The Project Gutenberg EBook of New Latin Grammar, by Charles E. Bennett This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net Title: New Latin Grammar Author: Charles E. Bennett Release Date: April 20, 2005 [EBook #15665] Language: English Character set encoding: Unicode UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW LATIN GRAMMAR *** Produced by Nathan Gibson, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. NEW LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University _Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta_ _Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:_ _Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat._ --HORACE, _Ars Poetica_. COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT * * * * * PREFACE. The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax. C.E.B. ITHACA, NEW YORK, May 4, 1918 * * * * * PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present book is a revision of my _Latin Grammar_ originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings _-īs_, _-īmus_, _-ītis_ are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive. Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged. ITHACA, NEW YORK, October 16, 1907. * * * * * FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The object of this book is to present _the essential facts_ of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many _minutiae_ of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous. ITHACA, NEW YORK, December 15, 1894. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction--The Latin language PART I. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC. The Alphabet § 1 Classification of Sounds § 2 Sounds of the Letters § 3 Syllables § 4 Quantity § 5 Accent § 6 Vowel Changes § 7 Consonant Changes § 8 Peculiarities of Orthography § 9 PART II. INFLECTIONS. CHAPTER I.--_Declension._ A. NOUNS. § 10 Gender of Nouns § 13 Number § 16 Cases § 17 The Five Declensions § 18 First Declension § 20 Second Declension § 23 Third Declension § 28 Fourth Declension § 48 Fifth Declension § 51 Defective Nouns § 54 B. ADJECTIVES. § 62 Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions § 63 Adjectives of the Third Declension § 67 Comparison of Adjectives § 71 Formation and Comparison of Adverbs § 76 Numerals § 78 C. PRONOUNS. § 82 Personal Pronouns § 84 Reflexive Pronouns § 85 Possessive Pronouns § 86 Demonstrative Pronouns § 87 The Intensive Pronoun § 88 The Relative Pronoun § 89 Interrogative Pronouns § 90 Indefinite Pronouns § 91 Pronominal Adjectives § 92 CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation. § 93_ Verb Stems § 97 The Four Conjugations § 98 Conjugation of _Sum_ § 100 First Conjugation § 101 Second Conjugation § 103 Third Conjugation § 105 Fourth Conjugation § 107 Verbs in _-iō_ of the Third Conjugation § 109 Deponent Verbs § 112 Semi-Deponents § 114 Periphrastic Conjugation § 115 Peculiarities of Conjugation § 116 Formation of the Verb Stems § 117 List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts § 120 Irregular Verbs § 124 Defective Verbs § 133 Impersonal Verbs § 138 PART III. PARTICLES. § 139 Adverbs § 140 Prepositions § 141 Interjections § 145 PART IV. WORD FORMATION. I. DERIVATIVES. § 146 Nouns § 147 Adjectives § 150 Verbs § 155 Adverbs § 157 II. COMPOUNDS. § 158 Examples of Compounds § 159 PART V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I.--_Sentences._ Classification of Sentences § 161 Form of Interrogative Sentences § 162 Subject and Predicate § 163 Simple and Compound Sentences § 164 CHAPTER II.--_Syntax of Nouns._ Subject § 166 Predicate Nouns § 167 Appositives § 169 The Nominative § 170 The Accusative § 172 The Dative § 186 The Genitive § 194 The Ablative § 213 The Locative § 232 CHAPTER III.--_Syntax of Adjectives._ Agreement of Adjectives § 234 Adjectives used Substantively § 236 Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs § 239 Comparatives and Superlatives § 240 Other Peculiarities § 241 CHAPTER IV.--_Syntax of Pronouns._ Personal Pronouns § 242 Possessive Pronouns § 243 Reflexive Pronouns § 244 Reciprocal Pronouns § 245 Demonstrative Pronouns § 246 Relative Pronouns § 250 Indefinite Pronouns § 252 Pronominal Adjectives § 253 CHAPTER V.--_Syntax of Verbs._ Agreement of Verbs § 254 Voices § 256 Tenses -- Of the Indicative § 257 -- Of the Subjunctive § 266 -- Of the Infinitive § 270 Moods -- In Independent Sentences § 271 -- -- Volitive Subjunctive § 273 -- -- Optative Subjunctive § 279 -- -- Potential Subjunctive § 280 -- -- Imperative § 281 -- In Dependent Clauses -- -- Clauses of Purpose § 282 -- -- Clauses of Characteristic § 283 -- -- Clauses of Result § 284 -- -- Causal Clauses § 285 -- -- Temporal Clauses -- -- -- Introduced by _Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, etc. § 287 -- -- -- _Cum_-Clauses § 288 -- -- -- Introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_ § 291 -- -- -- Introduced by _Dum_, _Dōnec_, _Quoad_ § 293 -- -- Substantive Clauses § 294 -- -- -- Developed from the Volitive § 295 -- -- -- Developed from the Optative § 296 -- -- -- Of Result § 297 -- -- -- After _nōn dubito_, etc. § 298 -- -- -- Introduced by _Quod_ § 299 -- -- -- Indirect Questions § 300 -- -- Conditional Sentences § 301 -- -- Use of _Sī_, _Nisi_, _Sīn_ § 306 -- -- Conditional Clauses of Comparison § 307 -- -- Concessive Clauses § 308 -- -- Adversative Clauses with _Quamvīs_, _Quamquam_, etc. § 309 -- -- Clauses of Wish and Proviso § 310 -- -- Relative Clauses § 311 -- -- Indirect Discourse § 313 -- -- -- Moods in Indirect Discourse § 314 -- -- -- Tenses in Indirect Discourse § 317 -- -- -- Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse § 319 -- -- Implied Indirect Discourse § 323 -- -- Subjunctive by Attraction § 324 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb § 325 -- Infinitive § 326 -- Participles § 336 -- Gerund § 338 -- Supine § 340 CHAPTER VI.--_Particles._ Coördinate Conjunctions § 341 Adverbs § 347 CHAPTER VII.--_Word-Order and Sentence-Structure._ Word-Order § 348 Sentence-Structure § 351 CHAPTER VIII.--_Hints on Latin Style. § 352_ Nouns § 353 Adjectives § 354 Pronouns § 355 Verbs § 356 The Cases § 357 PART VI. PROSODY. § 360 Quantity of Vowels and Syllables § 362 Verse-Structure § 366 The Dactylic Hexameter § 368 The Dactylic Pentameter § 369 Iambic Measures § 370 SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. Roman Calendar § 371 II. Roman Names § 373 III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric § 374 * * * * * Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs General Index Footnotes * * * * * INTRODUCTION. THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.--Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as _Indo-European_.[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups: ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. a. _The Sanskrit_, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C. The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people. b. _The Iranian_, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C. Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic. c. _The Armenian_, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day. d. _The Tokharian_. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era. EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. e. _The Greek_. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C. f. _The Italic Group._ The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period. g. _The Celtic._ In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders. h. _The Teutonic._ The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English. i. _The Balto-Slavic._ The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century. j. _The Albanian_, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century. 2. Home of the Indo-European Family.--Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected. As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years. The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier. 3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.--The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature: a. _The Preliterary Period_, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length. b. _The Archaic Period_, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong: Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey; Tragedies). Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies). Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies). Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies). Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies). Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires). Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies). Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies). c. _The Golden Age_, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here: Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy). Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet). Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works; Letters). Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars), Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian). Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian). Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics"). Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles). Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet). Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet). Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems). Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian). d. _The Silver Latinity_, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention: Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse) Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian). Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War). Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works). Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History"). Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters"). Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams). Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education). Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian). Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist). Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars"). Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist). Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden Ass"). e. _The Archaizing Period._ This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D. f. _The Period of the Decline_, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are: Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer). Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer). Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity). Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet). Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures). Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father). Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father--"City of God"). Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet). Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet). Boëthius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy "). 4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.--After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provençal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech. * * * * * PART I. * * * * * SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. * * * * * THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w. 1. K occurs only in _Kalendae_ and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words--chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,-- a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded _without_ voice or vibration of the vocal cords. b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded _with_ vibration of the vocal cords. c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. _loop-hole_, _hot-house_, _block-house_. 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as Labials, p, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch. 5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced. 6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,--that of ng in _sing_,--the so-called n _adulterīnum_; as,-- anceps, _double_, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless. 8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced. 9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3, 3. 10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:-- VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES. p, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals). c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals). Liquids, l, r, Nasals, m, n, f, (Labial). Spirants, s, (Dental). h, (Guttural). Semivowels, j, v. a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D. 1. Vowels. ā as in _father_; ă as in the first syllable _ahá_; ē as in _they_; ĕ as in _met_; ī as in _machine_; ĭ as in _pin_; ō as in _note_; ŏ as in _obey_, _melody_; ū as in _rude_; ŭ as in _put_; y like French _u_, German _ü_. 2. Diphthongs. ae like _ai_ in eu with its two elements, ĕ and ŭ, _aisle_; pronounced in rapid succession; oe like _oi_ in _oil_; ui occurs almost exclusively in ei as in _rein_; _cui_ and _huic_. These words may au like _ow_ in _how_; be pronounced as though written _kwee_ and _wheek_. 3. Consonants. b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced _ps_, _pt_. c is always pronounced as _k_. t is always a plain _t_, never with the sound of _sh_ as in Eng. _oration_. g always as in _get_; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of _gw_, as in anguis, languidus. j has the sound of _y_ as in _yet_. r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue. s always voiceless as in _sin_; in suādeō, suāvis, suēscō, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of _sw_. v like _w_. x always like _ks_; never like Eng. _gz_ or _z_. z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. _zd_, possibly like _z_. The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. _p_, c, _t_--so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated. SYLLABLES. 4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables,-- 1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest. 2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus. 3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-trī, dig-nus, mōn-strum, sis-te-re. 4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grī, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mā-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpō, ad-lātus. 5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tēx-ī. QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:-- 1. A vowel is long,[6]-- a) before nf or ns; as, īnfāns, īnferior, cōnsūmō, cēnseō, īnsum. b) when the result of contraction; as, nīlum for nihilum. 2. A vowel is short,-- a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nōndum (nōn dum). b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahō. Some exceptions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aenēās. B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for their pronunciation. 1. A syllable is long,[7]-- a) if it contains a long vowel; as, māter, rēgnum, dīus. b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus. c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restō. 2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, _viz_. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, ăgrī, volŭcris.[8] Such syllables are called _common_. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet. NOTE.--These distinctions of _long_ and _short_ are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires _more time_ for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes _less time_ to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-rī) the poets were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit, mō´rem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, amā´vī, amántis, míserum. 3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miserō´que, hominísque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pórtaque; but míseráque. 4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tantō´n, istī´c, illū´c. 5. In utră´que, _each_, and plēră´que, _most_, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,--utérque, utrúmque, plērúmque. VOWEL CHANGES.[9] 7.. 1. In Compounds, a) ĕ before a single consonant becomes ĭ; as,-- colligō for con-legō. b) ă before a single consonant becomes ĭ: as,-- adigō for ad-agō. c) ă before two consonants becomes ē; as,-- expers for ex-pars. d) ae becomes ī; as,-- conquīrō for con-quaerō. e) au becomes ū, sometimes ō; as,-- conclūdō for con-claudō; explōdō for ex-plaudō. 2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,-- trēs for tre-es; cōpia for co-opia; mālō for ma(v)elō; cōgō for co-agō; amāstī for amā(v)istī; cōmō for co-emō; dēbeō for dē(h)abeō; jūnior for ju(v)enior. nīl for nihil; 3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,-- vinculum for earlier vinclum. So perīculum, saeculum. 4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,-- ārdor for āridor (compare _āridus_); valdē for validē (compare _validus_). CONSONANT CHANGES[10] 8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,-- arbōs, Gen. arboris (for arbosis); genus, Gen. generis (for genesis); dirimō (for dis-emō). 2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,-- pēnsum for pend-tum; versum for vert-tum; mīles for mīlet-s; sessus for sedtus; passus for pattus. 3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,-- cor for cord; lac for lact. 4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurrō (adc-); aggerō (adg-); asserō (ads-); allātus (adl-); apportō (adp-); attulī (adt-); arrīdeō (adr-); afferō (adf-); occurrō (obc-); suppōnō (subp-); offerō (obf-); corruō (comr-); collātus (coml-); etc. 5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:-- a) b before s or t becomes p; as,-- scrīpsī (scrīb-sī), scrīptum (scrīb-tum). b) g before s or t becomes c; as,-- āctus (āg-tus). c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,-- eundem (eum-dem); prīnceps (prīm-ceps). PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. Many words have variable orthography. 1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubīdō, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libīdō, etc. 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspectō, expectō; exsistō, existō; epistula, epistola; adulēscēns, adolēscēns; paulus, paullus; cottīdiē, cotīdiē; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,-- ad-gerō or aggerō; ad-serō or asserō; ad-liciō or alliciō; in-lātus or illātus; ad-rogāns or arrogāns; sub-moveō or summoveō; and many others. 3. Compounds of jaciō were usually written ēiciō, dēiciō, adiciō, obiciō, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjiciō, objiciō, etc. 4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antīquos, antīquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vīvont, metuont. The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts. * * * * * PART II. * * * * * INFLECTIONS. * * * * * 10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article. 11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation. * * * * * CHAPTER I.--_Declension._ A. NOUNS. 12. A Noun is the name of a _person_, _place_, _thing_, or _quality_; as, Caesar, _Caesar_; Rōma, _Rome_; penna, _feather_; virtūs, _courage_. 1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtūs. 2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract. a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mōns, _mountain_; pēs, _foot_; diēs, _day_; mēns, _mind_. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiō, _legion_; comitātus, _retinue_. b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cōnstantia, _steadfastness_; paupertās, _poverty_. GENDER OF NOUNS. 13. There are three Genders,--Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical. Natural Gender. 14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are-- 1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,-- nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_. 2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,-- māter, _mother_; rēgīna, _queen_. Grammatical Gender. 15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:-- _A. Gender determined by Signification._ 1. Names of _Rivers_, _Winds_, and _Months_ are Masculine; as,-- Sēquana, _Seine_; Eurus, _east wind_; Aprīlis, _April_. 2. Names of _Trees_, and such names of _Towns_ and _Islands_ as end in -us, are Feminine; as,-- quercus, _oak_; Corinthus, _Corinth_; Rhodus, _Rhodes_. Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see _B_, below); as,-- Delphī, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tībur, n.; Carthāgō, f. 3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,-- nihil, _nothing_; nefās, _wrong_; amāre, _to love_. NOTE.--Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f. _B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular._ The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11] NOTE 1.--_Common Gender._ Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdōs may mean either _priest_ or _priestess_, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis, _citizen_; parēns, _parent_; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be _common_. NOTE 2.--Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, ānser, m., _goose_ or _gander_. So vulpēs, f., _fox_; aquīla, f., _eagle_. NUMBER. 16. The Latin has two Numbers,--the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one. CASES. 17. There are six Cases in Latin:-- Nominative, Case of Subject; Genitive, Objective with _of_, or Possessive; Dative, Objective with _to_ or _for_; Accusative, Case of Direct Object; Vocative, Case of Address; Ablative, Objective with _by_, _from_, _in_, _with_. 1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words. 2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases. 3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, _portam_ (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The _apparent case-ending_ thus resulting is called a termination. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:-- DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION. First ā -ae Second ŏ -ī Third ĭ / Some consonant -īs Fourth ŭ -ūs Fifth ē -ēī / -ĕī Cases alike in Form. 19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension. 2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -ă. 4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative. * * * * * FIRST DECLENSION. ā-Stems. 20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -ă, weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:-- Porta, _gate_; stem, portā-. SINGULAR. CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS. _Nom._ porta _a gate_ (as subject) -ă _Gen._ portae _of a gate_ -ae _Dat._ portae _to_ or _for a gate_ -ae _Acc._ portam _a gate_ (as object) -am _Voc._ porta _O gate!_ -ă _Abl._ portā _with, by, from, in a gate_ -ā PLURAL. _Nom._ portae _gates_ (as subject) -ae _Gen._ portārum _of gates_ -ārum _Dat._ portīs _to_ or _for gates_ -īs _Acc._ portās _gates_ (as object) -ās _Voc._ portae _O gates!_ -ae _Abl._ portīs _with, by, from, in gates_ -īs 1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either _a gate_ or _the gate_; and in the Plural, _gates_ or _the gates_. Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension. 21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_; also, Hadria, _Adriatic Sea_. 2. Rare Case-Endings,-- a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is preserved in the combination pater familiās, _father of a family_; also in māter familiās, fīlius familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae. b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs; as, aulāī. c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rōmae, _at Rome_. d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different case-ending. e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually find -ābus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, _goddess_, and fīlia, _daughter_, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, _god_, and fīlius, _son_. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, lībertābus (from līberta, _freedwoman_), equābus (_mares_), to avoid confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus, _freedman_) and equīs (from equus, _horse_). Greek Nouns. 22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:-- Archiās, Epitomē, Comētēs, _comet_. _Archias_. _epitome_. _Nom._ Archiās epitomē comētēs _Gen._ Archiae epitomēs comētae _Dat._ Archiae epitomae comētae _Acc._ Archiam (or -ān) epitomēn comētēn _Voc._ Archiā epitomē comētē (or -ă) _Abl._ Archiā epitomē comētē (or -ā) 1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, _grammar_; mūsica, _music_; rhētorica, _rhetoric_. 2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry. * * * * * SECOND DECLENSION. ŏ-Stems. 23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative. Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:-- Hortus, _garden_; Bellum, _war_; stem, hortŏ-. stem, bellŏ-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. TERMINATION. _Nom._ hortus -us bellum -um _Gen._ hortī -ī bellī -ī _Dat._ hortō -ō bellō -ō _Acc._ hortum -um bellum -um _Voc._ horte -e bellum -um _Abl._ hortō -ō bellō -ō PLURAL. _Nom._ hortī -ī bella -a _Gen._ hortōrum -ōrum bellōrum -ōrum _Dat._ hortīs -īs bellīs -īs _Acc._ hortōs -ōs bella -a _Voc._ hortī -ī bella -a _Abl._ hortīs -īs bellīs -īs Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:-- Puer, _boy_; Ager, _field_; Vir, _man_; stem, puerŏ- stem, agrŏ- stem, virŏ- SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ puer ager vir Wanting _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Voc._ puer ager vir Wanting _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō PLURAL. _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Voc._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs 1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r. 2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, _adulterer_; gener, _son-in-law_; Līber, _Bacchus_; socer, _father-in-law_; vesper, _evening_; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger. Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_. 24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,--an earlier and a later,--as follows:-- _Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero)._ Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m., _slave_. _age_. _horse_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ servos aevom equos _Gen._ servī aevī equī _Dat._ servō aevō equō _Acc._ servom aevom equom _Voc._ serve aevom eque _Abl._ servō aevō equō _Later inflection (after Cicero)._ SINGULAR. _Nom._ servus aevum equus _Gen._ servī aevī equī _Dat._ servō aevō equō _Act._ servum aevum equum _Voc._ serve aevum eque _Abl._ servō aevō equō 1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform. Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension. 25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī (instead of -iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); as Vergílī, _of Virgil_, or _O Virgil_ (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī, -eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī. 2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -iī); as,-- _Nom._ ingenium fīlius _Gen._ ingénī fīlī These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short. 3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); _viz_. fīlī, _O son!_ 4. Deus, _god_, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:-- _Nom._ dī (deī) _Gen._ deōrum (deum) _Dat._ dīs (deīs) _Acc._ deōs _Voc._ dī (deī) _Abl._ dīs (deīs) 5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as, Corinthī, _at Corinth_. 6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -ōrum,-- a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, _of talents_; modium, _of pecks_; sēstertium, _of sesterces_. b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum. c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, _of the children_; socium, _of the allies_. Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:-- a) Names of towns, islands, trees--according to the general rule laid down in § 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, _Egypt_. b) Five special words,-- alvus, _belly_; carbasus, _flax_; colus, _distaff_; humus, _ground_; vannus, _winnowing-fan_. c) A few Greek Feminines; as,-- atomus, _atom_; diphthongus, _diphthong_. 2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:-- pelagus, _sea_; vīrus, _poison_; vulgus, _crowd_. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. These end in -os, -ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:-- Barbitos, m. Androgeōs, m., Īlion, n., and f., _Androgeos._ _Troy._ _lyre._ _Nom._ barbitos Androgeōs Īlion _Gen._ barbitī Androgeō, -ī Īliī _Dat._ barbitō Androgeō Īliō _Acc._ barbiton Androgeō, -ōn Īlion _Voc._ barbite Androgeōs Īlion _Abl._ barbitō Androgeō Īliō 1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Dēlum, _Delos_. 2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular. 3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted. * * * * * THIRD DECLENSION. 28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,-- I. Pure Consonant-Stems. II. ĭ-Stems. III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-Stems. IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns. I. Consonant-Stems. 29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized. 2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant. _A. Mute-Stems._ 30. Mute-Stems may end,-- 1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s. 2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s). 3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s). 1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p). 31. Prīnceps, m., _chief_. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ prīnceps -s _Gen._ prīncipis -is _Dat._ prīncipī -ī _Acc._ prīncipem -em _Voc._ prīnceps -s _Abl._ prīncipe -e PLURAL. _Nom._ prīncipēs -ēs _Gen._ prīncipum -um _Dat._ prīncipibus -ibus _Acc._ prīncipēs -ēs _Voc._ prīncipēs -ēs _Abl._ prīncipibus -ibus 2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c). 32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x. Rēmex, m., _rower_. Dux, c., _leader_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs _Gen._ rēmigis rēmigum ducis ducum _Dat._ rēmigī rēmigibus ducī ducibus _Acc._ rēmigem rēmigēs ducem ducēs _Voc._ rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs _Abl._ rēmige rēmigibus duce ducibus 3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t). 33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s. Lapis, m., _stone_. Mīles, m., _soldier_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs _Gen._ lapidis lapidum mīlitis mīlitum _Dat._ lapidī lapidibus mīlitī mīlitibus _Acc._ lapidem lapidēs mīlitem mīlitēs _Voc._ lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs _Abl._ lapide lapidibus mīlite mīlitibus _B. Liquid Stems._ 34. These end in -l or -r. Vigil, m., Victor, m., Aequor, n., _watchman_. _conqueror_. _sea_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ vigil victor aequor _Gen._ vigilis victōris aequoris _Dat._ vigilī victōrī aequorī _Acc._ vigilem victōrem aequor _Voc._ vigil victor aequor _Abl._ vigile victōre aequore PLURAL. _Nom._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora _Gen._ vigilum victōrum aequorum _Dat._ vigilibus victōribus aequoribus _Acc._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora _Voc._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora _Abl._ vigilibus victōribus aequoribus 1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination. 2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension. _C. Nasal Stems._ 35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing. Leō, m., _lion_. Nōmen, n., _name_ SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina _Gen._ leōnis leōnum nōminis nōminum _Dat._ leōnī leōnibus nōminī nōminibus _Acc._ leōnem leōnēs nōmen nōmina _Voc._ leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina _Abl._ leōne leōnibus nōmine nōminibus _D. s-Stems._ 36. Mōs, m. Genus, n., Honor, m., _custom_. _race_. _honor_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ mōs genus honor _Gen._ mōris generis honōris _Dat._ mōrī generī honōrī _Acc._ mōrem genus honōrem _Voc._ mōs genus honor _Abl._ mōre genere honōre PLURAL. _Nom._ mōrēs genera honōrēs _Gen._ mōrum generum honōrum _Dat._ mōribus generibus honōribus _Acc._ mōrēs genera honōrēs _Voc._ mōrēs genera honōrēs _Abl._ mōribus generibus honōribus 1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honōs, colōs, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry. II. ĭ-Stems. _A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems._ 37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in -īs; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -ēs, the endings of Consonant-Stems. 38. Tussis, f., Īgnis, m., Hostis, c., _cough_; stem, _fire_; stem, _enemy_; stem, tussi-. īgni-. hosti-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ tussis īgnis hostis -is _Gen._ tussis īgnis hostis -is _Dat._ tussī īgnī hostī -ī _Acc._ tussim īgnem hostem -im, -em _Voc._ tussis īgnis hostis -is _Abl._ tussī īgnī or e hoste -ī, -e PLURAL. _Nom._ tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs _Gen._ tussium īgnium hostium -ium _Dat._ tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus _Acc._ tussīs or -ēs īgnīs or -ēs hostīs or -ēs -īs, -ēs _Voc._ tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs _Abl._ tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus 1. To the same class belong-- apis, _bee_. crātis, _hurdle_. †*secūris, _axe_. auris, _ear_. *febris, _fever_. sēmentis, _sowing_. avis, _bird_. orbis, _circle_. †*sitis, _thirst_. axis, _axle_. ovis, _sheep_. torris, _brand_. *būris, _plough-beam_. pelvis, _basin_. †*turris, _tower_. clāvis, _key_. puppis, _stern_. trudis, _pole_. collis, _hill_. restis, _rope_. vectis, _lever_. and many others. Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a † regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many at times show -im and -ī. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -ī. 2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, _dog_; juvenis, _youth_.[14] 3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, _part_, for par(ti)s; anas, _duck_, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, _death_; dōs, _dowry_; nox, _night_; sors, _lot_; mēns, _mind_; ars, _art_; gēns, _tribe_; and some others. _B. Neuter ĭ-Stems._ 39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems. Sedile, Animal, Calcar, _seat_; _animal_; _spur_; stem, sedīli-. stem, stem, animāli-. calcāri-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting _Gen._ sedīlis animālis calcāris -is _Dat._ sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī _Acc._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting _Voc._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting _Abl._ sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī PLURAL. _Nom._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia _Gen._ sedīlium animālium calcārium -ium _Dat._ sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus _Acc._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia _Voc._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia _Abl._ sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus 1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e. 2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sōracte, _Mt. Soracte_; so also sometimes mare, _sea_. III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of _ĭ_-Stems. 40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:-- Caedēs, f., Arx, f., Linter, f., _slaughter_; _citadel_; _skiff_; stem, caed-. stem, arc-. stem, lintr-. SINGULAR. _Nom._ caedēs arx linter _Gen._ caedis arcis lintris _Dat._ caedī arcī lintrī _Acc._ caedem arcem lintrem _Voc._ caedēs arx linter _Abl._ caede arce lintre PLURAL. _Nom._ caedēs arcēs lintrēs _Gen._ caedium arcium lintrium _Dat._ caedibus arcibus lintribus _Acc._ caedēs, -īs arcēs, -īs lintrēs, -īs _Voc._ caedēs arcēs lintrēs _Abl._ caedibus arcibus lintribus 1. The following classes of nouns belong here:-- a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as, nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs, etc. b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs, mōns, stirps, lanx. c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliēns, cohors. d) Ūter, venter; fūr, līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the Plurals faucēs, penātēs, Optimātēs, Samnitēs, Quirītēs. e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive -tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās. Cīvitās _usually_ has cīvitātium. IV. Stems in _-ī_, _-ū_, and Diphthongs. 41. Vis, f., Sūs, c., Bōs, c., _ox_, Juppiter, m., _force_; _swine_; _cow_; _Jupiter_; stem, vī-. stem, sū-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-. SINGULAR. _Nom._ vīs sūs bōs Juppiter _Gen._ ---- suis bovis Jovis _Dat._ ---- suī bovī Jovī _Acc._ vim suem bovem Jovem _Voc._ vīs sūs bōs Juppiter _Abl._ vī sue bove Jove PLURAL. _Nom._ vīrēs suēs bovēs _Gen._ vīrium suum bovum, boum _Dat._ vīribus suibus, subus bōbus, būbus _Acc._ vīrēs suēs bovēs _Voc._ vīrēs suēs bovēs _Abl._ vīribus suibus, subus bōbus, būbus 1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable. 2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus. 3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc. Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī. V. Irregular Nouns. 42. Senex, m., Carō, f., Os, n., _old man_. _flesh_. _bone_. SINGULAR. _Nom._ senex carō os _Gen._ senis carnis ossis _Dat._ senī carnī ossī _Acc._ senem carnem os _Voc._ senex carō os _Abl._ sene carne osse PLURAL. _Nom._ senēs carnēs ossa _Gen._ senum carnium ossium _Dat._ senibus carnibus ossibus _Acc._ senēs carnēs ossa _Voc._ senēs carnēs ossa _Abl._ senibus carnibus ossibus 1. Iter, itineris, n., _way_, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-. 2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., _furniture_, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -ī and -e. 3. Jecur, n., _liver_, forms its oblique cases from two stems,--jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris. 4. Femur, n., _thigh_, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis. General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension. 43. 1. Nouns in -ō, -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are Masculine. 2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō, -gō (Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or -ūdis) are Feminine. 3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -ŭs are Neuter. Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension. 44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines. 1. Nouns in -ō. a. Feminine: carō, _flesh_. 2. Nouns in -or. a. Feminine: arbor, _tree_. b. Neuter: aequor, _sea_; cor, _heart_; marmor, _marble_. 3. Nouns in -ōs. a. Feminine: dōs, _dowry_. b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), _mouth_. 4. Nouns in -er. a. Feminine: linter, _skiff_. b. Neuter: cadāver, _corpse_; iter, _way_; tūber, _tumor_; ūber, _udder_. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, _maple_. 5. Nouns in -ĕs. a. Feminine: seges, _crop_. 45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines. 1. Nouns in -ās. a. Masculine: vās, _bondsman_. b. Neuter: vās, _vessel_. 2. Nouns in -ēs. a. Masculine: ariēs, _ram_; pariēs, _wall_; pēs, _foot_. 3. Nouns in -is. a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, _river_; īgnis, _fire_; pānis, _bread_; sanguis, _blood_; unguis, _nail_. Also-- axis, _axle_. piscis, _fish_. collis, _hill_. postis, _post_. fascis, _bundle_. pulvis, _dust_. lapis, _stone_. orbis, _circle_. mēnsis, _month_. sentis, _brier_. 4. Nouns in -x. a. Masculine: apex, _peak_; cōdex, _tree-trunk_; grex, _flock_; imbrex, _tile_; pollex, _thumb_; vertex, _summit_; calix, _cup_. 5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant. a. Masculine: dēns, _tooth_; fōns, _fountain_; mōns, _mountain_; pōns, _bridge_. 6. Nouns in -dō. a. Masculine: cardō, _hinge_; ōrdō, _order_. 46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters. 1. Nouns in -l. a. Masculine: sōl, _sun_; sāl, _salt_. 2. Nouns in -n. a. Masculine: pecten, _comb_. 3. Nouns in -ur. a. Masculine: vultur, _vulture_. 4. Nouns in -ŭs. a. Masculine: lepus, _hare_. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension. 47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:-- 1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as, aetheră, _aether_; Salamīnă, _Salamis_. 2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as, Phrygĕs, _Phrygians_. 3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygăs, _Phrygians_. 4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have -ā in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlās (Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, _Atlas_. 5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poēmatīs, _poems_. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orpheī, Orpheō, etc. 7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -ī, as, Periclis or Periclī. 8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the Genitive, but -ō in the other oblique cases; as,-- _Nom._ Didō _Acc._ Didō _Gen._ Didūs _Voc._ Didō _Dat._ Didō _Abl._ Didō 9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns. * * * * * FOURTH DECLENSION. _ŭ_-Stems. 48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -ū Neuter. They are declined as follows:-- Frūctus, m., _fruit_. Cornū, n., _horn_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua _Gen._ frūctūs frūctuum cornūs cornuum _Dat._ frūctuī frūctibus cornū cornibus _Acc._ frūctum frūctūs cornū cornua _Voc._ frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua _Abl._ frūctū frūctibus cornū cornibus Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension. 49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -ī, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence. 2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative Singular, instead of -uī; as, frūctū (for frūctuī). 3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artūs (Plural), _limbs_; tribus, _tribe_; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus. 4. Domus, _house_, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:-- domī (locative), _at home_; domō, _from home_; domum, _homewards_, _to one's home_; domōs, _homewards_, _to their_ (etc.) _homes_ 5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornū, _horn_; genū, _knee_; and verū, _spit_. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension. 50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, _needle_; domus, _house_; manus, _hand_; porticus, _colonnade_; tribus, _tribe_; Īdūs (Plural), _Ides_; also names of trees (§ 15, 2). * * * * * FIFTH DECLENSION. ē-Stems. 51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as follows:-- Diēs, m., _day_. Rēs, f., _thing_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ diēs diēs rēs rēs _Gen._ diēī diērum rĕī rērum _Dat._ diēī diēbus rĕī rēbus _Acc._ diem diēs rem rēs _Voc._ diēs diēs rēs rēs _Abl._ diē diēbus rē rēbus Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension. 52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of -ēī, when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī, rĕī, fidĕī. 2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is found in plēbī (from plēbēs = plēbs) in the expressions tribūnus plēbī, _tribune of the people_, and plēbī scītum, _decree of the people_; sometimes also in other words. 3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as, aciē. 4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But aciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural. Gender in the Fifth Declension. 53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs, _day_, and merīdiēs, _mid-day_. But diēs is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an _appointed day_. * * * * * DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 54. Here belong-- 1. Nouns used in the Singular only. 2. Nouns used in the Plural only. 3. Nouns used only in certain cases. 4. Indeclinable Nouns. Nouns used in the Singular only. 55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:-- 1. Proper names; as, Cicerō, _Cicero_; Italia, _Italy_. 2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, _copper_; lac, _milk_. 3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia, _ignorance_; bonitās, _goodness_. 4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:-- a) Proper names,--to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, _the Ciceros_; Catōnēs, _men like Cato_. b) Names of materials,--to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, _bronzes_ (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, _woods_. c) Abstract nouns,--to denote instances of the quality; as, ignōrantiae, _cases of ignorance_. Nouns used in the Plural only. 56. Here belong-- 1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, _Thebes_; Leuctra, _Leuctra_; Pompejī, _Pompeii_. 2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, _the Megalesian festival_. 3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:-- angustiae, _narrow pass_. mānēs, _spirits of the arma, _weapons_. dead_. dēliciae, _delight_. moenia, _city walls_. dīvitiae, _riches_. minae, _threats_. Īdūs, _Ides_. nūptiae, _marriage_. indūtiae, _truce_. posterī, _descendants_. īnsidiae, _ambush_. reliquiae, _remainder_. majōrēs, _ancestors_. tenebrae, _darkness_. verbera, _blows_. Also in classical prose regularly-- cervīcēs, _neck_. nārēs, _nose_. fidēs, _lyre_. vīscerā, _viscera_. Nouns used only in Certain Cases. 57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussū, _by the order_; injussū, _without the order_; nātū, _by birth_. 2. Used in Two Cases. a. Fors (_chance_), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing. b. Spontis (_free-will_), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing. 3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, _no one_ (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and the Acc. nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō. 4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs. 5. a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. 6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,--all lack the Nom. Sing. 7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs. Indeclinable Nouns. 58. Here belong-- fās, n., _right_. nefās, n., _impiety_. īnstar, n., _likeness_. nihil, n., _nothing_. māne, n., _morning_. secus, n., _sex_. 1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as Ablative, _in the morning_), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular. Heteroclites. 59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:-- 1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,-- vās, vāsis (_vessel_); Plu., vāsa, vāsorōum, vāsīs, etc. jūgerum, jūgerī (_acre_); Plu., jūgera, jūgerum, jūgeribus, etc. 2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:-- a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as, māteriēs, māteriem, _material_, as well as māteria, māteriam. b) Famēs, _hunger_, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē of the Fifth. c) Requiēs, requiētis, _rest_, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiētem. d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, _common people_, of the Third Declension, we find plēbēs, plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth. Heterogeneous Nouns. 60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:-- 1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,--one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, _shield_; carrus, carrum, _cart_. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,-- SINGULAR. PLURAL. balneum, n., _bath_; balneae, f., _bath-house_. epulum, n., _feast_; epulae, f., _feast_. frēnum, n., _bridle_; frēnī, m.(rarely frēna, n.), _bridle_. jocus, m., _jest_; joca, n. (also jocī, m.), _jests_. locus, m., _place_; loca, n., _places_; locī, m., _passages or topics in an author_. rāstrum, n., _rake_; rāstrī, m.; rāstra, n., _rakes_. a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above. Plurals with Change of Meaning. 61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:-- SINGULAR. PLURAL. aedēs, _temple_; aedēs, _house_. auxilium, _help_; auxilia, _auxiliary troops_. carcer, _prison_; carcerēs, _stalls for racing-chariot_. castrum, _fort_; castra, _camp_. cōpia, _abundance_; cōpiae, _troops_, _resources_. fīnis, _end_; fīnēs, _borders_, _territory_. fortūna, _fortune_; fortūnae, _possessions_, _wealth_. grātia, _favor_, grātiae, _thanks_. _gratitude_; impedīmentum, impedīmenta, _baggage_. _hindrance_; littera, _letter_ (of the litterae, _epistle; literature_. alphabet); mōs, _habit_, _custom_; mōrēs, _character_. opera, _help_, _service_; operae, _laborers_. (ops) opis, _help_; opēs, _resources_. pars, _part_; partēs, _party_; _rôle_. sāl, _salt_; sălēs, _wit_. * * * * * B. ADJECTIVES. 62. Adjectives denote _quality_. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,-- 1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 2. Adjectives of the Third Declension. * * * * * ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:-- Bonus, _good_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Voc._ bone bona bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō PLURAL. _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Voc._ bonī bonae bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs 1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iī (not in -ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiī; Voc. eximie. 2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but always singulōrum. 64. Masculine like puer:-- Tener, _tender_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER. _Nom._ tener tenera tenerum _Gen._ tenerī tenerae tenerī _Dat._ tenerō tenerae tenerō _Acc._ tenerum teneram tenerum _Voc._ tener tenera tenerum _Abl._ tenerō tenerā tenerō PLURAL. _Nom._ tenerī tenerae tenera _Gen._ tenerōrum tenerārum tenerōrum _Dat._ tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs _Acc._ tenerōs tenerās tenera _Voc._ tenerī tenerae tenera _Abl._ tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs 65. Masculine like ager:-- Sacer, _sacred_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ sacer sacra sacrum _Gen._ sacrī sacrae sacrī _Dat._ sacrō sacrae sacrō _Acc._ sacrum sacram sacrum _Voc._ sacer sacra sacrum _Abl._ sacrō sacrā sacrō PLURAL. _Nom._ sacrī sacrae sacra _Gen._ sacrōrum sacrārum sacrōrum _Dat._ sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs _Acc._ sacrōs sacrās sacra _Voc._ sacrī sacrae sacra _Abl._ sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs 1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, _rough_; lacer, _torn_; līber, _free_; miser, _wretched_; prōsper, _prosperous_; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, _right_. 2. Satur, _full_, is declined: satur, satura, saturum. Nine Irregular Adjectives. 66. Here belong-- alius, _another_; alter, _the other_; ūllus, _any_; nūllus, _none_; uter, _which?_ (of two); neuter, _neither_; sōlus, _alone_; tōtus, _whole_; ūnus, _one_, _alone_. They are declined as follows:-- SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus[15] _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō _Nom._ alter altera alterum _Gen._ alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus _Dat._ alterī alterī[16] alterī _Acc._ alterum alteram alterum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ alterō alterā alterō _Nom._ uter utra utrum _Gen._ utrīus utrīus utrīus _Dat._ utrī utrī utrī _Acc._ utrum utram utrum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ utrō utrā utrō _Nom._ tōtus tōta tōtum _Gen._ tōtīus tōtīus tōtīus _Dat._ tōtī tōtī tōtī _Acc._ tōtum tōtam tōtum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ tōtō tōtā tōtō 1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular. 2. Neuter is declined like uter. * * * * * ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67. These fall into three classes,-- 1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,--one for each gender. 2. Adjectives of two terminations. 3. Adjectives of one termination. a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of ĭ-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters. Adjectives of Three Terminations. 68. These are declined as follows:-- Ācer, _sharp_. SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ ācer ācris ācre _Gen._ ācris ācris ācris _Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī _Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre _Voc._ ācer ācris ācre _Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī PLURAL. _Nom._ ācrēs ācrēs ācria _Gen._ ācrium ācrium ācrium _Dat_, ācribus ācribus ācribus _Acc._ ācrēs, -īs ācrēs, -īs ācria _Voc._ ācrēs ācrēs ācria _Abl._ ācribus ācribus ācribus 1. Like ācer are declined alacer, _lively_; campester, _level_; celeber, _famous_; equester, _equestrian_; palūster, _marshy_; pedester, _pedestrian_; puter, _rotten_; salūber, _wholesome_; silvester, _woody_; terrester, _terrestrial_; volucer, _winged_; also names of months in -ber, as September. 2. Celer, celeris, celere, _swift_, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural. 3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salūbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry. Adjectives of Two Terminations. 69. These are declined as follows:-- Fortis, _strong._ Fortior, _stronger._ SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ fortis forte fortior fortius _Gen._ fortis fortis fortiōris fortiōris _Dat._ fortī fortī fortiōrī fortiōrī _Acc._ fortem forte fortiōrem fortius _Voc._ fortis forte fortior fortius _Abl._ fortī fortī fortiōre fortiōre PLURAL. _Nom._ fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra _Gen._ fortium fortium fortiōrum fortiōrum _Dat._ fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus _Acc._ fortēs, -īs fortia fortiōrēs, -īs fortiōra _Voc._ fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra _Abl._ fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus 1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -īs is rare. Adjectives of One Termination. 70. Fēlīx, _happy._. Prūdēns, _prudent._ SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns _Gen._ fēlīcīs fēlīcis prūdentis prūdentis _Dat._ fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī _Acc._ fēlīcem fēlīx prūdentem prūdēns _Voc._ fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns _Abl._ fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī PLURAL. _Nom._ fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia _Gen._ fēlīcium fēlīcium prūdentium prūdentium _Dat._ fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus _Acc._ fēlīcēs, -īs fēlīcia prūdentēs, -īs prūdentia _Voc._ fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia _Abl._ fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus Vetus, _old_. Plūs, _more_. SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ vetus vetus ---- plūs _Gen._ veteris veteris ---- plūris _Dat._ veterī veterī ---- ---- _Acc._ veterem vetus ---- plūs _Voc._ vetus vetus ---- ---- _Abl._ vetere vetere ---- plūre PLURAL. _Nom._ veterēs vetera plūrēs plūra _Gen._ veterum veterum plūrium plūrium _Dat._ veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus _Acc._ veterēs vetera plūrēs, -īs plūra _Voc._ veterēs vetera ---- ---- _Abl._ veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus 1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In the same way are declined compos, _controlling_; dīves, _rich_; particeps, _sharing_; pauper, _poor_; prīnceps, _chief_; sōspes, _safe_; superstes, _surviving_. Yet dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia. 2. Inops, _needy_, and memor, _mindful_, have Ablative Singular inopī, memorī, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum. 3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they do not have -ī the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,-- ā sapientī virō, _by a wise man_; but ā sapiente, _by a philosopher._ Tarquiniō rēgnante, _under the reign of Tarquin._ 4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun. 5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,-- a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,-- aequālis, _contemporary_, Abl. aequālī. cōnsulāris, _ex-consul_, Abl. cōnsulārī So names of Months; as, Aprīlī, _April_; Decembrī, _December_. b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer; Juvenāle, _Juvenal_. c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places regularly have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, _on the estate at Arpinum_, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab Arpīnāte, _by an Arpinatian_. 6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frūgī, _frugal_; nēquam, _worthless_. 7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, _of those coming_. * * * * * COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,--the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,-- altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_, _very high_. fortis, _brave_, fortior, fortissimus. fēlīx, _fortunate_, fēlīcior, fēlīcissimus. So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,-- doctus, _learned_, doctior, doctissimus. egēns, _needy_, egentior, egentissimus. 3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:-- asper, _rough_, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, _beautiful_, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. ācer, _sharp_, ācrior, ācerrimus. celer, _swift_, celerior, celerrimus. a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus. 4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:-- facilis, _easy_, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, _diffcult_, difficilior, difficillimus. similis, _like_, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, _unlike_, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, _low_, humilior, humillimus. 5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns. Thus:-- maledicus, _slanderous_, maledīcentior, maledīcentissimus. magnificus, _magnificent_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus. benevolus, _kindly_, benevolentior, benevolentissimus. a. Positives in -dīcēns and -volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns, benevolēns. 6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus or dītissimus. Irregular Comparison. 72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; _viz_.-- bonus, _good_, melior, optimus. malus, _bad_, pejor, pessimus. parvus, _small_, minor, minimus. magnus, _large_, major, maximus. multus, _much_, plūs, plūrimus, frūgī, _thrifty_, frūgālior, frūgālissimus, nēquam, _worthless_, nēquior, nēquissimus. Defective Comparison. 73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,-- (Cf. prae, _in front prior, _former_, prīmus, _first_ of_.) (Cf. citrā, _this side citerior, _on this citimus, _near_. of_.) side_, (Cf. ultrā, _beyond_.) ulterior, _farther_, ultimus, _farthest_. (Cf. intrā, _within_.) interior, _inner_, intimus, _inmost_ (Cf. prope, _near_.) propior, _nearer_, proximus, _nearest_. (Cf. dē, _down_.) dēterior, _inferior_, dēterrimus, _worst_. (Cf. archaic potis, potior, _preferable_, potissimus, _chiefest_ _possible_.) 2. Positive occurring only in special cases,-- posterō diē, annō, posterior, _later_, postrēmus, _latest_, etc. _the following _last_. day_, etc., postumus, _late-born_, posterī, _posthumous_. _descendants_, exteri, exterior, _outer_ extrēmus, extimus, _foreigners_, _outermost_. nātiōnēs exterae, _foreign nations_, inferī, _gods of the īnferior, _lower_, īnfimus, īmus, lower world_, _lowest_. Mare Inferum, _Mediterranean Sea_, superī, _gods superior, _higher_, suprēmus, _last_. above_, summus, _highest_. Mare Superum, _Adriatic Sea_, 3. Comparative lacking. vetus, _old_, ----[17] veterrimus. fīdus, _faithful_, ---- fīdissimus. novus, _new_, ----[18] novissimus,[19] _last_. sacer, _sacred_, ---- sacerrimus. falsus, _false_, ---- falsissimus. Also in some other words less frequently used. 4. Superlative lacking. alacer, _lively_, alacrior, ---- ingēns, _great_, ingentior, ---- salūtāris, _wholesome_, salūtārior, ---- juvenis, _young_, jūnior, ----[20] senex, _old_, senior. ----[21] a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -ālis, -īlis, -ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others. Comparison by _Magis_ and _Maximē_. 74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (_more_) and maximē (_most_). Here belong-- 1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus, -ōrus. 2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idōneus, _adapted_; arduus, _steep_; necessārius, _necessary_. a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant. Adjectives not admitting Comparison. 75. Here belong-- 1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, _of to-day_; annuus, _annual_; mortālis, _mortal_. 2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others. * * * * * FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison. 1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to -ē; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,-- cārus, cārē, _dearly_; pulcher, pulchrē, _beautifully_; ācer, ācriter, _fiercely_; levis, leviter, _lightly_. a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,-- sapiēns, sapienter, _wisely_; sollers, sollerter, _skillfully_. Note audāx, audācter, _boldly_. 2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -ē. Thus-- (cārus) cārē, _dearly_, cārius, cārissimē. (pulcher) pulchrē, _beautifully_, pulchrius, pulcherrimē. (ācer) ācriter, _fiercely_, ācrius, ācerrimē. (levis) leviter, _lightly_, levius, levissimē. (sapiēns) sapienter, _wisely_, sapientius, sapientissimē. (audāx) audācter, _boldly_, audācius, audācissimē. Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation. 77. 1., _well_, melius, optimē. malĕ, _ill_, pejus, pessimē. magnopere, _greatly_, magis, maximē. multum, _much_, plūs, plūrimum. nōn multum, _little_, minus, minimē. parum, diū, _long_, diūtius, diūtissimē. nēquiter, _worthlessly_, nēquius, nēquissimē. saepe, _often_, saepius, saepissimē. mātūrē, _betimes_, mātūrius, mātūrrimē. mātūrissimē. prope, _near_, propius, proximē. nūper, _recently_, ---- nūperrimē. ---- potius, _rather_, potissimum, _especially_. ---- prius, _previously_, prīmum, _first_. _before_, secus, _otherwise_, sētius, _less_. 2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,-- crēbrō, _frequently_; falsō, _falsely_; continuō, subitō, _suddenly_; _immediately_; rārō, _rarely_, and a few others. a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ. 3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,-- multum, _much_; paulum, facile, _little_; _easily_. 4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,-- fīrmus, fīrmiter, _firmly_; hūmānus, hūmāniter, _humanly_; largus, largiter, _copiously_; alius, aliter, _otherwise_. a. violentus has violenter. 5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, _anciently_; paulātim, _gradually_. * * * * * NUMERALS. 78. Numerals may be divided into-- I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising-- a. _Cardinals_; as, ūnus, _one_; duo, _two_; etc. b. _Ordinals_; as, prīmus, _first_; secundus, _second_; etc. c. _Distributives_; as, singulī, _one by one_; bīnī, _two by two_; etc. II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, _once_; bis, _twice_; etc. 79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 1. ūnus, ūna, ūnum prīmus, _first_ 2. duo, duae, duo secundus, _second_ 3. trēs, tria tertius, _third_ 4. quattuor quārtus, _fourth_ 5. quīnque quīntus, _fifth_ 6. sex sextus 7. septem septimus 8. octo octāvus 9. novem nōnus 10. decem decimus 11. ūndecim ūndecimus 12. duodecim duodecimus 13. tredecim tertius decimus 14. quattuordecim quārtus decimus 15. quīndecim quīntus decimus 16. sēdecim, sextus decimus sexdecim 17. septendecim septimus decimus 18. duodēvīgintī duodēvīcēsimus 19. ūndēvīgintī ūndēvīcēsimus 20. vīgintī vīcēsimus 21. vīgintī ūnus, vīcēsimus prīmus, ūnus et vīgintī ūnus et vīcēsimus 22. vīgintī duo, vīcēsimus secundus, duo et vīgintī alter et vīcēsimus 30. trīgintā trīcēsimus 40. quadrāgintā quadrāgēsimus 50. quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēsimus 60. sexāgintā sexāgēsimus 70. septuāgintā septuāgēsimus 80. octōgintā octōgēsimus 90. nōnāgintā nōnāgēsimus 100. centum centēsimus 101. centum ūnus, centēsimus prīmus, centum et ūnus centēsimus et prīmus 200. ducentī, -ae, -a ducentēsimus 300. trecentī trecentēsimus 400. quadringentī quadringentēsimus 500. quīngentī quīngentēsimus 600. sescentī sescentēsimus 700. septingentī septingentēsimus 800. octingentī octingentēsimus 900. nōngentī nōngentēsimus 1,000. mīlle mīllēsimus 2,000. duo mīlia bis mīllēsimus 100,000. centum mīlia centiēs mīllēsimus 1,000,000. deciēs centēna mīlia deciēs centiēs mīllēsimus DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. 1. singuli, _one by one_ semel, _once_ 2. bīnī, _two by two_ bis 3. ternī (trīnī) ter 4. quaternī quater 5. quīnī quīnquiēs 6. sēnī sexiēs 7. septēnī septiēs 8. octōnī octiēs 9. novēnī noviēs 10. dēnī deciēs 11. ūndēnī ūndeciēs 12. duodēnī duodeciēs 13. ternī denī terdeciēs 14. quaternī denī quaterdeciēs 15. quīnī dēnī quīnquiēs deciēs 16. sēnī dēnī sexiēs deciēs 17. septēnī dēnī septiēs deciēs 18. duodēvicēnī octiēs deciēs 19. ūndēvīcēnī noviēs deciēs 20. vīcēnī vīciēs 21. vīcēnī singulī, vīciēs semel singulī et vīcēnī 22. vīcēni bīnī, vīciēs bis bīnī et vīcēnī 30. trīcēnī trīciēs 40. quadrāgēnī quadrāgiēs 50. quīnquāgēnī quīnquāgiēs 60. sexāgēnī sexāgiēs 70. septuāgēnī septuāgiēs 80. octōgēnī octōgiēs 90. nōnāgēnī nōnāgiēs 100. centēnī centiēs 101. centēnī singulī, centiēs semel centēnī et singulī 200. ducēnī ducentiēs 300. trecēnī trecentiēs 400. quadringēnī quadringentiēs 500. quīngēnī quīngentiēs 600. sescēnī sescentiēs 700. septingēnī septingentiēs 800. octingēnī octingentiēs 900. nōngēnī nōngentiēs 1,000. singula mīlia mīliēs 2,000. bīna mīlia bis mīliēs 100,000. centēna mīlia centiēs mīliēs 1,000,000. deciēs centēna mīlia deciēs centiēs mīliēs NOTE.-- -ēnsimus and -iēns are often written in the numerals instead of -ēsimus and -iēs. Declension of the Cardinals. 80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66. 2. Duo is declined as follows:-- _Nom._ duo duae duo _Gen._ duōrum duārum duōrum _Dat._ duōbus duābus duōbus _Acc._ duōs, duo duās duo _Abl._ duōbus duābus duōbus a. So ambō, _both_, except that its final o is long. 3. Trēs is declined,-- _Nom._ trēs tria _Gen._ trium trium _Dat._ tribus tribus _Acc._ trēs (trīs) tria _Abl._ tribus tribus 4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus. 5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,-- _Nom._ mīlia _Acc._ mīlia _Gen._ mīlium _Voc._ mīlia _Dat._ mīlibus _Abl._ mīlibus Thus mīlle hominēs, _a thousand men_; but duo mīlia hominum, _two thousand men_, literally _two thousands of men_. a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mīlle hominum. 6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals. 81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:-- trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā, _thirty-six_. 2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,-- duodēvīgintī, _eighteen_ (but also octōdecim); ūndēquadrāgintā, _thirty-nine_ (but also trīgintā novem or novem et trīgintā). 3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,-- centum vīgintī septem, _one hundred and twenty-seven_. annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō secundō, _in the year 882_. Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,-- centum et septem, _one hundred and seven_; centum et quadrāgintā, _one hundred and forty_. 4. The Distributives are used-- a) To denote _so much each_, _so many apiece_; as,-- bīna talenta eīs dedit, _he gave them two talents each_. b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,-- bīnae litterae, _two epistles_. But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is regularly employed for _one_, and trīnī (not ternī) for three; as,-- ūnae litterae, _one epistle_; trīnae litterae, _three epistles_. c) In multiplication; as,-- bis bīna sunt quattuor, _twice two are four_. d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,-- bīna hastīlia, _two spears_. * * * * * C. PRONOUNS. 82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it. 83. There are the following classes of pronouns:-- I. Personal. V. Intensive. II. Reflexive. VI. Relative. III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative. IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 84. These correspond to the English _I_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., and are declined as follows:-- First Person. Second Person. Third Person. SINGULAR. _Nom._ ego, _I_ tū, _thou_ is, _he_; ea, _she_; id, _it_ _Gen._ meī tuī (For declension see § 87.) _Dat._ mihi[22] tibi[22] _Acc._ mē tē _Voc._ ---- tū _Abl._ mē tē PLURAL. _Nom._ nōs, _we_ vōs, _you_ _Gen._ nostrum, nostrī vestrum, vestrī _Dat._ nōbīs vōbīs _Acc._ nōs vōs _Voc._ ---- vōs _Abl._ nōbīs vōbīs 1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry. 2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, _I myself_; tibimet, _to you yourself_; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet). 3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms. * * * * * II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like _myself_, _yourself_, in '_I see myself_,' etc. They are declined as follows:-- _First Person._ _Second Person._ _Third Person._ Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique cases of ego. cases of tū. _Gen._ meī, _of myself_ tuī, _of thyself_ suī _Dat._ mihi, _to myself_ tibi, _to thyself_ sibi[22] _Acc._ mē, _myself_ tē, _thyself_ sē or sēsē _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ mē, _with myself_, tē, _with thyself_, sē or sēsē etc. etc. 1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for _all genders_ and for _both numbers_. Thus sui may mean, _of himself_, _herself_, _itself_, or _of themselves_; and so with the other forms. 2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a _reciprocal_ force; as,-- inter sē pugnant, _they fight with each other_. 3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and Ablative. * * * * * III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are-- _First Person._ _Second Person._ meus, -a, -um, _my_; tuus, -a, -um, _thy_; noster, nostra, nostrum, vester, vestra, vestrum, _our_; _your_; _Third Person._ suus, -a, -um, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_. 1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,-- pater līberōs suōs amat, _the father loves his children_. Otherwise, _his_, _her_, _its_ are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and _their_ by the Genitive Plural, eōrum, eārum. 2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mī. 3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suō, suā; as, suōpte, suāpte. * * * * * IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are-- hīc, _this_ (where I am); iste, _that_ (where you are); ille, _that_ (something distinct from the speaker); is, _that_ (weaker than ille); īdem, _the same_. Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively. Hīc, _this_. SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ hīc haec hōc hī hae haec _Gen._ hūjus[23] hūjus hūjus hōrum hārum hōrum _Dat._ huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs _Acc._ hunc hanc hōc hōs hās haec _Abl._ hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs Iste, _that_, _that of yours._ SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ iste ista istud[24] istī istae ista[24] _Gen._ istīus istīus istīus istōrum istārum istōrum _Dat._ istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs _Acc._ istum istam istud istōs istās ista[24] _Abl._ istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs Ille (archaic olle), _that_, _that one_, _he_, is declined like iste.[25] Is, _he_, _this_, _that_. SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom_. is ea id eī, iī, eae ea (ī) _Gen._ ejus ejus ejus eōrum eārum eōrum _Dat._ eī eī eī eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs _Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea _Abl._ eō eā eō eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs Īdem, _the same_. SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom_. īdem eadem idem eīdem, eaedem eadem iīdem _Gen._ ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem _Dat._ eīdem eīdem eīdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem _Acc._ eundem eandem idem eōsdem eāsdem eadem _Abl._ eōdem eādem eōdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. īsdem or iīsdem * * * * * V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN. 88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English _myself_, etc., in '_I myself_, _he himself._' SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa _Gen._ ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum _Dat._ ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs _Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa _Abl._ ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs * * * * * VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:-- SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ quī quae quod quī quae quae _Gen._ cūjus cūjus cūjus quōrum quārum quōrum _Dat._ cui cui cui quibus[26] quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quam quod quōs quās quae _Abl._ quō[27] quā[27] quō quibus[26] quibus quibus * * * * * VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, _who?_ (substantive) and quī, _what? what kind of?_ (adjective). 1. Quis, _who_? SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER _Nom._ quis quid The rare Plural _Gen._ cūjus cūjus follows the declension _Dat._ cui cui of the Relative Pronoun. _Acc._ quem quid _Abl._ quō quō 2. Quī, _what? what kind of?_ is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc. a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of _how? why?_ b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions. c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homō = _what man?_ whereas quī homō = _what sort of man?_ d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:-- Substantive: quisnam, _who, pray?_ quidnam, _what, pray?_ Adjective: quīnam, quaenam, quodnam, _of what kind, pray?_ * * * * * VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 91. These have the general force of _some one_, _any one_. SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES. M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. quis, quid, quī, quae, qua, quod, _any one_, _anything_. _any_. aliquis, aliquid, aliquī, aliqua, aliquod, _some one_, _any_. _something_. quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam, _any one_, _anything_. _any_ (rare) quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, _any one_, _anything_. _any_. quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque, _each_. _each_. quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs, quīvis, quaevīs, quodvis, quīlibet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet, _any one_ (_anything_) _any you wish_ _you wish_ quīdam, quaedam, quiddam, quīdam, quaedam, quoddam, _a certain person_, or _a certain_ _thing_. 1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet, etc. 2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Quī has both qua and quae in these same cases. 3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quōrundam, quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d. 4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquī substantively. 5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī quī. 6. Ecquis, _any one_, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,--substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquī, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod. 7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural. 8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,--quīcumque and quisquis, _whoever_. Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quōquō, in common use. * * * * * PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:-- 1. alius, _another;_ alter, _the other;_ uter, _which of two?_ (interr.); neuter, _neither;_ _whichever of two_ (rel.); ūnus, _one_; nūllus, _no one_ (in oblique cases) 2. The compounds,-- uterque, utraque, utrumque, _each of two;_ utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, _whoever of two;_ uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, _either one you please;_ utervīs, utravīs, utrumvīs, _either one you please;_ alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, _the one or the other_. In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,-- _Nom._ alteruter altera utra alterum utrum _Gen._ alterius utrīus, etc. * * * * * CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation._ 93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, _he is_; amat, _he loves_. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation. 94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:-- 1. Two Voices,--Active and Passive. 2. Three Moods,--Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 3. Six Tenses,-- Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Future Perfect. But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future. 4. Two Numbers,--Singular and Plural. 5. Three Persons,--First, Second, and Third. 95. These make up the so-called _Finite Verb_. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:-- 1. Noun Forms,--Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine. 2. Adjective Forms,--Participles (including the Gerundive). 96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,-- Active. Passive. _Sing_. 1. -ō; -m; -ī (Perf. Ind.); -r. 2. -s; -stī (Perf Ind.); -rīs, -re; -tō or wanting (Impv.); -re, -tor (Impv.). 3. -t; -tō (Impv.); -tur; -tor (Impv.). _Plu_. 1. -mus; -mur. 2. -tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -minī. -te, -tōte (Impv.); 3. -nt; -ērunt (Perf Ind.); -ntur; -ntor (Impv.). -ntō (Impv.); VERB STEMS. 97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,-- I. Present Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, 2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, 3. The Imperative, 4. The Present Infinitive, - (Active and Passive.) 5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive. II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 3. Perfect Infinitive, - (Active.) III. Participial Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Perfect Participle, 2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 4. Perfect Infinitive, - (Passive.) Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:-- INFINITIVE DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION. TERMINATION. VOWEL. I. -āre ā II. -ēre ē III. -ĕre ĕ IV. -īre ī 99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,--so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived. * * * * * CONJUGATION OF SUM. 100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs th