Project Gutenberg's Latin for Beginners, by Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Latin for Beginners Author: Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge Release Date: April 25, 2006 [EBook #18251] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS *** Produced by Louise Hope, Dave Maddock and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of public domain material by TextKit.com) [Transcriber’s Notes: This textbook uses many letters with macrons (straight line above vowel): ā ē ī ō ū ȳ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū If these characters do not display properly--in particular, if the macrons do not appear directly above the letters--you may have an incompatible text reader or unavailable fonts. See if you can change the “character set” or “file encoding” to Unicode (UTF-8), or try a different font. As a last resort, you may need to use one of the simplified versions of this file: Latin-1 (Windows), Mac, or ASCII-7 (“typewriter” characters only). Other combined forms occur much less often: ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ (single letter with breve) o͝o (“oo” with breve) ē̆ ī̆(letter with combined breve and macron) ā́ ī́ ṓ ắ ĕ́ ĭ́ ŏ́ ŭ́ (letters with combined breve/macron and accent, used only in Pronunciation section) Note that most accents will correctly appear _after_ a letter: īn´sula, ha´bitat, illī´us To make this unpaginated e-text easier to use, each chapter’s Special Vocabulary has been included with its chapter _in addition to_ its original location near the end of the book. The same was done with the irregular verbs. The vocabulary lists are at the beginning of each chapter, as far as possible from the Exercises. Boldface is shown by «guillemets», italics by _lines_. The variation between “æ” (English text) and “ae” (Latin text) is as in the original. Bracketed passages in the original are shown in [[double brackets]].] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * LATIN FOR BEGINNERS BY BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE, Ph.D. Professor in the Michigan State Normal College Ginn and Company Boston · New York · Chicago · London Copyright, 1909, 1911 by Benjamin L. D’Ooge Entered at Stationers’ Hall All Rights Reserved 013.4 The Athenæum Press Ginn and Company · Proprietors · Boston · U.S.A. * * * * * PREFACE To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons. The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials. Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar. Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed. It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers: The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions. The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s “Dictionary of Secondary Latin” and Browne’s “Latin Word List” as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar. The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together. Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course. Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation. Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar. The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times. A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout. As an aid to teachers using this book a “Teacher’s Manual” has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution. BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE CONTENTS Lesson Page TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction 1-4 PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT, HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11 PART II. WORDS AND FORMS I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--_Subject and Predicate, Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object, Indirect Object, etc._--DIALOGUE 12-24 VII-VIII. FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION--_Gender, Agreement of Adjectives, Word Order_ 25-30 IX-X. SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION--_Predicate Noun, Apposition_--DIALOGUE 31-35 XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 36-37 XII. NOUNS IN «-ius» AND «-ium»--GERMĀNIA 38-39 XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)--Nouns in «-er» and «-ir»--ITALIA--DIALOGUE 39-41 XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 42-43 XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--_Cause, Means, Accompaniment, Manner_--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR 44-46 XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 46-47 XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE «is, ea, id»--DIALOGUE 48-50 XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of «sum»-- DIALOGUE 51-53 XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō» 54-56 XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- _Meaning of the Imperfect_--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN 56-57 XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) 58-59 XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--_The Dative with Adjectives_-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS 59-61 XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) 61-63 XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- _The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs_ 63-65 XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō» 65-66 XXVI. VERBS IN «-iō»--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active Indicative of «capiō»--_The Imperative_ 66-68 XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative of «amō» and «moneō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA 68-71 XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 72-73 XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «-iō» VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE 73-75 XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM--_Place from Which, Separation, Personal Agent_ 75-78 XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF «sum»-- DIALOGUE 79-81 XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS--_Meanings of the Perfect_--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 81-83 XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE-- PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE 84-85 XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) 86-87 XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE 88-90 XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--_Prepositions, Yes-or-No Questions_ 90-93 XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF «possum»--_The Infinitive used as in English_--_Accusative Subject of an Infinitive_-- THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA 93-96 XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN-- _Agreement of the Relative_--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_) 97-101 XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems 101-106 XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS 107 XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--_I_-Stems 108-110 XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION-- GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE OVER THE RHINE 111-112 XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS INVADE THE ENEMY’S COUNTRY 113-115 XLVI. THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION 116-117 XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--_Place to Which, Place from Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative_-- Declension of «domus»--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS 117-121 XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR _Ē_-DECLENSION--_Ablative of Time_ --DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (_Continued_) 121-123 XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (_Concluded_) 123-126 L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN «ipse» AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE «īdem»--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE 126-127 LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES «hic», «iste», «ille»--A GERMAN CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) 128-130 LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) 130-132 LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133-135 LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--_Ablative with Comparatives_ 135-136 LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)-- Declension of «plūs» 137-138 LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)-- _Ablative of the Measure of Difference_ 138-139 LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 140-142 LVIII. NUMERALS--_Partitive Genitive_ 142-144 LIX. NUMERALS (_Continued_)--_Accusative of Extent_-- CÆSAR IN GAUL 144-146 LX. DEPONENT VERBS--_Prepositions with the Accusative_ 146-147 PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present-- _Indicative and Subjunctive Compared_ 148-152 LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153 LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Sequence of Tenses_ 153-155 LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Substantive Clauses of Purpose_ 156-159 LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF «possum»--_Verbs of Fearing_ 160-161 LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension 161-164 LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS «volō», «nōlō», «mālō»-- _Ablative Absolute_ 164-166 LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «fīō»--_Subjunctive of Result_ 167-168 LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--_Predicate Accusative_ 169-171 LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH «cum»--_Ablative of Specification_ 171-173 LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Gerund and Gerundive_-- _Predicate Genitive_ 173-177 LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «eō»--_Indirect Statements_ 177-180 LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB «ferō»-- _Dative with Compounds_ 181-183 LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Subjunctive in Indirect Questions_ 183-185 LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Dative of Purpose or End for Which_ 185-186 LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Genitive and Ablative of Quality or Description_ 186-188 LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--_Review of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative_ 189-190 LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192 LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193 READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195 THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203 P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215 APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. 226-260 APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264 APPENDIX III. REVIEWS 265-282 SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298 LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331 ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343 INDEX 344-348 LATIN FOR BEGINNERS TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION «What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters. [Footnote 1: Pronounce _Lā´shĭ-ŭm_.] «The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin. «The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets, artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art. «Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day. «Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms. «Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning. «Review Questions.» Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin? PART I THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN THE ALPHABET «1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no _w_ and no _j_. «2.» The vowels, as in English, are _a, e, i, o, u, y_. The other letters are consonants. «3.» _I_ is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called _I consonant_. Thus in Iū-li-us the first _i_ is a consonant, the second a vowel. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1] [Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.] «4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below. «5.» The vowels have the following sounds: VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES ā as in _father_ hāc, stās ă like the first _a_ in _aha´_, never as in _hat_ ă´-măt, că-nās ē as in _they_ tē´-lă, mē´-tă ĕ as in _met_ tĕ´-nĕt, mĕr´-cēs ī as in _machine_ sĕr´-tī, prā´-tī ĭ as in _bit_ sĭ´-tĭs, bĭ´-bī ō as in _holy_ Rō´-mă, ō´-rĭs ŏ as in _wholly_, never as in _hot_ mŏ´-dŏ, bŏ´-nōs ū as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_ ū´-mŏr, tū´-bĕr ŭ as in _full_, or as _oo_ in _foot_ ŭt, tū´-tŭs NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of _a_, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of _quantity_ but also of _quality_. [Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones ˘.] «6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable. DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES «ae» as _ai_ in _aisle_ tae´-dae «au» as _ou_ in _out_ gau´-dĕt «ei» as _ei_ in _eight_ dein´-dĕ «eu» as _ĕ´o͝o_ (a short _e_ followed by a short _u_ in one syllable) seu «oe» like _oi_ in _toil_ foe´-dŭs «ui» like _o͝o´ĭ_ (a short _u_ followed by a short _i_ in one syllable. Cf. English _we_) cui, huic NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English. «7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except that CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES «c» is always like _c_ in _cat_, never as in _cent_ că´-dō, cĭ´-bŭs, cē´-nă «g» is always like _g_ in _get_, never as in _gem_ gĕ´-mō, gĭg´-nō «i consonant» is always like _y_ in _yes_ iăm, iŏ´-cŭs «n» before _c, qu_, or _g_ is like _ng_ in _sing_ (compare the sound of _n_ in _anchor_) ăn´-cŏ-ră (ang´-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of _qw, gw_, and _sw_. Here _u_ has the value of consonant _v_ and is not counted a vowel ĭn´-quĭt, quī, lĭn´-guă, săn´-guĭs, suā´-dĕ-ō «s» is like _s_ in _sea_, never as in _ease_ rŏ´-să, ĭs «t» is always like _t_ in _native_, never as in _nation_ ră´-tĭ-ō, nā´-tĭ-ō «v» is like _w_ in _wine_, never as in _vine_ «vī´-nŭm», «vĭr» «x» has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and is like _x_ in _extract_, not as in _exact_ «ĕx´-trā», «ĕx-āc´-tŭs» «bs» is like _ps_ and «bt» like _pt_ «ŭrbs», «ŏb-tĭ´-nĕ-ō» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like _c_, _p_, _t_ «pŭl´-chĕr», «Phoe´-bē», «thĕ-ā´-trŭm» _a._ In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce _tt_ as in _rat-trap_, not as in _rattle_; _pp_ as in _hop-pole_, not as in _upper_. Examples, «mĭt´-tō», «Ăp´pĭ-ŭs», «bĕl´-lŭm.» SYLLABLES «8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tā´-tĕ» has three syllables, «au-dĭ-ĕn´-dŭs» has four. _a._ Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English _inside_ with Latin īn-sī´-dĕ. «9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows: 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «ă-mā´-bĭ-lĭs», «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ă», «ĭn-tĕ´-rĕ-ā», «ă´-bĕst», «pĕ-rē´-gĭt».[3] [Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eā», «ab-est», «sub-āctus», «per-ēgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.] 2. Combinations of two or more consonants: _a._ A consonant followed by _l_ or _r_ goes with the _l_ or _r_. Thus «pū´-blĭ-cŭs», «ă´-grī». EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also _ll_ and _rr_, follow rule _b_. Thus «ăb´-lŭ-ō», «ăb-rŭm´-pō», «ĭl´-lĕ», «fĕr´-rŭm». _b._ In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «măg´-nŭs», «ĕ-gĕs´-tās», «vĭc-tō´-rĭ-ă», «hŏs´-pĕs», «ăn´-nŭs», «sŭ-bāc´-tŭs». [Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fūnc-tŭs, sānc-tŭs.] 3. The last syllable of a word is called the _ul´-ti-ma_; the one next to the last, the _pe-nult´_; the one before the penult, the _an´-te-pe-nult´_. «10.» EXERCISE Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated: Vā́dĕ ăd fŏrmī́căm, Ō pĭ́gĕr, ĕt cōnsī́dĕrā vĭ́ās ĕ́iŭs ĕt dĭ́scĕ săpĭĕ́ntĭăm: quae cŭm nōn hắbĕăt dŭ́cĕm nĕc praecĕptṓrĕm nĕc prī́ncĭpĕm, pắrăt ĭn aestā́tĕ cĭ́bŭm sĭ́bĭ ĕt cŏ́ngrĕgăt ĭn mĕ́ssĕ quŏd cŏ́mĕdăt. [[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]] QUANTITY «11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity. «12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (¯) or short (˘). In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short. 1. A vowel is short before another vowel or _h_; as «pŏ-ē´-ta», «tră´-hō». 2. A vowel is short before _nt_ and _nd_, before final _m_ or _t_, and, except in words of one syllable, before final _l_ or _r_. Thus «a´-mănt», «a-măn´-dus», «a-mā´-băm», «a-mā´-băt», «a´-ni-măl», «a´-mŏr». 3. A vowel is long before _nf_, _ns_, _nx_, and _nct_. Thus «īn´-fe-rō», «re´-gēns», «sān´-xī», «sānc´-tus». 4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked. «13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels. 1. «A syllable is short», _a._ If it ends in a short vowel; as «ă´-mō», «pĭ´-grĭ». NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ăm» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant. 2. «A syllable is long», _a._ If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cū´-rō», «poe´-nae», «aes-tā´-te». _b._ If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor´-pus», «mag´-nus». NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter´-ra», «in´-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_). 3. In determining quantity _h_ is not counted a consonant. NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cŭr´-rō» as it does «cū´-rō», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mŏl´-lis» and «mō´-lis», «ā-mĭs´-sī» and «ā-mi´-sī». ACCENT «14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mēn´-sa», «Cae´-sar». «15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nē´-mus», «re´-gi-tur», «a-gri´-co-la», «a-man´-dus». NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the _syllable_ and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.) «16.» Certain little words called _enclit´ics_[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», _and_; «-ve», _or_; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus´que», «dea´que», «rēgna´ve», «audit´ne». [Footnote 5: Enclitic means _leaning back_, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.] HOW TO READ LATIN «17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word. «18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter. EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6] The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Cadēbant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vīcum Alpicum Gelū nivequ(e) adolēscēns, Vēxillum cum signō ferēns, Excelsior! His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior! Frōns trīstis, micat oculus Velut ē vāgīnā gladius; Sonantque similēs tubae Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior! In domibus videt clārās Focōrum lūcēs calidās; Relucet glaciēs ācris, Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs, Excelsior! “Try not the Pass!” the old man said; “Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!” And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior! Dīcit senex, “Nē trānseās! Suprā nigrēscit tempestās; Lātus et altus est torrēns.” Clāra vēnit vōx respondēns, Excelsior! At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior! Iam lūcēscēbat, et frātrēs Sānctī Bernardī vigilēs Ōrābant precēs solitās, Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās, Excelsior! A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Sēmi-sepultus viātor Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur, Comprēndēns pugnō gelidō Illud vēxillum cum signō, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior! Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum; Et caelō procul exiēns Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadēns, Excelsior! [Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in _Praeco Latinus_, October, 1898.] PART II WORDS AND FORMS LESSON I FIRST PRINCIPLES «19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus, _Galba is a farmer_ «Galba est agricola» _The sailor fights_ «Nauta pugnat» In each of these sentences there are two parts: SUBJECT PREDICATE _Galba_ _is a farmer_ «Galba» _The sailor_ _fights_ «Nauta» «pugnat» 2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the same purpose. _a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, “instead of,” and _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_. 3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers. _a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. «20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows: SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ _The boy_ _hit the ball_ (verb) (direct object) _a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_, _he comes_. «21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_. «22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_: 1. «America est patria mea» _America is fatherland my_ 2. «Agricola fīliam amat» _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_ 3. «Fīlia est Iūlia» _(His) daughter is Julia_ 4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā» _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_ 5. «Iūlia aquam portat» _Julia water carries_ 6. «Rosam in comīs habet» _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_ 7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra» _Julia is (a) girl pretty_ 8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet» _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_ _a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article «the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_, or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he, she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. LESSON II FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation». «24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare «Naut-a pugnat» _The sailor fights_ «Naut-ae pugnant» _The sailors fight_ «25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural_. «26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each. «agri´cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1] «aqua», _water_ (aquarium) «causa», _cause, reason_ «do´mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate) «filia», _daughter_ (filial) «fortū´na», _fortune_ «fuga», _flight_ (fugitive) «iniū´ria», _wrong, injury_ «lūna», _moon_ (lunar) «nauta», _sailor_ (nautical) «puel´la», _girl_ «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», _land_ (terrace) [Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», _cause_, no comparison is needed.] «27.» Compare again the sentences «Nauta pugna-t» _The sailor fights_ «Nautae pugna-nt» _The sailors fight_ In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural. «28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._ «29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings»._ «30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_. «ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable) «labō´ra-t» “ “ “ _labors, is laboring, does labor_ «nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ _announces, is announcing, does announce_ «porta-t» “ “ “ _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter) «pugna-t» “ “ “ _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious) [Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nūntiō» is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)] «31.» EXERCISES I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries. II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat. [Illustration: DOMINA] LESSON III FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady. 1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences: «Domina fīliam amat» «Fīliam domina amat» «Amat fīliam domina» «Domina amat fīliam» _The lady loves her daughter_ «Fīlia dominam amat» «Dominam fīlia amat» «Amat dominam fīlia» «Fīlia amat dominam» _The daughter loves the lady_ _a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning. 2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding _’s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_ «33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized: ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of _who?_ | and use | «domina» | and use | | | | | and translation | | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «do´min-a» | Nominative-- | | S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ae» | Genitive-- | | U | | case of the | _the lady’s_ | case of the | | L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-am» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «domin-ae» | Nominative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ā´rum» | Genitive-- | | R | | case of the | _the ladies’_ | case of the | | A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-ās» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that _a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae». _b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ārum». _c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural in «-ās». _d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending. «34.» EXERCISE Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses. 1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum. LESSON IV FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] [See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.] NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diā´na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lātō´na, _Latona_ «sagit´ta», _arrow_ VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_ PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence: «Fīlia agricolae nautam amat», _the farmer’s daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_) _loves the sailor_ What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it? «36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_ «37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_ «38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_ [Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT] «39.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant. For the order of words imitate the Latin above. II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land. «40.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding. 1. Quis est Diāna? 2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna? 3. Quis Diānam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittās portat? 6. Cuius fīliae labōrant? LESSON V FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «corō´na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fā´bula, _story_ (fable) «pecū´nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victō´ria», _victory_ VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_ «cui» (pronounced _co͝oi_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1] [Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».] Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_. «42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs». NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended. _a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_. These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists. _a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following? The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another. «44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence «Nauta fugam nūntiat», _the sailor announces the flight_ Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects: 1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, _farmers_ According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule: «45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._ _a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object. «46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have «Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat» «47.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. _Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._ I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat. Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise. II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s. [Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.] LESSON VI FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grāta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sōla», _alone_ NOUNS ancil´la, _maidservant_ Iūlia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] «cūr», _why_ «nōn», _not_ PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ «-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat´ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] «48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab´la-tive._ «49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs». _a._ Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as, _Nom._ fīliă _Abl._ fīliā _b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural. _c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes 1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_. 2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by _with_ or _by_. 3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by _in_ or _at_. _a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following? In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome. «51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative. «52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._ «53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are «ā»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_ «dē», _from, down from_ «ē»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_ «cum», _with_ «in», _in, on_ [Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.] 1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon. «54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe. [Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”] You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_. «55.» Examine the sentences «Puella est parva», _the girl is little_ «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._ _a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following: Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy. «56.» DIALOGUE JULIA AND GALBA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna? G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum. I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna? G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna. I. Quid Diāna portat? G. Sagittās Diāna portat. I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat? G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam? G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat. I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat? G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat. I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat? G. Diānae corōnās dat. I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla? G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā. _a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the _voc´ative_ (Latin _vocāre_, “to call”). _In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue. _b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nōn pugnat», _he is not fighting._ LESSON VII THE FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cēna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallī´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «īn´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS «de-in´de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_ PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) «57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _Ā_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table: +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | SINGULAR | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | do´min-a | _the lady_ | The subject | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ae | _of the lady_, | The possessor | | | | or _the lady’s_ | of something | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-ae | _to_ or _for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady_ | _to_ or _for_, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-am | _the lady_ | The direct object | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-ā | _from, with, by, | Separation (_from_), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (_with, by_), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (_in, at_) | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | PLURAL | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | domin-ae | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ā´rum | _of the ladies_, | | | | | or _the ladies’_ | | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-īs | _to_ or _for | The same as | | | | the ladies_ | the singular | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-ās | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-īs | _from, with, by_, | | | | | _in, the ladies_ | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ «58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base». Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular. «59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally. «pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva» «60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender». Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rūpēs», _a cliff_; and «saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rūpēs» _feminine_, and «saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin. «61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine. «62.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat. II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer. [Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)] [Illustration] What Latin words are suggested by this picture? «63.» CONVERSATION Answer the questions in Latin. 1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat? 2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam? 5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecūniam dat? LESSON VIII FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clāra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lāta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty) «64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a». «65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._ «66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows: NOUN ADJECTIVE «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»), f., _lady_ _good_ SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ do´mina bona -a _Gen._ dominae bonae -ae _Dat._ dominae bonae -ae _Acc._ dominam bonam -am _Abl._ dominā bonā -ā PLURAL _Nom._ dominae bonae -ae _Gen._ dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominās bonās -ās _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs _a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_; «ancil´la parva», _the little maid_; «fortū´na magna», _great fortune._ «67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fīlia», _daughter_, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension: «dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-») SINGULAR PLURAL _Nom._ dea bona deae bonae _Gen._ deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum _Dat._ deae bonae deā´bus bonīs _Acc._ deam bonam deās bonās _Abl._ deā bonā dea´bus bonīs _a._ In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva». «68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same. In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_. In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences _I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order) _«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_ _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_ 1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_; usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows: _subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_-- _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_ Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin._ 2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as «fīlia mea», _my daughter_; «mea fīlia», _«my» daughter_; «casa Galbae», _Galba’s cottage_; «Galbae casa», _«Galba’s» cottage_. Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways: «Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat» (normal order) «Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam» («mea» and «cēnam» emphatic) «Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic) 3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words. «Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic) «Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic) «Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic) 4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English. 5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well. «69.» EXERCISE First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. _Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._ 1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam. * * * * * «First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505» * * * * * LESSON IX THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine) «frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_ «lēgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -ī», n., _town_ «pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_ VERBS «cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_ «70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender. «71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-ī». «72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine. «73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows: «dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»), m., _master_ n., _spear_ TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus[1] -us pīlum -um _Gen._ dominī -ī pīlī -ī _Dat._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Acc._ dominum -um pīlum -um _Abl._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Voc._ domine -e pīlum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominī -ī pīla -a _Gen._ dominō´rum -ōrum pīlō´rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs -ōs pīla -a _Abl._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs [Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».] _a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. _b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in «-us» ends in «-ĕ», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a. «74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions: _a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural. _b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in «-a». _c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in «-m» and the accusative plural in «-s». _d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike. _e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_, except in the ablative singular of the first declension. «75.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia est bona», _Lesbia is good_ «Lesbia est ancilla», _Lesbia is a maidservant_ We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a «predicate noun». «76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._ [Illustration: PILA] «77.» DIALOGUE GALBA AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā? M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat. G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum? M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat. G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat. G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat? M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum parant.[3] [Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: «habitat» _he lives_ _he is living_ _he does live_ Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.] [Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the accusative case.] [Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA] «78.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. 1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant? 2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat? 5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat? 6. Quid oppidānī parant? LESSON X SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -ī», m., _people_ «Rhēnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_ «vīcus, -ī», m., _village_ «79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and _neuters_ like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows: MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE «dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pīlum bonum», _the good spear_ BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon- TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um _Gen._ dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī _Dat._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Acc._ dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um _Abl._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Voc._ domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a _Gen._ dominō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum īlō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum». «80.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia ancilla est bona», _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona», _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat», _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_ In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case. «81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._ «82.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat. II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer’s daughter. [Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is transitive and governs a direct object.] [Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)] LESSON XI ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «tēlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_ «83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows: MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō _Voc._ bone bona bonum PLURAL _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus giving the three genders for each case. _b._ Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»; «parvus, -a, -um». «84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions: «85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_ SINGULAR _Nom._ nauta bonus _Gen._ nautae bonī _Dat._ nautae bonō _Acc._ nautam bonum _Abl._ nautā bonō _Voc._ nauta bone PLURAL _Nom._ nautae bonī _Gen._ nautārum bonōrum _Dat._ nautīs bonīs _Acc._ nautās bonōs _Abl._ nautīs bonīs _Voc._ nautae bonī «86.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt anna et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant. II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers? [Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._] [Illustration: GALEAE] LESSON XII NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelī», n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB «saepe», _often_ «87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (_son_), «praesi´dī» from «praesi´dium» (_garrison_). «88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, _not_ in «-ĕ», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi´lī», _O Vergil_; «fīlī», _O son._ _a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike. «89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-), n., _garrison_ m., _son_ SINGULAR _Nom._ praesidium fīlius _Gen._ praesi´dī fīlī _Dat._ praesidiō fīliō _Acc._ praesidium fīlium _Abl._ praesidiō fīliō _Voc._ praesidium fīlī The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius». Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», _the long river_; «proelium clārum», _the famous battle._ «90.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra. GERMĀNIA II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germānii in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et clārīs. [Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)] LESSON XIII SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre) «cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., _Cornelius_ «lōrī´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum», m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.] «91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_; and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows: «92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_ BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir ---- _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō PLURAL _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a). _b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the nominative and vocative singular. _c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e» belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager». «93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus, MASC. FEM. NEUT. līber lībera līberum (_free_) is like «puer» pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_) is like «ager» For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._ «94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum» «95.» ITALIA[1] First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia. [Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.] [Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», _of the world_.] [Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.] «96.» DIALOGUE MARCUS AND CORNELIUS C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā? M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat. C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus? M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae tēla portat? M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat. C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum? M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō. [Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt», _there are._] [Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective pronoun.] [Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?] [Illustration: LEGIONARIUS] LESSON XIV THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -ī», m., _food_ «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] «97.» Observe the sentences _This is my shield_ _This shield is mine_ In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_. «98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions. SINGULAR _1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_ _2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own), its (own)_ PLURAL _1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_ _2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_ NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as «mī fīlī», _O my son_. _a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in _Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat» _Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iūlia» } Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia. _b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to _more than one_, «vester»; as, _Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae» _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae» _c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus, «Vir suōs servōs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here _his_ («suōs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any one else. _d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. §22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc. «99.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant. II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours. [Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?] [Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like nouns.] [Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.] [Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT] LESSON XV THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia» «studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES «armātus, -a, -um», _armed_ «īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB «mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB «iam», _already, now_ «-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que», _arms and weapons_. «100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences: _a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness _a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of cause»: «Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī» _b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of means»: «Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat» _c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called the «ablative of accompaniment»: «Iūlia est cum Sextō» _d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum», unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum» may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of manner»: «Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant» «101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_: «102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_ «103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_ N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means. «104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_ «105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_ «106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer? The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore. «107.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī. II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons. LESSON XVI THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders: MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Gen._ -īus -īus -īus _Dat._ -ī -ī -ī Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each: «alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several) «alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two) «ūnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ «ūllus, -a, -um», _any_ «nūllus, -a, -um», _none, no_ «sōlus, -a, -um», _alone_ «tōtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_ «uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two) «neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two) «109.» PARADIGMS SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ nūllus nūlla nūllum _Gen._ nūllī´us nūllī´us nūllī´us _Dat._ nūllī nūllī nūllī _Acc._ nūllum nūllam nūllum _Abl._ nūllō nūllā nūllō MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alī´us alī´us alī´us _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō THE PLURAL IS REGULAR _a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius». The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the genitive of «alter». _b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the «pronominal adjectives». «110.» Learn the following idioms: «alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_ (of two) «alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any number) «aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», _some ... others_ EXAMPLES 1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is large, the other small_ (of two towns). 2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», _one town is strong, another weak_ (of towns in general). 3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», _some carry swords, others shields._ «111.» EXERCISES I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (_or_ sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam dat. NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns. II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain. LESSON XVII THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fēmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE «mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quō, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dēsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?» «112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives». «113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is «is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_ «114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109. BASE «e-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ is ea id eī eae ea (_or_ iī) _Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum _Dat._ eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) _Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea _Abl._ eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced _eh´yus_. In the plural the forms with two «i»’s are preferred and the two «i»’s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs». «115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings: SINGULAR _Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_ _Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_; «eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_; «eius», _of it_ or _its_ _Dat._ «eī», _to_ or _for him_; «eī», _to_ or _for her_; «eī», _to_ or _for it_ _Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_ _Abl._ «eō», _with, from_, etc., _him_; «eā», _with, from_, etc., _her_; «eō», _with, from_, etc., _it_ PLURAL _Nom._ «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», _they_ _Gen._ «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», _of them, their_ _Dat._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _to_ or _for them_ _Acc._ «eōs, eās, ea», _them_ _Abl._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _with, from_, etc., _them_ «116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one. EXAMPLES _Galba calls his_ (own) _son_, «Galba suum fīlium vocat» _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another’s), «Galba eius fīlium vocat» _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_, «Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat» _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another’s), «Iūlia eius līberōs vocat» _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_, «virī suōs puerōs laudant» _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others’), «virī eōrum puerōs laudant» «117.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. 1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans. 4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns. «118.» DIALOGUE[1] CORNELIUS AND MARCUS M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber? C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvīs Galliae. M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus? C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī. M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat? C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat. M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant? C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe nārrat et laudat eōs saepe. C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs patriam suam dēsīderant. [Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.] [Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive, noun_.] [Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.] * * * * * «Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509» * * * * * LESSON XVIII «CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM» [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m.,_school_ «socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES «īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodiē, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past «119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_. «120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future: 1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or _what usually happens_, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE 2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES 3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES «121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_. _a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative. «122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ō _we_ -mus _2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis _3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt «123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows: PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_ _2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_ _3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_ IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-ā´-mus, _we were_ _2d Pers._ er-ā-s, _you were_ er-ā´-tis, _you were_ _3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-ā-nt, _they were_ FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-ō, _I shall be_ er´-i-mus, _we shall be_ _2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er´-i-tis, _you will be_ _3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_ _a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§12.2; 14; 15. [Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.] «124.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī? M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā multī aliī puerī. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās? M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus. S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē? M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in lūdō? M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nōn erō. S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī dīligentiaeque nōn laudat. M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum. «125.» EXERCISE 1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be. 6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry. [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO] LESSON XIX THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ «126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive. [Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. §58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in §230.] Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._ DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. «amā´re», _to love_ «amā-» «ā» II. «monē´re», _to advise_ «monē-» «ē» III. «re´gĕre», _to rule_ «regĕ-» «ĕ» IV. «audī´re», _to hear_ «audi-» «ī» _a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive. NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem. «127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses. «128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows: «a´mō, amā´re» (_love_) «mo´neō, monē´re» (_advise_) PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-» SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a´mō, _I love_ mo´neō, _I advise_ -ō 2. a´mās, _you love_ mo´nēs, _you advise_ -s 3. a´mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo´net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t 1. amā´mus, _we love_ monē´mus, _we advise_ -mus 2. amā´tis, _you love_ monē´tis, _you advise_ -tis 3. a´mant, _they love_ mo´nent, _they advise_ -nt 1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In «moneō» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in «-eo» belong to the second conjugation._ 2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel («monē-ō» = «mo´nĕō»), and before final «-t» («amăt», «monĕt») and «-nt» («amănt», «monĕnt