Project Gutenberg's An English Grammar, by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net Title: An English Grammar Author: W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell Release Date: November 10, 2004 [EBook #14006] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** Produced by Stephen Schulze and the Distributed Proofreaders Team  AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES BY W.M. BASKERVILL PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN. AND J.W. SEWELL OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN. 1895 PREFACE. Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should there be till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more happily wedded. In this field much valuable work has already been accomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to take the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressed rather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an advanced grammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, and difficult principles, is not altogether an easy matter. These things enhance the difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences in grasping and assimilating the facts of grammar, and create a distaste for the study. It is therefore the leading object of this book to be both as scholarly and as practical as possible. In it there is an attempt to present grammatical facts as simply, and to lead the student to assimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and at the same time to do away with confusing difficulties as far as may be. To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the foreground the _real basis of grammar_; that is, good literature. Abundant quotations from standard authors have been given to show the student that he is dealing with the facts of the language, and not with the theories of grammarians. It is also suggested that in preparing written exercises the student use English classics instead of "making up" sentences. But it is not intended that the use of literary masterpieces for grammatical purposes should supplant or even interfere with their proper use and real value as works of art. It will, however, doubtless be found helpful to alternate the regular reading and æsthetic study of literature with a grammatical study, so that, while the mind is being enriched and the artistic sense quickened, there may also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen observation of all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it has been deemed best to omit explanations, and to withhold personal preferences, in order that the student may, by actual contact with the sources of grammatical laws, discover for himself the better way in regarding given data. It is not the grammarian's business to "correct:" it is simply to record and to arrange the usages of language, and to point the way to the arbiters of usage in all disputed cases. Free expression within the lines of good usage should have widest range. It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is consistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, in addition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we have endeavored to attain two other objects,--to cultivate mental skill and power, and to induce the student to prosecute further studies in this field. It is not supposable that in so delicate and difficult an undertaking there should be an entire freedom from errors and oversights. We shall gratefully accept any assistance in helping to correct mistakes. Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at first hand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to express our obligation to the following books and articles:-- Meiklejohn's "English Language," Longmans' "School Grammar," West's "English Grammar," Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and "Composition Grammar," Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New English Grammar," etc., Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English," Morris's "Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar," Lounsbury's "English Language," Champney's "History of English," Emerson's "History of the English Language," Kellner's "Historical Outlines of English Syntax," Earle's "English Prose," and Matzner's "Englische Grammatik." Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English," Battler's articles on "Prepositions" in the "Anglia," and many other valuable papers, have also been helpful and suggestive. We desire to express special thanks to Professor W.D. Mooney of Wall & Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., for a critical examination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to Professor Jno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn., and Professor W.R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many valuable suggestions and helpful criticism. W.M. BASKERVILL. J.W. SEWELL. NASHVILLE, TENN., January, 1896. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION PART I. _THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. NOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES ARTICLES VERBS AND VERBALS Verbs Verbals How to Parse Verbs and Verbals ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS PREPOSITIONS WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING INTERJECTIONS PART II. _ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES_. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS Simple Sentences Contracted Sentences Complex Sentences Compound Sentences PART III. _SYNTAX_. INTRODUCTORY NOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES ARTICLES VERBS INDIRECT DISCOURSE VERBALS ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS PREPOSITIONS INDEX INTRODUCTION. So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of teaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is plain the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a science. The object we have, or should have, in teaching science, is not to fill a child's mind with a vast number of facts that may or may not prove useful to him hereafter, but to draw out and exercise his powers of observation, and to show him how to make use of what he observes.... And here the teacher of grammar has a great advantage over the teacher of other sciences, in that the facts he has to call attention to lie ready at hand for every pupil to observe without the use of apparatus of any kind while the use of them also lies within the personal experience of every one.--DR RICHARD MORRIS. The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of the highest order. If I except discussions on the comparative merits of Popery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most important discipline of my boyhood.--JOHN TYNDALL. INTRODUCTION. What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in answer to the question, _What is grammar?_ may be shown by the following-- [Sidenote: _Definitions of grammar._] English grammar is a description of the usages of the English language by good speakers and writers of the present day.--WHITNEY A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or make of a language is called its grammar--MEIKLEJOHN Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of using it in speaking and writing.--PATTERSON Grammar is the science of _letter_; hence the science of using words correctly.--ABBOTT The English word _grammar_ relates only to the laws which govern the significant forms of words, and the construction of the sentence.--RICHARD GRANT WHITE These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about English grammar-- [Sidenote: _Synopsis of the above._] (1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words. (2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow. (3) It is concerned with the _forms_ of the language. (4) English _has_ no grammar in the sense of forms, or inflections, but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of words in sentences. [Sidenote: _The older idea and its origin._] Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous works have been written to uphold the theories. The first of them remained popular for a very long time. It originated from the etymology of the word _grammar_ (Greek _gramma_, writing, a letter), and from an effort to build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammar as a model. Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more popular, though there has been vastly more classification than there are forms. [Sidenote: _The opposite view_.] During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but they have had hard work to displace the older and more popular theories. It is insisted by many that the student's time should be used in studying general literature, and thus learning the fluent and correct use of his mother tongue. It is also insisted that the study and discussion of forms and inflections is an inexcusable imitation of classical treatises. [Sidenote: _The difficulty_.] Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this is answered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories must be taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded. The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two distinct things,--what the _definition_ of grammar should be, and what the _purpose_ of grammar should be. [Sidenote: _The material of grammar_.] The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider than is indicated by any one of the above definitions; and the student ought to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered. [Sidenote: _Few inflections_.] It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections at present, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small grammar will hold them all. [Sidenote: _Making rules is risky_.] It is also evident, to those who have studied the language historically, that it is very hazardous to make rules in grammar: what is at present regarded as correct may not be so twenty years from now, even if our rules are founded on the keenest scrutiny of the "standard" writers of our time. Usage is varied as our way of thinking changes. In Chaucer's time two or three negatives were used to strengthen a negation; as, "Ther _nas no_ man _nowher_ so vertuous" (There never was no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare used good English when he said _more elder_ ("Merchant of Venice") and _most unkindest_ ("Julius Cæsar"); but this is bad English now. If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, and stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome places, there is still much for the grammarian to do. [Sidenote: _A broader view_.] Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its peculiar and abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to express every possible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious study, apart from the mere memorizing of inflections and formulation of rules. [Sidenote: _Mental training. An æsthetic benefit._] Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it will train the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at the same time, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen observation and a correct literary taste. The continued contact with the highest thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst for the "well of English undefiled." [Sidenote: _What grammar is_.] Coming back, then, from the question, _What ground should grammar cover?_ we come to answer the question, _What should grammar teach?_ and we give as an answer the definition,-- _English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words, their forms, and their uses and relations in the sentence_. [Sidenote: _The work it will cover._] This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" (with their inflections), "Analysis," and "Syntax." It will also require a discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, assist the classification of kindred expressions, or draw the attention of the student to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus incite his observation. [Sidenote: _Authority as a basis_.] A few words here as to the _authority_ upon which grammar rests. [Sidenote: _Literary English_.] The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from the leading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from the eighteenth century on. This _literary English_ is considered the foundation on which grammar must rest. [Sidenote: _Spoken English_.] Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from _spoken_ or _colloquial English_, by which is meant the free, unstudied expressions of ordinary conversation and communication among intelligent people. These quotations will often throw light on obscure constructions, since they preserve turns of expressions that have long since perished from the literary or standard English. [Sidenote: _Vulgar English_.] Occasionally, too, reference will be made to _vulgar English,_--the speech of the uneducated and ignorant,--which will serve to illustrate points of syntax once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly bad grammar. The following pages will cover, then, three divisions:-- Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections. Part II. Analysis of Sentences. Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax. PART I. _THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. NOUNS. 1. In the more simple _state_ of the _Arabs_, the _nation_ is free, because each of her _sons_ disdains a base _submission_ to the _will_ of a _master_.--GIBBON. [Sidenote: _Name words_] By examining this sentence we notice several words used as names. The plainest name is _Arabs_, which belongs to a people; but, besides this one, the words _sons_ and _master_ name objects, and may belong to any of those objects. The words _state, submission,_ and _will_ are evidently names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, not objects; and the word _nation_ stands for a whole group. When the meaning of each of these words has once been understood, the word naming it will always call up the thing or idea itself. Such words are called nouns. [Sidenote: _Definition_.] 2. A noun is a name word, representing directly to the mind an object, substance, or idea. [Sidenote: _Classes of nouns_.] 3. Nouns are classified as follows:-- (1) Proper. (2) Common. (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual. ii. Collective. (b) MATERIAL. (3) Abstract. (a) ATTRIBUTE. (b) VERBAL [Sidenote: _Names for special objects._] 4. A proper noun is a name applied to a particular object, whether person, place, or thing. It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, reducing it to a narrow application. Thus, _city_ is a word applied to any one of its kind; but _Chicago_ names one city, and fixes the attention upon that particular city. _King_ may be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, but _Alfred the Great_ is the name of one king only. The word _proper_ is from a Latin word meaning _limited, belonging to one_. This does not imply, however, that a proper name can be applied to only one object, but that each time such a name is applied it is fixed or proper to that object. Even if there are several Bostons or Manchesters, the name of each is an individual or proper name. [Sidenote: _Name for any individual of a class._] 5. A common noun is a name possessed by _any_ one of a class of persons, animals, or things. _Common_, as here used, is from a Latin word which means _general, possessed by all_. For instance, _road_ is a word that names _any_ highway outside of cities; _wagon_ is a term that names _any_ vehicle of a certain kind used for hauling: the words are of the widest application. We may say, _the man here_, or _the man in front of you_, but the word _man_ is here hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is of general application. [Sidenote: _Name for a group or collection of objects._] Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we may think of them in groups, and appropriate names to the groups. Thus, men in groups may be called a _crowd_, or a _mob_, a _committee_, or a _council_, or a _congress_, etc. These are called COLLECTIVE NOUNS. They properly belong under common nouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and the name applied to it belongs to any group of its class. [Sidenote: _Names for things thought of in mass._] 6. The definition given for common nouns applies more strictly to class nouns. It may, however, be correctly used for another group of nouns detailed below; for they are common nouns in the sense that the names apply to _every particle of similar substance_, instead of to each individual or separate object. They are called MATERIAL NOUNS. Such are _glass_, _iron_, _clay_, _frost_, _rain_, _snow_, _wheat_, _wine_, _tea_, _sugar_, etc. They may be placed in groups as follows:-- (1) The metals: _iron_, _gold_, _platinum_, etc. (2) Products spoken of in bulk: _tea_, _sugar_, _rice_, _wheat_, etc. (3) Geological bodies: _mud_, _sand_, _granite_, _rock_, _stone_, etc. (4) Natural phenomena: _rain_, _dew_, _cloud_, _frost_, _mist_, etc. (5) Various manufactures: _cloth_ (and the different kinds of cloth), _potash_, _soap_, _rubber_, _paint_, _celluloid_, etc. 7. NOTE.--There are some nouns, such as _sun_, _moon_, _earth_, which seem to be the names of particular individual objects, but which are not called proper names. [Sidenote: _Words naturally of limited application not proper._] The reason is, that in proper names the intention is _to exclude_ all other individuals of the same class, and fasten a special name to the object considered, as in calling a city _Cincinnati_; but in the words _sun_, _earth_, etc., there is no such intention. If several bodies like the center of our solar system are known, they also are called _suns_ by a natural extension of the term: so with the words _earth_, _world_, etc. They remain common class names. [Sidenote: _Names of ideas, not things._] 8. Abstract nouns are names of qualities, conditions, or actions, considered abstractly, or apart from their natural connection. When we speak of a _wise man_, we recognize in him an attribute or quality. If we wish to think simply of that quality without describing the person, we speak of the _wisdom_ of the man. The quality is still there as much as before, but it is taken merely as a name. So _poverty_ would express the condition of a poor person; _proof_ means the act of proving, or that which shows a thing has been proved; and so on. Again, we may say, "_Painting_ is a fine art," "_Learning_ is hard to acquire," "a man of _understanding_." 9. There are two chief divisions of abstract nouns:-- (1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities. (2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action. [Sidenote: _Attribute abstract nouns._] 10. The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS are derived from adjectives and from common nouns. Thus, (1) _prudence_ from _prudent_, _height_ from _high_, _redness_ from _red_, _stupidity_ from _stupid_, etc.; (2) _peerage_ from _peer_, _childhood_ from _child_, _mastery_ from _master_, _kingship_ from _king_, etc. [Sidenote: _Verbal abstract nouns._] II. The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as their name implies. They may be-- (1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering its function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long _run_" "a bold _move_," "a brisk _walk_." (2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix: _motion_ from _move_, _speech_ from _speak_, _theft_ from _thieve_, _action_ from _act_, _service_ from _serve_. [Sidenote: _Caution._] (3) Derived from verbs by adding _-ing_ to the simple verb. It must be remembered that these words are _free from any verbal function_. They cannot govern a word, and they cannot _express_ action, but are merely _names_ of actions. They are only the husks of verbs, and are to be rigidly distinguished from _gerunds_ (Secs. 272, 273). To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples: The best thoughts and _sayings_ of the Greeks; the moon caused fearful _forebodings_; in the _beginning_ of his life; he spread his _blessings_ over the land; the great Puritan _awakening_; our birth is but a sleep and a _forgetting_; a _wedding_ or a festival; the rude _drawings_ of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic _reasoning_; the _teachings_ of the High Spirit; those opinions and _feelings_; there is time for such _reasonings_; the _well-being_ of her subjects; her _longing_ for their favor; _feelings_ which their original _meaning_ will by no means justify; the main _bearings_ of this matter. [Sidenote: _Underived abstract nouns._] 12. Some abstract nouns were not derived from any other part of speech, but were framed directly for the expression of certain ideas or phenomena. Such are _beauty_, _joy_, _hope_, _ease_, _energy_; _day_, _night_, _summer_, _winter_; _shadow_, _lightning_, _thunder_, etc. The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either themselves derived from the nouns or are totally different words; as _glad_--_joy_, _hopeful_--_hope_, etc. Exercises. 1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common nouns, five proper, five abstract. --NOTE.--Remember that all sentences are to be _selected_ from standard literature. 2. Under what class of nouns would you place (_a_) the names of diseases, as _pneumonia_, _pleurisy_, _catarrh_, _typhus_, _diphtheria_; (_b_) branches of knowledge, as _physics_, _algebra_, _geology_, _mathematics_? 3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of the following individual nouns:-- man horse bird fish partridge pupil bee soldier book sailor child sheep ship ruffian 4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these abstract nouns is derived:-- sight speech motion pleasure patience friendship deceit bravery height width wisdom regularity advice seizure nobility relief death raid honesty judgment belief occupation justice service trail feeling choice simplicity SPECIAL USES OF NOUNS. [Sidenote: _Nouns change by use._] 13. By being used so as to vary their usual meaning, nouns of one class may be made to approach another class, or to go over to it entirely. Since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening or narrowing of their application, we shall find numerous examples of this shifting from class to class; but most of them are in the following groups. For further discussion see the remarks on articles (p. 119). [Sidenote: _Proper names transferred to common use._] 14. Proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways:-- (1) _The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself_: that is, the name of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented, as a _davy_, meaning the miner's lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy; the _guillotine_, from the name of Dr. Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or the name of the country or city from which an article is derived is used for the article: as _china_, from China; _arras_, from a town in France; _port_ (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; _levant_ and _morocco_ (leather). Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we can scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for example, the word _port_, above. Others of similar character are _calico_, from Calicut; _damask_, from Damascus; _currants_, from Corinth; etc. (2) _The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities is transferred to any person or place possessing those qualities_; thus,-- Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a very strong man _a Hercules_ or _a Samson_. Sodom was famous for wickedness, and a similar place is called _a Sodom_ of sin. _A Daniel_ come to judgment!--SHAKESPEARE. If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, _a Locke_, _a Lavoisier_, _a Hutton_, _a Bentham_, _a Fourier_, it imposes its classification on other men, and lo! a new system.--EMERSON. [Sidenote: _Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions._] 15. Material nouns may be used as class names. Instead of considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made, one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as-- (1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substances capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number of objects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal contained in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot," referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaning chains of iron. So also we may speak of _a glass_ to drink from or to look into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks; and so on. (2) _Of classes_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the same in material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortens speech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_, _oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_. (3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea, which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as in the following:-- The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away.--SHELLEY. From all around-- Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air-- Comes a still voice.--BRYANT. Their airy ears _The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks. --PERCIVAL. (4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as class names; as _stones_, _slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc. [Sidenote: _Personification of abstract ideas._] 16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being personified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in living beings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse. Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire, In lightnings owned his secret stings.--COLLINS. _Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind.--BYRON. _Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled.--HAYNE. _Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad.--CARLYLE. [Sidenote: _A halfway class of words. Class nouns in use, abstract in meaning._] 17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in the plural. They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class nouns. For example, examine this:-- The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but on _dispositions_ which require to be created.--RUSKIN. When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power of art is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to be created, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _an art_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, the abstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_, or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not material things; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ or different branches of _science_. They are neither class nouns nor pure abstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_. Test this in the following sentences:-- Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own so.--EMERSON. And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_ the mirthful band inspired.--GOLDSMITH. But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_ Which I too keenly taste, The Solitary can despise.--BURNS. All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night.--IRVING. [Sidenote: _By ellipses, nouns used to modify._] 18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attached to another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a _family_ quarrel," "a _New York_ bank," "the _State Bank Tax_ bill," "a _morning_ walk." It is evident that these approach very near to the function of adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives are. They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word, but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions, meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as to tax on the banks_, etc. NOTE.--If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may be regarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys the same idea as "_golden_ pen," which contains a pure adjective. WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS. [Sidenote: _The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from any expression._] 19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to the consequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usually other parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groups may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns. [Sidenote: _Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs._] (1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:-- _The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow.--BURNS. Every _why_ hath a _wherefore_.--SHAKESPEARE. When I was young? Ah, woeful _When_! Ah! for the change 'twixt _Now_ and _Then_! --COLERIDGE. (2) _Certain word groups_ used like single nouns:-- _Too swift_ arrives as tardy as _too slow_.--SHAKESPEARE. Then comes the "_Why, sir_!" and the "_What then, sir_?" and the "_No, sir_!" and the "_You don't see your way through the question, sir_!"--MACAULAY (3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, without reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of books are treated as simple nouns. The _it_, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean the sun or the cold.--Dr BLAIR In this definition, is the word "_just_," or "_legal_," finally to stand?--RUSKIN. There was also a book of Defoe's called an "_Essay on Projects_," and another of Dr. Mather's called "_Essays to do Good_."--B. FRANKLIN. [Sidenote: _Caution._] 20. It is to be remembered, however, that the above cases are shiftings of the _use_, of words rather than of their _meaning_. We seldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speech into another. When, in a sentence above, the terms _the great_, _the wealthy_, are used, they are not names only: we have in mind the idea of persons and the quality of being _great_ or _wealthy_. The words are used in the sentence where nouns are used, but have an adjectival meaning. In the other sentences, _why_ and _wherefore_, _When_, _Now_, and _Then_, are spoken of as if pure nouns; but still the reader considers this not a natural application of them as name words, but as a figure of speech. NOTE.--These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words as become pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective _good_ has no claim on the noun _goods_; so, too, in speaking of the _principal_ of a school, or a state _secret_, or a faithful _domestic_, or a _criminal_, etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective force. Exercise. Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which class each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to another. 1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. 3. Stone walls do not a prison make. Nor iron bars a cage. 4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named. 5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a little courage. 6. Power laid his rod aside, And Ceremony doff'd her pride. 7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. 8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain. 9. A little weeping would ease my heart; But in their briny bed My tears must stop, for every drop Hinders needle and thread. 10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something for hereafter. 11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 13. And see, he cried, the welcome, Fair guests, that waits you here. 14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. 15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows. 16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving. 17. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. 18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands. 19. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays And confident to-morrows. 20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone. 21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea. 22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy. 23. But pleasures are like poppies spread, You seize the flower, its bloom is shed. 24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day. INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS. GENDER. [Sidenote: _What gender means in English. It is founded on sex._] 21. In Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, some general rules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine, and names of females are usually feminine. There are exceptions even to this general statement, but not so in English. Male beings are, in English grammar, always masculine; female, always feminine. When, however, _inanimate_ things are spoken of, these languages are totally unlike our own in determining the gender of words. For instance: in Latin, _hortus_ (garden) is masculine, _mensa_ (table) is feminine, _corpus_ (body) is neuter; in German, _das Messer_ (knife) is neuter, _der Tisch_ (table) is masculine, _die Gabel_ (fork) is feminine. The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the _meaning_ of the word, in other languages gender follows the _form_; that is, in English, gender depends on _sex_: if a thing spoken of is of the male sex, the _name_ of it is masculine; if of the female sex, the _name_ of it is feminine. Hence: [Sidenote: _Definition._] 22. Gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or additions to words. 23. It is evident from this that English can have but two genders,--masculine and feminine. [Sidenote: _Gender nouns. Neuter nouns._] All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal classes,--gender nouns, those distinguishing the sex of the object; and neuter nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things without life, and consequently without sex. Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects. [Sidenote: _Some words either gender or neuter nouns, according to use._] 24. Some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns, according to their use. Thus, the word _child_ is neuter in the sentence, "A little _child_ shall lead them," but is masculine in the sentence from Wordsworth,-- I have seen A curious _child_ ... applying to _his_ ear The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell. Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or which arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in these sentences:-- Before the barn door strutted the gallant _cock_, that pattern of a husband, ... clapping _his_ burnished wings.--IRVING. _Gunpowder_ ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a suddenness that had nearly sent _his_ rider sprawling over _his_ head--_id._ Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of as neuter, the sex being of no consequence. Not a _turkey_ but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, with _its_ gizzard under _its_ wing.--IRVING. He next stooped down to feel the _pig_, if there were any signs of life in _it_.--LAMB. [Sidenote: _No "common gender._"] 25. According to the definition, there can be no such thing as "common gender:" words either distinguish sex (or the sex is distinguished by the context) or else they do not distinguish sex. If such words as _parent_, _servant_, _teacher_, _ruler_, _relative_, _cousin_, _domestic_, etc., do not show the sex to which the persons belong, they are neuter words. 26. Put in convenient form, the division of words according to sex, or the lack of it, is,-- (MASCULINE: Male beings. Gender nouns { (FEMININE: Female beings. Neuter nouns: Names of inanimate things, or of living beings whose sex cannot be determined. 27. The inflections for gender belong, of course, only to masculine and feminine nouns. _Forms_ would be a more accurate word than _inflections_, since inflection applies only to the _case_ of nouns. There are three ways to distinguish the genders:-- (1) By prefixing a gender word to another word. (2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word. (3) By using a different word for each gender. I. Gender shown by Prefixes. [Sidenote: _Very few of class I._] 28. Usually the gender words _he_ and _she_ are prefixed to neuter words; as _he-goat_--_she-goat_, _cock sparrow_--_hen sparrow_, _he-bear_--_she-bear_. One feminine, _woman_, puts a prefix before the masculine _man_. _Woman_ is a short way of writing _wifeman_. II. Gender shown by Suffixes. 29. By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by suffixes. In this particular the native endings have been largely supplanted by foreign suffixes. [Sidenote: _Native suffixes._] The native suffixes to indicate the feminine were _-en_ and _-ster_. These remain in _vixen_ and _spinster_, though both words have lost their original meanings. The word _vixen_ was once used as the feminine of _fox_ by the Southern-English. For _fox_ they said _vox_; for _from_ they said _vram_; and for the older word _fat_ they said _vat_, as in _wine vat_. Hence _vixen_ is for _fyxen_, from the masculine _fox_. _Spinster_ is a relic of a large class of words that existed in Old and Middle English,[1] but have now lost their original force as feminines. The old masculine answering to _spinster_ was _spinner_; but _spinster_ has now no connection with it. The foreign suffixes are of two kinds:-- [Sidenote: _Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little used._] (1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as _czarina_, _señorita_, _executrix_, _donna_. These are attached to foreign words, and are never used for words recognized as English. [Sidenote: _Slightly changed and widely used._] (2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the feminine, _-ess_ (French _esse_, Low Latin _issa_), the one most used. The corresponding masculine may have the ending _-er_ (_-or_), but in most cases it has not. Whenever we adopt a new masculine word, the feminine is formed by adding this termination _-ess_. Sometimes the _-ess_ has been added to a word already feminine by the ending _-ster_; as _seam-str-ess_, _song-str-ess_. The ending _-ster_ had then lost its force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the words _huckster_, _gamester_, _trickster_, _punster_. [Sidenote: _Ending of masculine not changed._] 30. The ending _-ess_ is added to many words without changing the ending of the masculine; as,-- baron--baroness count--countess lion--lioness Jew--Jewess heir--heiress host--hostess priest--priestess giant--giantess [Sidenote: _Masculine ending dropped._] The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine _-ess_ is added; as,-- abbot--abbess negro--negress murderer--murderess sorcerer--sorceress [Sidenote: _Vowel dropped before adding_ -ess.] The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; as in-- actor--actress master--mistress benefactor--benefactress emperor--empress tiger--tigress enchanter--enchantress _Empress_ has been cut down from _emperice_ (twelfth century) and _emperesse_ (thirteenth century), from Latin _imperatricem_. _Master_ and _mistress_ were in Middle English _maister_--_maistresse_, from the Old French _maistre_--_maistresse_. 31. When the older _-en_ and _-ster_ went out of use as the distinctive mark of the feminine, the ending _-ess_, from the French _-esse_, sprang into a popularity much greater than at present. [Sidenote: _Ending_ -ess _less used now than formerly._] Instead of saying _doctress_, _fosteress_, _wagoness_, as was said in the sixteenth century, or _servauntesse_, _teacheresse_, _neighboresse_, _frendesse_, as in the fourteenth century, we have dispensed with the ending in many cases, and either use a prefix word or leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also. Thus, we say _doctor_ (masculine and feminine) or _woman doctor_, _teacher_ or _lady teacher_, _neighbor_ (masculine and feminine), etc. We frequently use such words as _author_, _editor_, _chairman_, to represent persons of either sex. NOTE.--There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we speak of a female _as an active agent_ merely, we use the masculine termination, as, "George Eliot is the _author_ of 'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak purposely _to denote a distinction from a male_, we use the feminine, as, "George Eliot is an eminent _authoress_." III. Gender shown by Different Words. 32. In some of these pairs, the feminine and the masculine are entirely different words; others have in their origin the same root. Some of them have an interesting history, and will be noted below:-- bachelor--maid boy--girl brother--sister drake--duck earl--countess father--mother gander--goose hart--roe horse--mare husband--wife king--queen lord--lady wizard--witch nephew--niece ram--ewe sir--madam son--daughter uncle--aunt bull--cow boar--sow Girl originally meant a child of either sex, and was used for male or female until about the fifteenth century. Drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding feminine which is no longer used. It is not connected historically with our word _duck_, but is derived from _ened_ (duck) and an obsolete suffix _rake_ (king). Three letters of _ened_ have fallen away, leaving our word _drake_. Gander and goose were originally from the same root word. _Goose_ has various cognate forms in the languages akin to English (German _Gans_, Icelandic _gás_, Danish _gaas_, etc.). The masculine was formed by adding _-a_, the old sign of the masculine. This _gansa_ was modified into _gan-ra_, _gand-ra_, finally _gander_; the _d_ being inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many other words. Mare, in Old English _mere_, had the masculine _mearh_ (horse), but this has long been obsolete. Husband and wife are not connected in origin. _Husband_ is a Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon _hūsbonda_ from Icelandic _hús-bóndi_, probably meaning house dweller); _wife_ was used in Old and Middle English to mean woman in general. King and queen are said by some (Skeat, among others) to be from the same root word, but the German etymologist Kluge says they are not. Lord is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English _hlāf-weard_ (loaf keeper), written _loverd_, _lhauerd_, or _lauerd_ in Middle English. Lady is from _hlœ̄̄fdige_ (_hlœ̄̄f_ meaning loaf, and _dige_ being of uncertain origin and meaning). Witch is the Old English _wicce_, but wizard is from the Old French _guiscart_ (prudent), not immediately connected with _witch_, though both are ultimately from the same root. Sir is worn down from the Old French _sire_ (Latin _senior_). Madam is the French _ma dame_, from Latin _mea domina_. [Sidenote: _Two masculines from feminines._] 33. Besides _gander_ and _drake_, there are two other masculine words that were formed from the feminine:-- Bridegroom, from Old English _brȳd-guma_ (bride's man). The _r_ in _groom_ has crept in from confusion with the word _groom_. Widower, from the weakening of the ending _-a_ in Old English to _-e_ in Middle English. The older forms, _widuwa_--_widuwe_, became identical, and a new masculine ending was therefore added to distinguish the masculine from the feminine (compare Middle English _widuer_--_widewe_). Personification. 34. Just as abstract ideas are personified (Sec. 16), material objects may be spoken of like gender nouns; for example,-- "Now, where the swift _Rhone_ cleaves _his_ way."--BYRON. The _Sun_ now rose upon the right: Out of the sea came _he_. --COLERIDGE. And haply the _Queen Moon_ is on _her_ throne, Clustered around by all her starry Fays. --KEATS, _Britannia_ needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep; _Her_ march is o'er the mountain waves, _Her_ home is on the deep. --CAMPBELL This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc. [Sidenote: _Effect of personification._] In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by the form of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction of gender is confined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective. NUMBER. [Sidenote: _Definition._] 35. In nouns, number means the mode of indicating whether we are speaking of one thing or of more than one. 36. Our language has two numbers,--_singular_ and _plural_. The singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more than one. 37. There are three ways of changing the singular form to the plural:-- (1) By adding _-en_. (2) By changing the root vowel. (3) By adding _-s_ (or _-es_). The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old English, but in modern English _-s_ or _-es_ has come to be the "standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make its plural by adding _-s_ or _-es._ I. Plurals formed by the Suffix _-en_. [Sidenote: _The_ -en _inflection._] 38. This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it was quite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, _eyen_ (eyes), _treen_ (trees), _shoon_ (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland Scotch. _Hosen_ is found in the King James version of the Bible, and _housen_ is still common in the provincial speech in England. 39. But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of the old words in _-en_ by making a double plural. [Sidenote: -En _inflection imitated by other words._] Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was _brothru_, then _brothre_ or _brethre_, finally _brethren_. The weakening of inflections led to this addition. Children has passed through the same history, though the intermediate form _childer_ lasted till the seventeenth century in literary English, and is still found in dialects; as,-- "God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see your _childer_ get up like, and get settled."--QUOTED BY DE QUINCEY. Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular. In spite of wandering _kine_ and other adverse circumstance.--THOREAU. II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change. 40. Examples of this inflection are,-- man--men foot--feet goose--geese louse--lice mouse--mice tooth--teeth Some other words--as _book_, _turf_, _wight_, _borough_--formerly had the same inflection, but they now add the ending _-s_. 41. Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that have the singular and plural alike; such as _deer_, _sheep_, _swine_, etc. Other words following the same usage are, _pair_, _brace_, _dozen_, after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by the prepositions _in_, _by_, etc, they add _-s_): also _trout_, _salmon_; _head_, _sail_; _cannon_; _heathen_, _folk_, _people_. The words _horse_ and _foot_, when they mean soldiery, retain the same form for plural meaning; as,-- The _foot_ are fourscore thousand, The _horse_ are thousands ten. --MACAULAY. Lee marched over the mountain wall,-- Over the mountains winding down, _Horse_ and _foot_, into Frederick town. --WHITTIER. III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es. 42. Instead of _-s,_ the ending _-es_ is added-- (1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add _-s_ and be pronounced. Such are _box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz_, etc. [Sidenote: _-Es added in certain cases_.] If the word ends in a _sound_ which cannot add _-s_, a new syllable is made; as, _niche--niches, race--races, house--houses, prize--prizes, chaise--chaises_, etc. _-Es_ is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this sound combines readily with _-s_, and does not make an extra syllable: _cargo--cargoes, negro--negroes, hero--heroes, volcano--volcanoes_, etc. Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding _-s_, and some _-es_. (2) If a word ends in _-y_ preceded by a consonant (the _y_ being then changed to _i_); e.g., _fancies, allies, daisies, fairies_. [Sidenote: _Words in -ies._] Formerly, however, these words ended in _-ie_, and the real ending is therefore _-s_. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):-- [Sidenote: _Their old form._] The _lilie_ on hir stalke grene. Of _maladie_ the which he hadde endured. And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):-- Be well aware, quoth then that _ladie_ milde. At last fair Hesperus in highest _skie_ Had spent his lampe. (3) In the case of some words ending in -_f_ or -_fe_, which have the plural in _-ves_: _calf_--_calves_, _half_--_halves_, _knife_--_knives_, _shelf_--_shelves_, etc. Special Lists. 43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over to other classes (Secs. 15 and 17). 44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same name; e.g., _the Washingtons_, _the Americas_. 45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in form. Examples of these are, _optics_, _economics_, _physics_, _mathematics_, _politics_, and many branches of learning; also _news_, _pains_ (care), _molasses_, _summons_, _means_: as,-- _Politics_, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art of government.--_Century Dictionary_. So live, that when thy _summons comes_, etc.--BRYANT. It served simply as _a means_ of sight.--PROF. DANA. [Sidenote: Means _plural_.] Two words, means and politics, _may be plural_ in their construction with verbs and adjectives:-- Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by _those means_ which we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in other respects.--BURKE. With great dexterity _these means_ were now applied.--MOTLEY. By _these means_, I say, riches will accumulate.--GOLDSMITH. [Sidenote: Politics _plural_.] Cultivating a feeling that _politics_ are tiresome.--G.W. CURTIS. The _politics_ in which he took the keenest interest _were politics_ scarcely deserving of the name.--MACAULAY. Now I read all the _politics_ that _come_ out.--GOLDSMITH. 46. Some words have no corresponding singular. aborigines amends annals assets antipodes scissors thanks spectacles vespers victuals matins nuptials oats obsequies premises bellows billiards dregs gallows tongs [Sidenote: _Occasionally singular words_.] Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of singular nouns. Notice the following:-- They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of _a scissors_ can cut without the other.--J.L. LAUGHLIN. A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been _a tongs_.--IRVING. Besides this, it is furnished with _a forceps_.--GOLDSMITH. The air,--was it subdued when...the wind was trained only to turn a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in _a bellows_?--PROF. DANA. In Early Modern English _thank_ is found. What _thank_ have ye?--_Bible_ 47. Three words were _originally singular_, the present ending _-s_ not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed as plural: _alms, eaves, riches_. [Sidenote: _two plurals_.] 48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. brother--brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church). cloth--cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments). die--dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming). fish--fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds). genius--geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). index--indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra). pea--peas (separately), pease (collectively). penny--pennies (separately), pence (collectively). shot--shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired). In speaking of coins, _twopence_, _sixpence_, etc., may add _-s_, making a double plural, as two _sixpences_. [Sidenote: _One plural, two meanings._] 49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings,--one corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it. custom--customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties. letter--letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature. number--numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines,-- I lisped in _numbers_, for the numbers came.--POPE. Tell me not, in mournful _numbers_.--LONGFELLOW. _Numbers_ also means issues, or copies, of a periodical. pain--pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble, part--parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties. [Sidenote: _Two classes of compound words._] 50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:-- (1) _Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word._ These make the last part plural. courtyard dormouse Englishman fellow-servant fisherman Frenchman forget-me-not goosequill handful mouthful cupful maidservant pianoforte stepson spoonful titmouse (2) _Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or phrase making a modifier._ The chief member adds _-s_ in the plural. aid-de-camp attorney at law billet-doux commander in chief court-martial cousin-german father-in-law knight-errant hanger-on NOTE.--Some words ending in _-man_ are not compounds of the English word _man_, but add _-s_; such as _talisman_, _firman_, _Brahman_, _German_, _Norman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_. 51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as _man singer_, _manservant_, _woman servant_, _woman singer_. [Sidenote: _Two methods in use for names with titles._] 52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement among English writers. The title may be plural, as _the Messrs. Allen_, _the Drs. Brown_, _the Misses Rich_; or the name may be pluralized. The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the latter is often found; for example,-- Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then _the three Miss Spinneys_, then Silas Peckham.--DR. HOLMES. Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the _Earls of Denbigh_, who drew their origin from the _Counts of Hapsburgh_.--GIBBON. The _Miss Flamboroughs_ were reckoned the best dancers in the parish.--GOLDSMITH. The _Misses Nettengall's_ young ladies come to the Cathedral too.--DICKENS. The _Messrs. Harper_ have done the more than generous thing by Mr. Du Maurier.--_The Critic_. 53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into English without change of form. These are said to be _domesticated_, and retain their foreign plurals. Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so as to conform to English words. They are then said to be _naturalized_, or _Anglicized_, or _Englished_. [Sidenote: _Domesticated words._] The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them have a secondary English plural in _-s_ or _-es_. Exercise. Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:-- I. FROM THE LATIN. apparatus appendix axis datum erratum focus formula genus larva medium memorandum nebula radius series species stratum terminus vertex II. FROM THE GREEK. analysis antithesis automaton basis crisis ellipsis hypothesis parenthesis phenomenon thesis [Sidenote: _Anglicized words._] When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their plurals in the regular way; as,-- bandits cherubs dogmas encomiums enigmas focuses formulas geniuses herbariums indexes seraphs apexes [Sidenote: _Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc._] 54. Letters, figures, etc., form their plurals by adding _-s_ or _'s_. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their meaning, also add _-s_ or _'s_; as, "His _9's_ (or _9s_) look like _7's_ (or _7s_)," "Avoid using too many _and's_ (or _ands_)," "Change the _+'s_ (or _+s_) to _-'s_ (or _-s_)." CASE. [Sidenote: _Definition._] 55. Case is an inflection or use of a noun (or pronoun) to show its relation to other words in the sentence. In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word _felon's_ modifies _cell_, and expresses a relation akin to possession; _cell_ has another relation, helping to express the idea of place with the word _in_. 56. In the general wearing-away of inflections, the number of case forms has been greatly reduced. [Sidenote: _Only two_ case forms.] There are now only two case forms of English nouns,--one for the _nominative_ and _objective_, one for the _possessive_: consequently the matter of inflection is a very easy thing to handle in learning about cases. [Sidenote: _Reasons for speaking of_ three cases _of nouns_.] But there are reasons why grammars treat of _three_ cases of nouns when there are only two forms:-- (1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or not, must be understood for purposes of analysis. (2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as three case relations. 57. Nouns, then, may be said to have three cases,--the nominative, the objective, and the possessive. I. Uses of the Nominative. 58. The nominative case is used as follows:-- (1) _As the subject of a verb_: "_Water_ seeks its level." (2) _As a predicate noun_, completing a verb, and referring to or explaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked _tree_." (3) _In apposition_ with some other nominative word, adding to the meaning of that word: "The reaper _Death_ with his sickle keen." (4) _In direct address_: "_Lord Angus_, thou hast lied!" (5) _With a participle in an absolute or independent phrase_ (there is some discussion whether this is a true nominative): "The _work_ done, they returned to their homes." (6) _With an infinitive in exclamations_: "_David_ to die!" Exercise. Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of the nominative each one has. 1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive grief, the enemy of the living. 2. Excuses are clothes which, when asked unawares, Good Breeding to naked Necessity spares. 3. Human experience is the great test of truth. 4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers. 5. Three properties belong to wisdom,--nature, learning, and experience; three things characterize man,--person, fate, and merit. 6. But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy wrath can send, Save, save, oh save me from the candid friend! 7. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down. 9. O sleep! O gentle sleep! Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee? II. Uses of the Objective. 59. The objective case is used as follows:-- (1) _As the direct object of a verb_, naming the person or thing directly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare that _tree_!" (2) _As the indirect object of a verb_, naming the person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the _devil_ his due." (3) _Adverbially_, defining the action of a verb by denoting _time_, _measure_, _distance_, etc. (in the older stages of the language, this took the regular accusative inflection): "Full _fathom_ five thy father lies;" "Cowards die many _times_ before their deaths." (4) _As the second object_, completing the verb, and thus becoming part of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time makes the worst enemies _friends_;" "Thou makest the storm a _calm_." In these sentences the real predicates are _makes friends_, taking the object _enemies_, and being equivalent to one verb, _reconciles_; and _makest a calm_, taking the object _storm_, and meaning calmest. This is also called the _predicate objective_ or the _factitive object_. (5) _As the object of a preposition_, the word toward which the preposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He must have a long spoon that would eat with the _devil_." The preposition sometimes takes the _possessive_ case of a noun, as will be seen in Sec. 68. (6) _In apposition with another objective_: "The opinions of this junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a _patriarch_ of the village, and _landlord_ of the inn." Exercise. Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, and tell which use each has:-- 1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills. 2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and effect. 3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands of precious gold. 4. But the flood came howling one day. 5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. 6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. 7. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural curiosity, the Great Stone Face. 9. And whirling plate, and forfeits paid, His winter task a pastime made. 10. He broke the ice on the streamlet's brink, And gave the leper to eat and drink. III. Uses of the Possessive. 60. The possessive case always modifies another word, expressed or understood. There are three forms of possessive showing how a word is related in sense to the modified word:-- (1) _Appositional possessive_, as in these expressions,-- The blind old man of _Scio's_ rocky isle.--BYRON. Beside a pumice isle in _Baiæ's_ bay.--SHELLEY. In these sentences the phrases are equivalent to _of the rocky isle [of] Scio_, and _in the bay [of] Baiæ_, the possessive being really equivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poetic expression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose. (2) _Objective possessive_, as shown in the sentences,-- Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady had been hanged for _Sir Thomas Overbury's_ murder.--HAWTHORNE. He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in writing _yesterday's_ elegy.--THACKERAY In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a verbal expression: as, _for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury_; _an elegy to commemorate yesterday_. For this reason the use of the possessive here is called objective. (3) _Subjective possessive_, the most common of all; as,-- The unwearied sun, from day to day, Does his Creator's power display. --ADDISON. If this were expanded into _the power which his Creator possesses_, the word _Creator_ would be the subject of the verb: hence it is called a subjective possessive. 61. This last-named possessive expresses a variety of relations. _Possession_ in some sense is the most common. The kind of relation may usually be found by expanding the possessive into an equivalent phrase: for example, "_Winter's_ rude tempests are gathering now" (i.e., tempests that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of _several days'_ growth" (i.e., growth which several days had developed); "The _forest's_ leaping panther shall yield his spotted hide" (i.e., the panther which the forest hides); "Whoso sheddeth _man's_ blood" (blood that man possesses). [Sidenote: _How the possessive is formed._] 62. As said before (Sec. 56), there are only two case forms. One is the simple form of a word, expressing the relations of nominative and objective; the other is formed by adding _'s_ to the simple form, making the possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, only the apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in _-s_; the _'s_ is added if the plural nominative does not end in _-s_. Case Inflection. [Sidenote: _Declension or inflection of nouns._] 63. The full declension of nouns is as follows:-- SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. _Nom. and Obj._ lady ladies _Poss._ lady's ladies' 2. _Nom. and Obj._ child children _Poss._ child's children's [Sidenote: _A suggestion._] NOTE.--The difficulty that some students have in writing the possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember there are two steps to be taken:-- (1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53 (2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62. Special Remarks on the Possessive Case. [Sidenote: _Origin of the possessive with its apostrophe._] 64. In Old English a large number of words had in the genitive case singular the ending _-es_; in Middle English still more words took this ending: for example, in Chaucer, "From every _schires_ ende," "Full worthi was he in his _lordes_ werre [war]," "at his _beddes_ syde," "_mannes_ herte [heart]," etc. [Sidenote: _A false theory._] By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of indicating the possessive had become general. The use of the apostrophe, however, was not then regarded as standing for the omitted vowel of the genitive (as _lord's_ for _lordes_): by a false theory the ending was thought to be a contraction of _his_, as schoolboys sometimes write, "George Jones _his_ book." [Sidenote: _Use of the apostrophe._] Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a great convenience, since otherwise words with a plural in _-s_ would have three forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now distinct, but to the ear all may be alike, and the connection must tell us what form is intended. The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the seventeenth century, from thinking that _s_ was not a possessive sign, and from a desire to have distinct forms. [Sidenote: _Sometimes_ s _is left out in the possessive singular._] 65. Occasionally the _s_ is dropped in the possessive singular if the word ends in a hissing sound and another hissing sound follows, but the apostrophe remains to mark the possessive; as, _for goodness' sake, Cervantes' satirical work_. In other cases the _s_ is seldom omitted. Notice these three examples from Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to his _mistress's_ apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the _countess's_ command;" "I saw what the _governess's_ views were of the matter." [Sidenote: _Possessive with compound expressions._] 66. In compound expressions, containing words in apposition, a word with a phrase, etc., the possessive sign is usually last, though instances are found with both appositional words marked. Compare the following examples of literary usage:-- Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my income, the items of my _son's_, _Captain Scrapegrace's_, tailor's bill--THACKERAY. The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, stands up for God's truth one man, the _poor miner Hans Luther's_ son.--CARLYLE. They invited me in the _emperor their master's_ name.--SWIFT. I had naturally possessed myself of _Richardson the painter's_ thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise Lost."--DE QUINCEY. They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of _Og the king of Bashan's_ bedstead.--HOLMES. More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into an equivalent phrase; as, _in the name of the emperor their master_, instead of _the emperor their master's name_. [Sidenote: _Possessive and no noun limited._] 67. The possessive is sometimes used without belonging to any noun in the sentence; some such word as _house_, _store_, _church_, _dwelling_, etc., being understood with it: for example,-- Here at the _fruiterer's_ the Madonna has a tabernacle of fresh laurel leaves.--RUSKIN. It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed in the first sight of _St. Peter's_.--LOWELL. I remember him in his cradle at _St. James's_.--THACKERAY. Kate saw that; and she walked off from the _don's_.--DE QUINCEY. [Sidenote: _The double possessive._] 68. A peculiar form, a double possessive, has grown up and become a fixed idiom in modern English. In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old English by the inflection _-es_, corresponding to _'s_. The same relation was expressed in French by a phrase corresponding to _of_ and its object. Both of these are now used side by side; sometimes they are used together, as one modifier, making a double possessive. For this there are several reasons:-- [Sidenote: _Its advantages: Euphony_.] (1) When a word is modified by _a_, _the_, _this_, _that_, _every_, _no_, _any_, _each_, etc., and at the same time by a possessive noun, it is distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, and it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modified noun with _of_. [Sidenote: _Emphasis._] (2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially when used with _this_ or _that_, for it brings out the modified word in strong relief. [Sidenote: _Clearness._] (3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, "This introduction _of Atterbury's_ has all these advantages" (Dr. Blair), the statement clearly means only one thing,--the introduction which Atterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase _of Atterbury_, the sentence _might_ be understood as just explained, or it might mean this act of introducing Atterbury. (See also Sec. 87.) The following are some instances of double possessives:-- This Hall _of Tinville's_ is dark, ill-lighted except where she stands.--CARLYLE. Those lectures _of Lowell's_ had a great influence with me, and I used to like whatever they bade me like.--HOWELLS Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences _of Cæsar's_ can have come down to us.--FROUDE. Besides these famous books _of Scott's and Johnson's_, there is a copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan.--THACKERAY Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint old French sword _of the Commodore's_.--E.E. HALE. Exercises. (_a_) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each is appositional, objective, or subjective. (_b_) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into equivalent phrases. 1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears. 2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? 3. I must not see thee Osman's bride. 4. At lovers' perjuries, They say, Jove laughs. 5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son. 6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one. 7. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, Comes dancing from the East. 8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let him seasonably water the one, and destroy the other. 9. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience To those that wring under the load of sorrow. 10. A jest's prosperity lies in the ear Of him that hears it, never in the tongue Of him that makes it. 11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip. 12. There Shakespeare's self, with every garland crowned, Flew to those fairy climes his fancy sheen. 13. What supports me? dost thou ask? The conscience, Friend, to have lost them [his eyes] overplied In liberty's defence. 14. Or where Campania's plain forsaken lies, A weary waste expanding to the skies. 15. Nature herself, it seemed, would raise A minster to her Maker's praise! HOW TO PARSE NOUNS. 69. Parsing a word is putting together all the facts about its form and its relations to other words in the sentence. In parsing, some idioms--the double possessive, for example--do not come under regular grammatical rules, and are to be spoken of merely as idioms. 70. Hence, in parsing a noun, we state,-- (1) The class to which it belongs,--common, proper, etc. (2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which gender. (3) Whether singular or plural number. (4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case. [Sidenote: _The correct method._] 71. In parsing any word, the following method should always be followed: tell the facts about what the word _does_, then make the grammatical statements as to its class, inflections, and relations. MODEL FOR PARSING. "What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief by the throat every morning?" _Miller's_ is a name applied to every individual of its class, hence it is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, hence it is a gender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, therefore singular number; it expresses possession or ownership, and limits _neckcloth_, therefore possessive case. _Neckcloth_, like _miller's_, is a common class noun; it has no sex, therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore singular number; subject of the verb _is_ understood, and therefore nominative case. _Thief_ is a common class noun; the connection shows a male is meant, therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of the verb _takes_, hence objective case. _Throat_ is neuter, of the same class and number as the word _neckcloth_; it is the object of the preposition _by_, hence it is objective case. NOTE.--The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case (see Sec. 68). _Morning_ is like _throat_ and _neckcloth_ as to class, gender, and number; as to case, it expresses time, has no governing word, but is the adverbial objective. Exercise. Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following sentences:-- 1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate virtue. 2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth, and to have it found out by accident. 3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a fresh tapster. 4. That in the captain's but a choleric word, Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy. 5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented ... sleep! 6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, Madame de Staël, were natives of Geneva. 7. He giveth his beloved sleep. 8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by a drawbridge,--palace, castle, and prison, all in one. 10. Wretches! ye loved her for her wealth, And hated her for her pride. 11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman shook his forefinger. PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _The need of pronouns._] 72. When we wish to speak of a name several times in succession, it is clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun. For instance, instead of saying, "_The pupil_ will succeed in _the pupil's_ efforts if _the pupil_ is ambitious," we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, "The pupil will succeed in _his_ efforts if _he_ is ambitious." Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we evidently cannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, "_Whose_ house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the name till we learn the name. This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were _invented_ because nouns were tiresome, since history shows that pronouns are as old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns must have sprung up naturally, from a necessity for short, definite, and representative words. [Sidenote: _Definition._] A pronoun is a reference word, standing for a name, or for a person or thing, or for a group of persons or things. [Sidenote: _Classes of pronouns._] 73. Pronouns may be grouped in five classes:-- (1) Personal pronouns, which distinguish person by their form (Sec. 76). (2) Interrogative pronouns, which are used to ask questions about persons or things. (3) Relative pronouns, which relate or refer to a noun, pronoun, or other word or expression, and at the same time connect two statements They are also called conjunctive. (4) Adjective pronouns, words, primarily adjectives, which are classed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as pronouns when they stand for nouns. (5) Indefinite pronouns, which cannot be used as adjectives, but stand for an indefinite number of persons or things. Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate classes hereafter treated. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _Person in grammar._] 74. Since pronouns stand for persons as well as names, they must represent the person talking, the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing talked about. This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of _person_." [Sidenote: Person _of nouns_.] 75. This distinction was not needed in discussing nouns, as nouns have the _same form_, whether representing persons and things spoken to or spoken of. It is evident that a noun could not represent the person speaking, even if it had a special form. From analogy to pronouns, which have _forms_ for person, nouns are sometimes spoken of as first or second person by their _use_; that is, if they are in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person, they are said to have person by agreement. But usually nouns represent something spoken of. [Sidenote: _Three persons of pronouns._] 76. Pronouns naturally are of three persons:-- (1) First person, representing the person speaking. (2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to. (3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of. FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 77. Personal pronouns are inflected thus:-- FIRST PERSON. _Singular._ _Nom._ I _Poss._ mine, my _Obj._ me _Plural._ _Nom._ we _Poss._ our, ours _Obj._ us SECOND PERSON. _Singular._ _Old Form_ _Common Form._ _Nom._ thou you _Poss._ thine, thy your, yours _Obj._ thee you _Plural._ _Nom._ ye you _Poss._ your, yours your, yours _Obj._ you you THIRD PERSON. _Singular._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._. _Nom._ he she it _Poss._ his her, hers its _Obj._ him her it _Plur. of all Three_. _Nom._ they _Poss._ their, theirs _Obj._ them Remarks on These Forms. [Sidenote: _First and second persons without gender._] 78. It will be noticed that the pronouns of the first and second persons have no forms to distinguish gender. The speaker may be either male or female, or, by personification, neuter; so also with the person or thing spoken to. [Sidenote: _Third person_ singular _has gender_.] But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for each gender, and also for the neuter. [Sidenote: _Old forms_.] In Old English these three were formed from the same root; namely, masculine _hē_, feminine _hēo_, neuter _hit_. The form _hit_ (for _it_) is still heard in vulgar English, and _hoo_ (for _hēo_) in some dialects of England. The plurals were _hī_, _heora_, _heom_, in Old English; the forms _they_, _their_, _them_, perhaps being from the English demonstrative, though influenced by the cognate Norse forms. [Sidenote: _Second person always plural in ordinary English._] 79. _Thou_, _thee_, etc., are old forms which are now out of use in ordinary speech. The consequence is, that we have no singular pronoun of the second person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural _you_ do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, even when referring to a single object. [Sidenote: _Two uses of the old singulars._] 80. There are, however, two modern uses of _thou, thy_, etc.:-- (1) _In elevated style_, especially in poetry; as,-- With _thy_ clear keen joyance Languor cannot be; Shadow of annoyance Never came near _thee_; _Thou_ lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety.--SHELLEY. (2) _In addressing the Deity_, as in prayers, etc.; for example,-- Oh, _thou_ Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort _thy_ people of old, to _thy_ care we commit the helpless.--BEECHER. [Sidenote: _The form_ its.] 81. It is worth while to consider the possessive _its_. This is of comparatively recent growth. The old form was _his_ (from the nominative _hit_), and this continued in use till the sixteenth century. The transition from the old _his_ to the modern _its_ is shown in these sentences:-- 1 He anointed the altar and all _his_ vessels.--_Bible_ Here _his_ refers to _altar_, which is a neuter noun. The quotation represents the usage of the early sixteenth century. 2 It's had _it_ head bit off by _it_ young--SHAKESPEARE Shakespeare uses _his_, _it_, and sometimes _its_, as possessive of _it_. In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) _its_ occurs only three times. 3 See heaven _its_ sparkling portals wide display--POPE [Sidenote: _A relic of the olden time._] 82. We have an interesting relic in such sentences as this from Thackeray: "One of the ways to know '_em_ is to watch the scared looks of the ogres' wives and children." As shown above, the Old English objective was _hem_ (or _heom_), which was often sounded with the _h_ silent, just as we now say, "I saw '_im_ yesterday" when the word _him_ is not emphatic. In spoken English, this form '_em_ has survived side by side with the literary _them_. [Sidenote: _Use of the pronouns in personification._] 83. The pronouns _he_ and _she_ are often used in poetry, and sometimes in ordinary speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34). CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. I The Nominative. [Sidenote: _Nominative forms._] 84. The nominative forms of personal pronouns have the same uses as the nominative of nouns (see Sec. 58). The case of most of these pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of nouns, for, besides a nominative _use_, they have a nominative form. The words _I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, _we_, _ye_, _they_, are very rarely anything but nominative in literary English, though _ye_ is occasionally used as objective. [Sidenote: _Additional nominatives in spoken English._] 85. In spoken English, however, there are some others that are added to the list of nominatives: they are, _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, when they occur in the _predicate position_. That is, in such a sentence as, "I am sure it was _him_," the literary language would require _he_ after _was_; but colloquial English regularly uses as predicate nominatives the forms _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet careful speakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English. II. The Possessive. [Sidenote: _Not a separate class._] 86. The forms _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_, are sometimes grouped separately as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, but it is better to speak of them as the possessive case of personal pronouns, just as we speak of the possessive case of nouns, and not make more classes. [Sidenote: Absolute _personal pronouns._] The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_, _theirs_, sometimes _his_ and _its_, have a peculiar use, standing apart from the words they modify instead of immediately before them. From this use they are called ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. As instances of the use of absolute pronouns, note the following:-- 'Twas _mine_, 'tis _his_, and has been slave to thousands. --SHAKESPEARE. And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee _mine_.--COWPER. My arm better than _theirs_ can ward it off.--LANDOR. _Thine_ are the city and the people of Granada.--BULWER. [Sidenote: _Old use of_ mine _and_ thine.] Formerly _mine_ and _thine_ stood before their nouns, if the nouns began with a vowel or _h_ silent; thus,-- Shall I not take _mine_ ease in _mine_ inn?--SHAKESPEARE. Give every man _thine_ ear, but few thy voice.--_Id._ If _thine_ eye offend thee, pluck it out.--_Bible._ My greatest apprehension was for _mine_ eyes.--SWIFT. This usage is still preserved in poetry. [Sidenote: _Double and triple possessives._] 87. The forms _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, are really double possessives, since they add the possessive _s_ to what is already a regular possessive inflection. Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up of the preposition _of_ with these double possessives, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, and with _mine_, _thine_, _his_, sometimes _its_. [Sidenote: _Their uses._] Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:-- (1) _To prevent ambiguity_, as in the following:-- I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy friend _of theirs_ with the astounding spirits of Thackeray and Dickens.--J.T. FIELDS. No words _of ours_ can describe the fury of the conflict.--J.F. COOPER. (2) _To bring emphasis_, as in these sentences:-- This thing _of yours_ that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is a bit of rag-paper with ink.--CARLYLE. This ancient silver bowl _of mine_, it tells of good old times. --HOLMES. (3) _To express contempt, anger, or satire_; for example,-- "Do you know the charges that unhappy sister _of mine_ and her family have put me to already?" says the Master.--THACKERAY. He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that old Edinburgh house _of his_.--CARLYLE. "Hold thy peace, Long Allen," said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee that tongue _of thine_ is not the shortest limb about _thee_."--SCOTT. (4) _To make a noun less limited in application_; thus,-- A favorite liar and servant _of mine_ was a man I once had to drive a brougham.--THACKERAY. In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting upon a letter _of mine_.--_Id._ What would the last two sentences mean if the word _my_ were written instead of _of mine_, and preceded the nouns? [Sidenote: _About the case of absolute pronouns._] 88. In their function, or use in a sentence, the absolute possessive forms of the personal pronouns are very much like adjectives used as nouns. In such sentences as, "_The good_ alone are great," "None but _the brave_ deserves _the fair_," the words italicized have an adjective force and also a noun force, as shown in Sec. 20. So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: _mine_ stands for _my property_, _his_ for _his property_, in the first sentence; _mine_ stands for _my praise_ in the second. But the first two have a nominative use, and _mine_ in the second has an objective use. They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative or objective in use, according as the modified word is in the nominative or the objective. III. The Objective. [Sidenote: _The old_ dative _case._] 89. In Old English there was one case which survives in use, but not in form. In such a sentence as this one from Thackeray, "Pick _me_ out a whip-cord thong with some dainty knots in it," the word _me_ is evidently not the direct object of the verb, but expresses _for whom_, _for whose benefit_, the thing is done. In pronouns, this dative use, as it is called, was marked by a separate case. [Sidenote: _Now the objective._] In Modern English the same _use_ is frequently seen, but the _form_ is the same as the objective. For this reason a word thus used is called a dative-objective. The following are examples of the dative-objective:-- Give _me_ neither poverty nor riches.--_Bible._ Curse _me_ this people.--_Id._ Both joined in making _him_ a present.--MACAULAY Is it not enough that you have _burnt me_ down three houses with your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!--LAMB I give _thee_ this to wear at the collar.--SCOTT [Sidenote: _Other uses of the objective._] 90. Besides this use of the objective, there are others:-- (1) _As the direct object of a verb._ They all handled _it_.--LAMB (2) _As the object of a preposition._ Time is behind _them_ and before _them_.--CARLYLE. (3) _In apposition._ She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, _him_ that so often and so gladly I talked with.--DE QUINCEY. SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _Indefinite use of_ you _and_ your.] 91. The word _you_, and its possessive case _yours_ are sometimes used without reference to a particular person spoken to. They approach the indefinite pronoun in use. _Your_ mere puny stripling, that winced at the least flourish of the rod, was passed by with indulgence.--IRVING To empty here, _you_ must condense there.--EMERSON. The peasants take off their hats as _you_ pass; _you_ sneeze, and they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows _you_ into her best chamber. _You_ have oaten cakes baked some months before.--LONGFELLOW [Sidenote: _Uses of_ it.] 92. The pronoun _it_ has a number of uses:-- (1) _To refer to some single word preceding_; as,-- Ferdinand ordered the _army_ to recommence _its_ march.--BULWER. _Society_, in this century, has not made _its_ progress, like Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity in trifles.--D. WEBSTER. (2) _To refer to a preceding word group_; thus,-- If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet _it_ is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch because they can do no other.--BACON. Here _it_ refers back to the whole sentence before it, or to the idea, "any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature." (3) _As a grammatical subject, to stand for the real, logical subject, which follows the verb_; as in the sentences,-- _It_ is easy in the world _to live after the world's opinion_. --EMERSON. _It_ is this _haziness_ of intellectual vision which is the malady of all classes of men by nature.--NEWMAN. _It_ is a pity _that he has so much learning, or that he has not a great deal more_.--ADDISON. (4) _As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which need no other subject_; as,-- _It_ is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their barreled apples.--THOREAU. And when I awoke, _it_ rained.--COLERIDGE. For when _it_ dawned, they dropped their arms.--_Id._ _It_ was late and after midnight.--DE QUINCEY. (5) _As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a preposition_; as in the following sentences:-- (_a_) Michael Paw, who _lorded it_ over the fair regions of ancient Pavonia.--IRVING. I made up my mind _to foot it_.--HAWTHORNE. A sturdy lad ... who in turn tries all the professions, who _teams it, farms it, peddles it_, keeps a school.--EMERSON. (_b_) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life _of it_."--IRVING. There was nothing _for it_ but to return.--SCOTT. An editor has only to say "respectfully declined," and there is an end _of it_.--HOLMES. Poor Christian was hard put _to it_.--BUNYAN. [Sidenote: _Reflexive use of the personal pronouns._] 93. The personal pronouns in the objective case are often used _reflexively_; that is, referring to the same person as the subject of the accompanying verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "I found _me_ a good book," "He bought _him_ a horse," etc. This reflexive use of the _dative_-objective is very common in spoken and in literary English. The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, when they are _direct_ objects. This occurs in poetry, but seldom in prose; as,-- Now I lay _me_ down to sleep.--ANON. I set _me_ down and sigh.--BURNS. And millions in those solitudes, since first The flight of years began, have laid _them_ down In their last sleep.--BRYANT. REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _Composed of the personal pronouns with_ -self, -selves.] 94. The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are also called, are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the word _self_, and its plural _selves_. They are _myself_, (_ourself_), _ourselves_, _yourself_, (_thyself_), _yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _themselves_. Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of the second person, used in poetry. _Ourself_ is used to follow the word _we_ when this represents a single person, especially in the speech of rulers; as,-- Methinks he seems no better than a girl; As girls were once, as we _ourself_ have been.--TENNYSON. [Sidenote: _Origin of these reflexives._] 95. The question might arise, Why are _himself_ and _themselves_ not _hisself_ and _theirselves_, as in vulgar English, after the analogy of _myself_, _ourselves_, etc.? The history of these words shows they are made up of the dative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with _self_. In Middle English the forms _meself_, _theself_, were changed into the possessive _myself_, _thyself_, and the others were formed by analogy with these. _Himself_ and _themselves_ are the only ones retaining a distinct objective form. In the forms _yourself_ and _yourselves_ we have the possessive _your_ marked as singular as well as plural. [Sidenote: _Use of the reflexives._] 96. There are three uses of reflexive pronouns:-- (1) _As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the same person or thing as the subject_; as in these sentences from Emerson:-- He who offers _himself_ a candidate for that covenant comes up like an Olympian. I should hate _myself_ if then I made my other friends my asylum. We fill _ourselves_ with ancient learning. What do we know of nature or of _ourselves_? (2) _To emphasize a noun or pronoun_; for example,-- The great globe _itself_ ... shall dissolve.--SHAKESPEARE. Threats to all; To _you yourself_, to us, to every one.--_Id._ Who would not sing for Lycidas! he knew _Himself_ to sing, and build the lofty rhyme.--MILTON. NOTE.--In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, and the reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for example,-- Only _itself_ can inspire whom it will.--EMERSON. My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within them till _myself_ shall die.--E.B. BROWNING. As if it were _thyself_ that's here, I shrink with pain.--WORDSWORTH. (3) _As the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun_; as,-- Lord Altamont designed to take his son and _myself_.--DE QUINCEY. Victories that neither _myself_ nor my cause always deserved.--B. FRANKLIN. For what else have our forefathers and _ourselves_ been taxed?--LANDOR. Years ago, Arcturus and _myself_ met a gentleman from China who knew the language.--THACKERAY. Exercises on Personal Pronouns. (_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, some each of masculine, feminine, and neuter. (_b_) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in the possessive, some of them being double possessives. (_c_) Tell which use each _it_ has in the following sentences:-- 1. Come and trip it as we go, On the light fantastic toe. 2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it. 3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 4. Courage, father, fight it out. 5. And it grew wondrous cold. 6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom. 7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active. 8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the word is one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it. 9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils. 10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the soonest spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, why it is that a touch of water utterly ruins it. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _Three now in use._] 97. The interrogative pronouns now in use are _who_ (with the forms _whose_ and _whom_), _which_, and _what_. [Sidenote: _One obsolete._] There is an old word, _whether_, used formerly to mean which of two, but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:-- _Whether_ of them twain did the will of his father? _Whether_ is greater, the gold, or the temple? From Steele (eighteenth century):-- It may be a question _whether_ of these unfortunate persons had the greater soul. [Sidenote: _Use of_ who _and its forms._] 98. The use of _who_, with its possessive and objective, is seen in these sentences:-- _Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?--DE QUINCEY. _Whose_ was that gentle voice, that, whispering sweet, Promised, methought, long days of bliss sincere?--BOWLES. What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative _who_ refers to _persons only_; that it is not inflected for gender or number, but for case alone, having three forms; it is always third person, as it always asks _about_ somebody. [Sidenote: _Use of_ which.] 99. Examples of the use of interrogative _which_:-- _Which_ of these had speed enough to sweep between the question and the answer, and divide the one from the other?--DE QUINCEY. _Which_ of you, shall we say, doth love us most?--SHAKESPEARE. _Which_ of them [the sisters] shall I take?--_Id._ As shown here, _which_ is not inflected for gender, number, or case; it refers to either persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks out one or more from a number of known persons or objects. [Sidenote: _Use of_ what.] 100. Sentences showing the use of interrogative _what_:-- Since I from Smaylho'me tower have been, _What_ did thy lady do?--SCOTT. _What_ is so rare as a day in June?--LOWELL. _What_ wouldst thou do, old man?--SHAKESPEARE. These show that _what_ is not inflected for case; that it is always singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, etc., not to persons. DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 101. The following are all the interrogative forms:-- SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR _Nom._ who? which? what? _Poss._ whose? -- -- _Obj._ whom? which? what? In spoken English, _who_ is used as objective instead of _whom_; as, "_Who_ did you see?" "_Who_ did he speak to?" [Sidenote: _To tell the case of interrogatives._] 102. The interrogative _who_ has a separate form for each case, consequently the case can be told by the form of the word; but the case of _which_ and _what_ must be determined exactly as in nouns,--by the _use_ of the words. For instance, in Sec. 99, _which_ is nominative in the first sentence, since it is subject of the verb _had_; nominative in the second also, subject of _doth love_; objective in the last, being the direct object of the verb _shall take_. [Sidenote: _Further treatment of_ who, which _and_ what.] 103. _Who_, _which_, and _what_ are also relative pronouns; _which_ and _what_ are sometimes adjectives; _what_ may be an adverb in some expressions. They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in the treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127). RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _Function of the relative pronoun_.] 104. Relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogative pronouns in referring to an antecedent, and also in having a conjunctive use. The advantage in using them is to unite short statements into longer sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. Thus we may say, "The last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang of Border chivalry." Or, it may be shortened into,-- "The last of all the Bards was he, _Who_ sung of Border chivalry." In the latter sentence, _who_ evidently refers to _Bards_, which is called the antecedent of the relative. [Sidenote: _The antecedent._] 105. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other word or expression, for which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes the pronoun. Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, as they take the place usually of a word already used; as,-- The priest hath _his_ fee who comes and shrives us.--LOWELL In this, both _his_ and _who_ have the antecedent _priest_. The pronoun _which_ may have its antecedent following, and the antecedent may be a word or a group of words, as will be shown in the remarks on _which_ below. [Sidenote: _Two kinds._] 106. Relatives may be SIMPLE or INDEFINITE. When the word _relative_ is used, a simple relative is meant. Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple relatives, will be discussed further on. The SIMPLE RELATIVES are _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_. [Sidenote: Who _and its forms._] 107. Examples of the relative _who_ and its forms:-- 1. Has a man gained anything _who_ has received a hundred favors and rendered none?--EMERSON. 2. That man is little to be envied _whose_ patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon.--DR JOHNSON. 3. For her enchanting son, _Whom_ universal nature did lament.--MILTON. 4. The nurse came to us, _who_ were sitting in an adjoining apartment.--THACKERAY. 5. Ye mariners of England, That guard our native seas; _Whose_ flag has braved, a thousand years, The battle and the breeze!--CAMPBELL. 6. The men _whom_ men respect, the women _whom_ women approve, are the men and women _who_ bless their species.--PARTON [Sidenote: Which _and its forms._] 108. Examples of the relative _which_ and its forms:-- 1. They had not their own luster, but the look _which_ is not of the earth.--BYRON. 2. The embattled portal arch he pass'd, _Whose_ ponderous grate and massy bar Had oft roll'd back the tide of war.--SCOTT. 3. Generally speaking, the dogs _which_ stray around the butcher shops restrain their appetites.--COX. 4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in _which_ man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a divine creation.--W.D. WHITNEY. 5. (_a_) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else this description will seem exaggerated, _which_ it certainly is not.--BURKE. (_b_) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, _which_ prevented him from taking his usual ride.--IRVING. [Sidenote: That.] 109. Examples of the relative _that_:-- 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. --SHAKESPEARE 2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs _that_ could be had.--LAMB 3. Nature and books belong to the eyes _that_ see them.--EMERSON. 4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything _that_ makes the land honorable.--H.W. BEECHER 5. Reader, _that_ do not pretend to have leisure for very much scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling you.--DE QUINCEY. 6. The Tree Igdrasil, _that_ has its roots down in the kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven!--CARLYLE. [Sidenote: What.] 110. Examples of the use of the relative _what_:-- 1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be _what_ it chiefly trusts to, and _what_ it takes most pains to render as complete as possible.--GOLDSMITH. 2. For _what_ he sought below is passed above, Already done is all that he would do.--MARGARET FULLER. 3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of _what_ often happens in that country.--MACAULAY [_To the Teacher._--If pupils work over the above sentences carefully, and test every remark in the following paragraphs, they will get a much better understanding of the relatives.] REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: Who.] 111. By reading carefully the sentences in Sec. 107, the following facts will be noticed about the relative _who_:-- (1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, Sec. 107, _a man...who_; in the second, _that man...whose_; in the third, _son_, _whom_; and so on. (2) It has three case forms,--_who_, _whose_, _whom_. (3) The forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent. In sentence 4, _who_ is first person; in 5, _whose_ is second person; the others are all third person. In 1, 2, and 3, the relatives are singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are plural. [Sidenote: Who _referring to animals_.] 112. Though in most cases _who_ refers to persons there are instances found where it refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when their characteristics or habits are such as to render them important or interesting to man. Probably on the same principle the personal relative _who_ is used not infrequently in literature, referring to animals. Witness the following examples:-- And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], _who_ class With those who think the candles come too soon.--LEIGH HUNT. The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays _who_ used to build in our pines.--LOWELL. The little gorilla, _whose_ wound I had dressed, flung its arms around my neck.--THACKERAY. A lake frequented by every fowl _whom_ Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.--DR. JOHNSON. While we had such plenty of domestic insects _who_ infinitely excelled the former, because they understood how to weave as well as to spin.--SWIFT. My horse, _who_, under his former rider had hunted the buffalo, seemed as much excited as myself.--IRVING. Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, Scott, Cooper, Gibbon, and others. [Sidenote: Which.] 113. The sentences in Sec. 108 show that-- (1) _Which_ refers to animals, things, or ideas, not persons. (2) It is not inflected for gender or number. (3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example of its use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96). (4) It has two case forms,--_which_ for the nominative and objective, _whose_ for the possessive. [Sidenote: _Examples of_ whose, _possessive case of_ which.] 114. Grammarians sometimes object to the statement that _whose_ is the possessive of _which_, saying that the phrase _of which_ should always be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the possessive form _whose_ is quite common in prose as well as in poetry: for example,-- I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious elevations, on _whose_ tops the sun kindled all the melodies and harmonies of light.--BEECHER. Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without pity, for a religion _whose_ creed they do not understand, and _whose_ precepts they habitually disobey.--MACAULAY Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the plain, _whose_ grave was dug by the thunder of the heavens.--SCOTT. Many great and opulent cities _whose_ population now exceeds that of Virginia during the Revolution, and _whose_ names are spoken in the remotest corner of the civilized world.--MCMASTER. Through the heavy door _whose_ bronze network closes the place of his rest, let us enter the church itself.--RUSKIN. This moribund '61, _whose_ career of life is just coming to its terminus.--THACKERAY. So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others. [Sidenote: Which _and its antecedents_.] 115. The last two sentences in Sec. 108 show that _which_ may have other antecedents than nouns and pronouns. In 5 (_a_) there is a participial adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (_b_) there is a complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs. Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows _which_; thus,-- And, which is worse, _all you have done Hath been but for a wayward son_. --SHAKESPEARE. Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that _men of business rarely know the meaning of the word "rich_."--RUSKIN. I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,--first, as being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or predisposing advantages; secondly (which made her stare), _as carrying with it no real or enviable distinction_.--DE QUINCEY. [Sidenote: That.] 116. In the sentences of Sec. 109, we notice that-- (1) _That_ refers to persons, animals, and things. (2) It has only one case form, no possessive. (3) It is the same form for first, second, and third persons. (4) It has the same form for singular and plural. It sometimes borrows the possessive _whose_, as in sentence 6, Sec. 109, but this is not sanctioned as good usage. [Sidenote: What.] 117. The sentences of Sec. 110 show that-- (1) _What_ always refers to things; is always neuter. (2) It is used almost entirely in the singular. 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. --SHAKESPEARE (3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,-- What I would, _that_ do I not; but what I hate, _that_ do I.--_Bible_ What fates impose, _that_ men must needs abide.--SHAKESPEARE. What a man does, _that_ he has.--EMERSON. Compare this:-- Alas! is _it_ not too true, what we said?--CARLYLE. DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 118. These are the forms of the simple relatives:-- SINGULAR AND PLURAL. _Nom._ who which that what _Poss._ whose whose -- -- _Obj._ whom which that what HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES. 119. The _gender_, _number_, and _person_ of the relatives _who_, _which_, and _that_ must be determined by those of the antecedent; the _case_ depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause. For example, consider the following sentence: "He uttered truths _that_ wrought upon and molded the lives of those _who_ heard him." Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by taking them out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: (1) "He uttered truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded the lives of the people;" (3) "These people heard him." _That_ evidently refers to _truths_, consequently is neuter, third person, plural number. _Who_ plainly stands for _those_ or _the people_, either of which would be neuter, third person, plural number. Here the relative agrees with its antecedent. We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in _case_. _Truths_ in sentence (2), above, is subject of _wrought upon and molded_; in (1), it is object of _uttered_. In (2), _people_ is the object of the preposition _of_; in (3), it is subject of the verb _heard_. Now, _that_ takes the case of _the truths_ in (2), not of _truths_ which is expressed in the sentence: consequently _that_ is in the nominative case. In the same way _who_, standing for _the people_ understood, subject of _heard_, is in the nominative case. Exercise. First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the following sentences:-- 1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossoms are neither colored nor fragrant! 2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by its fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona. 3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels for filling an order. 4. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. 5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this avalanche of earthly impertinences. 6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, which is, after all, the highest result of all education. 7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the reading of novels as a waste of time. 8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be cunninger than they. [Sidenote: _Parsing_ what, _the simple relative_.] 120. The relative _what_ is handled differently, because it has usually no antecedent, but is singular, neuter, third person. Its case is determined exactly as that of other relatives. In the sentence, "What can't be cured must be endured," the verb _must be endured_ is the predicate of something. What must be endured? Answer, _What can't be cured_. The whole expression is its subject. The word _what_, however, is subject of the verb _can't be cured_, and hence is in the nominative case. "What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change." Here the subject of _is_, etc., is _what we call nature_; but of this, _we_ is the subject, and _what_ is the direct object of the verb _call_, so is in the objective case. [Sidenote: _Another way._] Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the following sentences, _what_ is equivalent to _that which_:-- It has been said that "common souls pay with _what_ they do, nobler souls with _that which_ they are."--EMERSON. _That which_ is pleasant often appears under the name of evil; and _what_ is disagreeable to nature is called good and virtuous.--BURKE. Hence some take _what_ as a double relative, and parse _that_ in the first clause, and _which_ in the second clause; that is, "common souls pay with _that_ [singular, object of _with_] _which_ [singular, object of _do_] they do." INDEFINITE RELATIVES. [Sidenote: _List and examples._] 121. INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by meaning and use, not as direct as the simple relatives. They are _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_; less common are _whoso_, _whosoever_, _whichsoever_, _whatsoever_. The simple relatives _who_, _which_, and _what_ may also be used as indefinite relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from Emerson):-- 1. _Whoever_ has flattered his friend successfully must at once think himself a knave, and his friend a fool. 2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm _whatever_ he pleases. 3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or stand on their head, or _what_ else _soever_, in a new and original way. 4. _Whoso_ is heroic will always find crises to try his edge. 5. Only itself can inspire _whom_ it will. 6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. Take _which_ you please,--you cannot have both. 7. Do _what_ we can, summer will have its flies. [Sidenote: _Meaning and use._] 122. The fitness of the term _indefinite_ here cannot be shown better than by examining the following sentences:-- 1. There is something so overruling in _whatever_ inspires us with awe, in _all things which_ belong ever so remotely to terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.--BURKE. 2. Death is there associated, not with _everything that_ is most endearing in social and domestic charities, but with _whatever_ is darkest in human nature and in human destiny.--MACAULAY. It is clear that in 1, _whatever_ is equivalent to _all things which_, and in 2, to _everything that_; no certain antecedent, no particular thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites. [Sidenote: What _simple relative and_ what _indefinite relative_.] 123. The above helps us to discriminate between _what_ as a simple and _what_ as an indefinite relative. As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative _what_ is equivalent to _that which_ or the _thing which_,--some particular thing; as shown by the last sentence in Sec. 121, _what_ means _anything that_, _everything that_ (or _everything which_). The difference must be seen by the meaning of the sentence, as _what_ hardly ever has an antecedent. The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that _who_ and _which_ have no antecedent expressed, but mean _any one whom_, _either one that_, etc. OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES. [Sidenote: But _and_ as.] 124. Two words, but and as, are used with the force of relative pronouns in some expressions; for example,-- 1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway _but_ has force in it: how else could it rot?--CARLYLE. 2. This, amongst such other troubles _as_ most men meet with in this life, has been my heaviest affliction.--DE QUINCEY. [Sidenote: _Proof that they have the force of relatives._] Compare with these the two following sentences:-- 3. There is nothing _but_ is related to us, nothing _that_ does _not_ interest us.--EMERSON. 4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such _as_ Hester never ceased to use, but _which_ only wealth could have purchased.--HAWTHORNE. Sentence 3 shows that _but_ is equivalent to the relative _that_ with _not_, and that _as_ after _such_ is equivalent to _which_. For _as_ after _same_ see "Syntax" (Sec. 417). [Sidenote: _Former use of_ as.] 125. In early modern English, _as_ was used just as we use _that_ or _which_, not following the word _such_; thus,-- I have not from your eyes that gentleness And show of love _as_ I was wont to have.--SHAKESPEARE This still survives in vulgar English in England; for example,-- "Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, _as_ charmed your warts for you when you was a boy? "--KINGSLEY This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works. [Sidenote: _Other substitutes._] 126. Instead of the phrases _in which_, _upon which_, _by which_, etc., the conjunctions _wherein_, _whereupon_, _whereby_, etc., are used. A man is the facade of a temple _wherein_ all wisdom and good abide.--EMERSON. The sovereignty of this nature _whereof_ we speak.--_Id._ The dear home faces _whereupon_ That fitful firelight paled and shone.--WHITTIER. PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. [Sidenote: _Special caution needed here._] 127. It is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from an interrogative pronoun. In the regular direct question the interrogative is easily recognized; so is the relative when an antecedent is close by. But compare the following in pairs:-- 1. (_a_) Like a gentleman of leisure _who_ is strolling out for pleasure. (_b_) Well we knew _who_ stood behind, though the earthwork hid them. 2. (_a_) But _what_ you gain in time is perhaps lost in power. (_b_) But _what_ had become of them they knew not. 3. (_a_) These are the lines _which_ heaven-commanded Toil shows on his deed. (_b_) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge _which_ were the best of all these three. In sentences 1 (_a_), 2 (_a_) and 3 (_a_) the regular relative use is seen; _who_ having the antecedent _gentleman_, _what_ having the double use of pronoun and antecedent, _which_ having the antecedent _lines_. But in 1 (_b_), 2 (_b_), and 3 (_b_), there are two points of difference from the others considered: first, no antecedent is expressed, which would indicate that they are not relatives; second, a question is disguised in each sentence, although each sentence as a whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 (_b_), if expanded, would be, "Who stood behind? We knew," etc., showing that _who_ is plainly interrogative. So in 2 (_b_), _what_ is interrogative, the full expression being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." Likewise with _which_ in 3 (_b_). [Sidenote: _How to decide._] In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an antecedent of _who_ or _which_, and whether _what_ = _that_ + _which_ (if so, it is a simple relative; if not, it is either an indefinite relative or an interrogative pronoun); (2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect question (if it does, it is an interrogative; if not, it is an indefinite relative). [Sidenote: _Another caution._] 128. On the other hand, care must be taken to see whether the pronoun is the word that really _asks the question_ in an interrogative sentence. Examine the following:-- 1. Sweet rose! whence is this hue _Which_ doth all hues excel? --DRUMMOND 2. And then what wonders shall you do _Whose_ dawning beauty warms us so? --WALKER 3. Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of _what_ has lately been in a neighboring land?--MACAULAY These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the pronoun ask the question. In the first, _whence_ is the interrogative word, _which_ has the antecedent _hue_. In the second, _whose_ has the antecedent _you_, and asks no question. In the third, the question is asked by the verb. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES. [Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ object.] 129. The relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literary English when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly a writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this way when they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,-- These are the sounds we feed upon.--FLETCHER. I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader with all the curiosities I observed.--SWIFT. Exercise. Put in the relatives _who_, _which_, or _that_ where they are omitted from the following sentences, and see whether the sentences are any smoother or clearer:-- 1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,--GOLDSMITH. 2. They will go to Sunday schools through storms their brothers are afraid of.--HOLMES. 3. He opened the volume he first took from the shelf.--G. ELIOT. 4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of to his poor neighbor.--THACKERAY. 5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.--FORSTER 6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court Calendars, but the life of man in England.--CARLYLE. 7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical by instinct and habitude.--LOWELL. [Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ subject.] 130. We often hear in spoken English expressions like these:-- There isn't one here ‸ knows how to play ball. There was such a crowd ‸ went, the house was full. Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also in literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, and comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,-- The silent truth that it was she was superior.--THACKERAY I have a mind presages me such thrift.--SHAKESPEARE. There is a nun in Dryburgh bower, Ne'er looks upon the sun. --SCOTT. And you may gather garlands there Would grace a summer queen. _Id._ 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.--CAMPBELL. Exercises on the Relative Pronoun. (_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives _who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. (_b_) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives. (_c_) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by pronouns. (_d_) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives, simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:-- 1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding. 2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to see what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on what had happened. 3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word? 4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men; who were to be rulers over whom. 5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him. 6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. [Sidenote: _Function of adjective pronouns._] 131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double use,--they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for nouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retain an adjective _meaning_, but have lost their adjective _use_. Primarily they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properly classed as adjective pronouns. The following are some examples of these:-- _Some_ say that the place was bewitched.--IRVING. That mysterious realm where _each_ shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT. How happy is he born or taught That serveth not _another's_ will. --WOTTON _That_ is more than any martyr can stand.--EMERSON. [Sidenote: _Caution._] [Sidenote: _Adjectives, not pronouns._] Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we have seen in such expressions as, "_The dead_ are there;" that is, a word, in order to be an adjective pronoun, _must not modify any word, expressed or understood_. It must come under the requirement of pronouns, and _stand for a noun_. For instance, in the following sentences--"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on _each_ is written, in letters of gold, '_Truth_;'" "You needs must play such pra