgredior», _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress) «moror, morārī, morātus sum», _delay_ «orior, orirī, ortus sum», _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_) (origin) «proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum», _set out_ «revertor, revertī, reversus sum», _return_ (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertī» «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cōnsequor» (_follow with_), _overtake_; «īnsequor» (_follow against_), _pursue_; «subsequor» (_follow under_), _follow close after_ «338.» A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, «hortor», _I encourage_; «vereor», _I fear_. Such verbs are called «deponent» because they have laid aside («dź-pōnere», _to lay aside_) the active forms. _a._ Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§375, 403.b.) «339.» The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as, Conj. I «hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum», _encourage_ Conj. II «vereor, verźrī, veritus sum», _fear_ Conj. III (_a_) «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (_b_) «patior, patī, passus sum», _suffer, allow_ Conj. IV «partior, partīrī, partītus sum», _share, divide_ Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See §493.) «Patior» is conjugated like the passive of «capiō» (§492). «340.» PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are «ante», _before_ «apud», _among_ «circum», _around_ «contrā», _against, contrary to_ «extrā», _outside of_ «in», _into, in, against, upon_ «inter», _between, among_ «intrā», _within_ «ob», _on account of_ («quam ob rem», _wherefore, therefore_) «per», _through, by means of_ «post», _after, behind_ «propter», _on account of, because of_ «trāns», _across, over_ _a._ Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, §209. «341.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298. I. 1. Trźs ex lźgātīs, contrā Caesaris opīniōnem, iter facere per hostium fīnīs verźbantur. 2. Quis eōs hortātus est? Imperātor eōs hortātus est et iīs persuādźre cōnātus est, sed nōn potuit. 3. Quid lźgātōs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quī undique premźbant, aut longitūdō viae eōs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnźs ferź Caesarem multō magis quam hostīs veritī sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentźs Galliae ex Germānīs oriźbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortźs erant? Quia nec vīnum nec alia quae virtūtem dźlent ad sź portārī patiźbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercātōribus dź īnsulā Britanniā quaesīvit, sed nihil cognōscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediā ferź aestāte cum multīs nāvibus longīs profectus est. 9. Magnā celeritāte iter confźcit et in opportūnissimō locō źgressus est. 10. Barbarī summīs vīribus eum ab īnsulā prohibźre cōnātī sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarōs multa mīlia passuum īnsecūtus est; tamen sine equitātū eōs cōnsequī nōn potuit. II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cęsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cęsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march. [Footnote 1: Comparative of «longź».] [Footnote 2: Will this be a deponent or an active form?] * * * * * «Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§524-526» * * * * * [Illustration] PART III CONSTRUCTIONS INTRODUCTORY NOTE The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, _they must be mastered_. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons. For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cęsar's campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study. LESSON LXI THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD «342.» In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are PRESENT } IMPERFECT } ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PERFECT } PLUPERFECT } «343.» The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, _each of them may refer to future time_. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used. «344.» The present subjunctive is inflected as follows: CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a“mem mo“neam re“gam ca“piam au“diam 2. a“mźs mo“neās re“gās ca“piās au“diās 3. a“met mo“neat re“gat ca“piat au“diat PLURAL 1. amź“mus moneā“mus regā“mus capiā“mus audiā“mus 2. amź“tis moneā“tis regā“tis capiā“tis audiā“tis 3. a“ment mo“neant re“gant ca“piant au“diant PASSIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a“mer mo“near re“gar ca“piar au“diar 2. amź“ris moneā“ris regā“ris capiā“ris audiā“ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amź“tur moneā“tur regā“tur capiā“tur audiā“tur PLURAL 1. amź“mur moneā“mur regā“mur capiā“mur audiā“mur 2. amź“minī moneā“minī regā“minī capiā“minī audiā“minī 3. amen“tur monean“tur regan“tur capian“tur audian“tur _a._ The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem. _b._ The mood sign of the present subjunctive is «-ź-» in the first conjugation and «-ā-» in the others. It is shortened in the usual places (cf. §12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth. _c._ The personal endings are the same as in the indicative. _d._ In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «345.» The present subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows: { 1. sim { 1. sīmus SING. { 2. sīs PLURAL { 2. sītis { 3. sit { 3. sint «346.» «The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.» 1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative. 2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a _desire_ or _wish_, a _purpose_, a _possibility_, an _expectation_, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas. INDICATIVE IDEAS SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS 1. _He is brave_ 1. _May he be brave_ «Fortis est» «Fortis sit» (idea of wishing) 2. _We set out at once_ 2. _Let us set out at once_ «Statim proficīscimur» «Statim proficīscāmur» (idea of willing) 3. _You hear him every day_ 3. _You can hear him every day_ «Cotīdiź eum audīs» «Cotīdiź eum audiās» (idea of possibility) 4. _He remained until the ship_ 4. _He waited until the ship_ _arrived_ _should arrive_ «Mānsit dum nāvis pervźnit» «Exspectāvit dum nāvis pervenīret»[1] (idea of expectation) 5. _Cęsar sends men who find the_ 5. _Cęsar sends men_ _bridge_ _who are to find_ (or _to find_) _the bridge_ «Caesar mittit hominźs quī» «Caesar hominźs mittit quī» «pontem reperiunt» «pontem reperiant» (idea of purpose) [Footnote 1: «pervenīret», imperfect subjunctive.] NOTE. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former. «347.» EXERCISE Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation? There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy's fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor's mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past. LESSON LXII THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE «348.» Observe the sentence «Caesar hominźs mittit quī pontem reperiant», _Cęsar sends men to find the bridge_ The verb «reperiant» in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cęsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose. «349.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Purpose.» _The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause._ «350.» A clause of purpose is introduced as follows: I. If something is wanted, by «quī», the relative pronoun (as above) «ut», conj., _in order that, that_ «quō» (abl. of «quī», _by which_), _in order that, that_, used when the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative «quō» expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. §317.) II. If something is not wanted, by «nź», conj., _in order that not, that not, lest_ «351.» EXAMPLES 1. «Caesar cōpiās cōgit quibus hostīs īnsequātur» _Cęsar collects troops with which to pursue the foe_ 2. «Pācem petunt ut domum revertantur» _They ask for peace in order that they may return home_ 3. «Pontem faciunt quō facilius oppidum capiant» _They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily_ (lit. _by which the more easily_) 4. «Fugiunt nź vulnerentur» _They flee that they may not_ (or _lest they_) _be wounded_ «352.» «Expression of Purpose in English.» In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by _that_ or _in order that_, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as _We eat to live_, _She stoops to conquer_. In Latin prose, on the other hand, «purpose is never expressed by the infinitive». Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error. «353.» EXERCISES I. 1. Veniunt ut { dūcant, mittant, videant, audiant, { dūcantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur. 2. Fugimus nź { capiāmur, trādāmur, videāmus, { necźmur, rapiāmur, resistāmus. 3. Mittit nūntiōs quī { dicant, audiant, veniant, { nārrent, audiantur, in conciliō sedeant. 4. Castra mūniunt { sźsź dźfendant, impetum sustineant, quō facilius { hostīs vincant, salūtem petant. II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (_acc. with_ «in») that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans[2] bravely lest they be destroyed. [Footnote 1: Not infinitive.] [Footnote 2: Not accusative.] LESSON LXIII INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES «354.» The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive. CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE 1. amā“rem monź“rem re“gerem ca“perem audī“rem 2. amā“rźs monź“rźs re“gerźs ca“perźs audī“rźs 3. amā“ret monź“ret re“geret ca“peret audī“ret 1. amārź“mus monźrź“mus regerź“mus caperź“mus audīrź“mus 2. amārź“tis monźrź“tis regerź“tis caperź“tis audīrź“tis 3. amā“rent monź“rent re“gerent ca“perent audī“rent PASSIVE 1. amā“rer monź“rer re“gerer ca“perer audī“rer 2. amārź“ris monźrź“ris regerź“ris caperź“ris audīrź“ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amārź“tur monźrź“tur regerź“tur caperź“tur audīrź“tur 1. amārź“mur monźrź“mur regerź“mur caperź“mur audīrź“mur 2. amārź“minī monźrź“minī regerź“minī caperź“minī audīre“minī 3. amāren“tur monźren“tur regeren“tur caperen“tur audīren“tur _a._ In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «355.» The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows: { 1. es“sem { 1. essź“mus SING. { 2. es“sźs PLURAL { 2. essź“tis { 3. es“set { 3. es“sent «356.» The three great distinctions of time are _present_, _past_, and _future_. All tenses referring to present or future time are called «primary tenses», and those referring to past time are called «secondary tenses». Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence _He «says» that he «is» coming_, the principal verb, _says_, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and _is coming_, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change _he says_ to _he said_,--in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,--I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, _He «said» that he «was» coming_. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called _tense sequence_, from _sequī_, "to follow." In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table: «357.» TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES +-----+-------------------+-------------------------------------------+ | | PRINCIPAL VERB | DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE | | P | IN THE +---------------------+---------------------+ | R | INDICATIVE | _Incomplete or_ | _Completed Action_ | | I | | _Continuing Action_ | | | M +-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | A | Present | | | | R | Future | Present | Perfect | | T | Future perfect | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | S D | | | | | E A | Imperfect | | | | C R | Perfect | Imperfect | Pluperfect | | O Y | Pluperfect | | | | N- | | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ «358.» RULE. «Sequence of Tenses.» _Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary._ «359.» EXAMPLES I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: «Mittit» } «Mittet» } «hominźs ut agrōs vāstent» «Mīserit» } { _sends_ } { _that they may_ } _He_ { _will send_ } _men_ { _in order to_ } { _will have sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ } II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: «Mittźbat»} «Mīsit» } «hominźs ut agrōs vāstārent» «Mīserat» } { _was sending_ } { _that they might_ } _He_ { _sent or has sent_ } _men_ { _in order to_ } { _had sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ } «360.» EXERCISES I. 1. Vźnerant ut {dūcerent, mitterent, vidźrent, audīrent, {dūcerentur, mitterentur, vidźrentur, audirentur 2. Fugiźbat nź {caperźtur, trāderźtur, vidźrźtur, {necārźtur, raperźtur, resisteret. 3. Misit nūntiōs quī {dīcerent, audīrent, venīrent {nārrārent, audīrentur, in conciliō sedźrent. 4. Castra mūnīvźrunt {sźsź dźfenderent, impetum sustinźrent, quō facilius {hostīs vincerent, salūtem peterent. II. 1. Cęsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cęsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory. LESSON LXIV THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE «361.» The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows: CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amā“verim monu“erim rź“xerim cź“perim audī“verim 2. amā“veris monu“eris rź“xeris cź“peris audī“veris 3. amā“verit monu“erit rź“xerit cź“perit audī“verit PLURAL 1. amāve“rimus monue“rimus rźxe“rimus cźpe“rimus audīve“rimus 2. amāve“ritis monue“ritis rźxe“ritis cźpe“ritis audīve“ritis 3. amā“verint monu“erint rź“xerint cź“perint audī“verint PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amāvis“sem monuis“sem rźxis“sem cźpis“sem audīvis“sem 2. amāvis“sźs monuis“sźs rźxis“sźs cźpis“sźs audīvis“sźm 3. amāvis“set monuis“set rźxis“set cźpis“set audīvis“set PLURAL 1. amāvissź“mus monuissź“mus rźxissź“mus cźpissź“mus audīvissź“mus 2. amāvissź“tis monuissź“tis rźxissź“tis cźpissź“tis audīvissź“tis 3. amāvis“sent monuis“sent rźxis“sent cźpis“sent audīvis“sent _a._ Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem. _b._ Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular ends in «-m» and not in «-ō». _c._ Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by adding «-issem, -issźs», etc. to the perfect stem. _d._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive active of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «362.» The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «sim», the present subjunctive of «sum». CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amā“tus sim mo“nitus sim rźc“tus sim cap“tus sim audī“tus sim 2. amā“tus sīs mo“nitus sīs rźc“tus sīs cap“tus sīs audī“tus sīs 3. amā“tus sit mo“nitus sit rźc“tus sit cap“tus sit audī“tus sit PLURAL 1. amā“tī sīmus mo“nitī s. rźc“tī s. cap“tī s. audī“tī s. 2. amā“tī sītis mo“nitī s. rźc“tī s. cap“tī s. audī“tī s. 3. amā“tī sint mo“nitī sint rźc“tī sint cap“tī sint audī“tī sint «363.» The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «essem», the imperfect subjunctive of «sum». CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amātus essem monitus essem rźctus essem captus e. audītus e. 2. amātus essźs monitus essźs rźctus essźs captus e. audītus e. 3. amātus esset monitus esset rźctus esset captus e. audītus e. PLURAL 1. amātī essźmus monitī essźmus rźctī essźmus captī e. audītī e. 2. amātī essźtis monitī essźtis rźctī essźtis captī e. audītī e. 3. amātī essent monitī essent rźctī essent captī e. audītī e. _a._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō.» «364.» The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» are inflected as follows: PERFECT PLUPERFECT fu“erim fue“rimus fuis“sem fuissź“mus fu“eris fue“ritis fuis“sźs fuissź“tis fu“erit fu“erint fuis“set fuis“sent «365.» A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as, _That the men are afraid_ is clear enough (clause as subject) He ordered _them to call on him_ (clause as object) We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. §213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the _subjunctive_ in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages. «366.» RULE. «Substantive Clauses of Purpose.» _A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of «commanding», «urging», «asking», «persuading», or «advising», where in English we should usually have the infinitive._ EXAMPLES 1. _The general ordered the soldiers to run_ «Imperātor mīlitibus imperāvit ut currerent» 2. _He urged them to resist bravely_ «Hortātus est ut fortiter resisterent» 3. _He asked them to give the children food_ «Petīvit ut līberīs cibum darent» 4. _He will persuade us not to set out_ «Nōbīs persuādźbit nź proficīscāmur» 5. _He advises us to remain at home_ «Monet ut domī maneāmus» _a._ The object clauses following these verbs all express the purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or not done. (Cf. §348.) «367.» The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones. «hortor», _urge_ «imperō», _order_ (with the _dative_ of the _person_ ordered and a _subjunctive clause_ of the _thing_ ordered done) «moneō», _advise_ «petō», «quaerō», «rogō», _ask, seek_ «persuādeō», _persuade_ (with the same construction as imperō) «postulō», _demand, require_ «suādeō», _advise_ (cf. «persuādeō») N.B. Remember that «iubeō», _order_, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. §213.1.) Compare the sentences «Iubeō eum venīre», _I order him to come_ «Imperō eī ut veniat», _I give orders to him that he is to come_ We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeō and imperō in the Latin requires the _infinitive_ in the one case and the _subjunctive_ in the other. «368.» EXERCISES I. 1. Petit atque hortātur ut ipse dīcat. 2. Caesar Helvźtiīs imperrāvit nź per prōvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nōn iussit Helvźtiōs per prōvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cīvibus persuāsit ut dź fīnibus suīs discźderent. 5. Caesar prīncipźs monźbit nź proelium committant. 6. Postulāvit nź cum Helvźtiīs aut cum eōrum sociīs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iīs quaesīvī nź proficīscerentur. 8. Iīs persuādźre nōn potuī ut domī manźrent. II. 1. Who ordered Cęsar to make the march? (_Write this sentence both with_ «imperō» _and with_ «iubeō».) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything («omnia»). NOTE. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review §352. [Illustration: LEGIO ITER FACIT] LESSON LXV THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF _POSSUM_ · VERBS OF FEARING «369.» Learn the subjunctive of «possum» (§495), and note especially the position of the accent. «370.» «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also _clauses after verbs of fearing_, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by «ut». If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, «nź» is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate «ut» after a verb of fearing by _that not_, and «nź» by _that_ or _lest_. «371.» EXAMPLES «timeō» } { «veniat» «timźbō» } «ut» { «timuerō» } { «vźnerit» _I fear_, _shall fear_, _shall have feared_, _that he will not come_, _has not come_ «timźbam» } { «venīret» «timuī» } «ut» { «timueram» } { «vźnisset» _I was fearing_, _feared_, _had feared_, _that he would not come_, _had not come_ The same examples with «nź» instead of «ut» would be translated _I fear that_ or _lest he will come_, _has come_, etc. «372.» RULE. «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» _Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» («that not») or «nź» («that» or «lest»)._ «373.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar verźbātur ut supplicium captīvōrum Gallīs placźret. 2. Rōmānī ipsī magnopere verźbantur nź Helvźtiī iter per prōvinciam facerent. 3. Timźbant ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinźre possim. 5. Timuit nź impedīmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nź legiōnźs vincerentur. 7. Legiōnźs pugnāre nōn timuźrunt.[1] II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp. [Footnote 1: Distinguish between what one is afraid _to do_ (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid _will take place_ or _has taken place_ (substantive clause with the subjunctive).] LESSON LXVI THE PARTICIPLES «374.» The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1] [Transcriber's Note: For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms: first a reduced version without translation, and then the complete text, including translations, split into two elements.] CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT amāns monźns regźns capiźns audiźns FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus rźctūrus captūrus audītūrus PASSIVE PERFECT amātus monitus rźctus captus audītus FUTURE[2] amandus monendus regendus capiendus audiendus CONJ. I CONJ. II ACTIVE PRESENT amāns monźns _loving_ _advising_ FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus _about to love_ _about to advise_ PASSIVE PERFECT amātus monitus _loved, having_ _advised, having been advised_ _been loved_ FUTURE[2] amandus monendus _to be loved_ _to be advised_ CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT regźns capiźns audiźns _ruling_ _taking_ _hearing_ FUTURE rźctūrus captūrus audītūrus _about to rule_ _about to take_ _about to hear_ PASSIVE PERFECT rźctus captus audītus _ruled, having_ _taken, having_ _heard, havinh_ _been ruled_ _been taken_ _been heard_ FUTURE[2] regendus capiendus audiendus _to be ruled_ _to be taken_ _to be heard_ [Footnote 1: Review §203.] [Footnote 2: The future passive participle is often called the _gerundive_.] _a._ The present active and future passive participles are formed from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive participles are formed from the participial stem. _b._ The present active participle is formed by adding «-ns» to the present stem. In «-iō» verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of «-ź-», as «capi-ź-ns», «audi-ź-ns». It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf. §256.) «amāns», _loving_ BASE «amant-» STEM «amanti-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ amāns amāns amantźs amantia _Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium _Dat._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus _Acc._ amantem amāns amantīs amantia _or_ -źs _Abl._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus _or_ -e _or_ -e (1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in «-ī»; when used as a participle or as a substantive, in «-e». (2) In a similar way decline «monźns», «regźns», «capiźns», «audiźns». _c._ The future active participle is formed by adding «-ūrus» to the base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined with «esse» to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. §206.) _d._ For the perfect passive participle see §201. The future passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding «-ndus» to the present stem. _e._ All participles in «-us» are declined like «bonus». _f._ Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives. _g._ Give all the participles of the following verbs: «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «375.» «Participles of Deponent Verbs.» Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as, _Pres. Act._ «hortāns», _urging_ _Fut. Act._ «hortātūrus», _about to urge_ _Perf. Pass._ (in form) «hortātus», _having urged_ _Fut. Pass._ (_Gerundive_) «hortandus», _to be urged_ _a._ Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but _active_ in meaning. _No other verbs have a perfect active participle._ On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs. _b._ Give the participles of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior». «376.» «Tenses of the Participle.» The tenses express time as follows: 1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in _-ing_, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, «mīlitźs īnsequentźs cźpźrunt multōs», _the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many._ Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together. 2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary _having been_; as, «audītus», _heard_ or _having been heard_. 3. The future active participle, translated _about to_, etc., denotes time after the action of the main verb. «377.» Review §§203, 204, and, note the following model sentences: 1. «Mīlitźs currentźs erant dźfessī», _the soldiers who were running_ (lit. _running_) _were weary_. 2. «Caesar profectūrus Rōmam nōn exspectāvit», _Cęsar, when about to set out_ (lit. _about to set out_) _for Rome, did not wait_. 3. «Oppidum captum vīdimus», _we saw the town which had been captured_ (lit. _captured town_). 4. «Imperātor trīduum morātus profectus est», _the general, since_ (_when_, or _after_) _he had delayed_ (lit. _the general, having delayed_) _three days, set out_. 5. «Mīlitźs vīctī terga nōn vertźrunt», _the soldiers, though they were conquered_ (lit. _the soldiers conquered_), _did not retreat_. In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (_when, since, after, though_, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally. «378.» EXERCISES I. 1. Puer timźns nź capiātur fugit. 2. Aquila īrā commōta avīs reliquās interficere cōnāta erat. 3. Mīlitźs ab hostibus pressī tźla iacere nōn potuźrunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiōnem laudātūrus ad prīmum agmen prōgressus est. 5. Imperātor hortātus equitźs ut fortiter pugnārent signum proeliō dedit. 6. Mīlitźs hostīs octō milia passuum īnsecūtī multīs cum captīvīs ad castra revertźrunt. 7. Sōl oriźns multōs interfectōs vīdit. 8. Rōmānī cōnsilium audāx suspicātī barbaris sźsź nōn commīsźrunt. 9. Nāvis ź portū źgressa nūllō in perīculō erat. II.[3] 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy's country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we. [Footnote 3: In this exercise use participles for the subordinate clauses.] LESSON LXVII THE IRREGULAR VERBS _VOLŌ_, _NŌLŌ_, _MĀLŌ_ THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE «379.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of «volō», _wish_; «nōlō» («ne» + «volō»), _be unwilling_; «mālō» («magis» + «volō»), _be more willing, prefer_ (§497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. §354.) _a._ These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, «volunt venīre», _they wish to come_; «volunt amīcōs venīre», _they wish their friends to come_. The English usage is the same.[1] [Footnote 1: Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after these verbs. (See §366.)] [ Conjugations given in §497: PRINCIPAL PARTS: «volō, velle, voluī», ----, _be willing, will, wish_ «nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ----, _be unwilling, will not_ «mālō, mālle, māluī», ----, _be more willing, prefer_ INDICATIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ volō nōlō mālō vīs nōn vis māvīs vult nōn vult māvult PLURAL volumus nōlumus mālumus vultis nōn vultis māvul“tis volunt nōlunt mālunt _Impf._ volźbam nōlźbam mālźbam _Fut._ volam, volźs, etc. nōlam, nōlźs, etc. mālam, mālźs, etc. _Perf._ voluī nōluī māluī _Plup._ volueram nōlueram mālueram _F. P._ voluerō nōluerō māluerō SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ velim nōlim mālim velīs nōlīs mālīs velit nōlit mālit PLURAL velī“mus nōlī“mus mālī“mus velī“tis nōlī“tis mālī“tis velint nōlint mālint _Impf._ vellem nōllem māllem _Perf._ voluerim nōluerim māluerim _Plup._ voluissem nōluissem māluissem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ nōlī nōlīte _Fut._ nōlītō, etc. INFINITIVE _Pres._ velle nōlle mālle _Perf._ voluisse nōluisse māluisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ volźns, -entis nōlźns, -entis ----] «380.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Magistrō laudante omnźs puerī dīligenter labōrant», _with the teacher praising_, or _since the teacher praises_, or _the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently._ 2. «Caesare dūcente nźmō prōgredī timet», _with Cęsar leading_, or _when Cęsar leads_, or _if Cęsar leads_, or _Cęsar leading, no one fears to advance._ 3. «His rźbus cognitīs mīlitźs fūgźrunt», _when this was known_, or _since this was known_, or _these things having been learned, the soldiers fled._ 4. «Proeliō commissō multī vulnerātī sunt», _after the battle had begun_, or _when the battle had begun_, or _the battle having been joined, many were wounded._ _a._ One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition _with_ (cf. §50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses _attendant circumstance_. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a _with_ relation, and the ablative is the case to use. _b._ We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of _time_ (when or after), or one of _cause_ (since), or one of _concession_ (though), or one of _condition_ (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and tranlate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought. «381.» RULE. «Ablative Absolute.» _The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance._ NOTE 1. The verb «sum» has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, «tź duce», _you_ (being) _leader_, _with you as leader_; «patre īnfirmō», _my father_ (being) _weak_. NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare _a._ _The Gauls, having been conquered by Cęsar, returned home_ _b._ _The Gauls having been conquered by Cęsar, the army returned home_ In _a_ the subject is _The Gauls having been conquered by Cęsar_, and we translate, «Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertźrunt» In _b_ the subject is _the army_. _The Gauls having been conquered by Cęsar_ is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate, «Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit» NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. §375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate _Cęsar having encouraged the legions_ just as it stands, because «hortor» is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say _Cęsar having conquered the Gauls_, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because «vincō» is not deponent, and say, _the Gauls having been conquered by Cęsar_ (see translation above). «382.» EXERCISES I. 1. Māvīs, nōn vīs, vultis, nōlumus. 2. Ut nōlit, ut vellźmus, ut mālit. 3. Nōlī, velle, nōluisse, mālle. 4. Vult, māvultis, ut nōllet, nōlīte. 5. Sōle oriente, avźs cantāre incźpźrunt. 6. Clāmōribus audītīs, barbarī prōgredī recūsābant. 7. Caesare legiōnźs hortātō, mīlitźs paulō fortius pugnāvźrunt. 8. Hīs rźbus cognitīs, Helvźtiī fīnitimīs persuāsźrunt ut sźcum iter facerent. 9. Labōribus cōnfectīs, mīlitźs ā Caesare quaerźbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliō convocātō, prīncipźs ita respondźrunt. 11. Dux plūrīs diźs in Helvźtiōrum fīnibus morāns multōs vīcōs incendit. 12. Magnitūdine Germānōrum cognitā, quīdam ex Rōmānis timźbant. 13. Mercātōribus rogātīs, Caesar nihilō plūs reperīre potuit. II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cęsar, when he heard the rumor (_the rumor having been heard_), commanded («imperāre») the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cęsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cęsar had undertaken the business (_Cęsar, the business having been undertaken_), he was unwilling to delay longer.[3] [Footnote 2: Would the ablative absolute be correct here?] [Footnote 3: Not «longius». Why?] LESSON LXVIII THE IRREGULAR VERB _FĪŌ_ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT «383.» The verb «fīō», _be made, happen_, serves as the passive of «faciō», _make_, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from «faciō». Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§500). Observe that the «i» is long except before «-er» and in «fit». _a._ The compounds of «facio» with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as, _Active_ «cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfźcī, cōnfectus» _Passive_ «cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus sum» [ Conjugation given in §500: PRINCIPAL PARTS «fīō, fierī, factus sum» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE _Pres._ fīō ---- fīam _2d Pers._ fī fīte fīs ---- fit fīunt _Impf._ fīźbam fierem _Fut._ fīam ---- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE _Perf._ factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem _F. P._ factus, -a, -um erō INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES _Pres._ fierī _Perf._ factus, -a, -um _Perf._ factus, -a, -um esse _Ger._ faciendus, -a, -um _Fut._ [[factum īrī]]] «384.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Terror erat tantus ut omnźs fugerent», _the terror was so great that all fled._ 2. «Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitźs sźsź reciperent», _the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves._ 3. «Terror fźcit ut omnźs fugerent», _terror caused all to flee_ (lit. _made that all fled_). _a._ Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause. _b._ The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the _consequence_ or _result_ of this cause. _c._ The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the _subjunctive of consequence or result_, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause. _d._ In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb «fźcit». _e._ The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is «ut» = _so that_; negative, «ut nōn» = _so that not_. «385.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Result.» _Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by «ut» or «ut nōn» and have the verb in the subjunctive._ «386.» RULE. _Object clauses of result with «ut» or «ut nōn» are found after verbs of «effecting» or «bringing about»._ «387.» «Purpose and Result Clauses Compared.» There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by «ut»; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has «nź» and the result clause «ut nōn». Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as «tam», «ita», «sic» (_so_), and these serve to point them out. Compare _a._ «Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperźtur» _He was so severely wounded that he was captured_ _b._ «Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperźtur» _He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured_ Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out? «388.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fit, fīet, ut fīat, fīźbāmus. 2. Fīō, fīźs, ut fierent, fierī, fīunt. 3. Fīźtis, ut fīāmus, fīs, fīemus. 4. Mīlitźs erant tam tardī ut ante noctem in castra nōn pervenīrent. 5. Sōl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modī perīcula erant ut nźmō proficīscī vellet. 7. Equitźs hostium cum equitātū nostrō in itinere contendźrunt, ita tamen[1] ut nostrī omnibus in partibus superiōrźs essent. 8. Virtūs mīlitum nostrōrum fźcit ut hostźs nź ūnum quidem[2] impetum sustinźrent. 9. Hominźs erant tam audācźs ut nūllō modō continźrī possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mīlitźs tźla iacere nōn facile possent. 11. Hōc proeliō factō barbarī ita perterritī sunt ut ab ultimīs gentibus lźgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nź lźgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. [Footnote 1: «ita tamen», _with such a result however_.] [Footnote 2: «nź ... quidem», _not even_. The emphatic word is placed between.] II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself? [Footnote 3: Ablative absolute.] LESSON LXIX THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE «389.» Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description. This construction is illustrated in the following sentences: 1. «Quis est quī suam domum nōn amet?» _who is there who does not love his own home?_ 2. «Erant quī hoc facere nōllent», _there were (some) who were unwilling to do this._ 3. «Tū nōn is es quī amīcōs trādās», _you are not such a one as to_, or _you are not the man to, betray your friends._ 4. «Nihil videō quod timeam», _I see nothing to fear_ (nothing of such as character as to fear it). _a._ Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences _Cęsar is the man who is leading us_, «Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit» (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative) _Cęsar is the man to lead us_, «Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat» (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive) _b._ Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is «quī», are translated _such a one as to, the man to_. _c._ In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive? _These are not the men who did this_ _These are not the men to do this_ «390.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Characteristic.» _A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the «subjunctive of characteristic or description»._ «391.» Observe the sentences 1. Rōmānī «Caesarem cōnsulem» fźcźrunt, _the Romans made «Cęsar consul»_. 2. «Caesar cōnsul» ā Rōmānīs factus est, _«Cęsar» was made «consul» by the Romans_. _a._ Observe in 1 that the transitive verb «fźcźrunt», _made_, has two objects: (1) the direct object, «Caesarem»; (2) a second object, «cōnsulem», referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative. _b._ Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the _direct object_ becoming the _subject_ and the _predicate accusative_ the _predicate nominative_. «392.» RULE. «Two Accusatives.» _Verbs of «making», «choosing», «calling», «showing», and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives._ «393.» The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are «creo, creāre, creāvī, creātus», _choose_ «appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus» } «nōminō, nōmināre, nōmināvī, nōminātus» } _call_ «vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus» } «faciō, facere, fźcī, factus», _make_ «394.» EXERCISES I. 1. In Germāniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferārum quae reliquīs in locīs nōn vīsa sint. 2. Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvźtiī domō discźdere possent. 3. Erat[1] manus nūlla, nūllum oppidum, nūllum praesidium quod sź armīs dźfenderet. 4. Tōtō frūmentō raptō, domī nihil erat quō mortem prohibźre possent. 5. Rōmānī Galbam ducem creāvźrunt et summā celeritāte profectī sunt. 6. Neque erat[1] tantae multitūdinis quisquam quī morārī vellet. 7. Germānī nōn iī sunt quī adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cōnsulibus occīsīs erant quī[2] vellent cum rźgem creāre. 9. Pāce factā erat nźmō quī arma trādere nōllet. 10. Inter Helvźtiōs quis erat quī nōbilior illō esset? II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one [3]to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all. [Footnote 1: Remember that when the verb «sum» precedes its subject it is translated _there is_, _there are_, _there were_, etc.] [Footnote 2: «erant quī», _there were_ (some) _who_. A wholly indefinite antecedent of «quī» does not need to be expressed.] [Footnote 3: A relative clause of characteristic or description.] [Footnote 4: See §389.b.] * * * * * «Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§527-528» * * * * * LESSON LXX THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION _CUM_ THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION «395.» The conjunction «cum» has the following meanings and constructions: «cum» TEMPORAL = _when_, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive «cum» CAUSAL = _since_, followed by the subjunctive «cum» CONCESSIVE = _although_, followed by the subjunctive As you observe, the mood after «cum» is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences: 1. «Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram», _I saw Cęsar at the time when I was in Gaul_. 2. «Caesar in eōs impetum fźcit cum pācem peterent», _Cęsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace_. 3. «Hoc erat difficile cum paucī sine vulneribus essent», _this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds_. 4. «Cum prīmī ōrdinźs fūgissent, tamen reliquī fortiter cōnsistźbant», _though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground_. _a._ The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. §389.a). When the «cum» clause states a fact and simply _fixes the time_ at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, «cum in Galliā eram» fixes the time when I saw Cęsar. _b._ On the other hand, when the «cum» clause _describes the circumstances_ under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cęsar made an attack, and the «cum» clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of _time_ is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of _description_. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of _cause_ and we translate «cum» by _since_; sometimes it denotes _concession_ and «cum» is translated _although_. «396.» RULE. «Constructions with _Cum_». _The conjunction «cum» means «when», «since», or «although». It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means «when» and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place._ NOTE. «Cum» in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative. «397.» Note the following sentences: 1. «Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum», _the town was small in size but great in population_. 2. «Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō», _the man was weak in body but strong in courage_. _a._ Observe that «magnitūdine», «multitūdine», «corpore», and «animō» tell _in what respect_ something is true. The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the _ablative of specification_. «398.» RULE. «Ablative of Specification.» _The ablative is used to denote «in what respect» something is true._ «399.» IDIOMS «aliquem certiōrem facere», _to inform some one_ (lit. _to make some one more certain_) «certior fierī», _to be informed_ (lit. _to be made more certain_) «iter dare», _to give a right of way, allow to pass_ «obsidźs inter sź dare», _to give hostages to each other_ «400.» EXERCISES I. 1. Helvźtiī cum patrum nostrōrum tempore domō prefectī essent, cōnsulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam vźnit, Helvźtiī aliōs agrōs petźbant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriōre Gallia esset, tamen dź Helvźtiōrum cōnsiliīs certior fīźbat. 4. Cum Helvźtiī bellō clārissimī essent, Caesar iter per prōvinciam dare recūsāvit. 5. Lźgātus cum haec audīvisset, Caesarem certiōrem fecit. 6. Cum principźs inter sź obsidźs darent, Rōmānī bellum parāvźrunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī. 8. Nź virtūte quidem Gallī erant parźs Germānis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animō īnfīrmus erat. 10. Illud bellum tum incźpit cum Caesar fuit cōnsul. Observe in each case what mood follows «cum», and try to give the reasons for its use. In the third sentence the «cum» clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal. II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when («tum cum») I was at Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cęsar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws. LESSON LXXI VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE · THE PREDICATE GENITIVE «401.» Review the word lists in §§510, 511. «402.» «The Gerund.» Suppose we had to translate the sentence _By overcoming the Gauls Cęsar won great glory_ We can see that _overcoming_ here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in _-ing_, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the «gerund», declined as a neuter of the second declension in the _genitive_, _dative_, _accusative_, and _ablative singular_, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun _overcoming_, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows: _Nom._ «superāre», _overcoming, to overcome_ INFINITIVE _Gen._ «superandī», _of overcoming_ } _Dat._ «superandō», _for overcoming_ } _Acc._ «superandum», _overcoming_ } GERUND _Abl._ «superandō», _by overcoming_ } Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin «Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit» [Footnote 1: Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.] «403.» The gerund[2] is formed by adding «-ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō», to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below: PARADIGM OF THE GERUND CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV _Gen._ amandī monendī regendī capiendī audiendī _Dat._ amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō _Acc._ amandum monendum regendum capiendum audiendum _Abl._ amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō _a._ Give the gerund of «cūrō», «dźleō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «veniō». _b._ Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior». [Footnote 2: The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)] «404.» «The Gerundive.» The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate _the plan of waging war_, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say «cōnsilium gerendī bellum»; or we may use the gerundive and say «cōnsilium bellī gerendī», which means, literally, _the plan of the war to be waged_, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it. «405.» Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive: GERUND GERUNDIVE _Gen._ «Spźs faciendī pācem» «Spźs faciendae pācis» _Dat._ «Locus idōneus pugnandō» «Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs» _A place suitable for_ _A place suitable for fighting_ pitching camp_ _Acc._ «Mīsit equitźs ad īnsequendum» «Mīsit equitźs ad īnsequendōs hostīs» _He sent horsemen to pursue_ _He sent horsemen to pursue the enemy_ _Abl._ «Nārrandō fābulās magister «Nārrandīs fābulīs magister puerīs placuit» puerīs placuit» _The teacher pleased the _The teacher pleased the boys by telling stories_ boys by telling stories_ _a._ We observe (1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun. «406.» RULE. «Gerund and Gerundive.» 1. _The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns._ 2. _The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual._ «407.» RULE. «Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose.» _The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with_ «ad», _or the genitive with «causā»[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose._ GERUND GERUNDIVE «Ad audiendum vźnźrunt» or «Ad urbem videndam vźnźrunt» or «Audiendī causā vźnźrunt» «Urbis videndae causā vźnźrunt» _They came to hear_ _They came to see the city_ [Footnote 3: «causā» always _follows_ the genitive.] NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--«vźnźrunt ut audīrent»; «vźnźrunt ut urbem vidźrent.» In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common. «408.» We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, «equus Galbae», _Galba's horse._ If, now, we wish to express the idea _the horse is Galba's_, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, «equus est Galbae». Hence this is called the predicate genitive. «409.» RULE. «Predicate Genitive.» _The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the predicate genitive._ «410.» IDIOMS «alīcui negōtium dare», _to employ someone_ (lit. _to give business to some one_) «novīs rźbus studźre», _to be eager for a revolution_ (lit. _to be eager for new things_) «reī mīlitāris perītissimus», _very skillful in the art of war_ «sź suaque omnia», _themselves and all their possessions_ «411.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar cum in Galliā bellum gereret, militibus decimae legiōnis maximź fāvit quia reī mīlitāris perītissimī erant. 2. Sociīs negōtium dedit reī frumentāriae cūrandae. 3. Lźgāti nōn sōlum audiendī causā sed etiam dicendī causā vźnźrunt. 4. Imperātor iussit explōrātōres locum idōneum mūnindō reperīre. 5. Nuper hae gentźs novīs rźbus studźbant; mox iīs persuādźbō ut Caesarī sź suaque omnia dźdant. 6. Iubźre est regīnae[4] et pārźre est multitūdinis.[4] 7. Hōc proeliō factō quīdam ex hostibus ad pācem petendam venźrunt. 8. Erant quī arma trādere nōllent. 9. Hostźs tam celeriter prōgressī sunt ut spatium pīla in hostīs iaciendī non darźtur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendī[5] neque auxilī petendī[5] datum est. II. 1. These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle [9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply? [Footnote 4: Predicate genitive.] [Footnote 5: Which of these expressions is gerund and which gerundive?] [Footnote 6: _belong to_ = _are of_.] [Footnote 7: Use the gerundive with «ad».] [Footnote 8: Use the genitive with «causā». Where should «causā» stand?] [Footnote 9: Compare the first sentence.] [Footnote 10: Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.] LESSON LXXII THE IRREGULAR VERB _EŌ_ · INDIRECT STATEMENTS «412.» Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of «eō», _go_ (§499). _a._ Notice that «ī-», the root of «eō», is changed to «e-» before a vowel, excepting in «iźns», the nominative of the present participle. In the perfect system «-v-» is regularly dropped. [ Conjugation given in §499: PRINCIPAL PARTS «eō, īre, iī (īvī), itum» (n. perf. part.) PRES. STEM ī- PERF. STEM ī- or īv- PART. STEM it- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE SING. PLUR. _Pres._ eō īmus eam _2d Pers._ ī īte īs ītis it eunt _Impf._ ībam īrem _Fut._ ībō ---- _2d Pers._ ītō ītōte _3d Pers._ ītō euntō _Perf._ iī (īvī) ierim (īverim) _Plup._ ieram (īveram) īssem (īvissem) _F. P._ ierō (īverō) INFINITIVE _Pres._ īre _Perf._ īsse (īvisse) _Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ iźns, _gen._ euntis (§472) _Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ eundum GERUND _Gen._ eundī _Dat._ eundō _Acc._ eundum _Abl._ eundō SUPINE _Acc._ [[itum]] _Abl._ [[itū]] ] «413.» Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of «eō» with prepositions: «ad“eō, adī“re, ad“iī, ad“itus», _go to, visit_, with the accusative «ex“eō, exī“re, ex“iī, ex“itus», _go forth_, with «ex» or «dź» and the ablative of the place from which «in“eō, inī“re, in“iī, in“itus», _begin, enter upon_, with the accusative «red“eō, redī“re, red“iī, red“itus», _return_, with «ad» or «in» and the accusative of the place to which «trāns“eō, trānsī“re, trāns“iī, trāns“itus», _cross_, with the accusative «414.» «Indirect Statements in English.» Direct statements are those which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his exact language. Indirect statements are those reported in a different form of words from that used by the speaker or writer. Compare the following direct and indirect statements: { 1. The Gauls are brave Direct statements { 2. The Gauls were brave { 3. The Gauls will be brave Indirect statements { 1. _He says_ that the Gauls _are_ brave after a verb in { 2. _He says_ that the Gauls _were_ brave the present tense { 3. _He says_ that the Gauls _will be_ brave Indirect statements { 1. _He said_ that the Gauls _were_ brave after a verb in { 2. _He said_ that the Gauls _had been_ brave a past tense { 3. _He said_ that the Gauls _would be_ brave We see that in English _a._ The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the conjunction _that_. _b._ The verb is finite (cf. §173) and its subject is in the nominative. _c._ The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the past tense, _He said._ «415.» «Indirect Statements in Latin.» In Latin the direct and indirect statements above would be as follows: DIRECT { 1. «Gallī sunt fortźs» STATEMENTS { 2. «Gallī erant fortźs» { 3. «Gallī erunt fortźs» { 1. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs esse fortīs» { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to be brave_)[1] INDIRECT { 2. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs fuisse fortīs» STATEMENTS { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to have been brave_)[1] { 3. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs futūrōs esse fortīs» { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to be about to be brave_)[1] [Footnote 1: These parenthetical renderings are not inserted as translations, but merely to show the literal meaning of the Latin.] Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the preceding section, we observe three marked differences: _a._ There is no conjunction corresponding to _that_. _b._ The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the accusative. _c._ The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense of the principal verb. «416.» RULE. «Indirect Statements.» _When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive._ «417.» «Tenses of the Infinitive.» When the sentences in §415 were changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, «sunt» became «esse», «erant» became «fuisse», and «erunt» became «futūrōs esse». «418.» RULE. «Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements.» _A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive._ NOTE. When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct form. That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the indirect. «419.» RULE. «Verbs followed by Indirect Statements.» _The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of «saying», «telling», «knowing», «thinking», and «perceiving»._ «420.» Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are: _a_. Verbs of saying and telling: «dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus», _say_ «negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus», _deny, say not_ «nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus», _announce_ «respondeō, respondźre, respondī, respōnsus», _reply_ _b_. Verbs of knowing: «cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», _learn_, (in the perf.) _know_ «sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus», _know_ _c_. Verbs of thinking: «arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum», _think, consider_ «exīstimō, exīstimāre, exīstimāvī, exīstimātus», _think, believe_ «iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvi, iūdicātus», _judge, decide_ «putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus», _reckon, think_ «spźrō, spźrāre, spźrāvi, spźrātus», _hope_ _d_. Verbs of perceiving: «audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus», _hear_ «sentiō, sentīre, sźnsī, sźnsus», _feel, perceive_ «videō, vidźre, vīdī, vīsus», _see_ «intellegō, intellegere, intellźxī, intellźctus», _understand, perceive_ Learn such of these verbs as are new to you. «421.» IDIOMS «postrīdiź eius diźī», _on the next day_ (lit. _on the next day of that day_) «initā aestāte», _at the beginning of summer_ «memoriā tenźre», _to remember_ (lit. _to hold by memory_) «per explōrātōrźs cognōscere», _to learn through scouts_ «422.» EXERCISES I. 1. It, īmus, īte, īre. 2. Euntī, iisse _or_ īsse, ībunt, eunt. 3. Eundi, ut eant, ībitis, īs. 4. Nź īrent, ī, ībant, ierat. 5. Caesar per explorātores cognōvit Gallōs flūmen trānsīsse. 6. Rōmānī audīvźrunt Helvźtiōs initā aestāte dź fīnibus suīs exitūrōs esse. 7. Legātī respondźrunt nźminem ante Caesarem illam īnsulam adīsse. 8. Prīncipźs Gallōrum dīcunt sź nūllum cōnsilium contrā Caesaris imperium initūrōs esse. 9. Arbitrāmur potentiam rźgīnae esse maiōrem quam cīvium. 10. Rōmānī negant se lībertātem Gallīs źreptūrōs esse. 11. Hīs rźbus cognitīs sźnsimus lźgātōs non vźnisse ad pācem petendam. 12. Helvźtii sciunt Rōmānōs priōrźs victōriās memoriā tenźre. 13. Sociī cum intellegerent multōs vulnerārī, statuźrunt in suōs fīnīs redīre. 14. Aliquis nūntiāvit Mārcum cōnsulem creātum esse. II. 1. The boy is slow. He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be slow. 2. The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong. He judged that the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3. We think that the army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4. The next day we learned through scouts that the enemy's town was ten miles off.[2] 5. The king replied that the ornaments belonged to[3] the queen. [Footnote 2: _to be off, to be distant_, «abesse».] [Footnote 3: Latin, _were of_ (§409).] [Illustration: TUBA] LESSON LXXIII VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE IRREGULAR VERB _FERŌ_ THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS «423.» Review the word lists in §§513, 514. «424.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb «ferō», _bear_ (§498). 1. Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds of ferō, _bear_: «ad“ferō, adfer“re, at“tulī, adlā“tus», _bring to; report_ «cōn“ferō, cōnfer“re, con“tulī, conlā“tus», _bring together, collect_ «dź“ferō, dźfer“re, dź“tulī, dźlā“tus», _bring to; report; grant, confer_ «īn“ferō, īnfer“re, in“tulī, inlā“tus», _bring in, bring against_ «re“ferō, refer“re, ret“tulī, relā“tus», _bear back, report_ [ Conjugation given in §498: PRINCIPAL PARTS «ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus» PRES. STEM fer- PERF. STEM tul- PART. STEM lāt- INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ ferō ferimus feror ferimur fers fertīs ferris, -re ferimimī fert ferunt fertur feruntur _Impf._ ferźbam ferźbar _Fut._ feram, ferźs, etc. ferar, ferźris, etc. _Perf._ tulī lātus, -a, -um sum _Plup._ tuleram lātus, -a, -um eram _F. P._ tulerō lātus, -a, -um erō SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ feram, ferās, etc. ferar, ferāris, etc. _Impf._ ferrem ferrer _Perf._ tulerim lātus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ tulissem lātus, -a, -um essem IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ fer ferte ferre feriminī _Fut. 2d Pers._ fertō fertōte fertor _3d Pers._ fertō ferunto fertor feruntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ ferre ferrī _Perf._ tulisse lātus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ lātūrus, -a, -um esse ---- PARTICIPLES _Pres._ ferźns, -entis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ lātūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ ferendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ lātus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ ferendī _Dat._ ferendō _Acc._ ferendum _Abl._ ferendō SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[lātum]] _Abl._ [[lātū]] ] «425.» The dative is the case of the indirect object. Many intransitive verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative (cf. §153). Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative; but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. _The whole question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, defends upon its capacity for governing an indirect object._ A number of verbs, some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions, have a meaning which calls for an indirect object. Observe the following sentences: 1. «Haec rźs exercituī magnam calamitātem attulit», _this circumstance brought great disaster to the army._ 2. «Germānī Gallīs bellum īnferunt», _the Germans make war upon the Gauls._ 3. «Hae cōpiae proeliō nōn intererant», _these troops did not take part in the battle._ 4. «Equitźs fugientibus hostibus occurrunt», _the horsemen meet the fleeing enemy._ 5. «Galba cōpiīs fīlium praefźcit», _Galba put his son in command of the troops._ In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a preposition. In no case would the simple verb take the dative. «426.» RULE. «Dative with Compounds.» _Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dź», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prō», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative._ NOTE 1. Among such verbs are[1] «ad“ferō, adfer“re, at“tulī, adlā“tus», _bring to; report_ «ad“sum, ades“se, ad“fuī, adfutū“rus», _assist; be present_ «dź“ferō, dźfer“re, dź“tulī, dźlātus», _report; grant, confer_ «dź“sum, dees“se, dź“fuī,----», _be wanting, be lacking_ «īn“ferō, īnfer“re, in“tulī, inlā“tus», _bring against, bring upon_ «inter“sum, interes“se, inter“fuī, interfutū“rus», _take part in_ «occur“rō, occur“rere, occur“rī, occur“sus», _run against, meet_ «praefi“ciō, praefi“cere, praefź“cī, praefec“tus», _appoint over, place in command of_ «prae“sum, praees“se, prae“fuī, ----», _be over, be in command_ [Footnote 1: But the accusative with «ad» or «in» is used with some of these, when the idea of _motion to_ or _against_ is strong.] «427.» IDIOMS «graviter» or «molestź ferre», _to be annoyed at, to be indignant at_, followed by the accusative and infinitive «sź cōnferre ad» or «in», with the accusative, _to betake one's self to_ «alicui bellum īnferre», _to make war upon some one_ «pedem referre», _to retreat_ (lit. _to bear back the foot_) «428.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2. Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse, tulerant. 3. Tulimus, ferźns, lātus esse, ferre. 4. Cum nāvigia insulae adpropinquārent, barbarī terrōre commōtī pedem referre cōnātī sunt. 5. Gallī molestź ferźbant Rōmānōs agrōs vastāre. 6. Caesar sociīs imperāvit nź fīnitimis suīs bellum īnferrent. 7. Explorātōrźs, qui Caesarī occurrźrunt, dīxźrunt exercitum hostium vulneribus dźfessum sźsź in alium locum contulisse. 8. Hostes sciźbant Rōmānōs frūmentō egźre et hanc rem Caesarī summum perīculum adlātūram esse. 9. Impedīmentīs in ūnum locum conlātis, aliquī mīlitum flūmen quod nōn longź aberat trānsiźrunt. 10. Hōs rźx hortātus est ut ōrāculum adīrent et rźs audītās ad sź referrent. 11. Quem imperātor illī legiōnī praefźcit? Pūblius illī legiōnī pracerat. 12. Cum esset Caesar in citeriōre Galliā, crźbrī ad eum[2] rūmōrźs adferźbantur litterīsque quoque certior fīźbat Gallōs obsidźs inter sź dare. II. 1. The Gauls will make war upon Cęsar's allies. 2. We heard that the Gauls would make war upon Cęsar's allies. 3. Publius did not take part in that battle. 4. We have been informed that Publius did not take part in that battle. 5. The man who was in command of the cavalry was wounded and began to retreat. 6. Cęsar did not place you in command of the cohort to bring[3] disaster upon the army. [Footnote 2: Observe that when «adferō» denotes _motion to_, it is not followed by the dative; cf. footnote, p. 182.] [Footnote 3: Not the infinitive. (Cf. §352.)] LESSON LXXIV VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS «429.» Review the word lists in §§517, 518. «430.» When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we have an indirect statement. (Cf. §414.) So, if we report a question instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question. DIRECT QUESTION INDIRECT QUESTION _Who conquered the Gauls? He asked who conquered the Gauls_ _a._ An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of asking (as «petō», «postulō», «quaerō», «rogō») or upon some verb or expression of saying or mental action. (Cf. §420.) «431.» Compare the following direct and indirect questions: DIRECT INDIRECT «Quis Gallōs vincit?» { _a._ «Rogat quis Gallōs vincat» _Who is conquering the_ { _He asks who is conquering the_ _Gauls?_ { _Gauls_ { _b._ «Rogavit quis Gallōs vinceret» { _He asked who was conquering_ { _the Gauls_ { _a._ «Rogat ubi sit Rōma» «Ubī est Rōma?» { _He asks where Rome is_ _Where is Rome?_ { _b._ «Rogāvit ubi esset Rōma» { _He asked where Rome was_ { _a._ «Rogat num Caesar Gallōs vīcerit» { _He asks whether Cęsar conquered_ «Caesarne Gallōs vīcit?» { _the Gauls_ _Did Cęsar conquer the_ { _b._ «Rogāvit num Caesar Gallōs _Gauls?_ { «vīcisset» { _He asked whether Cęsar had_ { _conquered the Gauls_ _a._ The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question. _b._ The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense sequence. _c._ Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative words as introduce direct questions, excepting that_yes_-or-_no_ direct questions (cf. §210) on becoming indirect are usually introduced by «num», _whether_. «432.» RULE. «Indirect Questions.» _In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence._ «433.» IDIOMS «dź tertiā vigiliā», _about the third watch_ «iniūriās alicui īnferre», _to inflict injuries upon some one_ «facere verba prō», with the ablative, _to speak in behalf of_ «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «434.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rźx rogāvit quid lźgātī postulārent et cūr ad sź vźnissent. 2. Quaesīvit quoque num nec recentīs iniūriās nec dubiam Rōmānōrum amīcitiam memoriā tenźrent. 3. Vidźtisne quae oppida hostźs oppugnāverint? 4. Nōnne scītis cūr Gallī sub montem sźse contulerint? 5. Audīvimus quās iniūrias tibi Germānī intulissent. 6. Dź tertiā vigiliā imperātor mīsit hominźs quī cognōscerent quae esset nātūra montis. 7. Prō hīs ōrātor verba fźcit et rogāvit cūr cōnsulźs nāvīs ad plźnem summī perīculī locum mittere vellent. 8. Lźgātīs convocātīs dźmōnstrāvit quid fierī vellet. 9. Nūntius referźbat quid in Gallōrum conciliō dź armīs trādendīs dictum esset. 10. Moneō nź in reliquum tempus peditźs et equitźs trāns flūmen dūcās. II. 1. What hill did they seize? I see what hill they seized. 2. Who has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3. They asked who had inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4. Whither did you go about the third watch? You know whither I went. 5. At what time did the boys return home? I will ask at what time the boys returned home. LESSON LXXV VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH «435.» Review the word lists in §§521, 522. «436.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Explōrātōrźs locum castrīs dźlźgźrunt», _the scouts chose a place for a camp._ 2. «Hoc erat magnō impedīmentō Gallīs», _this was_ (for) _a great hindrance to the Gauls._ 3. «Duās legiōnźs praesidiō castrīs relīquit», _he left two legions as_ (lit. _for_) _a guard to the camp._ In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the _purpose or end for which_ something is intended or for which it serves. These datives are «castrīs», «impedīmentō», and «praesidiō». In the second and third sentences we find a second dative expressing the _person or thing affected_ («Gallīs» and «castrīs»). As you notice, these are true datives, covering the relations of _for which_ and _to which_. (Cf. §43.) «437.» RULE. «Dative of Purpose or End.» _The dative is used to denote the «purpose or end for which», often with another dative denoting the «person or thing affected»._ «438.» IDIOMS «cōnsilium omittere», _to give up a plan_ «locum castrīs dźligere», _to choose a place for a camp_ «alicui magnō ūsuī esse», _to be of great advantage to some one_ (lit. _for great advantage to some one_) «439.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rogāvit cūr illae cōpiae relictae essent. Respondźrunt illās cōpiās esse praesidiō castrīs. 2. Caesar mīsit explōrātōrźs ad locum dźligendum castrīs. 3. Quisque exīstimāvit ipsum nōmen Caesaris magnō terrōrī barbarīs futūrum esse. 4. Prīmā lūce īdem exercitus proelium ācre commīsit, sed gravia suōrum vulnera magnae cūrae imperātōrī erant. 5. Rźx respondit amīcitiam populī Rōmānī sibi ōrnāmentō et praesidiō dźbźre esse. 6. Quis praeerat equitātuī quem auxiliō Caesarī sociī mīserant? 7. Aliquibus rźs secundae sunt summae calamitātī et rźs adversae sunt mīrō ūsuī. 8. Gallīs magnō ad pugnam erat impedīmentō quod equitātus ā dextrō cornū premźbat. 9. Memoria prīstinae virtūtis nōn minus quam metus hostium erat nostrīs magnō ūsuī. 10. Tam dźnsa erat silva ut prōgredī nōn possent. II. 1. I advise you [1]to give up the plan [2]of making war upon the brave Gauls. 2. Do you know [3]where the cavalry has chosen a place for a camp? 3. The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you. 4. Cęsar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5. In winter the waves of the lake are so great [4]that they are (for) a great hindrance to ships. 6. Cęsar inflicted severe[5] punishment on those who burned the public buildings. [Footnote 1: Subjunctive of purpose. (Cf. §366.)] [Footnote 2: Express by the genitive of the gerundive.] [Footnote 3: Indirect question.] [Footnote 4: A clause of result.] [Footnote 5: «gravis, -e.»] LESSON LXXVI VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION «440.» Review the word lists in §§524, 525. «441.» Observe the English sentences (1) _A man «of» great courage_, or (2) _A man «with» great courage_ (3) _A forest «of» tall trees_, or (4) _A forest «with» tall trees_ Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description. In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest. The descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions _of_ and _with_. In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar. The prepositions _of_ and _with_ suggest the genitive and the ablative respectively, and we translate the sentences above (1) «Vir magnae virtūtis», or (2) «Vir magnā virtūte» (3) «Silva altārum arborum», or (4) «Silva altīs arboribus» There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the English. In English we may say, for example, _a man of courage_, using the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. _In Latin, however, an adjective modifier must always be used_, as above. _a._ Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in that _numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive_ and _descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative._ Other descriptive phrases may be in either case. «442.» EXAMPLES 1. «Fossa duodecim pedum», _a ditch of twelve feet_. 2. «Homō magnīs pedibus et parvō capite», _a man with big feet and a small head_. 3. «Rźx erat vir summā audāciā» or «rźx erat vir summae audāciae», _the king was a man of the greatest boldness_. «443.» RULE. «Genitive of Description.» _Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective._ «444.» RULE. «Ablative of Description.» _Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective._ «445.» RULE. «Genitive or Ablative of Description.» _Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective._ «446.» IDIOMS «Helvźtiīs in animō est», _the Helvetii intend_, (lit. _it is in mind to the Helvetians_) «in mātrimōnium dare», _to give in marriage_ «nihil posse», _to have no power_ «fossam perdūcere», _to construct a ditch_ (lit. _to lead a ditch through_) «447.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mīlitźs fossam decem pedum per eōrum fīnīs perdūxźrunt. 2. Prīnceps Helvźtiōrum, vir summae audāciae, prīncipibus gentium fīnitimārum sorōrźs in mātrimōnium dedit. 3. Eōrum amīcitiam cōnfīrmāre voluit quō facilius Rōmānīs bellum īnferret. 4. Germanī et Gallī nōn erant eiusdem gentis. 5. Omnźs ferź Germānī erant magnīs corporum vīribus.[1] 6. Gallī qui oppidum fortiter dźfendźbant saxa ingentis magnitūdinis dź mūrō iaciźbant. 7. Cum Caesar ab explōrātōribus quaereret quī illud oppidum incolerent, explōrātōrźs respondźrunt eōs esse homines summā virtūte et magnō cōnsiliō. 8. Moenia vīgintī pedum ā sinistrā parte, et ā dextrā parte flūmen magnae altitūdinis oppidum dźfendźbant. 9. Cum Caesar in Galliam pervźnisset, erat rūmor Helvźtiīs in animō esse iter per prōvinciam Rōmānam facere. 10. Caesar, ut eōs ab fīnibus Rōmānis prohibźret, mūnītiōnem [2]multa mīlia passuum longam fźcit. II. 1. Cęsar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very skillful in the art of war. 2. The Germans were of great size, and thought that the Romans had no power. 3. Men of the highest courage were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4. The king's daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state, was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5. The soldiers will construct a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6. A river of great width was between us and the enemy. [Footnote 1: From «vīs». (Cf. §468.)] [Footnote 2: Genitives and ablatives of description are adjective phrases. When we use an _adverbial_ phrase to tell _how long_ or _how high_ or _how deep_ anything is, we must use the accusative of extent. (Cf. §336.) For example, in the sentence above «multa mīlia passuum» is an adverbial phrase (accusative of extent) modifying «longam». If we should omit «longam» and say _a fortification of many miles_, the genitive of description (an adjective phrase) modifying «mūnītiōnem» would be used, as «mūnītiōnem multōrum mīlium passuum».] [Illustration: GLADII] LESSON LXXVII REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE «448.» There are four agreements: 1. That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to which it belongs (§§76, 81). 2. That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its noun (§65). 3. That of a verb with its subject (§28). 4. That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (§224). «449.» The relation expressed by the «genitive» is, in general, denoted in English by the preposition _of_. It is used to express { _a._ As attributive (§38). 1. Possession { { _b._ In the predicate (§409). 2. The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (§331). 3. Quality or description (§§443, 445). «450.» The relation expressed by the «dative» is, in general, denoted in English by the prepositions _to_ or _for_ when they do not imply motion through space. It is used to express { _a._ With intransitive verbs and with { transitive verbs in connection with a { direct object in the accusative (§45). 1. The indirect object { _b_. With special intransitive verbs (§154). { _c_. With verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», { «con», «dź», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», { «prae», «prō», «sub», «super» (§426). 2. The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed (§143). 3. The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting the person or thing affected (§437). «451.» The «accusative» case corresponds, in general, to the English objective. It is used to express 1. The direct object of a transitive verb (§37). 2. The predicate accusative together with the direct object after verbs of _making, choosing, falling, showing_, and the like (§392). 3. The subject of the infinitive (§214). 4. The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (§340). 5. The duration of time and the extent of space (§336). 6. The place to which (§§263, 266). «452.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mīlitźs quōs vīdimus dīxźrunt imperium bellī esse Caesaris imperātōris. 2. Helvźtiī statuźrunt quam[1] maximum numerum equōrum et carrōrum cōgere. 3. Tōtīus Galliae Helvźtiī plūrimum valuźrunt. 4. Multās hōrās ācriter pugnātum est neque quisquam poterat vidźre hostem fugientem. 5. Virī summae virtūtis hostīs decem mīlia passuum īnsecūtī sunt. 6. Caesar populō Rōmānō persuāsit ut sź cōnsulem creāret. 7. Victōria exercitūs erat semper imperātōrī grātissima. 8. Trīduum iter fźcźrunt et Genāvam, in oppidum[2] hostium, pervźnźrunt. 9. Caesar audīvit Germānōs bellum Gallīs intulisse. 10. Magnō ūsuī mīlitibus Caesaris erat quod priōribus proeliīs sźsź exercuerant. II. 1. One[3] of the king's sons and many of his men were captured. 2. There was no one who wished[4] to appoint her queen. 3. The grain supply was always a care (for a care) to Cęsar, the general. 4. I think that the camp is ten miles distant. 5. We marched for three hours through a very dense forest. 6. The plan [5]of making war upon the allies was not pleasing to the king. 7. When he came to the hill he fortified it [6]by a twelve-foot wall. [Footnote 1: What is the force of «quam» with superlatives?] [Footnote 2: «urbs» or «oppidum», appositive to a name of a town, takes a preposition.] [Footnote 3: What construction is used with numerals in preference to the partitive genitive?] [Footnote 4: What mood? (Cf. §390.)] [Footnote 5: Use the gerund or gerundive.] [Footnote 6: Latin, _by a wall of twelve feet._] LESSON LXXVIII REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE «453.» The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions _with_ (or _by_), _from_ (or _by_), and _in_ (or _at_). The constructions growing out of these meanings are I. Ablative rendered _with_ (or _by_): 1. Cause (§102) 2. Means (§103) 3. Accompaniment (§104) 4. Manner (§105) 5. Measure of difference (§317) 6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§381) 7. Description or quality (§§444, 445) 8. Specification (§398) II. Ablative rendered _from_ (or _by_): 1. Place from which (§§179, 264) 2. Ablative of separation (§180) 3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§181) 4. Comparison without «quam» (§309) III. Ablative rendered _in_ (or _at_): 1. Place at or in which (§§265, 266) 2. Time when or within which (§275) «454.» EXERCISES I. 1. Gallī locīs superiōribus occupātīs itinere exercitum prohibźre cōnantur. 2. Omnźs oppidānī ex oppidō źgressī salūtem fugā petere incźpźrunt. 3. Caesar docet sź mīlitum vītam suā salūte habźre multō cāriōrem. 4. Cum celerius omnium opīniōne pervźnisset, hostźs ad eum obsidźs mīsźrunt 5. Vīcus in valle positus montibus altissimīs undique continźtur. 6. Plūrimum inter Gallōs haec gźns et virtūte et hominum numerō valźbat. 7. Secundā vigiliā nūllō certō ōrdine neque imperiō ź castrīs źgressī sunt. 8. Duābus legiōnibus Genāvae relictīs, proximō diź cum reliquīs domum profectus est. 9. Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus Helvźtiī domō exīre possent. 10. Rźx erat summā audāciā et magnā apud populum potentiā. 11. Gallī timōre servitūtis commōtī bellum parābant. 12. Caesar monet lźgātōs ut contineant militźs, nź studiō pugnandī aut spź praedae longius[1] prōgrediantur. 13. Bellum ācerrimum ā Caesare in Gallōs gestum est. II. 1. The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his (men) from battle. 2. All the Gauls differ from each other in laws. 3. This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4. This road is [2]ten miles shorter than that. 5. In summer Cęsar carried on war in Gaul, in winter he returned to Italy. 6. At midnight the general set out from the camp with three legions. 7. I fear that you cannot protect[3] yourself from these enemies. 8. [4]After this battle was finished peace was made by all the Gauls. [Footnote 1: «longius», _too far_. (Cf. §305.)] [Footnote 2: Latin, _by ten thousands of paces_.] [Footnote 3: «dźfendere».] [Footnote 4: Ablative absolute.] LESSON LXXIX REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE «455.» The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (§§402, 406.1). «456.» The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual (§406.2). «457.» The infinitive is used: I. As in English. _a._ As subject or predicate nominative (§216). _b._ To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication (complementary infinitive) (§215). _c._ As object with subject accusative after verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like (§213). II. In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs of _saying _and _mental action_. The subject is in the accusative (§§416, 418, 419). «458.» The subjunctive is used: 1. To denote purpose (§§349, 366, 372). 2. To denote consequence or result (§§385, 386). 3. In relative clauses of characteristic or description (§390). 4. In «cum» clauses of time, cause, and concession (§396). 5. In indirect questions (§432). «459.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar, cum pervźnisset, militźs hortābātur nź cōnsilium oppidī capiendi omitterent. 2. Rźx, castrīs prope oppidum positīs, mīsit explōrātōrźs quī cognōscerent ubi exercitus Rōmanus esset. 3. Nźmo relinquźbātur quī arma ferre posset. 4. Nūntiī vīdźrunt ingentem armōrum multitudinem dź mūrō in fossani iactam esse. 5. Dux suōs trānsīre flūmen iussit. Trānsīre autem hoc flūmen erat difficillimum. 6. Rōmānī cum hanc calamitātem molestź ferrant, tamen terga vertere recūsāvźrunt. 7. Hōc rūmōre audītō, tantus terror omnium animōs occupāvit ut nź fortissimī quidem proelium committere vellent. 8. Erant quī putārent tempus annī idōneum nōn esse itinerī faciendō. 9. Tam ācriter ab utraque parte pugnābātur ut multa mīlia hominum occīderentur. 10. Quid timźs? Timeō nź Rōmānīs in animō sit tōtam Galliam superāre et nōbīs iniūriās inferre. II. 1. Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2. We hear that the plan of taking the town has been given up. 3. Since the Germans thought that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Cęsar ordered a bridge to be made. 4. When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified that they hid themselves. 5. They feared that Cęsar would pursue them. 6. Cęsar [1]asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7. The traders advised him not [2]to cross the sea. 8. He sent scouts [3]to choose a place for a camp. [Footnote 1: «quaerere ab».] [Footnote 2: Not infinitive.] [Footnote 3: Use the gerundive with «ad».] READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS «How to Translate.» You have already had considerable practice in translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning lies in the endings of the words. If these are neglected, no skill can make sense of the Latin. If they are carefully noted and accurately translated, not many difficulties remain. Observe the following suggestions: 1. Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. 2. Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives or accusatives. This will often give you what may be called the backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object. 3. Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the sentence from their endings. 4. If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English meanings of all the words _in the same order as the Latin words_. You will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence. 5. Be careful to _a._ Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong. _b._ Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they govern. _c._ Translate adverbs with the words that they modify. _d._ _Make sense._ If you do not make sense, you have made a mistake. One mistake will spoil a whole sentence. 6. When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the English translation. «The Parts of a Sentence.» You will now meet somewhat longer sentences than you have had before. To assist in translating them, remember, first of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us something, asks a question, or gives a command. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if transitive, will have a direct object. However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any difficulty. These will give you the leading thought, and they must never be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence. The chief difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective, adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases. For example, in the sentence _The idle boy does not study_, the word _idle_ is an adjective. In _The boy wasting his time does not study_, the words _wasting his time_ form an adjective phrase modifying _boy_. In the sentence _The boy who wastes his time does not study_, the words _who wastes his time_ form an adjective clause modifying _boy_, and the sentence is complex. These sentences would show the same structure in Latin. In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the principal sentence. To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as a clause and that this word usually stands first. These words join clauses to the words they depend on, and are called _subordinate conjunctions_. They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to recognize them. In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as _when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that, that_, etc. Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the verb in the clauses which they introduce. [Illustration: HERCULES] THE LABORS OF HERCULES Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued throughout his life by the hatred of Juno. While yet an infant he strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him. During his boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength, and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from the oppression of the Minyę. In a fit of madness, sent upon him by Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to perform whatever tasks were appointed him. Hercules obeyed the oracle, and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules. His death was caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani“ra. Hercules had shot with his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira. Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told her it would act as a charm to secure her husband's love. Some time after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband's garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned. Hercules put on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was carried off by his father Jupiter. [Illustration: HERCULES ET SERPENTES] LIII.[1] THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS Dī[2] grave supplicium sūmmit de malīs, sed iī quī lźgibus[3] deōrum pārent, etiam post mortem cūrantur. Illa vīta dīs[2] erat grātissima quae hominibus miserīs ūtilissima fuerat. Omnium autem praemiōrum summum erat immortālitās. Illud praemium Herculī datum est. Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, māter Alcmźna, et omnium hominum validissimus fuisse dīcitur. Sed Iūnō, rźgīna deōrum, eum, adhūc īnfantem, interficere studźbat; nam eī[1] et[2] Herculźs et Alcmźna erant invīsī. Itaque mīsit duās serpentīs, utramque saevissimam, quae mediā nocte domum[3] Alcmźnae vźnźrunt. Ibi Herculźs, cum frātre suō, nōn in lectulō sed in scūtō ingentī dormiźbat. Iam audācźs serpentźs adpropinquāverant, iam scūtum movźbant. Tum frāter, terrōre commōtus, magnā vōce mātrem vocāvit, sed Herculźs ipse, fortior quam frāter, statim ingentīs serpentīs manibus suīs rapuit et interfźcit. [Footnote 1: This number refers to the lesson after which the selection may be read.] [Footnote 2: «Dī» and «dīs» are from «deus». Cf. §468.] [Footnote 3: «lźgibus», §501.14.] [Footnote 1: «eī», _to her_, referring to Juno.] [Footnote 2: «et ... et», _both ... and_.] [Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.] LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYĘ Herculźs ā puerō[1] corpus suum gravissimīs et difficillimīs labōribus exercźbat et hōc modō vīrźs[2] suās cōnfirmāvit. Iam adulźscźns Thźbīs[3] habitābat. Ibi Creōn quīdam erat rźx. Minyae, gźns validissima, erant fīnitimī Thźbānīs, et, quia ōlim Thźbānōs vīcerant, quotannīs lźgātōs mittźbant et vectīgal postulābant. Herculźs autem cōnstituit cīvīs suōs hōc vectīgālī līberāre et dixit rźgī, "Dā mihi exercitum tuum et ego hōs superbōs hostīs superābō." Hanc condiciōnem rźx nōn recūsāvit, et Herculźs nūntiōs in omnīs partis dīmīsit et cōpiās coźgit.[4] Tum tempore opportūnissimō proelium cum Minyīs commīsit. Diū pugnātum est, sed dźnique illī impetum Thźbānōrum sustinźre nōn potuźrunt et terga vertźrunt fugamque cźpźrunt. [Footnote 1: «ā puerō», _from boyhood_.] [Footnote 2: «virźs», from «vīs». Cf. §468.] [Footnote 3: «Thźbīs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 4: «coźgit», from «cōgō».] HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION Post hoc proelium Creōn rźx, tantā victōriā laetus, fīliam suam Herculī in mātrimōnium dedit. Thźbīs Herculźs cum uxōre suā diū vīvźbat et ab omnibus magnopere amābātur; sed post multōs annōs subitō [1]in furōrem incidit et ipse suā manū līberōs suōs interfźcit. Post breve tempus [2]ad sānitātem reductus tantum scelus expiāre cupiźbat et cōnstituit ad ōrāculum Delphicum iter facere. Hoc autem ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum. Ibi sedźbat fźmina quaedam quae Pythia appellābātur. Ea cōnsilium dabat iīs quī ad ōrāculum veniźbant. [Footnote 1: «in furōrem incidit», _went mad_.] [Footnote 2: «ad sānitātem reductus», lit. _led back to sanity_. What in good English?] [Illustration: HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT] LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] · HE STRANGLES THE NEME“AN LION Itaque Herculźs Pythiae tōtam rem dźmonstrāvit nec scelus suum abdidit. Ubi iam Herculźs fīnem fźcit, Pythia iussit eum ad urbem Tīryntha[2] discźdere et ibi rźgī Eurystheō sźsź committere. Quae[3] ubi audīvit, Herculźs ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheō sź in servitūtem trādidit et dīxit, "Quid prīmum, Ō rźx, mź facere iubźs?" Eurystheus, quī perterrźbātur vī et corpore ingentī Herculis et eum occidī[4] studźbat, ita respondit: "Audī, Herculźs! Multa mira[5] nārrantur dź leōne saevissimō quī hōc tempore in valle Nemaeā omnia vāstat. Iubeō tź, virōrum omnium fortissimum, illō mōnstrō hominźs līberāre." Haec verba Herculī maximź placuźrunt. "Properābo," inquit, "et parźbō imperiō[6] tuō." Tum in silvās in quibus leō habitābat statim iter fźcit. Mox feram vīdit et plūrīs impetūs fźcit; frūstrā tamen, quod neque sagittīs neque ūllō aliō tźlō mōnstrum vulnerāre potuit. Dźnique Herculźs saevum leōnem suīs ingentibus bracchiīs rapuit et faucīs eius omnibus vīribus compressit. Hōc modō brevī tempore eum interfźcit. Tum corpus leōnis ad oppidum in umerīs reportāvit et pellem posteā prō[7] veste gerźbat. Omnźs autem quō eam regiōnem incolźbant, ubi fāmam dź morte leōnis ingentis accźpźrunt, erant laetissimī et Herculem laudābant verbīs amplissimīs. [Footnote 1: «Eu-rys“theus» (pronounced _U-ris“thūs_) was king of _Tī“ryns_, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric times.] [Footnote 2: «Tīryntha», the acc. case of «Tīryns», a Greek noun.] [Footnote 3: «Quae», obj. of «audīvit». It is placed first to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. This is called a connecting relative.] [Footnote 4: «occīdī», pres. pass. infin.] [Footnote 5: «mīra», _marvelous things_, the adj. being used as a noun. Cf. «omnia», in the next line.] [Footnote 6: «imperiō», §501.14.] [Footnote 7: «prō», _for, instead of_.] LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE“AN HYDRA Deinde Herculźs ab Eurystheō iussus est Hydram occīdere. Itaque cum amīcō Iolāō[1] contendit ad palūdem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolźbat. Hoc autem mōnstrum erat serpźns ingźns quae novem capita habźbat. Mox is mōnstrum repperit et summō[2] cum perīculō collum eius sinistrā manū rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextrā manū capita novem abscīdere incźpit, sed frūstrā labōrābat, quod quotiźns hoc fźcerat totiźns alia nova capita vidźbat. Quod[3] ubi vīdit, statuit capita ignī cremāre. Hōc modō octō capita dźlźvit, sed extrźmum caput vulnerārī nōn potuit, quod erat immortāle. Itaque illud sub ingentī saxō Herculźs posuit et ita victōriam reportāvit. [Footnote 1: «Iolāō», abl. of _I-o-lā“us_, the hero's best friend.] [Footnote 2: Note the emphatic position of this adjective.] [Footnote 3: «Quod ubi», _when he saw this_, another instance of the connecting relative. Cf. p. 199, l. 3.] LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR Postquam Eurystheō mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius occupavit. Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad sź reportāre cervum quendam; nam minimź cupīvit tantum virum in rźgnō suō tenźre. Hie autem cervus dīcźbātur aurea cornua et pedźs multō[1] celeriōrźs ventō[2] habźre. Prīmum Herculźs vestīgia animālis petīvit, deinde, ubi cervum ipsum vīdit, omnibus vīribus currere incźpit. Per plūrimōs diźs contendit nec noctū cessāvit. Dźnique postquam per tōtum annum cucurrerat--ita dīcitur--cervum iam dźfessum cźpit et ad Eurystheum portāvit. Tum vźrō iussus est Herculźs aprum quendam capere quī illō tempore agrōs Erymanthiōs vāstābat et hominźs illīus locī magnopere perterrźbat. Herculźs laetź negōtium suscźpit et in Arcadiam celeriter sź recźpit. Ibi mox aprum repperit. Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vīdit, statim quam[3] celerrimź fūgit et metū perterritus in fossam altam sźsź abdidit. Herculźs tamen summā cum difficultāte eum extrāxit, nec aper ūllō modō sźsź līberāre potuit, et vīvus ad Eurystheum portātus est. [Footnote 1: «multō», §501.27.] [Footnote 2: «ventō», §501.34.] [Footnote 3: «quam». What is the force of «quam» with a superlative?] LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE“AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS Deinde Eurystheus Herculī hunc labōrem multō graviōrem imperāvit. Augźās[1] quīdam, quī illō tempore rźgnum Źlidis[2] obtinźbat, tria mīlia boum[3] habźbat. Hī[4] ingentī stabulō continźbantur. Hoc stabulum, quod per trīgintā annōs nōn pūrgātum erat, Herculźs intrā spatium ūnīus diźī pūrgāre iussus est. llle negōtium alacriter suscźpit, et prīmum labōre gravissimō maximam fossam fōdit per quam flūminis aquam dź montibus ad mūrum stabulī dūxit. Tum partem parvam mūrī dźlźvit et aquam in stabulum immīsit. Hōc modō fīnm operis fźcit ūnō diź facillimź. Post paucōs diźs Herculźs ad oppidum Stymphālum iter fźcit; nam Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphālidźs occīdere. Hae avźs rōstra ferrea habźbant et hominźs miserōs dźvorābant. Ille, postquam ad locum pervźnit, lacum vīdit in quō avźs incolźbant. Nūllō tamen modō Herculźs avibus adpropinquāre potuit; lacus enim nōn ex aquā sed ź līmō cōnstitit.[5] Dźnique autem avźs [6]dź aliquā causā perterritae in aurās volāvźrunt et magna pars eārum sagittīs Herculis occīsa est. [Footnote 1: «Augźās», pronounced in English _Aw-jź“as_.] [Footnote 2: «Źlidis», gen. case of «Źlis», a district of Greece.] [Footnote 3: «boum», gen. plur. of «bōs». For construction see §501.11.] [Footnote 4: «ingentī stabulō», abl. of means, but in our idiom we should say _in a huge stable_.] [Footnote 5: «cōnstitit», from «consto».] [Footnote 6: «dź aliquā causā perterritae», _frightened for some reason_.] [Illustration: HERCULES ET TAURUS] LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portāre vīvum ex īnsulā Crźtā taurum quendam saevissimum. Ille igitur nāvem cōnscendit--nam ventus erat idōneus--atque statim solvit. Postquam trīduum nāvigavit, incolumis īnsulae adpropinquāvit. Deinde, postquam omnia parāta sunt, contendit ad eam regiōnem quam taurus vexābat. Mox taurum vīdit ac sine ūllō metū cornua eius corripuit. Tum ingentī labōre mōnstrum ad nāvem trāxit atque cum hāc praedā ex īnsulā discessit. THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME“DES Postquam ex īnsulā Crźtā domum pervźnit, Hercules ab Eurystheō in Thrāciam missus est. Ibi Diomźdźs quīdam, vir saevissimus, rźgnum obtinźbat et omnīs ā fīnibus suīs prohibźbat. Herculźs iussus erat equōs Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum dūcere. Hī autem equī hominźs miserrimōs dźvorābant dź quibus rźx supplicium sūmere cupiźbat. Herculźs ubi pervźnit, prīmum equōs ā rźge postulāvit, sed rźx eōs dźdere recūsāvit. Deinde ille īrā commōtus rźgem occīdit et corpus eius equīs trādidit. Itaque is quī anteā multōs necāverat, ipse eōdem suppliciō necātus est. Et equī, nūper saevissima animālia, postquam dominī suī corpus dźvorāvźrunt, mānsuźtī erant. LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL“YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS Gźns Amāzonum[1] dīcitur[2] omnīnō ex mulieribus fuisse. Hae cum virīs proelium committere nōn verźbantur. Hippolytź, Amāzonum rźgīna, balteum habuit pulcherrimum. Hunc balteum possidźre fīlia Eurystheī vehementer cupiźbat. Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amāzonźs facere. Ille multīs cum cōpiīs nāvem cōnscendīt et paucis diźbus in Amāzonum fīnīs pervźnit, ac balteum postulāvit. Eum trādere ipsa Hipporytź quidem cupīvit; reliquīs tamen Amazonibus[3] persuādźre nōn potuit. Postrīdiź Herculźs proelium commīsit. Multās hōrās utrimque quam fortissimź pugnātum est Dźnique tamen mulieres terga vertźrunt et fugā salūtem petiźrunt. Multae autem captae sunt, in quō numerō erat ipsa Hippolytź. Herculźs postquam balteum accźpit, omnibus captīvīs lībertātem dedit. [Footnote 1: A fabled tribe of warlike women living in Asia Minor.] [Footnote 2: «omnīnō», etc., _to have consisted entirely of women._] [Footnote 3: «Amāzonibus», §501.14.] [Illustration: HERCULES ET CERBERUS] THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER“BERUS Iamque ūnus modo ź duodecim labōribus relinquźbātur sed inter omnīs hic erat difficillimus. Iussus est enim canem Cerberum[4] ex Orcō in lūcem trahere. Ex Orcō autem nźmō anteā reverterat. Praetereā Cerberus erat mōnstrum maximź horribile et tria capita habźbat. Herculźs postquam imperia Eurystheī accźpit, statim profectus est et in Orcum dźscendit. Ibi vźrō nōn sine summō periculō Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingentī cum labōre ex Orcō in lūcem et adurbem Eurystheī trāxit. Sic duodecim laborźs illī[5] intrā duodecim annōs cōnfectī sunt. Dźmum post longam vītam Herculźs ā deīs receptus est et Iuppiter fīliō suō dedit immortālitātem. [Footnote 4: The dog Cerberus guarded the gate of Orcus, the abode of the dead.] [Footnote 5: «illī», _those famous._] [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI] P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY[1] LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE“II P. Cornźlius Lentulus,[2] adulźscźns Rōmānus, amplissimā familiā[3] nātus est; nam pater eius, Mārcus, erat dux perītissimus, cuius virtūte[4] et cōnsiliō multae victōriae reportātae erant; atque mater eius, lūlia, ā clārissimīs maiōribus orta est. Nōn vźrō in urbe sed rūrī[5] Pūblius nātus est, et cum mātre habitābat in vīllā quae in maris lītore et sub radīcibus magnī montis sita erat. Mōns autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompźiī octō mīlia[6] passuum[7] aberat. In Italiā antīquā erant plūrimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter hās omnīs nūlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mārcī Iūliaeque. Frōns vīllae mūrō a maris fluctibus mūniźbātur. Hinc mare et lītora et īnsulae longź lātźque cōnspicī[8] ac saepe nāvźs longae et onerāriae poterant. Ā tergō et ab utrōque latere agrī ferācissimī patźbant. Undique erat magna variōrum flōrum cōpia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestāte[9] umbram dźfessīs agricolīs grātissimam adferźbant. Praetereā erant[10] in agrīs stabulīsque multa animālium genera, nōn sōlum equī et bovźs sed etiam rārae avźs. Etiam erat[10] magna piscīna plźna piscium; nam Rōmānī piscīs dīligenter colźbant. [Footnote 1: This story is fiction with certain historical facts in Cęsar's career as a setting. However, the events chronicled might have happened, and no doubt did happen to many a Roman youth.] [Footnote 2: A Roman had three names, as, «Pūblius» (given name), «Cornźlius» (name of the _gźns_ or clan), «Lentulus» (family name).] [Footnote 3: Abl. of source, which is akin to the abl. of separation (§501.32).] [Footnote 4: «virtūte», §501.24.] [Footnote 5: «rūrī», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 6: «mīlia», §501.21.] [Footnote 7: «passuum», §501.11.] [Footnote 8: «cōnspicī», infin. with poterant, §215. Consult the map of Italy for the approximate location of the villa.] [Footnote 9: «aestāte», §501.35.] [Footnote 10: How are the forms of «sum» translated when they precede the subject?] [Illustration: CASA ROMANA] LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM Huius vīllae Dāvus, servus Mārcī, est vīlicus[1] et cum Lesbiā uxōre omnia cūrat. Vīlicus et uxor in casā humilī, mediīs in agrīs sitā, habitant. Ā prīmā lūce ūsque ad vesperum sź[2] gravibus labōribus exercent ut omnī rźs bene gerant.[3] Plūrima enim sunt officia Dāvī et Lesbiae. Vīlicus servōs regit nź tardī sint[3]; mittit aliōs quī agrōs arent,[3] aliōs quī hortōs inrigent,[3] et opera in[4] tōtum diem impōnit. Lesbia autem omnibus vestīmenta parat, cibum coquit, pānem facit. Nōn longź ab hōrum casā et in summō colle situm surgźbat domicilium ipsīus dominī dominaeque amplissimum. Ibi plūrīs annōs[5] Pūblius cum mātre vītam fźlīcem agźbat; nam pater eius, Mārcus, in terrīs longinquīs gravia reī pūblicae bella gerźbat nec domum[6] revertī poterat. Neque puerō quidem molestum est rūrī[7] vīvere. Eum multae rźs dźlectant. Magnopere amat silvās, agrōs, equōs, bovźs, gallīnās, avīs, reliquaque animālia. Saepe plūrīs hōrās[8] ad mare sedet quō[9] melius fluctūs et nāvīs spectet. Nec omnīnō sine comitibus erat, quod Lydia, Dāvī fīlia, quae erat eiusdem aetātis, cum eō adhūc infante lūdźbat, inter quōs cum annīs amīcitia crźscźbat. Lydia nūllum alium ducem dźligźbat et Pūblius ab puellae latere rārō discźdźbat. Itaque sub clārō Italiae sōle Pūblius et Lydia, amīcī fidźlissimī, per campōs collīsque cotīdiź vagābantur. Modo in silvā fīnitimā lūdebant ubi Pūblius sagittīs[10] celeribus avis dźiciźbat et Lydia corōnīs variōrum flōrum comās suās ōrnābat; modo aquam et cibum portābant ad Dāvum servōsque dźfessōs quī agrōs colźbant: modo in casā parvā aut hōrās lactās in lūdō cōnsūmźbant aut auxilium dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum virō et servīs parābat vel aliās rźs domesticās agźbat. [Footnote 1: The «vīlicus» was a slave who acted as overseer of a farm. He directed the farming operations and the sale of the produce.] [Footnote 2: «se», reflexive pron., object of «exercent».] [Footnote 3: For the construction, see §501.40.] [Footnote 4: «in», _for_.] [Footnote 5: «annōs», §501.21.] [Footnote 6: «domum», §501.20.] [Footnote 7: «rūrī», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 8: «hōrās», cf. «annōs», line 17.] [Footnote 9: «quō ... spectet», §§349, 350.] [Footnote 10: «sagittis», §501.24.] LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED · JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM Iam Pūblius[1] decem annōs habźbat cum M. Cornźlius Lentulus, pater eius, quī quīnque annōs[2] grave bellum in Asiā gerźbat, non sine glōriā domum[3] revertźbātur. Namque multa secunda proelia fźcerat, maximās hostium cōpiās dźlźverat, multās urbīs populo[4] Rōmānō inimīcās cźperat. Primum nūntius pervźnit quī ā Lentulō[5] missus erat[6] ut profectiōnem suam nūntiāret. Deinde plūrīs diźs[7] reditum virī optimī māter fīliusque exspectābant et animīs[8] sollicitis deōs immortālīs frūstrā colźbant. Tum dźmum hās litterās summo cum gaudiō accźpźrunt: [9]"Mārcus Iūliae suac salūtem dīcit. Sī valźs, bene est; ego valeō. Ex Graeciā, quō[10] praeter spem et opīniōnem hodiź pervźnī, hās litterās ad tź scribō. Namque nāvis nostra frācta est; nōs autem--[11]dīs est gratia--incolumes sumus. Ex Asiae[12] portū nāvem lźnī ventō solvimus. Postquam[13] altum mare tenuimus [14]nec iam ūllae terrae appāruźrunt, caelum undique et undique fluctūs, subitō magna tempestās coorta est et nāvem vehementissimź adflīxit. Ventīs fluctibusque adflīctātī[15] nec sōlem discernere nec cursum tenźre poterāmus et omnia praesentem mortem intentābant. Trīs diźs[16] et trīs noctīs[16] sine rźmīs vźlīsque agimur. Quārtō diź[17] prīmum terra vīsa est et violenter in saxa, quae nōn longź ā lītore aberant, dźiectī sumus. Tum vźrō maiōra perīcula timźbāmus; sed nauta quīdam, vir fortissimus, ex nāve in fluctūs īrātōs dźsiluit [18]ut fūnem ad lītus portāret; quam rem summō labōre vix effźcit. Ita omnźs servātī sumus. Grātiās igitur et honōrem Neptūnō dźbźmus, quī deus nōs ź perīculō źripuit. Nunc Athźnīs[19] sum, quō cōnfūgī ut mihi paucās hōrās ad quiźtem darem.[20] Quam prīmum autem aliam nāvem condūcam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum cōnficiam et domum[21] ad meōs cārōs revertar. Salūtā nostrum Pūblium amīcissimź et valźtūdinem tuam cūrā dīligenter. [22]Kalendīs Mārtiīs." [Footnote 1: _was ten years old_.] [Footnote 2: «annōs», §501.21.] [Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.] [Footnote 4: «populō», dat. with inimīcās, cf. §501.16.] [Footnote 5: «Lentulō», §501.33.] [Footnote 6: «ut ... nūntiāret», §501.40.] [Footnote 7: «diźs», cf. annōs, 1. 9.] [Footnote 8: «animīs», abl. of manner. Do you see one in line 15?] [Footnote 9: This is the usual form for the beginning of a Latin letter. First we have the greeting, and then the expression Sī valźs, etc. The date of the letter is usually given at the end, and also the place of writing, if not previously mentioned in the letter.] [Footnote 10: «quō», _where_.] [Footnote 11: «dīs est grātia», _thank God_, in our idiom.] [Footnote 12: Asia refers to the Roman province of that name in Asia Minor.] [Footnote 13: «altum mare tenuimus», _we were well out to sea._] [Footnote 14: «nec iam», _and no longer_.] [Footnote 15: «adflīctātī», perf. passive part. _tossed about_.] [Footnote 16: What construction?] [Footnote 17: «diź», §501.35.] [Footnote 18: «ut ... portāret», §501.40.] [Footnote 19: «Athźnīs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 20: «darem», cf. «portāret», l. 6.] [Footnote 21: Why not «ad domum»?] [Footnote 22: «Kalendīs Mārtiīs», _the Calends_ or _first of March_; abl. of time, giving the date of the letter.] LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME · PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER Post paucōs diźs nāvis M. Cornźlī Lentulī portum Mīsźnī[1] petiit, quī portus nōn longź ā Pompźiīs situs est; quō in portū classis Rōmānā pōnźbātur et ad pugnās nāvālīs ōrnābātur. Ibi nāvźs omnium generum cōnspicī poterant. Iamque incrźdibilī celeritāte nāvis longa quā Lentulus vehźbātur lītorī adpropinquāvit; nam nōn sōlum ventō sed etiam rźmīs impellźbātur. In altā puppe stābat gubernātor et nōn procul aliquī mīlitźs Rōmānī cum armīs splendidīs, inter quōs clārissimus erat Lentulus. Deinde servī rźmīs contendere cessāvźrunt[2]; nautae vźlum contrāxźrunt et ancorās iźcźrunt. Lentulus statim ź nāvī źgressus est et[3] ad villam suam properāvit. Eum Iūlia, Pūblius, tōtaque familia excźpźrunt. [4]Quī complexūs, quanta gaudia fuźrunt! Postrīdiź eius diźī Lentulus fīliō suō dīxit, "Venī, mī Pūblī, mźcum. Pompźiōs iter hodiź faciam. Māter tua suādet[5] ut frūctūs et cibāria emam. Namque plūrīs amīcōs ad cźnam vocāvimus et multīs rźbus[6] egźmus. Ea hortātur ut quam prīmum proficīscāmur." "Libenter, mī pater," inquit Pūblius. "Tźcum esse mihi semper est grātum; nec Pompźiōs umquam vīdī. Sine morā proficīscī parātus sum." Tum celeriter currum cōnscendźrunt et ad urbis mūrōs vectī sunt. Stabiānā portā[7] urbem ingressī sunt. Pūblius strātās viās mīrātur et saxa altiōra quae in mediō disposita erant et altās orbitās quās rotae inter haec saxa fźcerant. Etiam strepitum mīrātur, multitūdinem, carrōs, fontīs, domōs, tabernās, forum[8] cum statuīs, templīs, reliquīsque aedificiīs pūblicīs. [Footnote 1: Misenum had an excellent harbor, and under the emperor Augustus became the chief naval station of the Roman fleet. See map of Italy.] [Footnote 2: Why is the infinitive used with «cessāvźrunt»?] [Footnote 3: See Plate I, Frontispiece.] [Footnote 4: Observe that these words are exclamatory.] [Footnote 5: What construction follows «suādeō»? §501.41.] [Footnote 6: «rźbus», §501.32.] [Footnote 7: This is the abl. of the _way by which_ motion takes place, sometimes called the abl. of route. The construction comes under the general head of the abl. of means. For the scene here described, see Plate II, p. 53, and notice especially the stepping-stones for crossing the street («saxa quae in mediō disposita erant»).] [Footnote 8: The forum of Pompeii was surrounded by temples, public halls, and markets of various sorts. Locate Pompeii on the map.] LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII Apud forum ź currū dźscendźrunt et Lentulus dīxit, "Hīc sunt multa tabernārum genera, mī Pūblī. Ecce, trāns viam est popīna! [1]Hoc genus tabernārum cibāria vźndit. Frūctūs quoque ante iānuam stant. Ibi cibāria mea emam." "Optimź," respondit Pūblius. "At ubi, mī pater, crūstula emere possumus? Namque māter nōbīs imperāvit [2]ut haec quoque parārźmus. Timeō ut[3] ista popīna vźndat crūstula." "Bene dīcis," inquit Lentulus. "At nōnne vidźs illum fontem ā dextrā ubi aqua per leōnis caput fluit? In illō ipsō locō est taberna pīstōris quī sine dubiō vźndit crūstula." Brevī tempore[4] omnia erant parāta, iamque [5]quīnta hōra erat. Deinde Lentulus et fīlius ad caupōnam properāvźrunt, quod famź[6] et sitī[7] urgźbantur. Ibi sub arboris umbrā sźdźrunt et puerō imperāvźrunt ut sibi[8] cibum et vīnum daret. Huic imperiō[9] puer celeriter pāruit. Tum laetī sź[10] ex labōre refźcźrunt. Post prandium prefectī sunt ut alia urbis spectācula vidźrent. Illō tempore fuźrunt Pompźiīs[11] multa templa, duo theātra, thermae magnumque amphitheātrum, quae omnia post paucōs annōs flammīs atque incendiīs Vesuvī et terrae mōtū dźlźta sunt. Ante hanc calamitātem autem hominźs [12]nihil dź monte veritī sunt. In amphitheātrō quidem Pūblius morārī cupīvit ut spectācula gladiātōria vidźret, quae in[13] illum ipsum diem prōscrīpta erant et iam [14]rź vźrā incźperant. Sed Lentulus dīxit, "Morārī, Pūblī, [15]vereor ut possīmus. Iam decima hōra est et via est longa. Tempus suādet ut quam prīmum domum revertāmur." Itaque servō imperāvit ut equōs iungeret, et sōlis occāsū[16] ad vīllam pervźnźrunt. [Footnote 1: We say, _this kind of shop_; Latin, _this kind of shops_.] [Footnote 2: «ut ... parārźmus», §501.41.] [Footnote 3: How is «ut» translated after a verb of fearing? How «nź»? Cf. §501.42.] [Footnote 4: «tempore», §501.35.] [Footnote 5: «quīnta hōra». The Romans numbered the hours of the day consecutively from sunrise to sunset, dividing the day, whether long or short, into twelve equal parts.] [Footnote 6: «famź» shows a slight irregularity in that the abl. ending «-e» is long.] [Footnote 7: «sitis», _thirst_, has «-im» in the acc. sing., «-ī» in the abl. sing., and no plural.] [Footnote 8: Observe that the reflexive pronoun «sibi» does not here refer to the subject of the subordinate clause in which it stands, but to the subject of the main clause. This so-called _indirect_ use of the reflexive is often found in object clauses of purpose.] [Footnote 9: What case? Cf. §501.14.] [Footnote 10: «sź», cf. p. 205, l. 7, and note.] [Footnote 11: «Pompźiīs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 12: «nihil ... veritī sunt», _had no fears of the mountain_.] [Footnote 13: «in», _for_.] [Footnote 14: «rź vźrā», _in fact_.] [Footnote 15: «vereor ut», §501.42.] [Footnote 16: «occāsū», §501.35.] LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON Ā prīmīs annīs quidem Iūlia ipsa fīlium suum docuerat, et Pūblius nōn sōlum [1]pūrź et Latīnź loquī poterat sed etiam commodź legźbat et scrībźbat. Iam Ennium[2] aliōsque poźtās lźgerat. Nunc vźrō Pūblius [3]duodecim annōs habźbat; itaque eī pater bonum magistrum, [4]virum omnī doctrīnā et virtūte ōrnātissimum, parāvit, [5]quī Graeca, mūsicam, aliāsque artīs docźret. [6]Namque illīs temporibus omnźs ferź gentźs Graecź loquźbantur. Cum Pūbliō aliī puerī, Lentulī amīcōrum fīliī,[7] discźbant. Nam saepe apud Rōmānōs mōs erat [8]nōn in lūdum fīliōs mittere sed domī per magistrum docźre. Cotīdiź discipulī cum magistrō in peristylō[9] Mārcī domūs sedźbant. Omnźs puerī bullam auream, orīginis honestae signum, in collō gerźbant, et omnźs togā praetextā amictī erant, [10]quod nōndum sźdecim annōs[11] nātī sunt. [Footnote 1: «pūrź ... poterat», freely, _could speak Latin well_. What is the literal translation?] [Footnote 2: «Ennium», the father of Latin poetry.] [Footnote 3: «duodecim ... habźbat», cf. p. 206, l. 8, and note.] [Footnote 4: «virum», etc., _a very well-educated and worthy man_. Observe the Latin equivalent.] [Footnote 5: «quī ... docźret», a relative clause of purpose. Cf. §§ 349, 350.] [Footnote 6: In Cęsar's time Greek was spoken more widely in the Roman world than any other language.] [Footnote 7: «fīliī», in apposition with «puerī».] [Footnote 8: «nōn ... mittere». This infinitive clause is the subject of «erat». Cf. §216. The same construction is repeated in the next clause, «domī ... docźre». The object of «docźre» is «fīliōs» understood.] [Footnote 9: The peristyle was an open court surrounded by a colonnade.] [Footnote 10: At the age of sixteen a boy laid aside the _bulla_ and the _toga praetexta_ and assumed _toga virīlis_ or manly gown.] [Footnote 11: «annōs», §501.21. The expression «nōndum sźdecim annōs nātī sunt» means literally, _they were born not yet sixteen years_. This is the usual expression for age. What is the English equivalent?] [Illustration: TABULA ET STILUS] SCENE IN SCHOOL · AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION DISCIPULĪ. Salvź, magister. MAGISTER. Vōs quoque omnźs, salvźte. [1]Tabulāsne portāvistis et stilōs? D. Portāvimus. M. Iam fābulam Aesōpī[2] discźmus. Ego legam, vōs in tabulīs scrībite. Et tū, Pūblī, dā mihi ź capsā[3] Aesōpī volūmen.[4] Iam audīte omnźs: _Vulpźs et Ūva_. Vulpźs ōlim famź coācta ūvam dźpendentem vīdit. Ad ūvam saliźbat, sūmere cōnāns. Frūstrā diū cōnāta, tandem īrāta erat et salīre cessāns dīxit: "Illa ūva est acerba; acerbam ūvam [5]nihil moror." Omnia“ne scrīpsistis, puerī? D. Omnia, magister. [Footnote 1: Tablets were thin boards of wood smeared with wax. The writing was done with a stylus, a pointed instrument like a pencil, made of bone or metal, with a knob at the other end. The knob was used to smooth over the wax in making erasures and corrections.] [Footnote 2: «Aesōpī», the famous Greek to whom are ascribed most of the fables current in the ancient world.] [Footnote 3: A cylindrical box for holding books and papers, shaped like a hatbox.] [Footnote 4: Ancient books were written on rolls made of papy“rus.] [Footnote 5: «nihil moror», _I care nothing for_.] LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION Iamque Pūblius, [1]quīndecim annōs nātus, [2]prīmīs litterārum elementīs cōnfectīs, Rōmam petere voluit ut scholās grammaticōrum et philosophōrum frequentāret. Et facillimź patrī[3] suō, qui ipse philosophiae studiō tenźbātur, persuāsit. Itaque [4]omnibus rźbus ad profectiōnem comparātīs, pater fīliusque equīs animōsīs vectī[5] ad magnam urbem profectī sunt. Eōs proficīscentīs Iūlia tōtaque familia vōtīs precibusque prōsecūtae sunt. Tum per loca[6] plāna et collis silvīs vestītōs viam ingressī sunt ad Nōlam, quod oppidum eōs hospitiō modicō excźpit. Nōlae[7] duās hōrās morātī sunt, quod sōl merīdiānus ārdźbat. Tum rźctā viā[8] circiter vīgintī mīlia[9] passuum[9] Capuam,[9] ad īnsignem Campāniae urbem, contendźrunt. Eō[10] multā nocte dźfessī pervźnźrunt. [11]Postrīdiź eius diźī, somnō et cibō recreātī, Capuā discessźrunt et [13]viam Appiam ingressī, quae Capuam tangit et ūsque ad urbem Rōmam dūcit, ante merīdiem Sinuessam pervźnźrunt, quod oppidum tangit mare. Inde prīmā lūce proficīscentźs Formiās[13] properāvźrunt, ubi Cicerō, ōrātor clarissimus, quī forte apud vīllam suam erat, eōs benignź excźpit. Hinc [14]itinere vīgintī quīnque mīlium passuum factō, Tarracīnam, oppidum in saxīs altissimīs situm, vīdźrunt. Iamque nōn longź aberant palūdźs magnae, quae multa mīlia passuum undique patent. Per eās pedestris via est gravis et in nāve viātōrźs vehuntur. Itaque [15]equīs relictīs Lentulus et Pūblius nāvem cōnscendźrunt, et, ūnā nocte in trānsitū cōnsūmptā, Forum Appī vźnźrunt. Tum brevī tempore Arīcia eōs excźpit. Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Romā sźdecim mīlia passuum abest. Inde dźclivis via ūsque ad latum campum dūcit ubi Rōma stat. Quem ad locum ubi Pūblius vźnit et Rōmam adhūc remōtam, maximam tōtīus orbis terrārum urbem, cōnspźxit, summā admīrātiōne et gaudiō adfectus est. Sine morā dźscendźrunt, et, mediō intervāllō quam celerrimź superātō, urbem portā Capźnā ingressī sunt. [Footnote 1: «quīndecim», etc., cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.] [Footnote 2: «prīmīs ... cōnfectīs», abl. abs. Cf. §501.28.] [Footnote 3: «patrī», dat. with «persuāsit».] [Footnote 4: «omnibus ... comparātīs», cf. note 2.] [Footnote 5: «vectī», perf. pass. part. of «vehō».] [Footnote 6: What is there peculiar about the gender of this word?] [Footnote 7: «Nōlae», locative case, §501.36.2.] [Footnote 8: «viā», cf. «portā», p. 208, l. 7, and note.] [Footnote 9: What construction?] [Footnote 10: «Eō», adv. _there_.] [Footnote 11: «Postrīdiź eius diźī», _on the next day_.] [Footnote 12: «viam Appiam», the most famous of all Roman roads, the great highway from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, with numerous branches. Locate on the map the various towns that are mentioned in the lines that follow.] [Footnote 13: «Formiās», _Formię_, one of the most beautiful spots on this coast, and a favorite site for the villas of rich Romans.] [Footnote 14: «itinere ... factō», abl. abs. The gen. «mīlium» modifies «itinere».] [Footnote 15: «equīs relictīs». What construction? Point out a similar one in the next line.] [Illustration: BULLA] LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS Pūblius iam tōtum annum Rōmae morābātur[1] multaque urbis spectācula vīderat et multōs sibi[2] amīcōs parāverat. Eī[3] omnźs favźbant; [4]dź eō omnźs bene spźrāre poterant. Cotīdiź Pūblius scholas philosophōrum et grammaticōrum tantō studiō frequentābat [5]ut aliīs clārum exemplum praebźret. Saepe erat cum patre in cūriā[6]; quae rźs effźcit [7]ut summōs reī pūblicae virōs et audīret et vidźret. Ubi [8]sźdecim annōs natus est, bullam[9] auream et togam praetextam mōre Rōmānō dźposuit atque virīlem togam sūmpsit. Virīlis autem toga erat omnīnō alba, sed praetexta clāvum purpureum in margine habźbat. [10]Dźpōnere togam praetextam et sūmere togam virīlem erat rźs grātissima puerō Rōmānō, quod posteā vir et cīvis Rōmānus habźbātur. [11]Hīs rźbus gestīs Lentulus ad uxōrem suam hās litterās scrīpsit: [12]"Mārcus Iūliae suae salūtem dīcit. Sī valźs, bene est; ego valeō. Accźpī tuās litterās. Hās nunc Rōmā per servum fidźlissimum mittō ut dź Pūbliō nostrō quam celerrimź sciās. Nam hodiź eī togam virīlem dedī. Ante lucem surrźxī[13] et prīmum bullam auream dź collō eius remōvī. Hāc Laribus[14] cōnsecrātā et sacrīs factīs, eum togā virīlī vestīvī. Interim plūrźs amīcī cum multitūdine optimōrum cīvium et honestōrum clientium pervźnerant [15]quī Pūblium domō in forum dźdūcerent. Ibi in cīvitātem receptus est et nōmen, Pūblius Cornźlius Lentulus, apud cīvīs Rōmānōs ascrīptum est. Omnźs eī amīcissimī fuźrunt et magna[16] de eō praedīcunt. Sapientior enim aequālibus[17] est et magnum ingenium habet. [18]Cūrā ut valeās." [Footnote 1: «morābātur», translate as if pluperfect.] [Footnote 2: «sibi», _for himself_.] [Footnote 3: «Eī», why dat.?] [Footnote 4: «dź ... poterant», in English, _all regarded him as a very promising youth;_ but what does the Latin say?] [Footnote 5: «ut ... praebźret», §501.43.] [Footnote 6: «cūriā», a famous building near the Roman Forum.] [Footnote 7: «ut ... audīret et vidźret», §501.44.] [Footnote 8: «sźdecim, etc.», cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.] [Footnote 9: «bullam», cf. p. 210, l. 3, and note 4.] [Footnote 10: These infinitive clauses are the subject of «erat». Cf. §216.] [Footnote 11: «Hīs rźbus gestīs», i.e. the assumption of the _toga virilis_ and attendant ceremonies.] [Footnote 12: Compare the beginning of this letter with the one on page 206.] [Footnote 13: «surrźxī», from «surgō».] [Footnote 14: The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors, and were worshiped as household gods. All that the house contained was confided to their care, and sacrifices were made to them daily.] [Footnote 15: «quī ... dźdūcerent», §350.] [Footnote 16: «magna», _great things_, a neuter adj. used as a noun.] [Footnote 17: «aequālibus», §501.34.] [Footnote 18: «Cūrā ut valeās», _take good care of your health_. How does the Latin express this idea?] LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CĘSAR'S ARMY IN GAUL Pūblius iam adulźscźns postquam togam virīlem sūmpsit, aliīs rźbus studźre incźpit et praesertim ūsū[1] armōrum sź[2] dīligenter exercuit. Magis magisque amāvit illās artīs quae mīlitārem animum dźlectant. Iamque erant [3]quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent. Nec sine causā, quod certź patris īsigne exemplum [4]ita multum trahźbat. [5]Paucīs ante annīs C. Iūlius Caesar, ducum Rōmānōrum maximus, cōnsul creātus erat et hōc tempore in Galliā bellum grave gerźbat. Atque in exercitū eius plūrźs adulźscentźs mīlitābant, apud quōs erat amīcus quīdam Pūblī. Ille Pūblium crźbrīs litterīs vehementer hortābātur [6]ut iter in Galliam faceret. Neque Pūblius recūsāvit, et, multīs amīcīs ad portam urbis prōsequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est. Quārtō diź postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpīs, montīs altissimōs, pervźnit. Hīs summā difficultāte superātīs, tandem Gallōrum in fīnibus erat. Prīmō autem veritus est ut[7] castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset, quod Gallī, maximīs cōpiīs coāctīs, Rōmānōs obsidźbant et viās omnīs iam clauserant. Hīs rźbus commōtus Pūblius vestem Gallicam induit nź ā Gallīs caperźtur, et ita per hostium cōpiās incolumis ad castra pervenīre potuit. Intrā mūnītiōnes acceptus, ā Caesare benignź exceptus est. Imperātor fortem adulźscentem amplissimīs verbīs laudāvit et eum [8]tribūnum mīlītum creāvit. [Footnote 1: Abl. of means.] [Footnote 2: «sź», reflexive object of «exercuit».] [Footnote 3: «quī ... praedīcerent», §501.45.] [Footnote 4: «ita multum trahźbat», _had a great influence in that direction_.] [Footnote 5: «Paucīs ante annīs», _a few years before_; in Latin, _before by a few years_, «ante» being an adverb and «annīs» abl. of degree of difference.] [Footnote 6: «ut ... faceret», §501.41.] [Footnote 7: «ut», how translated here? See §501.42.] [Footnote 8: The _military tribune_ was a commissioned officer nearly corresponding to our rank of colonel. The tribunes were often inexperienced men, so Cęsar did not allow them much responsibility.] [Illustration: IMPEDIMENTA] HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED Exercitus quī in hostium fīnibus bellum genit multīs perīcuīs circumdatus est. [1]Quae perīcula ut vītāret, Rōmāni summam cūram adhībźre solźbant. Adpropinquanteźs cōpiīs hostium agmen ita dispōnźbant [2]ut imperātor ipse cum plāribus legiōnibus expedītīs[3] prīmum agmen dūceret. Post eās cōpiās impedīmenta[4] tōtīus exercitūs conlocābant. [5]Tum legiōnźs quae proximź cōnscrīptae erant tōtum agmen claudźbant. Equitźs quoque in omnīs partīs dīmittźbantur quī loca explōrārent; et centuriōnźs praemittźbantur ut locum castrīs idōneum dźligerent. Locus habźbatur idōneus castrīs [6]quī facile dźfendī posset et prope aquam esset. Quā dź causā castra[7] in colle ab utrāque parte arduō, ā fronte lźniter dźclīvī saepe pōnźbantur; vel locus palūdibus cīnctus vel in flūminis rīpīs situs dźligźbātur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervźnit, aliī mīlitum [8]in armīs erant, aliī castra mūnīre incipiźbant. Nam [9]quō tūtiōrźs ab hostibus mīlitźs essent, nźve incautī et imparātī opprimerentur, castra fossā lātā et vāllō altō mūniźbant. In castrīs portae quattuor erant ut źruptiō mīlitum omnīs in partīs fierī posset. In angulīs castrōrum erant turrźs dź quibus tźla in hostīs coniciźbantur. [10]Tālibus in castrīs quālia dźscrīpsimus Pūblius ā Caesare exceptus est. [Footnote 1: «Quae perīcula», object of «vītārent». It is placed first to make a proper connection with the preceding sentence.] [Footnote 2: «ut ... dūceret», §501.43.] [Footnote 3: «expedītīs», i.e. without baggage and ready for action.] [Footnote 4: «impedīmenta». Much of the baggage was carried in carts and on beasts of burden, as is shown above; but, besides this, each soldier (unless «expedītus») carried a heavy pack. See also picture, p. 159.] [Footnote 5: The newest legions were placed in the rear, because they were the least reliable.] [Footnote 6: «quī ... posset ... esset», §501.45.] [Footnote 7: «castra», subject of «pōnźbantur».] [Footnote 8: «in armīs erant», _stood under arms_.] [Footnote 9: «quō ... essent». When is «quō» used to introduce a purpose clause? See §350.I.] [Footnote 10: «Tālibus in castrīs quālia», _in such a camp as_. It is important to remember the correlatives «tālis ... quālis», _such ... as_.] [Illustration: CENTURIO] LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnźs,[1] fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorźnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte[2] cźdere volźbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfźnsum certāmen gerźbātur. Tum dźmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō[3] factus est. Diź tertiō postquam Pūblius pervźnit, hostźs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fźcźrunt. Tum Pullō, [4]cum Rōmānī tardiōrźs[5] vidźrentur, "Cūr dubitās," inquit, "Vorźne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diźs dź virtūte nostrā iūdicābit." Haec[6] cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnźs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima [7]vidźbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorźnus quidem tum vāllō[8] sźsź continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostźs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnźs tźla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tźlum in balteō dźfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium źdūcere cōnantis[9] morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostźs circumsistunt. Tum vźro [10]eī labōrantī Vorźnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim [11]ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sź convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorźnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius[12] īnfźlīx, [13]pede sź fallente, concidit. Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumźs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnźs sź recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec de eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit. [Footnote 1: A centurion commanded a company of about sixty men. He was a common soldier who had been promoted from the ranks for his courage and fighting qualities. The centurions were the real leaders of the men in battle. There were sixty of them in a legion. The centurion in the picture (p. 216) has in his hand a staff with a crook at one end, the symbol of his authority.] [Footnote 2: «virtūte», §501.30.] [Footnote 3: Abl. of manner.] [Footnote 4: «cum ... vidźrentur», §501.46.] [Footnote 5: «tardiōrźs», _too slow_, a not infrequent translation of the comparative degree.] [Footnote 6: «Haec», obj. of «dīxisset». It is placed before «cum» to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. What is the construction of «dīxisset»?] [Footnote 7: «vidźbatur, inrūpit». Why is the imperfect used in one case and the perfect in the other? Cf. §190.] [Footnote 8: «vāllō», abl. of means, but in English we should say _within the rampart_. Cf. «ingentī stabulō», p. 201, l. 13, and note.] [Footnote 9: «cōnantis», pres. part. agreeing with «eius».] [Footnote 10: «eī labōrantī», indir. obj. of dat.] [Footnote 11: «ā Pullōne», _from Pullo_, abl. of separation.] [Footnote 12: «cupidius», _too eagerly_.] [Footnote 13: «pede sź fallente», lit. _the foot deceiving itself_; in our idiom, _his foot slipping_.] LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED Cum iam sex hōrās pugnatum esset[1] ac nōn sōlum vīrźs sed etiam tźla Rōmānōs dźficerent[1], atque hostźs ācrius instārent,[1] et vāllum scindere fossamque complźre incźpissent,[1] Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,[2] et, signō datō, ex castrīs źrumperent.[2] [3]Quod iussī sunt faciunt, et subitō ex omnibus portīs źrumpunt. Atque tam celeriter mīlitźs concurrźrunt et tam propinquī erant hostźs[4] ut spatium pīla coniciendī[5] nōn darźtur. Itaque reiectīs pīlīs [6]comminus gladiīs pugnātum est. Diū et audācter hostźs restitźrunt et in extrźmā spź salūtis tantam virtūtem praestitźrunt ut ā dextrō cornū vehementer [7]multitūdine suōrum aciem Rōmanam premerent. [8]Id imperātor cum animadvertisset, Pūblium adulźscentem cum equitātū mīsit quī labōrantibus[9] auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinźre nōn potuźrunt hostźs[10] et omnźs terga vertźrunt. Eōs in fugam datōs Pūblius subsecūtus est ūsque ad flūmen Rhźnum, quod ab eō locō quīnque mīlia passuum aberat. Ibi paucī salūtem sibi repperźrunt. Omnibus reliquīs interfectīs, Pūblius et equitźs in castra sźsź recźpźrunt. Dź hāc calamitāte fīnitimae gentźs cum certiōrźs factae essent, ad Caesarem lźgātōs mīsźrunt et sź suaque omnia dźdidźrunt. [Footnote 1: «pugnātum esset, dźficerent, īnstārent, incźpissent». These are all subjunctives with «cum». Cf. §501.46.] [Footnote 2: «intermitterent, źrumperent». What use of the subjunctive?] [Footnote 3: «Quod», etc., _they do as ordered_. The antecedent of «quod» is «id» understood, which would be the object of «faciunt».] [Footnote 4: «ut ... darźtur». Is this a clause of purpose or of result?] [Footnote 5: «coniciendī», §402.] [Footnote 6: «comminus gladiīs pugnātum est», _a hand-to-hand conflict was waged with swords_.] [Footnote 7: «multitūdine suōrum», _by their numbers_. «suōrum» is used as a noun. What is the literal translation of this expression?] [Footnote 8: «Id imperātor. Id» is the obj. and «imperātor» the subj. of «animadvertisset».] [Footnote 9: «labōrantibus». This participle agrees with «iīs» understood, the indir. obj. of «daret; qui ... daret» is a purpose clause, §501.40.] [Footnote 10: «hostźs», subj. of «potuźrunt».] LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY · ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS Initā aestāte Caesar litterīs certior fīźbat et per explōrātōrźs cognōscźbat plūrīs cīvitātźs Galliae novīs rźbus studźre,[1] et contrā populum Rōmānum coniūrāre[1] obsidźsque [2]inter sź dare,[1] atque cum hīs Germānōs quōsdam quoque sźsź coniūnctūrōs esse.[1] Hīs litterīs nūntiīsque commōtus Caesar cōnstituit quam celerrimź in Gallōs proficīscī,[3] ut eōs inopīnantīs opprimeret, et Labiźnum lźgātum cum duābus legiōnibus peditum et duōbus mīlibus equitum in Germānōs mittere.[3] [4]Itaque rź frūmentāriā comparātā castra mōvit. Ab utrōque[5] rźs bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fīnīs pervźnit ut spatium [6]cōpiās cōgendī nōn darźtur[4]; et Labiźnus dź Germānīs tam grave supplicium sūmpsit ut nźmō ex eā gente in reliquum tempus Gallīs auxilium dare audźret.[7] Hoc iter in Germāniam Pūblius quoque fźcit et, [8]cum ibi morārźtur, multa mīrābilia vīdit. Praesertim vźrō ingentem silvam mīrābātur, quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcźbātur [9]ut nźmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam scīret aut initium aut fīnem. Quā dź rź plūra cognōverat ā mīlite quōdam quī ōlim captus ā Germānīs multōs annōs ibi incoluit. Ille[10] dź silvā dīcźns, "Īnfīnītae magnitūdinis est haec silva," inquit; "nee quisquam est [11]huius Germāniae [12]quī initium eius sciat aut ad fīnem adierit. Nāscuntur illīc multa tālia animālium genera quālia reliquīs in locīs nōn inveniuntur. Sunt bovźs quī ūnum[13] cornū habent; sunt etiam animālia quae appellantur alcźs. Hae nūllōs crūrum[14] articulōs habent. Itaque, sī forte concidźrunt, sźsź źrigere nūllō modō possunt. Arborźs habent prō[15] cubīlibus; ad eās sź applicant atque ita reclīnātae quiźtem capiunt. Tertium est genus eōrum quī ūrī appellantur. Hī sunt paulō minōrźs elephantīs.[16] Magna vis eōrum est et magna vźlōcitās. Neque hominī neque ferae parcunt.[17]" [Footnote 1: Observe that all these infinitives are in indirect statements after «certior fīźbat», _he was informed_, and «cognōscźbat», _he learned_. Cf. §501.48, 49.] [Footnote 2: «inter sź», _to each other_.] [Footnote 3: «proficīscī, mittere». These infinitives depend upon «cōnstituit».] [Footnote 4: Before beginning a campaign, food had to be provided. Every fifteen days grain was distributed. Each soldier received about two pecks. This he carried in his pack, and this constituted his food, varied occasionally by what he could find by foraging.] [Footnote 5: Abl. of personal agent, §501.33.] [Footnote 6: «cōpiās cōgendī», §501.37.1.] [Footnote 7: «darźtur, audźret», §501.43. «audźret» is not from «audiō».] [Footnote 8: «cum ... morārźtur», §501.46.] [Footnote 9: «ut ... posset, ... scīret», §501.43.] [Footnote 10: «Ille», subj. of «inquit».] [Footnote 11: «huius Germāniae», _of this part of Germany_.] [Footnote 12: «quī ... scīat ... adierit», §501.45.] [Footnote 13: «ūnum», _only one_.] [Footnote 14: «crūrum», from «crūs».] [Footnote 15: «prō», _for, in place of_.] [Footnote 16: «elephantīs», §501.34.] [Footnote 17: «parcunt». What case is used with this verb?] [Illustration: VINEA] LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY Pūblius plūrīs diźs in Germāniā morātus[1] in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra sź contulit. Ille quia molestź ferźbat Gallōs[2] eius regiōnis obsidźs dare recūsāvisse et exercituī frūmentum praebźre nōluisse, cōnstituit eīs[3] bellum īnferre. Agrīs vāstātīs, vīcīs incźnsīs, pervźnit ad oppidum validissimum quod et nātūrā et arte mūnītum erat. Cingźbātur mūrō vīgintī quīnque pedźs[4] altō. Ā lateribus duōsitum, praeruptō fastīgiō ad plānitiem vergźgat; ā quārtō tantum[5] latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnāre, [6]cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cōnstituit Caesar. Et castrīs mūnītīs Pūbliō negōtium dedit ut rźs [7]ad oppugnandum necessāriās parāret. Rōmānōrum autem oppugnātiō est haec.[8] Prīmum turrźs aedificantur quibus mīlitźs in summum mūrum źvādere possint[9]; vīneae[10] fīunt quibus tźctī mīlitźs ad mūrum succźdant; pluteī[11] parantur post quōs mīlitźs tormenta[12] administrent; sunt quoque arietźs quī mūrum et portās discutiant. Hīs omnibus rźbus comparātīs, deinde [13]agger ab eā parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vīneīs ad ipsum oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere prōmovźtur; arietibus quī sub vīneīs conlocātī erant mūrus et portae discutiuntur; ballistīs, catapultīs, reliquīsque tormentīs lapidźs et tźla in oppidum coniciuntur. Postrźmō cum iam turris et agger altitūdinem mūrī adaequant et arietźs moenia perfrźgźrunt,[14] signō datō mīlitźs inruunt et oppidum expugnant. [Footnote 1: «morātus». Is this part. active or passive in meaning?] [Footnote 2: «Gallōs», subj. acc. of the infins. «recūsāvisse» and «nōluisse». The indirect statement depends upon «molestź ferźbat».] [Footnote 3: «eīs», §501.15.] [Footnote 4: «pedźs», §501.21.] [Footnote 5: «tantum», adv. _only_.] [Footnote 6: «cum ... esset», a clause of concession, §501.46.] [Footnote 7: «ad oppugnandum», a gerund expressing purpose.] [Footnote 8: «haec», _as follows_.] [Footnote 9: «possint», subjv. of purpose. Three similar constructions follow.] [Footnote 10: «vīneae». These «vīneae» were wooden sheds, open in front and rear, used to protect men who were working to take a fortification. They were about eight feet high, of like width, and double that length, covered with raw hides to protect them from being set on fire, and moved on wheels or rollers.] [Footnote 11: «pluteī», large screens or shields with small wheels attached to them. These were used to protect besiegers while moving up to a city or while serving the engines of war.] [Footnote 12: «tormenta». The engines of war were chiefly the catapult for shooting great arrows, and the ballista, for hurling large stones. They had a range of about two thousand feet and were very effective.] [Footnote 13: The «agger», or mound, was of chief importance in a siege. It was begun just out of reach of the missiles of the enemy, and then gradually extended towards the point to be attacked. At the same time its height gradually increased until on a level with the top of the wall, or even higher. It was made of earth and timber, and had covered galleries running through it for the use of the besiegers. Over or beside the _agger_ a tower was moved up to the wall, often with a battering-ram (_aries_) in the lowest story. (See picture, p. 221.)] [Footnote 14: «perfrźgźrunt», from «perfringō».] [Illustration: BALLISTA] [Illustration: TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA] LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN · THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED Omnibus rźbus necessāriīs ad oppugnandum ā Pūbliō comparātīs, dźlīberātur in conciliō quod cōnsilium [1]oppidī expugnandī ineant.[2] Tum ūnus[3] ex centuriōnibus, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, "Ego suādeō," inquit, "ut ab eā parte, ubi aditus sit[5] facillimus, aggerem exstruāmus[4] et turrim prōmoveāmus[6] atque ariete admōtō simul mūrum discutere cōnźmur.[5]" [6]Hoc cōnsilium cum omnibus placźret, Caesar concilium dīmīsit. Deinde mīlitźs hortātus ut priōrźs victōriās memoriā[7] tenźrent, iussit aggerem exstruī, turrim et arietem admovźrī. Neque oppidānīs[8] cōnsilium dźfuit. Aliī ignem et omne genus tźlōrum dź mūrō in turrim coniźcźrunt, aliī ingentia saxa in vīneās et arietem dźvolvźrunt. Diū utrimque ācerrimź pugnātum est. Nź vulnerātī quidem pedem rettulźrunt. Tandem, [9]dź tertiā vigiliā, Pūblius, quem Caesar illī operī[10] praefźcerat, nūntiāvit partem[11] mūrī ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quā rź audītā Caesar signum dat; mīlitźs inruunt et magnā cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt. Postrīdiź eius diźī, hōc oppidō expugnātō, [12]captīvōrum quī nōbilissimī sunt ad imperātōrem ante praetōrium[13] addūcuntur. Ipse, lōrīcā aurātā et paludāmentō purpureō īnsignis, captīvōs per interpretem in hunc modum interrogat:[14] Vōs quī estis[15]? INTERPRES. Rogat imperātor quī sītis. CAPTĪVĪ. Fīliī rźgis sumus. INTERPRES. Dīcunt sź fīliōs esse rźgis. IMPERĀTOR. Cūr mihi tantās iniūriās intulistis? INTERPRES. Rogat cūr sibi tantās iniūriās intuleritis. CAPTĪVĪ. Iniūriās eī nōn intulimus sed prō patriā bellum gessimus. Semper voluimus Rōmānīs esse amīcī, sed Rōmānī sine causā nōs domō patriāque expellere cōnātī sunt. INTERPRES. [16]Negant sź iniūriās tibi intulisse, sed prō patriā bellum gessisse. [17]Semper sź voluisse amīcōs Rōmānīs esse, sed Rōmānōs sine causā sź domō patriāque expellere cōnātōs esse. IMPERĀTOR. [18]Manźbitisne in reliquum tempus in fidź, hāc rebelliōne condōnātā? Tum vźrō captīvī multīs cum lacrimīs iūrāvźrunt sź in fidź mānsūrōs esse, et Caesar eōs incolumīs domum dīmīsit. [Footnote 1: «oppidī expugnandī». Is this a gerund or a gerundive construction? Cf. §501.37.] [Footnote 2: «ineant». §501.50.] [Footnote 3: «ūnus». subj. of «inquit».] [Footnote 4: «sit». This is a so-called subjunctive by attraction, which means that the clause beginning with «ubi» stands in such close connection with the subjv. clause beginning with «ut», that its verb is attracted into the same mood.] [Footnote 5: All these verbs are in the same construction.] [Footnote 6: «Hoc cōnsilium», subj. of «placźret». For the order cf. «Haec cum», etc., p. 215, l. 22, and note; «Id imperātor cum», p. 217, l. 8.] [Footnote 7: «memoriā», abl. of means.] [Footnote 8: «oppidānīs», §501.15.] [Footnote 9: Between twelve and three o'clock in the morning. The night was divided into four watches.] [Footnote 10: «operī», §501.15.] [Footnote 11: «partem», subj. acc. of «concidisse».] [Footnote 12: «captīvōrum ... sunt», _the noblest of the captives_.] [Footnote 13: The general's headquarters.] [Footnote 14: Study carefully these direct questions, indirect questions, and indirect statements.] [Footnote 15: See Plate III, p. 148.] [Footnote 16: «Negant», etc., _they say that they have not_, etc. «Negant» is equivalent to «dīcunt nōn», and the negative modifies «intulisse», but not the remainder of the indirect statement.] [Footnote 17: «Semper», etc., _that they have always_, etc.] [Footnote 18: «Manźbitisne in fidź», _will you remain loyal?_] LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CĘSAR AND POMPEY THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA Nź cōnfectō[1] quidem bellō Gallicō, [2]bellum cīvīle inter Caesarem et Pompźium exortum est. Nam Pompźius, quī summum imperium petźbat, senātuī persuāserat ut Caesarem reī pūblicae hostem[3] iūdicāret et exercitum eius dīmittī iubźret. Quibus cognitīs rźbus Caesar exercitum suum dīmittere recūsāvit, atque, hortātus mīlitźs ut ducem totiźns victōrem ab inimīcōrum iniūriīs dźfenderent, imperāvit ut sź Rōmam sequerentur. Summā cum alacritāte mīlitźs pāruźrunt, et trānsitō Rubicōne[4] initium bellī cīvīlis factum est. Italiae urbźs quidem omnźs ferź [5]rźbus Caesaris favźbant et eum benignź excźpźrunt. Quā rź commōtus Pompźius ante Caesaris adventum Rōmā excessit et Brundisium[6] pervźnit, inde [7]paucīs post diźbus cum omnibus cōpiīs ad Źpīrum mare trānsiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legiōnibus et quīngentīs equitibus secūtus est, et īnsignis inter Caesaris comitātum erat Pūblius. Plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, tandem cōpiae adversae ad Pharsālum[8] in Thessaliā sitam castra posuźrunt. Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī quī veterānās legiōnźs quae Gallōs et Germānōs superāverant vehementer timźbant. Quōs[9] [10]ante proelium commissum Labiźnus[11] lźgātus, quī ab Caesare nūper dźfźcerat, ita adlocūtus est: "[12]Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum. Omnibus interfuī proeliīs[13] neque temerź incognitam rem prōnūntiō. Perexigua pars illīus exercitūs quī Gallōs superāvit adhūc superest. Magna pars occīsa est, multī domum discessźrunt, multī sunt relictī in Italiā. Hae cōpiae quās vidźtis in [14]citeriōre Galliā nūper cōnscrīptae sunt." Haec[15] cum dīxisset, iūrāvit sź nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum esse. [16]Hoc idem Pompźius et omnźs reliquī iūrāvźrunt, et magnā spź et laetitiā, sīcut certam ad victōriam, cōpiae ź castrīs exiźrunt. Item Caesar, animō[17] ad dīmicandum parātus, exercitum suum źdūxit et septem cohortibus [18]praesidiō castrīs relictīs cōpiās triplicī aciź īnstrūxit. Tum, mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus, tubā signum dedit. Mīlitźs prōcurrźrunt et pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxźrunt. Neque vźrō virtūs hostibus dźfuit. Nam et tźla missa sustinuźrunt et impetum gladiōrum excźpźrunt et ōrdinźs cōnservāvźrunt. Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitźs Pompźī aciem Caesaris circumīre cōnātī sunt. Quod[19] ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem,[20] quae ad id tempus quiźta fuerat, prōcurrere iussit. Tum vźrō integrōrum impetum[21] dźfessī hostźs sustinźre nōn potuźrunt et omnźs terga vertźrunt. Sed Pompźius dź fortūnīs suīs dźspźrāns sź in castra equō contulit, inde mox cum paucīs equitibus effūgit. [Footnote 1: With «nź ... quidem» the emphatic word stands between the two.] [Footnote 2: The Civil War was caused by the jealousy and rivalry between Cęsar and Pompey. It resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Pompey and the elevation of Cęsar to the lordship of the Roman world.] [Footnote 3: «hostem», predicate accusative, §501.22.] [Footnote 4: The Rubicon was a small stream in northern Italy that marked the boundary of Cęsar's province. By crossing it with an armed force Cęsar declared war upon Pompey and the existing government. Cęsar crossed the Rubicon early in the year 49 B.C.] [Footnote 5: «rźbus Caesaris favźbant», _favored Cęsar's side_. In what case is «rźbus»?] [Footnote 6: «Brundisium», a famous port in southern Italy whence ships sailed for Greece and the East. See map.] [Footnote 7: «paucīs post diźbus», _a few days later_; literally, _afterguards by a few days_. Cf. «paucīs ante annīs», p. 213, l. 12, and note.] [Footnote 8: The battle of Pharsalia was fought on August 9, 48 B.C. In importance it ranks as one of the great battles of the world.] [Footnote 9: «Quōs», obj. of «adlocūtus est».] [Footnote 10: «ante proelium commissum», _before the beginning of the battle_.] [Footnote 11: «Labiźnus», Cęsar's most faithful and skillful lieutenant in the Gallic War. On the outbreak of the Civil War, in 49 B.C., he deserted Cęsar and joined Pompey. His defection caused the greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but he disappointed the expectations of his new friends, and never accomplished anything of importance. He fought against his old commander in several battles and was slain at the battle of Munda in Spain, 45 B.C.] [Footnote 12: «Nōlīte exīstimāre», _don“t think_.] [Footnote 13: «proeliīs», §501.15.] [Footnote 14: «citeriōre Galliā». This name is applied to Cisalpine Gaul, or Gaul south of the Alps.] [Footnote 15: «Haec», obj. of «dīxisset».] [Footnote 16: «Hoc idem», obj. of «iūrāvźrunt».] [Footnote 17: «animō», §501.30.] [Footnote 18: «praesidiō castrīs», §501.17.] [Footnote 19: «Quod», obj. of «animadvertit».] [Footnote 20: «aciem», subj. of «prōcurrere».] [Footnote 21: «impetum», obj. of «sustinźre».] [Illustration: SIGNIFER] LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR Pompźiō amīcīsque eius superātīs atque omnibus hostibus ubīque victīs, Caesar imperātor Rōmam rediit et [1]extrā moenia urbis in campō Mārtiō castra posuit. Tum vźrō amplissimīs honōribus adfectus est. Dictātor creātus est, et eī triumphus ā senātū est dźcrźtus. [2]Quō diź de Gallīs triumphum źgit, tanta multitūdō hominum in urbem undique cōnflūxit [3]ut omnia loca essent cōnferta. Templa patźbant, ārae fūmābant, columnae sertīs ōrnātae erant. [4]Cum vźrō pompa urbem intrāret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! Prīmum per portam ingressī sunt senātus et magistrātūs. Secūtī sunt tībīcinźs, signiferī, peditźs laureā corōnātī canentźs: "Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, quī subźgit Galliam," et "Mīlle, mīlle, mīlle, mīlle Gallōs trucīdāvimus." Multī praedam captārum urbium portābant, arma, omnia bellī īnstrūmenta. Secūtī sunt equitźs, animōsīs atque splendidissimź ōrnātīs equīs vectī, inter quōs Pūblius adulźscźns fortissimus habźbātur. Addūcźbantur taurī, arietźs, [5]quī dīs immortālibus immolārentur. Ita longō agmine prōgrediźns exercitus [6]sacrā viā per forum in Capitōlium perrźxit. Imperātor ipse cum urbem intrāret, undique laetō clāmōre multitūdinis salūtātus est. Stābat in currū aureō quem quattuor albī equī vehźbant. Indūtus [7]togā pictā, alterā manū habźnās et lauream tenźbat, alterā eburneum scźptrum. Post eum servus in currū stāns auream corōnam super caput eius tenźbat. Ante currum miserrimī captīvī, rźgźs prīncipźsque superātārum gentium, catźnīs vīnctī, prōgrediźbantur; et vīgintī quattuor līctōrźs[8] laureatās fascīs ferentźs et signiferī currum Caesaris comitābantur. Conclūdit agmen multitūdō captīvōrum, quī, in servitūtem redāctī,[9] dźmissō vultū, vīnctīs[10] bracchiīs, sequuntur; quibuscum veniunt longissimō ōrdine mīlitźs, etiam hī praedam vel insignia mīlitāria ferentźs. [Illustration: LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS] Caesar cum Capitōlium ascendisset, in templō Iovī Capitōlīnō sacra fźcit. Simul[11] captivōrum quī nōbilissimī erant, abductī in carcerem,[12] interfectī sunt. Sacrīs factīs Caesar dź Capitōliō dźscendit et in forō mīitibus suīs honōrźs mīlitārīs dedit eīsque pecūniam ex bellī praedā distribuit. Hīs omnibus rźbus cōnfectīs, Pūblius Caesarem valźre[13] iussit et quam celerrimź ad vīllam contendit ut patrem mātremque salūtāret. [14]Dź rźbus gestīs P. Cornźlī Lentulī hāctenus. [Footnote 1: A victorious general with his army was not allowed to enter the city until the day of his triumph. A triumph was the greatest of all military honors.] [Footnote 2: «Quō diź», _on the day that_, abl. of time.] [Footnote 3: «ut ... essent», §501.43.] [Footnote 4: «Cum ... intrāret», §501.46.] [Footnote 5: «quī ... immolārentur», §501.40.] [Footnote 6: The Sacred Way was a noted street running along one side of the Forum to the base of the Capitoline Hill, on whose summit stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This route was always followed by triumphal processions.] [Footnote 7: The «toga picta» worn by a general in his triumph was a splendid robe of Tyrian purple covered with golden stars. See Plate IV, p. 213.] [Footnote 8: The lictors were a guard of honor that attended the higher magistrates and made a way for them through the streets. On their shoulders they carried the _fasces_, a bundle of rods with an ax in the middle, symbolizing the power of the law.] [Footnote 9: «dźmissō vultū», _with downcast countenance_.] [Footnote 10: «vīnctīs», from «vinciō».] [Footnote 11: «Simul», etc., _At the same time those of the captives who were the noblest._] [Footnote 12: The prison was a gloomy dungeon on the lower slopes of the Capitoline Hill.] [Footnote 13: «valźre iussit», _bade farewell to_.] [Footnote 14: This sentence marks the end of the story.] APPENDIX I DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. NOUNS «460.» Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive singular. FIRST DECLENSION--«Ā-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ae» SECOND DECLENSION--«O-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ī» THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant stems and «I-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-is» FOURTH DECLENSION--«U-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ūs» FIFTH DECLENSION--«Ź-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-źī» or «-eī» «461.» FIRST DECLENSION. _Ā_-STEMS «domina», _lady_ STEM «dominā-» BASE «domin-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ domina -a dominae -ae _Gen._ dominae -ae dominārum -ārum _Dat._ dominae -ae dominīs -īs _Acc._ dominam -am dominās -ās _Abl._ dominā -ā dominīs -īs _a._ «Dea» and «fīlia» have the termination «-ābus» in the dative and ablative plural. «462.» SECOND DECLENSION. _O_-STEMS _a._ MASCULINES IN -us «dominus», _master_ STEM «domino-» BASE «domin-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ dominus -us dominī -ī _Gen._ dominī -ī dominōrum -ōrum _Dat._ dominō -ō dominīs -īs _Acc._ dominum -um dominōs -ōs _Abl._ dominō -ō dominīs -īs 1. Nouns in «-us» of the second declension have the termination «-e» in the vocative singular, as «domine». 2. Proper names in «-ius», and «filius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as «Vergi“lī, fīlī». _b._ NEUTERS IN -um «pīlum», _spear_ STEM «pīlo-» BASE «pīl-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ pīlum -um pīla -a _Gen._ pīlī -ī pīlōrum -ōrum _Dat._ pīlō -ō pīlīs -īs _Acc._ pīlum -um pīla -a _Abl._ pīlō -ō pīlīs -īs 1. Masculines in «-ius» and neuters in «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult. _c._ MASCULINES IN -er AND -ir «puer», _boy_ «ager», _field_ «vir», _man_ STEMS «puero-» «agro-» «viro-» BASES «puer-» «agr-» «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir -- _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō PLURAL _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs «463.» THIRD DECLENSION. CLASSIFICATION I. Consonant Stems 1. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only. 2. Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular: _a._ masculines and feminines; _b._ neuters. II. _I_-Stems. Masculines, feminines, and neuters. «464.» I. CONSONANT STEMS 1. _Nouns that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only_ «prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., m., _chief_ _soldier_ _stone_ BASES | OR | «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ prīnceps mīles lapis -s _Gen._ prīncipis mīlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prīncipī mīlitī lapidī -ī _Acc._ prīncipem mīlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prīncipe mīlite lapide -e PLURAL _Nom._ prīncipźs mīlitźs lapidźs -źs _Gen._ prīncipum mīlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prīncipibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prīncipźs mīlitźs lapidźs -źs _Abl._ prīncipibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus «rźx», m., «iūdex», m., «virtūs», f., _king_ _judge_ _virtue_ BASES | OR | «rźg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ rźx iūdex virtūs -s _Gen._ rźgis iūdicis virtūtis -is _Dat._ rźgī iūdicī virtūtī -ī _Acc._ rźgem iūdicem virtūtem -em _Abl._ rźge iūdice virtūte -e PLURAL _Nom._ rźgźs iūdicźs virtūtźs -źs _Gen._ rźgum iūdicum virtūtum -um _Dat._ rźgibus iūdicibus virtūtibus -ibus _Acc._ rźgźs iūdicźs virtūtźs -es _Abl._ rźgibus iūdicibus virtūtibus -ibus NOTE. For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §233.3. 2. _Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular_ _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES «cōnsul», m., «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES | OR | «consul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- _Gen._ cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī _Acc._ cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e PLURAL _Nom._ cōnsulźs legiōnźs ōrdinźs patrźs -źs _Gen._ cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cōnsulźs legiōnźs ōrdinźs patrźs -źs _Abl._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §236.1-3. _b._ NEUTERS «flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES | OR | «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flūminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flūminī temporī operī capitī -ī _Acc._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flūmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL _Nom._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flūminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §238.2, 3. «465.» II. _I_-STEMS _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES «caedźs», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliźns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ caedźs hostis urbs cliźns -s, -is, _or_ -źs _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī) PLURAL _Nom._ caedźs hostźs urbźs clientźs -źs _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedīs, -źs hostīs, -źs urbīs, -źs clientīs, -źs -īs, -źs _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus 1. «Avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis», have the abl. sing. in «-ī» or «-e». 2. «Turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre». _b._ NEUTERS «īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ īnsignis animālis calcāris -is _Dat._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī _Acc._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī PLURAL _Nom._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Gen._ īnsignium animālium calcārium -ium _Dat._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus _Acc._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Abl._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus «466.» THE FOURTH DECLENSION. _U_-STEMS «adventus», m., «cornū», n., _horn_ _arrival_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-» TERMINATIONS SINGULAR MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornū -us -ū _Gen._ adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs _Dat._ adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū _Acc._ adventum cornū -um -ū _Abl._ adventū cornū -ū -ū PLURAL _Nom._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus «467.» THE FIFTH DECLENSION. _Ź_-STEMS «diźs», m., _day_ «rźs», f., _thing_ STEMS «diź-» «rź-» BASES «di-» «r-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diźs rźs -źs _Gen._ diźī reī -źī _or_ -eī _Dat._ diźī reī -źī _or_ -eī _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diź rź -ź PLURAL _Nom._ diźs rźs -źs _Gen._ diźrum rźrum -źrum _Dat._ diźbus rźbus -źbus _Acc._ diźs rźs -źs _Abl._ diźbus rźbus -źbus «468.» SPECIAL PARADIGMS «deus», «domus», f., «vīs», f., «iter», m., _god_ _house_ _strength_ n., _way_ STEMS «deo-» «domu-» «vī-» and «iter-» and «vīri-» «itiner-» BASES «de-» «dom-» «v-» and «iter-» and «vīr-» «itiner-» SINGULAR _Nom._ deus domus vīs iter _Gen._ deī domūs vīs (rare) itineris _Dat._ deō domuī, -ō vī (rare) itinerī _Acc._ deum domum vim iter _Abl._ deō domō, -ū vī itinere PLURAL _Nom._ deī, dī domūs vīrźs itinera _Gen._ deōrum, deum domuum, -ōrum vīrium itinerum _Dat._ deīs, dīs domibus vīribus itineribus _Acc._ deōs domōs, -ūs vīrīs, -źs itinera _Abl._ deīs, dīs domibus vīribus itineribus _a._ The vocative singular of «deus» is like the nominative. _b._ The locative of «domus» is «domī». ADJECTIVES «469.» FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. _O_- AND _Ā_-STEMS _a._ ADJECTIVES IN -us «bonus», _good_ STEMS «bono-» m. and n., «bona-» f. BASE «bon-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō PLURAL _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _b._ ADJECTIVES IN «-er» «līber», _free_ STEMS «lībero-» m. and n., «līberā-» f. BASE «līber-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ līber lībera līberum _Gen._ līberī līberae līberī _Dat._ līberō līberae līberō _Acc._ līberum līberam līberum _Abl._ līberō līberā līberō PLURAL _Nom._ līberī līberae lībera _Gen._ līberōrum līberārum līberōrum _Dat._ līberīs līberīs līberīs _Acc._ līberōs līberās lībera _Abl._ līberīs līberīs līberīs «pulcher», _pretty_ STEMS «pulchro-» m. and n., «pulchrā-» f. BASE «pulchr-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pulcher pulchra pulchrum _Gen._ pulchrī pulchrae pulchrī _Dat._ pulchrō pulchrae pulchrō _Acc._ pulchrum pulchram pulchrum _Abl._ pulchrō pulchrā pulchrō PLURAL _Nom._ pulchrī pulchrae pulchra _Gen._ pulchrōrum pulchrārum pulchrōrum _Dat._ pulchrīs pulchrīs pulchrīs _Acc._ pulchrōs pulchrās pulchra _Abl._ pulchrīs pulchrīs pulchrīs «470.» THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «alius», _another_ STEMS «alio-» m. and n., «aliā-» f. BASE «ali-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud aliī aliae alia _Gen._ alīus alīus alīus aliōrum aliārum aliōrum _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī aliīs aliīs aliīs _Acc._ alium aliam aliud aliōs aliās alia _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō aliīs aliīs aliīs «ūnus», _one, only_ STEMS «ūno-» m. and n., «ūnā-» f. BASE «ūn-» MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ūnus ūna ūnum ūnī ūnae ūna _Gen._ ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum _Dat._ ūnī ūnī ūnī ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs _Acc._ ūnum ūnam ūnum ūnōs ūnās ūna _Abl._ ūnō ūnā ūnō ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs _a._ For the complete list see §108. «471.» ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. _I_-STEMS I. THREE ENDINGS «ācer, ācris, ācre», _keen, eager_ STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ācer ācris ācre ācrźs ācrźs ācria _Gen._ ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium _Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus _Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -źs ācrīs, -źs ācria _Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus II. TWO ENDINGS «omnis, omne», _every, all_ STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnźs omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnīs, -źs omnia _Abl._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus III. ONE ENDING «pār», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pār pār parźs paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parī parī paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pār parīs, -źs paria _Abl._ parī parī paribus paribus 1. Observe that all i-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular. [Transcriber's Note: This sentence appears to be a footnote, but there is no footnote tag on the page.] «472.» PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES «amāns», _loving_ STEM «amanti-» BASE «amant-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ amāns amāns amantźs amantia _Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium _Dat._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus _Acc._ amantem amāns amantīs, -źs amantia _Abl._ amante, -ī amante, -ī amantibus amantibus «iźns», _going_ STEM «ienti-, eunti-» BASE «ient-, eunt-» _Nom._ iźns iźns euntźs euntia _Gen._ euntis euntis euntium euntium _Dat._ euntī euntī euntibus euntibus _Acc._ euntem iźns euntīs, -źs euntia _Abl._ eunte, -ī eunte, -ī euntibus euntibus «473.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE MASC. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. altus (alto-) altior altius altissimus -a -um līber (lībero-) līberior līberius līberrimus -a -um pulcher (pulchro-) pulchrior pulchrius pulcherrimus -a -um audāx (audāci-) audācior audācius audācissimus -a -um brevis (brevi-) brevior brevius brevissimus -a -um ācer (ācri-) ācrior ācrius ācerrimus -a -um «474.» DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES «altior», _higher_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ altior altius altiōrźs altiōra _Gen._ altiōris altiōris altiōrum altiōrum _Dat._ altiōrī altiōrī altiōribus altiōribus _Acc._ altiōrem altius altiōrźs altiōra _Abl._ altiōre altiōre altiōribus altiōribus «plūs», _more_ _Nom._ ---- plūs plūrźs plūra _Gen._ ---- plūris plūrium plūrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plūribus plūribus _Acc._ ---- plūs plūrīs (-źs) plūra _Abl._ ---- plūre plūribus plūribus «475.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um, melior, melius, optimus, -a, -um, _good_ _better_ _best_ malus, -a, -um, peior, peius, pessimus, -a, -um, _bad_ _worse_ _worst_ magnus, -a, -um, maior, maius, maximus, -a, -um, _great_ _greater_ _greatest_ multus, -a, -um, ----, plūs, _more_ plūrimus, -a, -um, _much_ _most_ parvus, -a, -um, minor, minus, minimus, -a, -um,_ _small_ _smaller_ _smallest senex, senis, senior maximus nātū _old_ iuvenis, -e, iūnior minimus nātū _young_ vetus, veteris, vetustior, -ius veterrimus, -a, -um _old_ facilis, -e, facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um _easy_ difficilis, -e, difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um _difficult_ similis, -e, similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um _similar_ dissimilis, -e, dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um _dissimilar_ humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um _slender_ exterus, _outward_ exterior, extrźmus, extimus, _outer, exterior_ _outermost, last_ īnferus, _below_ īnferior, _lower_ īnfimus, īmus, _lowest_ posterus, posterior, _later_ postrźmus, postumus, _following_ _last_ superus, _above_ superior, suprźmus, summus, _higher_ _highest_ [[cis, citrā,]] citerior, _hither_ citimus, _hithermost_ [[_on this side_]] [[in, intrā,]] interior, _inner_ intimus, _inmost_ [[_in, within_]] [[prae, prō,]] prior, _former_ prīmus, _first_ [[_before_]] [[prope, _near_]] propior, _nearer_ proximus, _next_ [[ultrā, _beyond_]] ulterior, _further_ ultimus, _furthest_ «476.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE cārź (cārus), _dearly_ cārius cārissimź miserź (miser), _wretchedly_ miserius miserrimź ācriter (ācer), _sharply_ ācrius ācerrimź facile (facilis), _easily_ facilius facillimź «477.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE diū, _long, a long time_ diūtius diūtissimź bene (bonus), _well_ melius, _better_ optimź, _best_ male (malus), _ill_ peius, _worse_ pessimź, _worst_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximź, _most_ multum (multus), _much_ plūs, _more_ plūrimum, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimź, _least_ saepe, _often_ saepīus saepissimź «478.» NUMERALS The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting «ūnus», «duo», «trźs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun. The ordinals are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». CARDINALS ORDINALS (_How many_) (_In what order_) 1, ūnus, -a, -um, _one_ prīmus, -a, -um _first_ 2, duo, duae, duo _two_ secundus (_or_ alter) _second_ 3, trźs, tria _three_, tertius _third_, 4, quattuor etc. quārtus etc. 5, quīnque quīntus 6, sex sextus 7, septem septimus 8, octō octāvus 9, novem nōnus 10, decem decimus 11, ūndecim ūndecimus 12, duodecim duodecimus 13, tredecim (decem (et) trźs) tertius decimus 14, quattuordecim quārtus decimus 15, quīndecim quīntus decimus 16, sźdecim sextus decimus 17, septendecim septimus decimus 18, duodźvīgintī (octōdecim) duodźvīcźnsimus 19, ūndźvīgintī (novendecim) ūndźvīcźnsimus 20, vīgintī vīcźnsimus 21, {vīgintī ūnus _or_ {vīcźnsimus prīmus _or_ {ūnus et vīgintī, etc. {ūnus et vīcźnsimus, etc. 30, trīgintā trīcźnsimus 40, quadrāgintā quadrāgźnsimus 50, quīnquāgintā quīnquāgźnsimus 60, sexāgintā sexāgźnsimus 70, septuāgintā septuāgźnsimus 80, octōgintā octōgźnsimus 90, nōnāgintā nōnāgźnsimus 100, centum centźnsimus 101, centum (et) ūnus, etc. centźnsimus (et) prīmus, etc. 120, centum (et) vīgintī centźnsimus vīcźnsimus 121, centum (et) vīgintī ūnus, centźnsimus (et) vīcźnsimus prīmus, etc. etc. 200, ducentī, -ae, -a ducentźnsimus 300, trecentī trecentźnsimus 400, quadringentī quadringentźnsimus 500, quīngentī quīngentźnsimus 600, sescentī sescentźnsimus 700, septingentī septingentźnsimus 800, octingentī octingentźnsimus 900, nōngentī nōngentźnsimus 1000, mīlle mīllźnsimus «479.» Declension of «duo», _two_, «trźs», _three_, and «mīlle», _a thousand_. MASC. FEM. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. SING. PLUR. _N._ duo duae duo trźs trīa mīlle mīlia _G._ duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium mīlle mīlium _D._ duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus mīlle mīlibus _A._ duōs duās duo trīs tria mīlle mīlia _or_ duo duās duo _or_ trźs tria _A._ duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus mīlle mīlibus NOTE. «Mīlle» is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative singular. For the declension of «ūnus» cf. §470. PRONOUNS «480.» PERSONAL ego, _I_ tū, _you_ suī, _of himself,_ _etc._ SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. _Nom._ ego nōs tū vōs ---- ---- _Gen._ meī nostrum, -trī tuī vestrum, -trī suī suī _Dat._ mihi nōbīs tibi vōbīs sibi sibi _Acc._ mź nōs tź vōs sź, sźsź sź, sźsź _Abl._ mź nōbīs tź vōbīs sź, sźsź sź, sźsź Note that «suī» is always reflexive. «481.» DEMONSTRATIVE Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the pronominal endings «-īus» or «-ius» and «-ī» in the gen. and dat. sing. «ipse», _self_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa _Gen._ ipsī“us ipsī“us ipsī“us ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum _Dat._ ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs _Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa _Abl._ ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs «hic», _this_ (here), _he_ _Nom._ hic haec hoc hī hae haec _Gen._ huius huius huius hōrum hārum hōrum _Dat._ huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc hōs hās haec _Abl._ hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs «iste», _this, that_ (of yours), _he_ _Nom._ iste ista istud istī istae ista _Gen._ istī“us istī“us istī“us istōrum istārum istōrum _Dat._ istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs _Acc._ istum istam istud istōs istās ista _Abl._ istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs «ille», _that_ (yonder), _he_ _Nom._ ille illa illud illī illae illa _Gen._ illī“us illī“us illī“us ill