The Project Gutenberg EBook of New Latin Grammar, by Charles E. Bennett This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net Title: New Latin Grammar Author: Charles E. Bennett Release Date: April 20, 2005 [EBook #15665] Language: English Character set encoding: ASCII *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW LATIN GRAMMAR *** Produced by Nathan Gibson, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. [Transcriber's Note: The original text has many, many accents denoting pronunciation, which cannot be shown in this plain ASCII character set. Please refer to the Unicode or HTML versions of this text to see them.] NEW LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University _Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta_ _Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:_ _Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat._ --HORACE, _Ars Poetica_. COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT * * * * * PREFACE. The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax. C.E.B. ITHACA, NEW YORK, May 4, 1918 * * * * * PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present book is a revision of my _Latin Grammar_ originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings _-is_, _-imus_, _-itis_ are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive. Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged. ITHACA, NEW YORK, October 16, 1907. * * * * * FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The object of this book is to present _the essential facts_ of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many _minutiae_ of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous. ITHACA, NEW YORK, December 15, 1894. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction--The Latin language PART I. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC. The Alphabet Sec. 1 Classification of Sounds Sec. 2 Sounds of the Letters Sec. 3 Syllables Sec. 4 Quantity Sec. 5 Accent Sec. 6 Vowel Changes Sec. 7 Consonant Changes Sec. 8 Peculiarities of Orthography Sec. 9 PART II. INFLECTIONS. CHAPTER I.--_Declension._ A. NOUNS. Sec. 10 Gender of Nouns Sec. 13 Number Sec. 16 Cases Sec. 17 The Five Declensions Sec. 18 First Declension Sec. 20 Second Declension Sec. 23 Third Declension Sec. 28 Fourth Declension Sec. 48 Fifth Declension Sec. 51 Defective Nouns Sec. 54 B. ADJECTIVES. Sec. 62 Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Sec. 63 Adjectives of the Third Declension Sec. 67 Comparison of Adjectives Sec. 71 Formation and Comparison of Adverbs Sec. 76 Numerals Sec. 78 C. PRONOUNS. Sec. 82 Personal Pronouns Sec. 84 Reflexive Pronouns Sec. 85 Possessive Pronouns Sec. 86 Demonstrative Pronouns Sec. 87 The Intensive Pronoun Sec. 88 The Relative Pronoun Sec. 89 Interrogative Pronouns Sec. 90 Indefinite Pronouns Sec. 91 Pronominal Adjectives Sec. 92 CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation. Sec. 93_ Verb Stems Sec. 97 The Four Conjugations Sec. 98 Conjugation of _Sum_ Sec. 100 First Conjugation Sec. 101 Second Conjugation Sec. 103 Third Conjugation Sec. 105 Fourth Conjugation Sec. 107 Verbs in _-io_ of the Third Conjugation Sec. 109 Deponent Verbs Sec. 112 Semi-Deponents Sec. 114 Periphrastic Conjugation Sec. 115 Peculiarities of Conjugation Sec. 116 Formation of the Verb Stems Sec. 117 List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts Sec. 120 Irregular Verbs Sec. 124 Defective Verbs Sec. 133 Impersonal Verbs Sec. 138 PART III. PARTICLES. Sec. 139 Adverbs Sec. 140 Prepositions Sec. 141 Interjections Sec. 145 PART IV. WORD FORMATION. I. DERIVATIVES. Sec. 146 Nouns Sec. 147 Adjectives Sec. 150 Verbs Sec. 155 Adverbs Sec. 157 II. COMPOUNDS. Sec. 158 Examples of Compounds Sec. 159 PART V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I.--_Sentences._ Classification of Sentences Sec. 161 Form of Interrogative Sentences Sec. 162 Subject and Predicate Sec. 163 Simple and Compound Sentences Sec. 164 CHAPTER II.--_Syntax of Nouns._ Subject Sec. 166 Predicate Nouns Sec. 167 Appositives Sec. 169 The Nominative Sec. 170 The Accusative Sec. 172 The Dative Sec. 186 The Genitive Sec. 194 The Ablative Sec. 213 The Locative Sec. 232 CHAPTER III.--_Syntax of Adjectives._ Agreement of Adjectives Sec. 234 Adjectives used Substantively Sec. 236 Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs Sec. 239 Comparatives and Superlatives Sec. 240 Other Peculiarities Sec. 241 CHAPTER IV.--_Syntax of Pronouns._ Personal Pronouns Sec. 242 Possessive Pronouns Sec. 243 Reflexive Pronouns Sec. 244 Reciprocal Pronouns Sec. 245 Demonstrative Pronouns Sec. 246 Relative Pronouns Sec. 250 Indefinite Pronouns Sec. 252 Pronominal Adjectives Sec. 253 CHAPTER V.--_Syntax of Verbs._ Agreement of Verbs Sec. 254 Voices Sec. 256 Tenses -- Of the Indicative Sec. 257 -- Of the Subjunctive Sec. 266 -- Of the Infinitive Sec. 270 Moods -- In Independent Sentences Sec. 271 -- -- Volitive Subjunctive Sec. 273 -- -- Optative Subjunctive Sec. 279 -- -- Potential Subjunctive Sec. 280 -- -- Imperative Sec. 281 -- In Dependent Clauses -- -- Clauses of Purpose Sec. 282 -- -- Clauses of Characteristic Sec. 283 -- -- Clauses of Result Sec. 284 -- -- Causal Clauses Sec. 285 -- -- Temporal Clauses -- -- -- Introduced by _Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, etc. Sec. 287 -- -- -- _Cum_-Clauses Sec. 288 -- -- -- Introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_ Sec. 291 -- -- -- Introduced by _Dum_, _Donec_, _Quoad_ Sec. 293 -- -- Substantive Clauses Sec. 294 -- -- -- Developed from the Volitive Sec. 295 -- -- -- Developed from the Optative Sec. 296 -- -- -- Of Result Sec. 297 -- -- -- After _non dubito_, etc. Sec. 298 -- -- -- Introduced by _Quod_ Sec. 299 -- -- -- Indirect Questions Sec. 300 -- -- Conditional Sentences Sec. 301 -- -- Use of _Si_, _Nisi_, _Sin_ Sec. 306 -- -- Conditional Clauses of Comparison Sec. 307 -- -- Concessive Clauses Sec. 308 -- -- Adversative Clauses with _Quamvis_, _Quamquam_, etc. Sec. 309 -- -- Clauses of Wish and Proviso Sec. 310 -- -- Relative Clauses Sec. 311 -- -- Indirect Discourse Sec. 313 -- -- -- Moods in Indirect Discourse Sec. 314 -- -- -- Tenses in Indirect Discourse Sec. 317 -- -- -- Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse Sec. 319 -- -- Implied Indirect Discourse Sec. 323 -- -- Subjunctive by Attraction Sec. 324 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb Sec. 325 -- Infinitive Sec. 326 -- Participles Sec. 336 -- Gerund Sec. 338 -- Supine Sec. 340 CHAPTER VI.--_Particles._ Cooerdinate Conjunctions Sec. 341 Adverbs Sec. 347 CHAPTER VII.--_Word-Order and Sentence-Structure._ Word-Order Sec. 348 Sentence-Structure Sec. 351 CHAPTER VIII.--_Hints on Latin Style. Sec. 352_ Nouns Sec. 353 Adjectives Sec. 354 Pronouns Sec. 355 Verbs Sec. 356 The Cases Sec. 357 PART VI. PROSODY. Sec. 360 Quantity of Vowels and Syllables Sec. 362 Verse-Structure Sec. 366 The Dactylic Hexameter Sec. 368 The Dactylic Pentameter Sec. 369 Iambic Measures Sec. 370 SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. Roman Calendar Sec. 371 II. Roman Names Sec. 373 III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric Sec. 374 * * * * * Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs General Index Footnotes * * * * * INTRODUCTION. THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.--Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as _Indo-European_.[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups: ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. a. _The Sanskrit_, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C. The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people. b. _The Iranian_, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C. Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic. c. _The Armenian_, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day. d. _The Tokharian_. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era. EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. e. _The Greek_. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C. f. _The Italic Group._ The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period. g. _The Celtic._ In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders. h. _The Teutonic._ The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English. i. _The Balto-Slavic._ The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century. j. _The Albanian_, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century. 2. Home of the Indo-European Family.--Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected. As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years. The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier. 3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.--The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature: a. _The Preliterary Period_, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length. b. _The Archaic Period_, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong: Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey; Tragedies). Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies). Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies). Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies). Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies). Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires). Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies). Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies). c. _The Golden Age_, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here: Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy). Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet). Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works; Letters). Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars), Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian). Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian). Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics"). Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles). Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet). Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet). Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems). Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian). d. _The Silver Latinity_, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention: Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse) Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian). Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War). Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works). Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History"). Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters"). Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams). Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education). Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian). Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist). Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars"). Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist). Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden Ass"). e. _The Archaizing Period._ This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D. f. _The Period of the Decline_, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are: Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer). Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer). Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity). Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet). Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures). Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father). Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father--"City of God"). Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet). Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet). Boethius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy "). 4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.--After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provencal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech. * * * * * PART I. * * * * * SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. * * * * * THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w. 1. K occurs only in _Kalendae_ and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words--chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,-- a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded _without_ voice or vibration of the vocal cords. b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded _with_ vibration of the vocal cords. c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. _loop-hole_, _hot-house_, _block-house_. 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as Labials, p, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch. 5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced. 6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,--that of ng in _sing_,--the so-called n _adulterinum_; as,-- anceps, _double_, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless. 8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced. 9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See Sec. 3, 3. 10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:-- VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES. p, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals). c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals). Liquids, l, r, Nasals, m, n, f, (Labial). Spirants, s, (Dental). h, (Guttural). Semivowels, j, v. a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D. 1. Vowels. a as in _father_; a as in the first syllable _aha_; e as in _they_; e as in _met_; i as in _machine_; i as in _pin_; o as in _note_; o as in _obey_, _melody_; u as in _rude_; u as in _put_; y like French _u_, German _ue_. 2. Diphthongs. ae like _ai_ in eu with its two elements, e and u, _aisle_; pronounced in rapid succession; oe like _oi_ in _oil_; ui occurs almost exclusively in ei as in _rein_; _cui_ and _huic_. These words may au like _ow_ in _how_; be pronounced as though written _kwee_ and _wheek_. 3. Consonants. b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced _ps_, _pt_. c is always pronounced as _k_. t is always a plain _t_, never with the sound of _sh_ as in Eng. _oration_. g always as in _get_; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of _gw_, as in anguis, languidus. j has the sound of _y_ as in _yet_. r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue. s always voiceless as in _sin_; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of _sw_. v like _w_. x always like _ks_; never like Eng. _gz_ or _z_. z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. _zd_, possibly like _z_. The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. _p_, c, _t_--so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated. SYLLABLES. 4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables,-- 1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest. 2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus. 3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-tri, dig-nus, mon-strum, sis-te-re. 4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-gri, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, ma-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpo, ad-latus. 5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tex-i. QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:-- 1. A vowel is long,[6]-- a) before nf or ns; as, infans, inferior, consumo, censeo, insum. b) when the result of contraction; as, nilum for nihilum. 2. A vowel is short,-- a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nondum (non dum). b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, traho. Some exceptions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aeneas. B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for their pronunciation. 1. A syllable is long,[7]-- a) if it contains a long vowel; as, mater, regnum, dius. b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus. c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, resto. 2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, _viz_. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, agri, volucris.[8] Such syllables are called _common_. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet. NOTE.--These distinctions of _long_ and _short_ are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires _more time_ for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes _less time_ to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tegit, mo'rem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, ama'vi, amantis, miserum. 3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, misero'que, hominisque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, portaque; but miseraque. 4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tanto'n, isti'c, illu'c. 5. In utra'que, _each_, and plera'que, _most_, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,--uterque, utrumque, plerumque. VOWEL CHANGES.[9] 7.. 1. In Compounds, a) e before a single consonant becomes i; as,-- colligo for con-lego. b) a before a single consonant becomes i: as,-- adigo for ad-ago. c) a before two consonants becomes e; as,-- expers for ex-pars. d) ae becomes i; as,-- conquiro for con-quaero. e) au becomes u, sometimes o; as,-- concludo for con-claudo; explodo for ex-plaudo. 2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,-- tres for tre-es; copia for co-opia; malo for ma(v)elo; cogo for co-ago; amasti for ama(v)isti; como for co-emo; debeo for de(h)abeo; junior for ju(v)enior. nil for nihil; 3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,-- vinculum for earlier vinclum. So periculum, saeculum. 4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,-- ardor for aridor (compare _aridus_); valde for valide (compare _validus_). CONSONANT CHANGES[10] 8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,-- arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis); genus, Gen. generis (for genesis); dirimo (for dis-emo). 2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,-- pensum for pend-tum; versum for vert-tum; miles for milet-s; sessus for sedtus; passus for pattus. 3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,-- cor for cord; lac for lact. 4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); suppono (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc. 5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:-- a) b before s or t becomes p; as,-- scripsi (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum). b) g before s or t becomes c; as,-- actus (ag-tus). c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,-- eundem (eum-dem); princeps (prim-ceps). PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. Many words have variable orthography. 1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc. 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspecto, expecto; exsisto, existo; epistula, epistola; adulescens, adolescens; paulus, paullus; cottidie, cotidie; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,-- ad-gero or aggero; ad-sero or assero; ad-licio or allicio; in-latus or illatus; ad-rogans or arrogans; sub-moveo or summoveo; and many others. 3. Compounds of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, obicio, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio, objicio, etc. 4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antiquos, antiquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vivont, metuont. The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts. * * * * * PART II. * * * * * INFLECTIONS. * * * * * 10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article. 11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation. * * * * * CHAPTER I.--_Declension._ A. NOUNS. 12. A Noun is the name of a _person_, _place_, _thing_, or _quality_; as, Caesar, _Caesar_; Roma, _Rome_; penna, _feather_; virtus, _courage_. 1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtus. 2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract. a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mons, _mountain_; pes, _foot_; dies, _day_; mens, _mind_. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legio, _legion_; comitatus, _retinue_. b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, _steadfastness_; paupertas, _poverty_. GENDER OF NOUNS. 13. There are three Genders,--Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical. Natural Gender. 14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are-- 1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,-- nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_. 2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,-- mater, _mother_; regina, _queen_. Grammatical Gender. 15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:-- _A. Gender determined by Signification._ 1. Names of _Rivers_, _Winds_, and _Months_ are Masculine; as,-- Sequana, _Seine_; Eurus, _east wind_; Aprilis, _April_. 2. Names of _Trees_, and such names of _Towns_ and _Islands_ as end in -us, are Feminine; as,-- quercus, _oak_; Corinthus, _Corinth_; Rhodus, _Rhodes_. Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see _B_, below); as,-- Delphi, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tibur, n.; Carthago, f. 3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,-- nihil, _nothing_; nefas, _wrong_; amare, _to love_. NOTE.--Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f. _B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular._ The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11] NOTE 1.--_Common Gender._ Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either _priest_ or _priestess_, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis, _citizen_; parens, _parent_; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be _common_. NOTE 2.--Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., _goose_ or _gander_. So vulpes, f., _fox_; aquila, f., _eagle_. NUMBER. 16. The Latin has two Numbers,--the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one. CASES. 17. There are six Cases in Latin:-- Nominative, Case of Subject; Genitive, Objective with _of_, or Possessive; Dative, Objective with _to_ or _for_; Accusative, Case of Direct Object; Vocative, Case of Address; Ablative, Objective with _by_, _from_, _in_, _with_. 1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words. 2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases. 3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, _portam_ (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The _apparent case-ending_ thus resulting is called a termination. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:-- DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION. First a -ae Second o -i Third i / Some consonant -is Fourth u -us Fifth e -ei / -ei Cases alike in Form. 19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension. 2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -a. 4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative. * * * * * FIRST DECLENSION. a-Stems. 20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:-- Porta, _gate_; stem, porta-. SINGULAR. CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS. _Nom._ porta _a gate_ (as subject) -a _Gen._ portae _of a gate_ -ae _Dat._ portae _to_ or _for a gate_ -ae _Acc._ portam _a gate_ (as object) -am _Voc._ porta _O gate!_ -a _Abl._ porta _with, by, from, in a gate_ -a PLURAL. _Nom._ portae _gates_ (as subject) -ae _Gen._ portarum _of gates_ -arum _Dat._ portis _to_ or _for gates_ -is _Acc._ portas _gates_ (as object) -as _Voc._ portae _O gates!_ -ae _Abl._ portis _with, by, from, in gates_ -is 1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either _a gate_ or _the gate_; and in the Plural, _gates_ or _the gates_. Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension. 21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_; also, Hadria, _Adriatic Sea_. 2. Rare Case-Endings,-- a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in the combination pater familias, _father of a family_; also in mater familias, filius familias, filia familias. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae. b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs; as, aulai. c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Romae, _at Rome_. d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termination -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending. e) Instead of the regular ending -is, we usually find -abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, _goddess_, and filia, _daughter_, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, _god_, and filius, _son_. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, libertabus (from liberta, _freedwoman_), equabus (_mares_), to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, _freedman_) and equis (from equus, _horse_). Greek Nouns. 22. These end in -e (Feminine); -as and -es (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:-- Archias, Epitome, Cometes, _comet_. _Archias_. _epitome_. _Nom._ Archias epitome cometes _Gen._ Archiae epitomes cometae _Dat._ Archiae epitomae cometae _Acc._ Archiam (or -an) epitomen cometen _Voc._ Archia epitome comete (or -a) _Abl._ Archia epitome comete (or -a) 1. But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, _grammar_; musica, _music_; rhetorica, _rhetoric_. 2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry. * * * * * SECOND DECLENSION. o-Stems. 23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative. Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:-- Hortus, _garden_; Bellum, _war_; stem, horto-. stem, bello-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. TERMINATION. _Nom._ hortus -us bellum -um _Gen._ horti -i belli -i _Dat._ horto -o bello -o _Acc._ hortum -um bellum -um _Voc._ horte -e bellum -um _Abl._ horto -o bello -o PLURAL. _Nom._ horti -i bella -a _Gen._ hortorum -orum bellorum -orum _Dat._ hortis -is bellis -is _Acc._ hortos -os bella -a _Voc._ horti -i bella -a _Abl._ hortis -is bellis -is Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:-- Puer, _boy_; Ager, _field_; Vir, _man_; stem, puero- stem, agro- stem, viro- SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ puer ager vir Wanting _Gen._ pueri agri viri -i _Dat._ puero agro viro -o _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Voc._ puer ager vir Wanting _Abl._ puero agro viro -o PLURAL. _Nom._ pueri agri viri -i _Gen._ puerorum agrorum virorum -orum _Dat._ pueris agris viris -is _Acc._ pueros agros viros -os _Voc._ pueri agri viri -i _Abl._ pueris agris viris -is 1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r. 2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, _adulterer_; gener, _son-in-law_; Liber, _Bacchus_; socer, _father-in-law_; vesper, _evening_; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger. Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_. 24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,--an earlier and a later,--as follows:-- _Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero)._ Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m., _slave_. _age_. _horse_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ servos aevom equos _Gen._ servi aevi equi _Dat._ servo aevo equo _Acc._ servom aevom equom _Voc._ serve aevom eque _Abl._ servo aevo equo _Later inflection (after Cicero)._ SINGULAR. _Nom._ servus aevum equus _Gen._ servi aevi equi _Dat._ servo aevo equo _Act._ servum aevum equum _Voc._ serve aevum eque _Abl._ servo aevo equo 1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform. Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension. 25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); as Vergili, _of Virgil_, or _O Virgil_ (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -ai, -ei, as Pompejus, Pompei. 2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -ii); as,-- _Nom._ ingenium filius _Gen._ ingeni fili These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short. 3. Filius forms the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); _viz_. fili, _O son!_ 4. Deus, _god_, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:-- _Nom._ di (dei) _Gen._ deorum (deum) _Dat._ dis (deis) _Acc._ deos _Voc._ di (dei) _Abl._ dis (deis) 5. The Locative Singular ends in -i; as, Corinthi, _at Corinth_. 6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -orum,-- a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, _of talents_; modium, _of pecks_; sestertium, _of sesterces_. b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum. c) sometimes in other words; as, liberum, _of the children_; socium, _of the allies_. Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:-- a) Names of towns, islands, trees--according to the general rule laid down in Sec. 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, _Egypt_. b) Five special words,-- alvus, _belly_; carbasus, _flax_; colus, _distaff_; humus, _ground_; vannus, _winnowing-fan_. c) A few Greek Feminines; as,-- atomus, _atom_; diphthongus, _diphthong_. 2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:-- pelagus, _sea_; virus, _poison_; vulgus, _crowd_. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. These end in -os, -os, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:-- Barbitos, m. Androgeos, m., Ilion, n., and f., _Androgeos._ _Troy._ _lyre._ _Nom._ barbitos Androgeos Ilion _Gen._ barbiti Androgeo, -i Ilii _Dat._ barbito Androgeo Ilio _Acc._ barbiton Androgeo, -on Ilion _Voc._ barbite Androgeos Ilion _Abl._ barbito Androgeo Ilio 1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Delum, _Delos_. 2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular. 3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted. * * * * * THIRD DECLENSION. 28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i, -o, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,-- I. Pure Consonant-Stems. II. i-Stems. III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of i-Stems. IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns. I. Consonant-Stems. 29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized. 2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant. _A. Mute-Stems._ 30. Mute-Stems may end,-- 1. In a Labial (p); as, princep-s. 2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, remex (remeg-s); dux (duc-s). 3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (milet-s). 1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p). 31. Princeps, m., _chief_. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ princeps -s _Gen._ principis -is _Dat._ principi -i _Acc._ principem -em _Voc._ princeps -s _Abl._ principe -e PLURAL. _Nom._ principes -es _Gen._ principum -um _Dat._ principibus -ibus _Acc._ principes -es _Voc._ principes -es _Abl._ principibus -ibus 2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c). 32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x. Remex, m., _rower_. Dux, c., _leader_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ remex remiges dux duces _Gen._ remigis remigum ducis ducum _Dat._ remigi remigibus duci ducibus _Acc._ remigem remiges ducem duces _Voc._ remex remiges dux duces _Abl._ remige remigibus duce ducibus 3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t). 33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s. Lapis, m., _stone_. Miles, m., _soldier_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ lapis lapides miles milites _Gen._ lapidis lapidum militis militum _Dat._ lapidi lapidibus militi militibus _Acc._ lapidem lapides militem milites _Voc._ lapis lapides miles milites _Abl._ lapide lapidibus milite militibus _B. Liquid Stems._ 34. These end in -l or -r. Vigil, m., Victor, m., Aequor, n., _watchman_. _conqueror_. _sea_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ vigil victor aequor _Gen._ vigilis victoris aequoris _Dat._ vigili victori aequori _Acc._ vigilem victorem aequor _Voc._ vigil victor aequor _Abl._ vigile victore aequore PLURAL. _Nom._ vigiles victores aequora _Gen._ vigilum victorum aequorum _Dat._ vigilibus victoribus aequoribus _Acc._ vigiles victores aequora _Voc._ vigiles victores aequora _Abl._ vigilibus victoribus aequoribus 1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination. 2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension. _C. Nasal Stems._ 35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing. Leo, m., _lion_. Nomen, n., _name_ SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ leo leones nomen nomina _Gen._ leonis leonum nominis nominum _Dat._ leoni leonibus nomini nominibus _Acc._ leonem leones nomen nomina _Voc._ leo leones nomen nomina _Abl._ leone leonibus nomine nominibus _D. s-Stems._ 36. Mos, m. Genus, n., Honor, m., _custom_. _race_. _honor_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ mos genus honor _Gen._ moris generis honoris _Dat._ mori generi honori _Acc._ morem genus honorem _Voc._ mos genus honor _Abl._ more genere honore PLURAL. _Nom._ mores genera honores _Gen._ morum generum honorum _Dat._ moribus generibus honoribus _Acc._ mores genera honores _Voc._ mores genera honores _Abl._ moribus generibus honoribus 1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honos, colos, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry. II. i-Stems. _A. Masculine and Feminine i-Stems._ 37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -i, and the Accusative Plural in -is; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the endings of Consonant-Stems. 38. Tussis, f., Ignis, m., Hostis, c., _cough_; stem, _fire_; stem, _enemy_; stem, tussi-. igni-. hosti-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ tussis ignis hostis -is _Gen._ tussis ignis hostis -is _Dat._ tussi igni hosti -i _Acc._ tussim ignem hostem -im, -em _Voc._ tussis ignis hostis -is _Abl._ tussi igni or e hoste -i, -e PLURAL. _Nom._ tusses ignes hostes -es _Gen._ tussium ignium hostium -ium _Dat._ tussibus ignibus hostibus -ibus _Acc._ tussis or -es ignis or -es hostis or -es -is, -es _Voc._ tusses ignes hostes -es _Abl._ tussibus ignibus hostibus -ibus 1. To the same class belong-- apis, _bee_. cratis, _hurdle_. +*securis, _axe_. auris, _ear_. *febris, _fever_. sementis, _sowing_. avis, _bird_. orbis, _circle_. +*sitis, _thirst_. axis, _axle_. ovis, _sheep_. torris, _brand_. *buris, _plough-beam_. pelvis, _basin_. +*turris, _tower_. clavis, _key_. puppis, _stern_. trudis, _pole_. collis, _hill_. restis, _rope_. vectis, _lever_. and many others. Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a + regularly have Abl. -i. Of the others, many at times show -im and -i. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -i. 2. Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, _dog_; juvenis, _youth_.[14] 3. Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, _part_, for par(ti)s; anas, _duck_, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, _death_; dos, _dowry_; nox, _night_; sors, _lot_; mens, _mind_; ars, _art_; gens, _tribe_; and some others. _B. Neuter i-Stems._ 39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -i in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems. Sedile, Animal, Calcar, _seat_; _animal_; _spur_; stem, sedili-. stem, stem, animali-. calcari-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ sedile animal calcar -e or wanting _Gen._ sedilis animalis calcaris -is _Dat._ sedili animali calcari -i _Acc._ sedile animal calcar -e or wanting _Voc._ sedile animal calcar -e or wanting _Abl._ sedili animali calcari -i PLURAL. _Nom._ sedilia animalia calcaria -ia _Gen._ sedilium animalium calcarium -ium _Dat._ sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus _Acc._ sedilia animalia calcaria -ia _Voc._ sedilia animalia calcaria -ia _Abl._ sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus 1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e. 2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Soracte, _Mt. Soracte_; so also sometimes mare, _sea_. III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of _i_-Stems. 40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -is in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -i in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:-- Caedes, f., Arx, f., Linter, f., _slaughter_; _citadel_; _skiff_; stem, caed-. stem, arc-. stem, lintr-. SINGULAR. _Nom._ caedes arx linter _Gen._ caedis arcis lintris _Dat._ caedi arci lintri _Acc._ caedem arcem lintrem _Voc._ caedes arx linter _Abl._ caede arce lintre PLURAL. _Nom._ caedes arces lintres _Gen._ caedium arcium lintrium _Dat._ caedibus arcibus lintribus _Acc._ caedes, -is arces, -is lintres, -is _Voc._ caedes arces lintres _Abl._ caedibus arcibus lintribus 1. The following classes of nouns belong here:-- a) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is; as, nubes, aedes, clades, etc. b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs, mons, stirps, lanx. c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliens, cohors. d) Uter, venter; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix; and the Plurals fauces, penates, Optimates, Samnites, Quirites. e) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis; as, civitas, aetas. Civitas _usually_ has civitatium. IV. Stems in _-i_, _-u_, and Diphthongs. 41. Vis, f., Sus, c., Bos, c., _ox_, Juppiter, m., _force_; _swine_; _cow_; _Jupiter_; stem, vi-. stem, su-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-. SINGULAR. _Nom._ vis sus bos Juppiter _Gen._ ---- suis bovis Jovis _Dat._ ---- sui bovi Jovi _Acc._ vim suem bovem Jovem _Voc._ vis sus bos Juppiter _Abl._ vi sue bove Jove PLURAL. _Nom._ vires sues boves _Gen._ virium suum bovum, boum _Dat._ viribus suibus, subus bobus, bubus _Acc._ vires sues boves _Voc._ vires sues boves _Abl._ viribus suibus, subus bobus, bubus 1. Notice that the oblique cases of sus have u in the root syllable. 2. Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus. 3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-i, etc. Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the i-stems (Sec. 37). Its ablative often ends in -i. V. Irregular Nouns. 42. Senex, m., Caro, f., Os, n., _old man_. _flesh_. _bone_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ senex caro os _Gen._ senis carnis ossis _Dat._ seni carni ossi _Acc._ senem carnem os _Voc._ senex caro os _Abl._ sene carne osse PLURAL. _Nom._ senes carnes ossa _Gen._ senum carnium ossium _Dat._ senibus carnibus ossibus _Acc._ senes carnes ossa _Voc._ senes carnes ossa _Abl._ senibus carnibus ossibus 1. Iter, itineris, n., _way_, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-. 2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., _furniture_, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -i and -e. 3. Jecur, n., _liver_, forms its oblique cases from two stems,--jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris. 4. Femur, n., _thigh_, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis. General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension. 43. 1. Nouns in -o, -or, -os, -er, -es are Masculine. 2. Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -do, -go (Genitive -inis); -io (abstract and collective), -us (Genitive -atis or -udis) are Feminine. 3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -us are Neuter. Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension. 44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines. 1. Nouns in -o. a. Feminine: caro, _flesh_. 2. Nouns in -or. a. Feminine: arbor, _tree_. b. Neuter: aequor, _sea_; cor, _heart_; marmor, _marble_. 3. Nouns in -os. a. Feminine: dos, _dowry_. b. Neuter: os (oris), _mouth_. 4. Nouns in -er. a. Feminine: linter, _skiff_. b. Neuter: cadaver, _corpse_; iter, _way_; tuber, _tumor_; uber, _udder_. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, _maple_. 5. Nouns in -es. a. Feminine: seges, _crop_. 45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines. 1. Nouns in -as. a. Masculine: vas, _bondsman_. b. Neuter: vas, _vessel_. 2. Nouns in -es. a. Masculine: aries, _ram_; paries, _wall_; pes, _foot_. 3. Nouns in -is. a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, _river_; ignis, _fire_; panis, _bread_; sanguis, _blood_; unguis, _nail_. Also-- axis, _axle_. piscis, _fish_. collis, _hill_. postis, _post_. fascis, _bundle_. pulvis, _dust_. lapis, _stone_. orbis, _circle_. mensis, _month_. sentis, _brier_. 4. Nouns in -x. a. Masculine: apex, _peak_; codex, _tree-trunk_; grex, _flock_; imbrex, _tile_; pollex, _thumb_; vertex, _summit_; calix, _cup_. 5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant. a. Masculine: dens, _tooth_; fons, _fountain_; mons, _mountain_; pons, _bridge_. 6. Nouns in -do. a. Masculine: cardo, _hinge_; ordo, _order_. 46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters. 1. Nouns in -l. a. Masculine: sol, _sun_; sal, _salt_. 2. Nouns in -n. a. Masculine: pecten, _comb_. 3. Nouns in -ur. a. Masculine: vultur, _vulture_. 4. Nouns in -us. a. Masculine: lepus, _hare_. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension. 47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:-- 1. The ending -a in the Accusative Singular; as, aethera, _aether_; Salamina, _Salamis_. 2. The ending -es in the Nominative Plural; as, Phryges, _Phrygians_. 3. The ending -as in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygas, _Phrygians_. 4. Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, _Atlas_. 5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poematis, _poems_. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc. 7. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -i, as, Periclis or Pericli. 8. Feminine proper names in -o have -us in the Genitive, but -o in the other oblique cases; as,-- _Nom._ Dido _Acc._ Dido _Gen._ Didus _Voc._ Dido _Dat._ Dido _Abl._ Dido 9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns. * * * * * FOURTH DECLENSION. _u_-Stems. 48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -u Neuter. They are declined as follows:-- Fructus, m., _fruit_. Cornu, n., _horn_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ fructus fructus cornu cornua _Gen._ fructus fructuum cornus cornuum _Dat._ fructui fructibus cornu cornibus _Acc._ fructum fructus cornu cornua _Voc._ fructus fructus cornu cornua _Abl._ fructu fructibus cornu cornibus Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension. 49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -i, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence. 2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead of -ui; as, fructu (for fructui). 3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), _limbs_; tribus, _tribe_; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus. 4. Domus, _house_, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:-- domi (locative), _at home_; domo, _from home_; domum, _homewards_, _to one's home_; domos, _homewards_, _to their_ (etc.) _homes_ 5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornu, _horn_; genu, _knee_; and veru, _spit_. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension. 50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, _needle_; domus, _house_; manus, _hand_; porticus, _colonnade_; tribus, _tribe_; Idus (Plural), _Ides_; also names of trees (Sec. 15, 2). * * * * * FIFTH DECLENSION. e-Stems. 51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -es, and are declined as follows:-- Dies, m., _day_. Res, f., _thing_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ dies dies res res _Gen._ diei dierum rei rerum _Dat._ diei diebus rei rebus _Acc._ diem dies rem res _Voc._ dies dies res res _Abl._ die diebus re rebus Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension. 52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ei, instead of -ei, when a consonant precedes; as, spei, rei, fidei. 2. A Genitive ending -i (for -ei) is found in plebi (from plebes = plebs) in the expressions tribunus plebi, _tribune of the people_, and plebi scitum, _decree of the people_; sometimes also in other words. 3. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs; as, acie. 4. With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But acies, series, species, spes, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural. Gender in the Fifth Declension. 53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except dies, _day_, and meridies, _mid-day_. But dies is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an _appointed day_. * * * * * DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 54. Here belong-- 1. Nouns used in the Singular only. 2. Nouns used in the Plural only. 3. Nouns used only in certain cases. 4. Indeclinable Nouns. Nouns used in the Singular only. 55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:-- 1. Proper names; as, Cicero, _Cicero_; Italia, _Italy_. 2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, _copper_; lac, _milk_. 3. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, _ignorance_; bonitas, _goodness_. 4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:-- a) Proper names,--to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type; as, Cicerones, _the Ciceros_; Catones, _men like Cato_. b) Names of materials,--to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, _bronzes_ (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, _woods_. c) Abstract nouns,--to denote instances of the quality; as, ignorantiae, _cases of ignorance_. Nouns used in the Plural only. 56. Here belong-- 1. Many geographical names; as, Thebae, _Thebes_; Leuctra, _Leuctra_; Pompeji, _Pompeii_. 2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalesia, _the Megalesian festival_. 3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:-- angustiae, _narrow pass_. manes, _spirits of the arma, _weapons_. dead_. deliciae, _delight_. moenia, _city walls_. divitiae, _riches_. minae, _threats_. Idus, _Ides_. nuptiae, _marriage_. indutiae, _truce_. posteri, _descendants_. insidiae, _ambush_. reliquiae, _remainder_. majores, _ancestors_. tenebrae, _darkness_. verbera, _blows_. Also in classical prose regularly-- cervices, _neck_. nares, _nose_. fides, _lyre_. viscera, _viscera_. Nouns used only in Certain Cases. 57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussu, _by the order_; injussu, _without the order_; natu, _by birth_. 2. Used in Two Cases. a. Fors (_chance_), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing. b. Spontis (_free-will_), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing. 3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, _no one_ (Nom.), has also the Dat. nemini and the Acc. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nullus; viz. nullius and nullo. 4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus. 5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. 6. Opis, dapis, and frugis,--all lack the Nom. Sing. 7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lux, sol, aes, os (oris), rus, sal, tus. Indeclinable Nouns. 58. Here belong-- fas, n., _right_. nefas, n., _impiety_. instar, n., _likeness_. nihil, n., _nothing_. mane, n., _morning_. secus, n., _sex_. 1. With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, _in the morning_), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular. Heteroclites. 59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:-- 1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,-- vas, vasis (_vessel_); Plu., vasa, vasoroum, vasis, etc. jugerum, jugeri (_acre_); Plu., jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc. 2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:-- a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as, materies, materiem, _material_, as well as materia, materiam. b) Fames, _hunger_, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. fame of the Fifth. c) Requies, requietis, _rest_, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requietem. d) Besides plebs, plebis, _common people_, of the Third Declension, we find plebes, plebei (also plebi, see Sec. 52, 2), of the Fifth. Heterogeneous Nouns. 60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:-- 1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,--one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, _shield_; carrus, carrum, _cart_. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,-- SINGULAR. PLURAL. balneum, n., _bath_; balneae, f., _bath-house_. epulum, n., _feast_; epulae, f., _feast_. frenum, n., _bridle_; freni, m.(rarely frena, n.), _bridle_. jocus, m., _jest_; joca, n. (also joci, m.), _jests_. locus, m., _place_; loca, n., _places_; loci, m., _passages or topics in an author_. rastrum, n., _rake_; rastri, m.; rastra, n., _rakes_. a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above. Plurals with Change of Meaning. 61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:-- SINGULAR. PLURAL. aedes, _temple_; aedes, _house_. auxilium, _help_; auxilia, _auxiliary troops_. carcer, _prison_; carceres, _stalls for racing-chariot_. castrum, _fort_; castra, _camp_. copia, _abundance_; copiae, _troops_, _resources_. finis, _end_; fines, _borders_, _territory_. fortuna, _fortune_; fortunae, _possessions_, _wealth_. gratia, _favor_, gratiae, _thanks_. _gratitude_; impedimentum, impedimenta, _baggage_. _hindrance_; littera, _letter_ (of the litterae, _epistle; literature_. alphabet); mos, _habit_, _custom_; mores, _character_. opera, _help_, _service_; operae, _laborers_. (ops) opis, _help_; opes, _resources_. pars, _part_; partes, _party_; _role_. sal, _salt_; sales, _wit_. * * * * * B. ADJECTIVES. 62. Adjectives denote _quality_. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,-- 1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 2. Adjectives of the Third Declension. * * * * * ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:-- Bonus, _good_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ boni bonae boni _Dat._ bono bonae bono _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Voc._ bone bona bonum _Abl._ bono bona bono PLURAL. _Nom._ boni bonae bona _Gen._ bonorum bonarum bonorum _Dat._ bonis bonis bonis _Acc._ bonos bonas bona _Voc._ boni bonae bona _Abl._ bonis bonis bonis 1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii (not in -i as in case of Nouns; see Sec. 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in i. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximii; Voc. eximie. 2. Distributives (see Sec. 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -orum (compare Sec. 25, 6); as, denum centenum; but always singulorum. 64. Masculine like puer:-- Tener, _tender_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER. _Nom._ tener tenera tenerum _Gen._ teneri tenerae teneri _Dat._ tenero tenerae tenero _Acc._ tenerum teneram tenerum _Voc._ tener tenera tenerum _Abl._ tenero tenera tenero PLURAL. _Nom._ teneri tenerae tenera _Gen._ tenerorum tenerarum tenerorum _Dat._ teneris teneris teneris _Acc._ teneros teneras tenera _Voc._ teneri tenerae tenera _Abl._ teneris teneris teneris 65. Masculine like ager:-- Sacer, _sacred_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ sacer sacra sacrum _Gen._ sacri sacrae sacri _Dat._ sacro sacrae sacro _Acc._ sacrum sacram sacrum _Voc._ sacer sacra sacrum _Abl._ sacro sacra sacro PLURAL. _Nom._ sacri sacrae sacra _Gen._ sacrorum sacrarum sacrorum _Dat._ sacris sacris sacris _Acc._ sacros sacras sacra _Voc._ sacri sacrae sacra _Abl._ sacris sacris sacris 1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, _rough_; lacer, _torn_; liber, _free_; miser, _wretched_; prosper, _prosperous_; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, _right_. 2. Satur, _full_, is declined: satur, satura, saturum. Nine Irregular Adjectives. 66. Here belong-- alius, _another_; alter, _the other_; ullus, _any_; nullus, _none_; uter, _which?_ (of two); neuter, _neither_; solus, _alone_; totus, _whole_; unus, _one_, _alone_. They are declined as follows:-- SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alterius alterius alterius[15] _Dat._ alii alii alii _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ alio alia alio _Nom._ alter altera alterum _Gen._ alterius alterius alterius _Dat._ alteri alteri[16] alteri _Acc._ alterum alteram alterum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ altero altera altero _Nom._ uter utra utrum _Gen._ utrius utrius utrius _Dat._ utri utri utri _Acc._ utrum utram utrum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ utro utra utro _Nom._ totus tota totum _Gen._ totius totius totius _Dat._ toti toti toti _Acc._ totum totam totum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ toto tota toto 1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular. 2. Neuter is declined like uter. * * * * * ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67. These fall into three classes,-- 1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,--one for each gender. 2. Adjectives of two terminations. 3. Adjectives of one termination. a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in Sec. 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -i, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -is (as well as -es) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters. Adjectives of Three Terminations. 68. These are declined as follows:-- Acer, _sharp_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ acer acris acre _Gen._ acris acris acris _Dat._ acri acri acri _Acc._ acrem acrem acre _Voc._ acer acris acre _Abl._ acri acri acri PLURAL. _Nom._ acres acres acria _Gen._ acrium acrium acrium _Dat_, acribus acribus acribus _Acc._ acres, -is acres, -is acria _Voc._ acres acres acria _Abl._ acribus acribus acribus 1. Like acer are declined alacer, _lively_; campester, _level_; celeber, _famous_; equester, _equestrian_; paluster, _marshy_; pedester, _pedestrian_; puter, _rotten_; saluber, _wholesome_; silvester, _woody_; terrester, _terrestrial_; volucer, _winged_; also names of months in -ber, as September. 2. Celer, celeris, celere, _swift_, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural. 3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry. Adjectives of Two Terminations. 69. These are declined as follows:-- Fortis, _strong._ Fortior, _stronger._ SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ fortis forte fortior fortius _Gen._ fortis fortis fortioris fortioris _Dat._ forti forti fortiori fortiori _Acc._ fortem forte fortiorem fortius _Voc._ fortis forte fortior fortius _Abl._ forti forti fortiore fortiore PLURAL. _Nom._ fortes fortia fortiores fortiora _Gen._ fortium fortium fortiorum fortiorum _Dat._ fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus _Acc._ fortes, -is fortia fortiores, -is fortiora _Voc._ fortes fortia fortiores fortiora _Abl._ fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus 1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -is is rare. Adjectives of One Termination. 70. Felix, _happy._. Prudens, _prudent._ SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ felix felix prudens prudens _Gen._ felicis felicis prudentis prudentis _Dat._ felici felici prudenti prudenti _Acc._ felicem felix prudentem prudens _Voc._ felix felix prudens prudens _Abl._ felici felici prudenti prudenti PLURAL. _Nom._ felices felicia prudentes prudentia _Gen._ felicium felicium prudentium prudentium _Dat._ felicibus felicibus prudentibus prudentibus _Acc._ felices, -is felicia prudentes, -is prudentia _Voc._ felices felicia prudentes prudentia _Abl._ felicibus felicibus prudentibus prudentibus Vetus, _old_. Plus, _more_. SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ vetus vetus ---- plus _Gen._ veteris veteris ---- pluris _Dat._ veteri veteri ---- ---- _Acc._ veterem vetus ---- plus _Voc._ vetus vetus ---- ---- _Abl._ vetere vetere ---- plure PLURAL. _Nom._ veteres vetera plures plura _Gen._ veterum veterum plurium plurium _Dat._ veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus _Acc._ veteres vetera plures, -is plura _Voc._ veteres vetera ---- ---- _Abl._ veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus 1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -es only. In the same way are declined compos, _controlling_; dives, _rich_; particeps, _sharing_; pauper, _poor_; princeps, _chief_; sospes, _safe_; superstes, _surviving_. Yet dives always has Neut. Plu. ditia. 2. Inops, _needy_, and memor, _mindful_, have Ablative Singular inopi, memori, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum. 3. Participles in -ans and -ens follow the declension of i-stems. But they do not have -i the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,-- a sapienti viro, _by a wise man_; but a sapiente, _by a philosopher._ Tarquinio regnante, _under the reign of Tarquin._ 4. Plus, in the Singular, is always a noun. 5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,-- a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,-- aequalis, _contemporary_, Abl. aequali. consularis, _ex-consul_, Abl. consulari So names of Months; as, Aprili, _April_; Decembri, _December_. b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer; Juvenale, _Juvenal_. c) Patrials in -as, -atis and -is, -itis, when designating places regularly have -i; as, in Arpinati, _on the estate at Arpinum_, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab Arpinate, _by an Arpinatian_. 6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frugi, _frugal_; nequam, _worthless_. 7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, _of those coming_. * * * * * COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,--the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,-- altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_, _very high_. fortis, _brave_, fortior, fortissimus. felix, _fortunate_, felicior, felicissimus. So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,-- doctus, _learned_, doctior, doctissimus. egens, _needy_, egentior, egentissimus. 3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:-- asper, _rough_, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, _beautiful_, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. acer, _sharp_, acrior, acerrimus. celer, _swift_, celerior, celerrimus. a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or maturrimus. 4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:-- facilis, _easy_, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, _diffcult_, difficilior, difficillimus. similis, _like_, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, _unlike_, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, _low_, humilior, humillimus. 5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens. Thus:-- maledicus, _slanderous_, maledicentior, maledicentissimus. magnificus, _magnificent_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus. benevolus, _kindly_, benevolentior, benevolentissimus. a. Positives in -dicens and -volens occur in early Latin; as maledicens, benevolens. 6. Dives has the Comparative divitior or ditior; Superlative divitissimus or ditissimus. Irregular Comparison. 72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; _viz_.-- bonus, _good_, melior, optimus. malus, _bad_, pejor, pessimus. parvus, _small_, minor, minimus. magnus, _large_, major, maximus. multus, _much_, plus, plurimus, frugi, _thrifty_, frugalior, frugalissimus, nequam, _worthless_, nequior, nequissimus. Defective Comparison. 73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,-- (Cf. prae, _in front prior, _former_, primus, _first_ of_.) (Cf. citra, _this side citerior, _on this citimus, _near_. of_.) side_, (Cf. ultra, _beyond_.) ulterior, _farther_, ultimus, _farthest_. (Cf. intra, _within_.) interior, _inner_, intimus, _inmost_ (Cf. prope, _near_.) propior, _nearer_, proximus, _nearest_. (Cf. de, _down_.) deterior, _inferior_, deterrimus, _worst_. (Cf. archaic potis, potior, _preferable_, potissimus, _chiefest_ _possible_.) 2. Positive occurring only in special cases,-- postero die, anno, posterior, _later_, postremus, _latest_, etc. _the following _last_. day_, etc., postumus, _late-born_, posteri, _posthumous_. _descendants_, exteri, exterior, _outer_ extremus, extimus, _foreigners_, _outermost_. nationes exterae, _foreign nations_, inferi, _gods of the inferior, _lower_, infimus, imus, lower world_, _lowest_. Mare Inferum, _Mediterranean Sea_, superi, _gods superior, _higher_, supremus, _last_. above_, summus, _highest_. Mare Superum, _Adriatic Sea_, 3. Comparative lacking. vetus, _old_, ----[17] veterrimus. fidus, _faithful_, ---- fidissimus. novus, _new_, ----[18] novissimus,[19] _last_. sacer, _sacred_, ---- sacerrimus. falsus, _false_, ---- falsissimus. Also in some other words less frequently used. 4. Superlative lacking. alacer, _lively_, alacrior, ---- ingens, _great_, ingentior, ---- salutaris, _wholesome_, salutarior, ---- juvenis, _young_, junior, ----[20] senex, _old_, senior. ----[21] a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -alis, -ilis, -ilis, -bilis, and in a few others. Comparison by _Magis_ and _Maxime_. 74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (_more_) and maxime (_most_). Here belong-- 1. Many adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -icus, imus, inus, -orus. 2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, _adapted_; arduus, _steep_; necessarius, _necessary_. a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant. Adjectives not admitting Comparison. 75. Here belong-- 1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, _of to-day_; annuus, _annual_; mortalis, _mortal_. 2. Some special words; as, mirus, gnarus, merus; and a few others. * * * * * FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison. 1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -i of the Genitive Singular to -e; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,-- carus, care, _dearly_; pulcher, pulchre, _beautifully_; acer, acriter, _fiercely_; levis, leviter, _lightly_. a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,-- sapiens, sapienter, _wisely_; sollers, sollerter, _skillfully_. Note audax, audacter, _boldly_. 2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -i of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -e. Thus-- (carus) care, _dearly_, carius, carissime. (pulcher) pulchre, _beautifully_, pulchrius, pulcherrime. (acer) acriter, _fiercely_, acrius, acerrime. (levis) leviter, _lightly_, levius, levissime. (sapiens) sapienter, _wisely_, sapientius, sapientissime. (audax) audacter, _boldly_, audacius, audacissime. Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation. 77. 1., _well_, melius, optime. male, _ill_, pejus, pessime. magnopere, _greatly_, magis, maxime. multum, _much_, plus, plurimum. non multum, _little_, minus, minime. parum, diu, _long_, diutius, diutissime. nequiter, _worthlessly_, nequius, nequissime. saepe, _often_, saepius, saepissime. mature, _betimes_, maturius, maturrime. maturissime. prope, _near_, propius, proxime. nuper, _recently_, ---- nuperrime. ---- potius, _rather_, potissimum, _especially_. ---- prius, _previously_, primum, _first_. _before_, secus, _otherwise_, setius, _less_. 2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -o, instead of -e; as,-- crebro, _frequently_; falso, _falsely_; continuo, subito, _suddenly_; _immediately_; raro, _rarely_, and a few others. a. cito, quickly, has -o. 3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,-- multum, _much_; paulum, facile, _little_; _easily_. 4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,-- firmus, firmiter, _firmly_; humanus, humaniter, _humanly_; largus, largiter, _copiously_; alius, aliter, _otherwise_. a. violentus has violenter. 5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antiquitus, _anciently_; paulatim, _gradually_. * * * * * NUMERALS. 78. Numerals may be divided into-- I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising-- a. _Cardinals_; as, unus, _one_; duo, _two_; etc. b. _Ordinals_; as, primus, _first_; secundus, _second_; etc. c. _Distributives_; as, singuli, _one by one_; bini, _two by two_; etc. II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, _once_; bis, _twice_; etc. 79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 1. unus, una, unum primus, _first_ 2. duo, duae, duo secundus, _second_ 3. tres, tria tertius, _third_ 4. quattuor quartus, _fourth_ 5. quinque quintus, _fifth_ 6. sex sextus 7. septem septimus 8. octo octavus 9. novem nonus 10. decem decimus 11. undecim undecimus 12. duodecim duodecimus 13. tredecim tertius decimus 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus 15. quindecim quintus decimus 16. sedecim, sextus decimus sexdecim 17. septendecim septimus decimus 18. duodeviginti duodevicesimus 19. undeviginti undevicesimus 20. viginti vicesimus 21. viginti unus, vicesimus primus, unus et viginti unus et vicesimus 22. viginti duo, vicesimus secundus, duo et viginti alter et vicesimus 30. triginta tricesimus 40. quadraginta quadragesimus 50. quinquaginta quinquagesimus 60. sexaginta sexagesimus 70. septuaginta septuagesimus 80. octoginta octogesimus 90. nonaginta nonagesimus 100. centum centesimus 101. centum unus, centesimus primus, centum et unus centesimus et primus 200. ducenti, -ae, -a ducentesimus 300. trecenti trecentesimus 400. quadringenti quadringentesimus 500. quingenti quingentesimus 600. sescenti sescentesimus 700. septingenti septingentesimus 800. octingenti octingentesimus 900. nongenti nongentesimus 1,000. mille millesimus 2,000. duo milia bis millesimus 100,000. centum milia centies millesimus 1,000,000. decies centena milia decies centies millesimus DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. 1. singuli, _one by one_ semel, _once_ 2. bini, _two by two_ bis 3. terni (trini) ter 4. quaterni quater 5. quini quinquies 6. seni sexies 7. septeni septies 8. octoni octies 9. noveni novies 10. deni decies 11. undeni undecies 12. duodeni duodecies 13. terni deni terdecies 14. quaterni deni quaterdecies 15. quini deni quinquies decies 16. seni deni sexies decies 17. septeni deni septies decies 18. duodeviceni octies decies 19. undeviceni novies decies 20. viceni vicies 21. viceni singuli, vicies semel singuli et viceni 22. viceni bini, vicies bis bini et viceni 30. triceni tricies 40. quadrageni quadragies 50. quinquageni quinquagies 60. sexageni sexagies 70. septuageni septuagies 80. octogeni octogies 90. nonageni nonagies 100. centeni centies 101. centeni singuli, centies semel centeni et singuli 200. duceni ducenties 300. treceni trecenties 400. quadringeni quadringenties 500. quingeni quingenties 600. sesceni sescenties 700. septingeni septingenties 800. octingeni octingenties 900. nongeni nongenties 1,000. singula milia milies 2,000. bina milia bis milies 100,000. centena milia centies milies 1,000,000. decies centena milia decies centies milies NOTE.-- -ensimus and -iens are often written in the numerals instead of -esimus and -ies. Declension of the Cardinals. 80. 1. The declension of unus has already been given under Sec. 66. 2. Duo is declined as follows:-- _Nom._ duo duae duo _Gen._ duorum duarum duorum _Dat._ duobus duabus duobus _Acc._ duos, duo duas duo _Abl._ duobus duabus duobus a. So ambo, _both_, except that its final o is long. 3. Tres is declined,-- _Nom._ tres tria _Gen._ trium trium _Dat._ tribus tribus _Acc._ tres (tris) tria _Abl._ tribus tribus 4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus. 5. Mille is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; Sec. 201, 1), and is declined,-- _Nom._ milia _Acc._ milia _Gen._ milium _Voc._ milia _Dat._ milibus _Abl._ milibus Thus mille homines, _a thousand men_; but duo milia hominum, _two thousand men_, literally _two thousands of men_. a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mille hominum. 6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals. 81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:-- triginta sex or sex et triginta, _thirty-six_. 2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,-- duodeviginti, _eighteen_ (but also octodecim); undequadraginta, _thirty-nine_ (but also triginta novem or novem et triginta). 3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,-- centum viginti septem, _one hundred and twenty-seven_. anno octingentesimo octogesimo secundo, _in the year 882_. Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,-- centum et septem, _one hundred and seven_; centum et quadraginta, _one hundred and forty_. 4. The Distributives are used-- a) To denote _so much each_, _so many apiece_; as,-- bina talenta eis dedit, _he gave them two talents each_. b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,-- binae litterae, _two epistles_. But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed for _one_, and trini (not terni) for three; as,-- unae litterae, _one epistle_; trinae litterae, _three epistles_. c) In multiplication; as,-- bis bina sunt quattuor, _twice two are four_. d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,-- bina hastilia, _two spears_. * * * * * C. PRONOUNS. 82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it. 83. There are the following classes of pronouns:-- I. Personal. V. Intensive. II. Reflexive. VI. Relative. III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative. IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 84. These correspond to the English _I_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., and are declined as follows:-- First Person. Second Person. Third Person. SINGULAR. _Nom._ ego, _I_ tu, _thou_ is, _he_; ea, _she_; id, _it_ _Gen._ mei tui (For declension see Sec. 87.) _Dat._ mihi[22] tibi[22] _Acc._ me te _Voc._ ---- tu _Abl._ me te PLURAL. _Nom._ nos, _we_ vos, _you_ _Gen._ nostrum, nostri vestrum, vestri _Dat._ nobis vobis _Acc._ nos vos _Voc._ ---- vos _Abl._ nobis vobis 1. A Dative Singular mi occurs in poetry. 2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, _I myself_; tibimet, _to you yourself_; tu has tute and tutemet (written also tutimet). 3. In early Latin, med and ted occur as Accusative and Ablative forms. * * * * * II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like _myself_, _yourself_, in '_I see myself_,' etc. They are declined as follows:-- _First Person._ _Second Person._ _Third Person._ Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique cases of ego. cases of tu. _Gen._ mei, _of myself_ tui, _of thyself_ sui _Dat._ mihi, _to myself_ tibi, _to thyself_ sibi[22] _Acc._ me, _myself_ te, _thyself_ se or sese _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ me, _with myself_, te, _with thyself_, se or sese etc. etc. 1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for _all genders_ and for _both numbers_. Thus sui may mean, _of himself_, _herself_, _itself_, or _of themselves_; and so with the other forms. 2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a _reciprocal_ force; as,-- inter se pugnant, _they fight with each other_. 3. In early Latin, sed occurs as Accusative and Ablative. * * * * * III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are-- _First Person._ _Second Person._ meus, -a, -um, _my_; tuus, -a, -um, _thy_; noster, nostra, nostrum, vester, vestra, vestrum, _our_; _your_; _Third Person._ suus, -a, -um, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_. 1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,-- pater liberos suos amat, _the father loves his children_. Otherwise, _his_, _her_, _its_ are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and _their_ by the Genitive Plural, eorum, earum. 2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi. 3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suo, sua; as, suopte, suapte. * * * * * IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are-- hic, _this_ (where I am); iste, _that_ (where you are); ille, _that_ (something distinct from the speaker); is, _that_ (weaker than ille); idem, _the same_. Hic, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively. Hic, _this_. SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ hic haec hoc hi hae haec _Gen._ hujus[23] hujus hujus horum harum horum _Dat._ huic huic huic his his his _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc hos has haec _Abl._ hoc hac hoc his his his Iste, _that_, _that of yours._ SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ iste ista istud[24] isti istae ista[24] _Gen._ istius istius istius istorum istarum istorum _Dat._ isti isti isti istis istis istis _Acc._ istum istam istud istos istas ista[24] _Abl._ isto ista isto istis istis istis Ille (archaic olle), _that_, _that one_, _he_, is declined like iste.[25] Is, _he_, _this_, _that_. SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom_. is ea id ei, ii, eae ea (i) _Gen._ ejus ejus ejus eorum earum eorum _Dat._ ei ei ei eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis _Acc._ eum eam id eos eas ea _Abl._ eo ea eo eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis Idem, _the same_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom_. idem eadem idem eidem, eaedem eadem iidem _Gen._ ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem _Dat._ eidem eidem eidem eisdem eisdem eisdem _Acc._ eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem _Abl._ eodem eadem eodem eisdem eisdem eisdem The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has idem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. isdem or iisdem * * * * * V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN. 88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English _myself_, etc., in '_I myself_, _he himself._' SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa _Gen._ ipsius ipsius ipsius ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum _Dat._ ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis _Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa _Abl._ ipso ipsa ipso ipsis ipsis ipsis * * * * * VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 89. The Relative Pronoun is qui, who. It is declined:-- SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ qui quae quod qui quae quae _Gen._ cujus cujus cujus quorum quarum quorum _Dat._ cui cui cui quibus[26] quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quam quod quos quas quae _Abl._ quo[27] qua[27] quo quibus[26] quibus quibus * * * * * VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, _who?_ (substantive) and qui, _what? what kind of?_ (adjective). 1. Quis, _who_? SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER _Nom._ quis quid The rare Plural _Gen._ cujus cujus follows the declension _Dat._ cui cui of the Relative Pronoun. _Acc._ quem quid _Abl._ quo quo 2. Qui, _what? what kind of?_ is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. qui, quae, quod, etc. a. An old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense of _how? why?_ b. Qui is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions. c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homo = _what man?_ whereas qui homo = _what sort of man?_ d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:-- Substantive: quisnam, _who, pray?_ quidnam, _what, pray?_ Adjective: quinam, quaenam, quodnam, _of what kind, pray?_ * * * * * VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 91. These have the general force of _some one_, _any one_. SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES. M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. quis, quid, qui, quae, qua, quod, _any one_, _anything_. _any_. aliquis, aliquid, aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, _some one_, _any_. _something_. quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam, _any one_, _anything_. _any_ (rare) quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, _any one_, _anything_. _any_. quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque, _each_. _each_. quivis, quaevis, quidvis, quivis, quaevis, quodvis, quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet, _any one_ (_anything_) _any you wish_ _you wish_ quidam, quaedam, quiddam, quidam, quaedam, quoddam, _a certain person_, or _a certain_ _thing_. 1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet, etc. 2. Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Qui has both qua and quae in these same cases. 3. Quidam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quorundam, quarundam; the m being assimilated to n before d. 4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliqui substantively. 5. In combination with ne, si, nisi, num, either quis or qui may stand as a Substantive. Thus: si quis or si qui. 6. Ecquis, _any one_, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,--substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecqui, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod. 7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural. 8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,--quicumque and quisquis, _whoever_. Quicumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quoquo, in common use. * * * * * PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:-- 1. alius, _another;_ alter, _the other;_ uter, _which of two?_ (interr.); neuter, _neither;_ _whichever of two_ (rel.); unus, _one_; nullus, _no one_ (in oblique cases) 2. The compounds,-- uterque, utraque, utrumque, _each of two;_ utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, _whoever of two;_ uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, _either one you please;_ utervis, utravis, utrumvis, _either one you please;_ alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, _the one or the other_. In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,-- _Nom._ alteruter altera utra alterum utrum _Gen._ alterius utrius, etc. * * * * * CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation._ 93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, _he is_; amat, _he loves_. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation. 94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:-- 1. Two Voices,--Active and Passive. 2. Three Moods,--Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 3. Six Tenses,-- Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Future Perfect. But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future. 4. Two Numbers,--Singular and Plural. 5. Three Persons,--First, Second, and Third. 95. These make up the so-called _Finite Verb_. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:-- 1. Noun Forms,--Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine. 2. Adjective Forms,--Participles (including the Gerundive). 96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,-- Active. Passive. _Sing_. 1. -o; -m; -i (Perf. Ind.); -r. 2. -s; -sti (Perf Ind.); -ris, -re; -to or wanting (Impv.); -re, -tor (Impv.). 3. -t; -to (Impv.); -tur; -tor (Impv.). _Plu_. 1. -mus; -mur. 2. -tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -mini. -te, -tote (Impv.); 3. -nt; -erunt (Perf Ind.); -ntur; -ntor (Impv.). -nto (Impv.); VERB STEMS. 97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,-- I. Present Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, 2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, 3. The Imperative, 4. The Present Infinitive, - (Active and Passive.) 5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive. II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 3. Perfect Infinitive, - (Active.) III. Participial Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Perfect Participle, 2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 4. Perfect Infinitive, - (Passive.) Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:-- INFINITIVE DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION. TERMINATION. VOWEL. I. -are a II. -ere e III. -ere e IV. -ire i 99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,--so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived. * * * * * CONJUGATION OF SUM. 100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. FUT. PARTIC.[29] sum esse fui futurus INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. sum, _I am_, sumus, _we are_, es, _thou art_, estis, _you are_, est, _he is_; sunt, _they are_. IMPERFECT. eram, _I was_, eramus, _we were_, eras, _thou wast_, eratis, _you were_, erat, _he was_; erant, _they were_. FUTURE. ero, _I shall be_, erimus, _we shall be_, eris, _thou wilt be_, eritis, _you will be_, erit, _he will be_; erunt, _they will be_. PERFECT. fui, _I have been_, _I was_, fuimus, _we have been_, _we were_, fuisti, _thou hast been_, _thou fuistis, _you have been_, _you wast_, were_, fuit, _he has been_, _he was_; fuerunt, fuere, _they have been_, _they were_. PLUPERFECT. fueram, _I had been_, fueramus, _we had been_, fueras, _thou hadst been_, fueratis, _you had been_, fuerat, _he had been_; fuerant, _they had been_. FUTURE PERFECT. fuero, _I shall have been_, fuerimus, _we shall have been_, fueris, _thou wilt have been_, fueritis, _you will have been_