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Title: English Grammar in Familiar Lectures

Author: Samuel Kirkham

Release Date: November 17, 2004 [EBook #14070]

Language: English

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ENGLISH GRAMMER IN

FAMILIAR LECTURES;

ACCOMPANIED BY
A COMPENDIUM
EMBRACING

A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING
A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION,
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX,

AND

A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR,
IN NOTES:

TO WHICH ARE ADDED,

AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES
DESIGNED
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.

STEREOTYPE EDITION

NEW YORK
ROBERT B. COLLINS,
254 PEARL STREET.




_Southern District of New-York, ss_.

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A.D. 1829, in the L.
S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel
Kirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title
of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
following, to wit:

"English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium,
embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of
Punctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical
Grammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the
Exercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By
Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved." In conformity
to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "an act for the
encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and
books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time
therein mentioned." And also to an act entitled "an act supplementary to
an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing
the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of
such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the
benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching
historical and other prints."

FRED. J. BETTS,
_Clerk of the Southern District of New-York._


AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION,

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.

This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first
part of it, the _principles_ of reading are developed and explained in a
scientific and _practical_ manner, and so familiarly illustrated in
their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile
mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design
and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, in
reading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain.

The last part of the work, contains _Selections_ from the greatest
master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and
modern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and
classical American authors--writers whose noble productions have already
shed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature of
our country.--In the select part of the work, _rhetorical marks_ are
also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down
in the first part.--The very favorable reception of the work by the
public, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since its
first publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopes
in regard to its future success.

NOTICES.

After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that
it is the only _successful_ attempt of the kind. The rules are copious,
and the author's explanations and illustrations _are happily adapted to
the comprehension of learners_. No school should be without this book,
and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who
values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution.--_Pittsburgh
Mer. April,_ 1834.

Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has
followed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the
inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of
one inflection to another--a most admirable plan for such a work.
Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the
shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness.
The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value in
a school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evince
good taste and judgment. _U.S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept_. 17, 1834.

The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of its
author for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. It
lays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader with
many new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; and
altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and
ingenuity.--_Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct_. 12, 1833.

Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasion
to speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises him
still higher in our estimation.--The book would be of great utility in
schools--such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see it
forthcoming.--_Baltimore Visitor, July,_ 1833.

Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, but
never before found, is exactly furnished in this work:--principles are
clearly and concisely laid down, and _are very happily adapted to the
comprehension of the learner_. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, I
shall lose no time in introducing it into my school. _Hartford, Conn.
Aug._. 20, 1534. NATHANIEL WEBB.




RECOMMENDATIONS.

It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new
books have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be,
for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on its
intrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage.
But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, by
exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated to
carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is
meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in
this volume. The following are _some_ of the numerous testimonials which
he has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments
to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is
indebted for them. More than _six hundred_ others presented to the
author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not
room to insert.

       *       *       *       *       *

The following notice of this work is extracted from the "Western
Review." This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint,
author of "Francis Berrian," "History and Geography of the Miss.
Valley," and many other popular and valuable works.

We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's "Grammar in familiar
Lectures," but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend
the author's design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, as
to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long
established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and
thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been
successful.

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting
himself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is
consistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as have
written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordingly
followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on
grammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at the
same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the
writings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The
most useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced
in this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, and
rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray,
in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances,
differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and
introducing some valuable improvements.

Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes
in syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of
explaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the
pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the
science at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance to
learners.

In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have
endeavored to follow _the order of nature;_ and we are not able to see
how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most
important parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards those
which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. By
following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common among
authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which
they were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the
way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the
science.

In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our
author appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the
appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and
perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects,
are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding
of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The
principles of the science _are simplified, and rendered so perfectly
easy of comprehension,_ we should think no ordinary mind, having such
help, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the work
appears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail
of being preferred to many others.

It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the
amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from
the fifth edition.

Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827.




The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a
distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis."]

As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is with
peculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in
which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English
Grammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical
knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which
ought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in several
instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr.
Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits.
The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in
Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere,
are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of
teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow.

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is
predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed;
but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations
accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which
it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive
stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are
addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar,
that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever
system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must,
I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, the
system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent
pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of
grammar, _in less than one-fourth_ part of the time usually devoted.

My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with the
greater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been
so extensively practised in many parts of the western country.

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826.




From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa.

Mr. Kirkham,--It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of
youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have
used many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen
in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter,
that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen.

Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; and
experience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last
twelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the nature
and principles of our language in _one quarter_, from your system, than
in a _whole year_ from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore,
most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and
especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language,
are destitute of the advantages of an instructer.

Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD.

Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825.





From Mr. N.R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled "The
Hesperus."

Mr. Kirkham,

Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree
of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of
the work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have
explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the
capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your
plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an
_analytical development_ of grammatical principles, while it is
calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march
of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the
literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be
speedily introduced into schools and academies.

With respect, yours, N.R. SMITH, A.M.

Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825.





From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran
Academy:--Extract.

Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "English
Grammar in familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent
advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the
public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which
have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided _superiority over
all other systems_, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the
capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of
communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he
can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle
that comes before him.

In short, all the intricacies of the science are _elucidated so
clearly_, I am confident that even a private learner, of common
docility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a better
practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in _three
months_, than is ordinarily obtained in _one year_.

Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN.





Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. of New-York.

I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a work
deserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate the
acquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON.

Albany, Sept 25, 1824.





S. Kirkham, Esq.--I have examined your Grammar with attention, and with
a particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully
satisfied, that it is the _best form_ in which Murray's principles have
been given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in so
familiar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a
_tyro_ in grammar.

I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of your
work, under _a strong prejudice against it,_ in consequence of the
numerous "improved systems" with which the public has been inundated, of
late, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but the
productions of individuals whom a "_little grammar_ has rendered
grammatically insane." My convictions, therefore, are the result of
_investigation_. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication.

Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON,

Pr. of Mechanics' Society School

With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Grammar,
we heartily concur.                               NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad.
                                              (Rev.) JOHN JOHNSTON,
Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829.    (Rev.) WM. S. HEYER,




From the Rev. C.P. McIlvaine, and others.

So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel
Kirkham I am well satisfied that _it meets the wants_ of elementary
schools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P.
McILVAINE.

Brooklyn, L.I. July 9, 1829.

We fully concur in the above,    ANDREW HAGEMAN,
                                                     E.M. JOHNSON.




EXTRACT.

From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham's English
Grammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the _best of
the class I have ever seen,_ and as filling up an important and almost
impassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D.L. CARROLL.

Brooklyn, L.I. June 29, 1829.

We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B.B. HALLOCK,
                                                 E. KINGSLEY,
                                                 T.S. MAYBON.




From A.W. Dodge, Esq.

New-York, July 15, 1829.

The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of
instruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, important
as it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry and
uninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason,
that the systems in general use in the schools, are _far beyond_ the
comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is,
that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as
_tasks,_ and if committed at all, committed to _the memory, without
enlightening their understandings;_ so that many a pupil who has _been
through_ the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the nature
even of the simplest parts of speech.

The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these
evils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously
felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of
their own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treating
the subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable,
pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkham
furnishes a _clew_ by which the youthful mind is guided through the
intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which has
been heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor of
youth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its
obstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this _pioneer_ to the
youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly _guide-boards
to direct them in the right road_. The slightest perusal of the work
alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these
remarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old
rules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community.

ALLEN W. DODGE.

Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829




Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science of
grammar and, during this period, having _thoroughly tested_ the merits
of Mr. S. Kirkham's system of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" by
using it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving this
testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has
attempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfolding
and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and
simple, as _to adapt them completely to the understanding_ of the young
learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to
commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical
examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in
his attempt _in a pre-eminent degree_. I make this assertion under a
full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of
the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this
manual.

The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the
novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying
them, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of
the subject, the facilities proffered by the "systematic mode of
parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and
adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and
critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render
this system of grammar _so decidedly superior to all others extant_,
that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known.

My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and
witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in
saying, that a learner will, by studying this book _four months without
a teacher_, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper
construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common
schools and academies, _in five times four months_.

It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been
circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which
have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country.

I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in
orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the
improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about
introducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite _an
improvement on the former editions of this work_. H. WINCHESTER.

From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy.





I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar
satisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation,
give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point
out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other
system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it
is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially
excellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free from
that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much
perplex and embarrass the learner.

The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, _the simplicity of
its method_, and _the plainness of its illustrations_. Being conducted
by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into
agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task,
without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is
anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this,
which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be
made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a _practical_ one;
and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be
introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I
can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has
adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains
to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER.

Albany, July 10, 1829.




From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton,
author of the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book."

Dear Sir,--I am much pleased with both the _plan_ and _execution_ of
your "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a _systematic
mode of parsing_, calculated alike to exercise the _understanding_ and
_memory_ of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the _drudgery_ of
continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every
_elementary_ school book ought to be--_plain, systematic_, and _easy_ to
be understood.

This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other
improvements so judiciously introduced, gives it _a decisive
superiority_ over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generally
used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A.M.

Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825.




TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first
ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which
have waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to
anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the
demand for it would call forth _twenty-two thousand_ copies during the
past year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagant
and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled
so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning,
he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his
work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and
talents would permit.

It is believed that the _tenth_ and _eleventh_ editions have been
greatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not
yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the
disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being
able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time,
snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (_active_ as far
as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its
defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his
credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope,
that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed
at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon
him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and
reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of
self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be
willing to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; for
he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the
advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production,
that may appear, and, two or three years hence, _revise_ his work, and
present to the public another and a better edition.

The improvements in the _tenth_ edition, consisted mainly in the
addition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrations
more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting more
closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general
principles adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar
interspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, of
many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography and
orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general
additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render _this
edition/,_ it is believed, _far preferable_ to any of the former
editions of the work.

Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition
of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some
investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of
the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of
a kind of _philosophical mania;_ and to such these notes are
respectfully submitted for just what _they_ may deem their real value.
The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no
_material_ advantages to common learners; but that they may profitably
engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of
interest to the literary connoisseur.

New-York, August 22, 1820.




CONTENTS.

Address to the learner
A, an, one
And
Adjectives
Adverbs
Agreement of words
Anomalies
Articles
Because
But, than, as
Case
  Nominative
  Possessive
  Objective
  Nominative case independent
  Nominative case absolute
  Apposition of cases
  Nominative and objective after the verb _to be_
  Active, passive, and neuter nominatives
Conjunctions
Conjugation of regular verbs
Derivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation)
Etymology
Exercises in false syntax
  In punctuation
Figures of speech
Gender
Government
Grammar, general division of
  Philosophical
Have
Idioms
Interjections
It
If
Key to the exercises
Letters, sounds of
Like
Manner of meaning of words
Moods
  Signs of
  Subjunctive
Nouns
  Gender of
  Person of
  Number of
  Case of
Orthography
  Rules of
Parsing
Participles
Poetry transposed
Prepositions
Pronouns
  Personal
  Compound personal
  Adjective
  Relative
Pronunciation
Prosody
Provincialisms
Punctuation
Rhetoric
Rules of syntax
Sentences, definitions of simple and compound
  Transposition of
Standard of grammatical accuracy
Syntax
To
Tenses
  Signs of the
The
That
Terminations
Verbs
  Active-transitive
  Active-intransitive
  Passive
  Neuter
  Defective
  Auxiliary
  Regular
  Irregular
  Compound
Versification
Worth
What, which, who
You




PREFACE

There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and
thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already
employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he
believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one
of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public
this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will
be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded,
must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no
explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of
arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are
wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with _them_ he
will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent
either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is
willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always
ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks
nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical
utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in
facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement,
_that_ will be its best apology.

When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those
learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so
successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more
especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who
have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange
those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy
medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like
presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so
frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for
their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the
conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least,
in _manner,_ if not in _matter_; and this conviction, he believes, will
be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is
admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our
late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject
intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the
author considers a very important object, namely, _a systematic order of
parsing;_ and nearly all have neglected to _develop and explain_ the
principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great
difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use.

By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its
_simplicity_; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal
recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great
advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the
literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to
charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify
him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to
accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of
science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and
removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way
it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has
hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object
is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended
with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him
a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful
exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to
become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with
their practical utility and application.

Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these
pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have
been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at
originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors
whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his
opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in
the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in
Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of
policy, but from choice, to select his _principles_ chiefly from that
work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views,
the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied
from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical
advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so
frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who
have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able
writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world
as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves
the credit due to another.

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to
originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who
would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating,
and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he
happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to _some_
contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of
plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits
often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not
uncommon for the same thought to be strictly _original_ with many
writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to
shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of
another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of
teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and
arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding
with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances,
been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be
pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a
good idea _of his own,_ merely because some one else has, at some time
or other, been blessed with the same thought.

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of
ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work
unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was
desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important
principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax,
and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical
purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of
illustrations so full and intelligible, as _completely to adapt the
principles to the capacities of common learners._ Whether this design
has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public
to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it
has become known, and the ready sale of _forty thousand_ copies, (though
_without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,_) are
favorable omens.

In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author
has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking
blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the
authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit,
which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all
former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and
science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own
invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is
powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be
liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has
taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject
critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he
deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object
he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others,
consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the
_method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the
learner_. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and
he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own
want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious
cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the
language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the
existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and,
moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can
never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected
because they admit of exceptions.--He who is thoroughly acquainted with
the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth
of these remarks.

       *       *       *       *       *

Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be
destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not
have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which
it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the
definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of
Lectures.

HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement
essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed
improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be
disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the
order of parsing, will not consider it _new_, but blend it with those
long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat
similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author
considers a _regular systematic order_.

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to
_interrogate_ the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse
without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner
ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no
systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The _systematic_ order
laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply
every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses,
without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing,
he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the
learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great
relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method,
are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted
with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice,
wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and
recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of
them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates
the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the
young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most
important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying
them in parsing.

If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every
teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the
advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any
former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the
author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years,
devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system,
he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical
knowledge of this abstruse science, in _two months_, than he could in
_one year_ when he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no
instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the
truth of this assertion.

Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the
transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will
find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial
and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he
has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the
understanding."

The learner should commence, _not by committing and rehearsing_, but by
reading attentively the first _two_ lectures several times over. He
ought then to parse, according to the _systematic order_, the examples
given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an
opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the
parts of speech included in the examples.

The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but
comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an
"Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young
student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very
commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem
rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of
discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing _five_ words
critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing _fifty_
words superficially, and without understanding their various properties.
The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing
his pupils recite a single lesson of _definitions_ committed to memory,
for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as
they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the
learner in school, as well as for the _private learner_, will be given
in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a
saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be
disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to
acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and
desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized;
but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the
acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient
ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its
contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not
be thrown upon _him._

       *       *       *       *       *

To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to
lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints
by way of encouragement.

Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make
himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it
an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer,
is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of
the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him
communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of
speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties,
not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by
giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of
speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it,
and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the
rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other
parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until
the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may
have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress,
on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that
teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an
enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM.




FAMILIAR LECTURES

ON

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

       *       *       *       *       *

LECTURE I


DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.--ORTHOGRAPHY.

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.

You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly
pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of
science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the
impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of
little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind,
all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to
convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a
pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that
directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the
condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which
alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of
elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual
existence;--of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and
enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and
every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these
remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens
the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is
indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic
of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even
if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think
it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses
a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship,
arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are
highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so
universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every
situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;--when you speak,
read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and
correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately
without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon
convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste,
may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire
that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring
errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross,
which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be
detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me,
therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of
grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or
write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express
their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it
impossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequently
amounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instances
several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and
what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so
constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they
intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your
attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way
smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed,
and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will
find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is
rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall,
therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to
illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you
will be able, _if you exercise your mind,_ to understand its nature, and
apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one
useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you
would probably be unable to comprehend.

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the
sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either
by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to
inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all
doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing,
the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical
construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by
which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and
distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing;
and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any
branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be
understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be
discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to
meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to
overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your
studies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically and
soundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention.
Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to
speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according
to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This
system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and
strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a
process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar
communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and
knowledge;--an age in which science and the arts are marching onward
with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;--a land on
which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of
the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or
in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the
mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich
boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our
fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so
unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself,
and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance.
Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous
people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our
youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the
grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a
laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which
leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the
hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her
crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned
and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you
will be happy.

LANGUAGE.

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men
and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and
desires.

Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken
and written.

NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which
different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another.
The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of
their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The
elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds;
modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two
savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their
thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm
and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into
contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in
the use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express their
thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a
lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of
a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.

ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which
mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.--In
order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word,_ I
will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.

_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, and
which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and
knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand
upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_.
That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the
mind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notion
you form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This being
premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.

_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural,
but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in
themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those
ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them.
In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the
name _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness
which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that
sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there
any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the
word _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countries
as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make
use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotes
the same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it is
by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.

SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the
human voice.

_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis,
(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by
the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.

WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or
characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined
into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate
sounds uttered by the voice.

       *       *       *       *       *




GRAMMAR.


GRAMMAR is the science of language.

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all
languages.

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular
language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established
practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,

_The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of any
language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that
language.

By the phrase, _established practice,_ is implied reputable, national,
and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal,_ when it has been
long and generally adopted.

_The best speakers and writers,_ or such as may be considered good
authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high
estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other
literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid
matter, and refined manner.

In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, but
such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of
that language and the nature of things; but our language being
_im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, like
this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated
by _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious
custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great
inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages
which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are
conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have
power to control it.

Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive
advancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it
assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give
it. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians,
compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language
as it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom.

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of
language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of
thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words,
and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our
observance.

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words
of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on
scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and
design, and enforces their application.

PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the
language, sanctioned by good usage.

DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed
in a definite form.

RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial
relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.

       *       *       *       *       *

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language
with propriety.

GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner._ The most
important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts
to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what
they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply
them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were
invented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express our
thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will
defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that
which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write
our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a
consideration of the highest moment.


Grammar is divided into four parts;

    1. ORTHOGRAPHY,
    2. ETYMOLOGY,
    3. SYNTAX,
    4. PROSODY.

ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of
letters, and the just method of spelling words.

ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us the
different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into
syllables, and syllables into words.

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume
you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just
method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell
long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather
dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and
analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, you
may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.

Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly,
of _Words_.

I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.

They are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels
are _a, e, i, o, u,_ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ are
consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other
situation they are vowels.

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the
help of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels are
consonants.

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.

The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. They
are _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard.

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l,
m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft.

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_,
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were,
into their sounds.


A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulse
of the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound.

A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner;
as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view.

A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce.
An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_
in boat.

II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single
impulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_.

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two
syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.

III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as
signs of our ideas.

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.

A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in
the language; as, _man, good_.

A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as,
_manful, goodness_.

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words.
The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant,
en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were,
originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been
contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.


OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

A.--_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in
_ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian
sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the
short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_
in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_.

The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma,
Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless
excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_.

The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_;
except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some
others.

_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_,
like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_.

_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_.

_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_.

B.--_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_.

_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_,
&c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before
_t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c.

C.--_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of
syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim,
flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre,
cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and
is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social,
pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_.
It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_.

_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words
derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in
_chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_.
In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise,
chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in
_milch, bench, clinch_, &c.

_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_,
except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant,
it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule,
schism, yacht, drachm_.

D.--_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like
_dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in
_educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_.

The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains
its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_
are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed,
walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt,
flasht, aimd, rold_.

E.--_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in
_men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and
of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the
unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_.

F.--_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_,
which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a
calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_
head.

G.--_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at
the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft
before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get,
gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_.

H.--_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent
after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_.

I.--_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_.
Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and
in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it
has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_.

J.--_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it
is pronounced like _y_.

K.--_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_,
where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before
_n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_.

L.--_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is
often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_.

M.--_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in
_comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_.

N.--_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other
a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced
_angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in
_hymn, autumn_.

O.--_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in
_not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth,
does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_,
&c.

P.--_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in
_cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in
_psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_.

_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in
_nephew, Stephen_.

Q.--_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced
like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_.

R.--_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one;
as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_
is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_.

S.--_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the
beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister,
sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and
another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in
_expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent
and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier,
usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_.

T.--_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent
precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature,
virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_
before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in
_salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c.
and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also
derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_.

_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in
_thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c.

U.--_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in
_dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is
pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy,
business_.

V.--_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_.

W.--_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo,
beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also
in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after
the _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a
vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_.

X.--_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the
accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented
syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse,
extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or
_h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_.
_X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek
original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_.

Y.--_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York,
yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the
sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system,
party, pyramid_.

Z.--_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_.


RULES FOR SPELLING.

SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.

The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they
assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language.
This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book
and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.

RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or
ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff,
mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this,
us_, and _thus_.

    _False Orthography for the learner to correct_.--Be thou like the
    gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.--The aged hero
    comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.--Shal
    mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til
    they lose it.--Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively
    refined.

      And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat
      The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:
      I have more care to stay, than wil to go.


RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never
double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as,
_man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn,
purr_, and _buzz_.

    _False Orthography_.--None ever went sadd from Fingal.--He rejoiced
    over his sonn.--Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.--Many a
    trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.

      The weary sunn has made a golden sett,
      And, by the bright track of his golden carr,
      Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.


RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of
verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and
superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a
_consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries;
carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_.

The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be
doubled; as, _carry, carrying_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above,
it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except
in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_,
and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c.

    _False Orthography_.--Our fancys should be governed by reason.--Thou
    wearyest thyself in vain.--He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.

      Win straiing souls with modesty and love;
      Cast none away.
      The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty.
      Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder
        allies green.


RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable
beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant,
is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very
rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy,
joyless, joyful_.

    _False Orthography_.--His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful
    humors.--The vessel was heavyly laden.--When we act against
    conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.

      Christiana, mayden of heroic mien!
      Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!


RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable,
ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel,
double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins
with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_.

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last
syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer,
an offering; maid, maiden_.

    _False Orthography_.--The business of to-day, should not be defered
    till to-morrow.--That law is annuled.--When we have outstriped our
    errors we have won the race.--By defering our repentance, we
    accumulate our sorrows.--The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many
    things which the heathen philosophers allowed.

      At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow
      Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.--
      Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound
      Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.

RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or
_ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully
skilful_.

But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less,
ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as,
_harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_.

    _False Orthography_.--A chillness generally precedes a fever.--He is
    wed to dullness.

      The silent stranger stood amazed to see
      Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.

    Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.--The road to the blisful
    regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.--The arrows of
    calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.

RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent
_e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_;
except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_.

    _False Orthography_.--Sedatness is becoming.

      All these with ceasless praise his works behold.
      Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives
      Her ploughshare o'er creation!
      ------Nature made a pause,
      An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!

RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination,
_ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_.

_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is
preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry,
merriment_.

    _False Orthography_.--A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates
    improvment.--Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.

      To shun allurments is not hard,
      To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.

RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_
or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable;
cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_
in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with
_able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_.

    _False Orthography_.--Knowledge is desireable.--Misconduct is
    inexcuseable.--Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.--We
    are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.

RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent
_e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge,
lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_.

    _False Orthography_.--Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish
    spirit.--An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected
    with a servile and cringeing humor.

      Conscience anticipateing time,
      Already rues th' unacted crime.
      One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs
      Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.

RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the
simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight,
thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to
this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words,
_wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_.

    _False Orthography_.--The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M.
    2513.--They salute one another by touching their forheads.--That
    which is some times expedient, is not allways so.

      Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain,
      There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man.
      Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour,
      There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower.
        The head reclined, the loosened hair,
        The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:--
        See, he looks up; a wofull smile
        Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.


You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS.

What is language?--How is language divided?--What is natural
language?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Wherein
consists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What is
an idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammar
explain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--What
is the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophical
grammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--A
definition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts is
grammar divided?--What does Orthography teach?

       *       *       *       *       *

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX


LECTURE II

OF NOUNS AND VERBS.

ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various
modifications, and their derivation.

SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their
proper arrangement in a sentence.

The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_.

_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means
_placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_.

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and
their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to
correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles
unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a
prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of
Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes
necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these
two parts of grammar in connexion.

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the
exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their
whole history, including their application to things in accordance with
the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply
them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources,
and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process
altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would
lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately
derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages
to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would
become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one
man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views
of this part of grammar.

1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words.

2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each
class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By
modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in
consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one
another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_,
h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_,
writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be
explained in their appropriate places.

3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches
you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example,
from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_,
speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_.
These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the
last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other
only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on
the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who
speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_
speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_
speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_.

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the
second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the
Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of
derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is
the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is
not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to
trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the
Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their
meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but
it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their
connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in
which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor
in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but
_at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already
derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound
to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any
regard to their ancient construction and application.

CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be
the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical
convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a
reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words,
nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are
at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind
are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to
communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the
transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in
short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_,
or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by
refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and
elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every
language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than
in its barbarous state.

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the
_original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of
meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_.

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it
represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips
his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word
_paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter
uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to
_name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and,
lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a
_verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these
applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and
thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took
_water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants.

ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic,
and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been
greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
Italian, and German languages.

The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and
words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may
be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words,
called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE,
ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and
INTERJECTION.

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are
included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a
knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these
ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The
_Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech;
therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the
interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you
proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more
labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become
familiar with all the minor parts of speech.

The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with
each other, and _express their actions_.

_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which
denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and
expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and
being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised
in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults,
mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that
no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the
foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in
this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a
greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the
subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this
arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words
are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared
to appreciate my arguments.


OF NOUNS.

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston,
knowledge_.

Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the
name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a
_substance_ or a _quality_.

_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name
of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or
which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun.
_Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty,
virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish
this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be
useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will
make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by
this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind,
conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and
so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed;
therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to
this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These
you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their
_making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope,
immortality_.

    [1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is
    almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal
    and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that
    which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also
    frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly
    _thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature;
    but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as
its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence,
invisibility_.

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to
their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives,
and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the
concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to
comprehend it.

NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.

A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man,
tree, river_.

A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca,
Ganges_.

A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of
multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_.

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For
example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_
boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
_individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you
know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all
boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name
of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_
rivers.

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things,
are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_,
different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties.
The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a
common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper
noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common
nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of
things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places,
rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote
_individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.

_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns,
because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when
applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to
denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common.
The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance,
demand your attentive and careful perusal.

    NOTES.

    1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are
    used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled
    _the_ Washington of South America."

    2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when
    articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is
    studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are
    nearly equivalent to proper nouns.

    3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following
    classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament:
    _Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing;
    and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from
    their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student
    be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives,
    both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be
    necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts
    of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_
    (that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it
    belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_
    the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and
    _white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a
    distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in
    reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper,
    _white_ mouse.

    4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and
    sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which
    appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of
    things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial
    nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house:
    3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man,
    woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things
    inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following,
    however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the
    names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial
    nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope,
    immortality.

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER.

GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the
masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_.

The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_.

The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_.

_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither
gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender
means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes,
nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience,
we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_
gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only
languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division
of nouns.--The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther
explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the
following

    NOTES.

    1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and
    sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the
    masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate,
    neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are
    of the masculine _or_ feminine gender.

    2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or
    _personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender.
    Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous
    for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by
    nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep,
    winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are
    conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or
    which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon,
    church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune,
    virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the
    sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally
    adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet
    applies the sex according to his fancy.

    The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:


      1. _By different words_; as,

      _Masculine_.      _Feminine_.
      Bachelor             maid
      Boar                 sow
      Boy                  girl
      Brother              sister
      Buck                 doe
      Bull                 cow
      Cock                 hen
      Dog                  bitch
      Drake                duck
      Earl                 countess
      Father               mother
      Friar                nun
      Gander               goose
      Hart                 roe
      Horse                mare
      Husband              wife
      King                 queen
      Lad                  lass
      Lord                 lady
      Man                  woman
      Master               mistress
      Milter               spawner
      Nephew               niece
      Ram                  ewe
      Singer               songstress or singer
      Sloven               slut
      Son                  daughter
      Stag                 hind
      Uncle                aunt
      Wizard               witch
      Sir                  madam

      2. _By a difference in termination_; as,
      Abbot                abbess
      Actor                actress
      Administrator        administratrix
      Adulterer            adulteress
      Ambassador           ambassadress
      Arbiter              arbitress
      Auditor              auditress
      Author               authoress
      Baron                baroness
      Benefactor           benefactress
      Bridegroom           bride
      Canon                canoness
      Caterer              cateress
      Chanter              chantress
      Conductor            conductress
      Count                countess
      Czar                 czarina
      Deacon               deaconess
      Detracter            detractress
      Director             directress
      Duke                 dutchess
      Elector              electress
      Embassador           embassadress
      Emperor              emperess
      Enchanter            enchantress
      Executor             executrix
      Fornicator           fornicatress
      God                  goddess
      Governor             governess
      Heir                 heiress
      Hero                 heroine
      Host                 hostess
      Hunter               huntress
      Inheritor            inheritress or inheritrix
      Instructor           instructress
      Jew                  Jewess
      Lion                 lioness
      Marquis              marchioness
      Mayor                mayoress
      Patron               patroness
      Peer                 peeress
      Poet                 poetess
      Priest               priestess
      Prince               princess
      Prior                prioress
      Prophet              prophetess
      Proprietor           proprietress
      Protector            protectress
      Shepherd             shepherdess
      Songster             songstress
      Sorcerer             sorceress
      Suiter               suitress
      Sultan               sultaness or sultana
      Tiger                tigress
      Testator             testatrix
      Traitor              traitress
      Tutor                tutoress
      Tyrant               tyranness
      Victor               victress
      Viscount             viscountess
      Votary               votaress
      Widower              widow

      3. _By prefixing another word_; as,

      A cock-sparrow        A hen-sparrow
      A man-servant         A maid-servant
      A he-goat             A she-goat
      A he-bear             A she-bear
      A male-child          A female-child
      Male-descendants      Female-descendants


PERSON.

PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.

The _first person_ denotes the speaker.

The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen,
_earth!"_

The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The
_earth_ thirsts."

Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks,
the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in
the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists
suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, that
I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident,
that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_
himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_.

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought
is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed.
If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the
noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him;
that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_
person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have
you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the
_third_.

"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of
the sky?"

"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship
between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his
wig-wam behind the western waters."

  "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!
   Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!"
  "Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore
   Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope,
are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the
nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain,
friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth,
bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person.

NUMBER.

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two
numbers, the singular and the plural.

The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_.

The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_.

    NOTES.

    1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax,
    barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness,
    compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows,
    scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers,
    ides, pains, vespers, &c.

    2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine;
    and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.

    3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to
    the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add
    _es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes;
    cargo, cargoes.

    4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of
    that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except
    grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals
    by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular
    plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.

    5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the
    same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty,
    beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is
    another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays;
    attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.

    6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics,
    hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.

    7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and
    _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in
    signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae are
    always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.

    8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any
    general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox,
    oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse,
    lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny,
    pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_
    dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species
    is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as,
    six _peas_, ten _fishes_.

    9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful,
    handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law,
    brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.

    The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the
    languages from which they are adopted.


      _Singular_         _Plural._
      Antithesis        antitheses
      Apex              apices
      Appendix          appendixes _or_ appendices
      Arcanum           arcana
      Automaton         automata
      Axis              axes
      Basis             bases
      Beau              beaux _or_ beaus
      Calx              calces _or_ calxes
      Cherub            cherubim _or_ cherubs
      Crisis            crises
      Criterion         criteria
      Datum             data
      Diaeresis          diaereses
      Desideratum       desiderata
      Effluvium         effluvia
      Ellipsis          ellipses
      Emphasis          emphases
      Encomium          encomia _or_ encomiums
      Erratum           errata
      Genius            genii [2]
      Genus             genera
      Hypothesis        hypotheses
      Ignis fatuus,     ignes fatui
      Index             indices _or_ indexes [3]
      Lamina            laminae
      Magus             magi
      Memorandum        memoranda _or_ memorandums
      Metamorphosis     metamorphoses
      Parenthesis       parentheses
      Phenomenon        phenomena
      Radius            radii _or_ radiuses
      Stamen            stamina
      Seraph            seraphim _or_ seraphs
      Stimulus          stimuli
      Stratum           strata
      Thesis            theses
      Vertex            vertices
      Vortex            vortices _or_ vortexes


[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental
abilities.

[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices,
when referring to algebraic quantities.

CASE.

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state,
situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have
three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in
the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in
the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming
different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this
definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning
principles, founded in the nature of things.

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what
is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the
different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes.
The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What,
then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say
he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is
lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to
denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun
before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative
case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it
has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_
in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_
gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is,
therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the
_boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of
the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I
say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as
_acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which
reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns
have three cases or positions.

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably
connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them
until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I
will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in
connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of
the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with
each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to
the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of
the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to
name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for
their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted,
or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance,
they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so
on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow.
Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be
to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we
call

VERBS.

A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_;
I _rule_; I _am ruled_.

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also
divided into regular, irregular, and defective.

The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies
a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it
is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb
and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The
noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in
order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most
useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar.
The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the
verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as
_convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent
with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I
shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle
of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to
the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good
definition.

A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.

An _active verb_ expresses action; and

The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John
writes_.

In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_,
because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_,
therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you
know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the
_nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man
walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that
the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you
cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and
_warriors_, are in the _nominative case._

As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it
follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This
_actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative.
_Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_
but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the
noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or
nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter
exemplified.

A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a
state of being_; as, _John sits_.

Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as
the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative
case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express
_apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents
John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter
verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that
_neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender
implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence,
by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied
to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_
verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The
man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the
words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the
nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative
case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that
when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the
_actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an
actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.

Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms
_exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man
_stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.

I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish
the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its
signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a
verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to
live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a
verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he
writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will
not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is
nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is
worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_
verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes
used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.

To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but
hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties.
And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the
_intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions,
you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such
principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the
time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get
along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one
principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you
for the next.

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the
_actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by
the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or
relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore,
only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same
instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is
here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and
the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs;
therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with
its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb
must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb
ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_;
thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write.

_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_,
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree
with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb
must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the
_first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is its
nominative.

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its
nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You,
They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and
_singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or
_It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or
_You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These
pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office
that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb,
they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb.

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as
it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.

   _Singular_.                           _Plural_.

1. _Per_. I walk,                     1. _Per_. We Walk,
2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_,             2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk,
3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_            3. _Per_. They walk, or
               the boy walk_s_,                      the boys walk.
               _or_ walk_eth_.

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it
is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or
_eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest,
standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh,
rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person
singular.

I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb
must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the
nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the
same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_,
you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_,
in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person of
its nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings from
the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with its
nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little
mind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ in
language do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it not
clear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, because
it expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not
equally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_
actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_
actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there
must be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, when
it has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as when
it has.--So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person,
because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or
_you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of the
persons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, when
correctly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative in
number and person.

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be
understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes
necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been
already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the
possessive, and the objective.

POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor of
something; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that
_John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse is
the _property_ which he possesses.

When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the two
words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning
at all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells
_boys'_ hats." Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact
ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves,
imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_
boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_
boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys'
hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in
the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated.

In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coarse_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats,
_broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, the
words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or
define the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ or
limit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose,
an adjective.

"The _slave's_ master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The
slave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--he
sustains that relation to him which we call possession.

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an
apostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the
_boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_,
the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats;
_Eagles'_ wings." When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe
only is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;"
except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony." When a noun in
the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the
apostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake."

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture
_three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to
_remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence
over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three
times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed
in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume
to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for,
unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid
progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my
instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of
grammar in a short time.--When you shall have complied with this
requisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and
_the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to parse or
analyze the following examples.

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.

Do you recollect the meaning of the word _analysis?_ If you do not, I
will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the
reverse of synthesis. _Synthesis_ is the act of combining simples so as
to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to
form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form
sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is
called synthetic. _Analysis_, on the contrary, is the act of
decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into
its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles.
Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is
to separate from one another and classify the different words of which
it is composed; and to analyze or _parse_ a word, means to enumerate and
describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with
respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its
inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to
be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find
it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct,
errors in composition.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a NOUN, is--a noun, and why?--common, proper, or
collective, and why?--gender, and why?--person, and why?--number, and
why?--case, and why?--RULE:--decline it.

_The order of parsing_ a VERB, is--a verb, and why?--active, passive,
or neuter, and why?--if _active_--transitive or intransitive, and
why?--if _passive_--how is it formed?--regular, irregular, or defective,
and why?--mood, and why?--tense, and why?--person and number, and
why?--with what does it agree?--RULE:--conjugate it.

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by
applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions
given in the order. If you have _perfectly committed_ the order of
parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you
cannot parse a verb _in full_, until you shall have had a more complete
explanation of it.

    _John's hand trembles_.

_John's_ is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person--proper, the
name of an individual--masculine gender, it denotes a male--third
person, spoken of--singular number, it implies but one--and in the
possessive case, it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun
"hand," according to

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
noun it possesses_.

Declined--Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural--nom.
Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns.

_Hand_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort or
species of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--third
person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the
nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles," and
governs it agreeably to

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb:_--that is, the nominative
determines the number and person of the verb.

Declined--Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands,
poss. hands', obj. hands.

_Trembles_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it expresses
action--third person, singular number, because t