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Title: Lessons in the Shanghai Dialect

Author: F. L. Hawks Pott

Release date: May 14, 2020 [eBook #62130]

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT ***

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LESSONS

IN THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT

BY
Rev. F. L. HAWKS POTT, d.d.

REVISED EDITION

Printed at the Commercial Press, Ltd.
Shanghai, China
1924

TABLE OF CONTENTS.


page no.
Ability to do39, 56, 73
Abstract Nouns formed of two Adjectives109
Adjectives8
Adjectives, Comparison of82
Adverbs, Interrogative22, 30
Adverbs of Place and Time35
Aspiratesvi
Classifiers1
Comparison of Adjectives82
Compass, Points of86
Compound Verbs104
Connectives19
Dzak, Use of27
Family Relations99
Finalsvii
Gender90
Importance, Expressions as to56
Initialsvi
Interrogatives11, 22
Necessity, Expressions of49, 61
Negatives11
“Not At All”61
Numerals6, 52
Numerals Ordinals78
Passive Voice35
Polite Language120
Postpositions19
Potential Mood22
Prepositions19
Pronouns3, 52
Proverbs125
Questions, Asking69
Reduplication of Verbs27
Reflexive Pronouns27
Siang, Use of65
Subjunctive Mood22
Time30, 78
“Time, There is or is not”56
Tonesix
Useful Phrases113, 117
Verbs15
Verbs, Auxiliary44
Verbs, Compound104
Verbal Idioms39, 56, 61, 65, 73, 78
Vocabulary—Chinese-English128
Vocabulary—English-Chinese149
Weights and Measures95

i

PREFACE


At a time when there is much discussion in China as to the desirability and possibility of the adoption of a uniform language all over the Empire, it may seem strange to put forth a book on the Shanghai Dialect.

The writer sympathizes fully with the aims of those who would make Mandarin the Medium of Communication throughout China, but at the same time feels very strongly that a great many years must pass before this can be accomplished.

Local Dialects die hard, as witness the still existing varieties of speech found in Great Britain. Even more perfect means of communication binding the parts of a country closely together, and even the introduction of a common language into the School System, are not able of themselves to do away with the speaking of the old local dialect. Men cling persistently to the speech of their forefathers.

When we reflect that the so-called Shanghai Dialect is in reality the ancient language of the Wu Kingdom, and is perhaps more closely akin to the original language of the Chinese people than Mandarin, we can understand why it will last for many years.

Further, it has a very wide range. Although local varieties occur every few miles, yet in the main the Shanghai Dialect is understood by at least 20,000,000 of people.

For the missionary working is the Kiangsu Province a knowledge of the local dialect is indispensable, and the acquisition of it would be most useful for all those whose lot is cast to this part of China. Foreigners living in Shanghai would find it a great advantage to speak the native language, and in theirii business relations with the Chinese would be greatly helped if they could converse is something better than the jargon known as “Pidgin” English.

It is for the purpose of making the attainment of a speaking knowledge of the language somewhat less difficult that the writing of this book has been undertaken.

It has seemed to the writer that the acquisition of a knowledge of the written characters, and of the spoken language are two distinct things. It is possible for one to learn to speak the language without being able to read the characters.

By the use of the clear and simple System of Romanization, adopted by missionaries in Shanghai, it is possible to represent approximately all the sounds employed in the dialect.

In these lessons this system is adopted, and the student is urged to master it thoroughly. If he will do so, he can use these lessons and learn to speak the language even without knowing the characters.

The characters of all the words and sentences employed are given, but they are put in the book for the benefit of the Chinese teacher. It would be unwise to trust entirely to the Romanization. The student in using the book should have a teacher by his side, who by reading the Chinese corresponding to the romanized sounds can give him a clearer idea of the pronunciation.

Although in a sense the book is a short cut to learning the spoken language, of course it is not meant to discourage the student from mastering the written language. This is however, a distinct study, and should be undertaken in a different way. The best method for this will be to use a primer in vernacular containing the most familiar characters, and then to advance from it to the reading of the New Testament or other books in the vernacular. Vernacular books should be read first, for iiithe reading of them will be a great assistance in learning the spoken language. After the first year, books in the literary style (Wên-li) should be begun.

In using this book, the first thing to be mastered thoroughly is the introductory matter. The student must get this first, for it is the key to the rest of the book. He must also learn to distinguish the tones, and the inflections of the voice which they imply. Then he will be ready to go on with the lessons.

Although the book is divided into thirty lessons, it is not expected that the student will be able to master a lesson a day. Some of the lessons will require three or four days’ work.

In putting the English sentences into Chinese, the best plan would be to write out in the Romanization what the student thinks the proper way of translating them would be. Then these sentences may be read to the teacher, who will correct them, and from the Chinese text will be able to tell the right way to say them.

At present only thirty lessons are published. The writer hopes, however, if the method proves to be useful, to extend these lessons still further in the future.

In preparing these lessons, many books have been consulted, especially the lessons by Dr. Yates, which contain a most useful collection of words and sentences, and have long been the standard book for learning the Dialect, the Grammar by Dr. Edkins which contains a mass of useful information in regard to the structure of the language, and the Mandarin Lessons by Dr. Mateer, a most exhaustive work on spoken Chinese.

The writer’s thanks are due especially to Rev. J. A. Silsby for the permission to make use of his clear statement of the Shanghai System of Romanization, and to Prof. F. C. Cooper for many suggestions and the trouble he has taken in reading the proofs.

iv

The unfailing courtesy of Rev. G. F. Fitch, D.D., Messrs. Gilbert McIntosh and C. W. Douglass has been much appreciated, in the care they have taken in seeing the book through the Press.

F. L. H. P.

January 1st, 1907.


THE REVISED EDITION

The compiler of these lessons is gratified to find that they have proved useful to students of the Shanghai Dialect. He regrets that he has been too much occupied to prepare additional lessons.

In reprinting them care has been taken to make the necessary corrections. The copy used by the late Prof. W. O’B. Harding has been of great service in the work of revision, as in it almost all the errors in tone marks, punctuation, and typography had been noted. Dr. A. W. Tucker has very kindly compiled the vocabularies at the end of the book, and in this way has enhanced its value.

The author’s thanks are due to all those who have given him suggestions and pointed out mistakes.

F. L. H. P.

April 28th, 1909.


NEW EDITION

In preparing the new edition, the author has received most valuable help from his colleague, Prof. F. C. Cooper. The two new lessons were suggested by him, and the one containing vmore useful words and phrases is the result of his experience, gained through teaching the book to a class of beginners.

My thanks are also due to him for the time and care he has spent in correcting the proofs, and seeing the book through the press.

The author hopes the book will continue to be a useful stepping-stone in the acquisition of a knowledge of the Shanghai Dialect.

Inasmuch as Davis’s Shanghai Dialect Exercises may be used as a second book after the completion of this, it has not been deemed necessary to add many new lessons.

F. L. H. P.

October 29th, 1913.


In putting out this new edition, the author has made necessary corrections, and added a few new terms. The Chinese language is changing rapidly at the present time. Some expressions and terms formerly used have become obsolete and new ones have taken their place.

The French Fathers at Siccawei, with the author’s permission, have published a French edition, and it is gratifying to think that the influence of this book has in this way been further extended.

Attention is called to a very good little book, “Conversational Lessons in the Shanghai Dialect,” prepared by Dr. Frank Rawlinson and Rev. J. W. Crofoot, which has as its subtitle “A Supplement to Dr. Pott’s Lessons.” The author would recommend it as a second book in the course on the study of the Shanghai dialect.

F. L. H. P.

November 18th, 1924.

vi

DESCRIPTION OF THE SHANGHAI ROMANIZED SYSTEM


Nearly all the syllables are represented by the combination of an initial and a final, a system which has been found to be well adapted to the Chinese language.

INITIALS

Chinese sounds are divided into upper and lower series. The initials to represent the Upper Series are—p, ’m, ’v, t, ts, s, ’l, ’n, ’ny, ’ng, k, ky, kw, i and ’w. These initials are pronounced in most cases much the same as in English, but without aspiration, higher in pitch and with very little vibration of the larynx. The apostrophe before a letter indicates that the letter belongs to the “higher series.” Pure vowel initials also belong to this series.

ny has a sound similar to that of ni in spaniel

kych in chuk with all aspiration eliminated.

i as an initial has the sounds of i in dahlia.

The Aspirates are—ph, f, th, tsh, ky, ch, khw, h, hy, and hw (th as in Thomson—not as in thing).

chch in church.

hy is nearly like ti in Portia.

The other aspirates are like the corresponding initials of the higher series with the addition of a strong aspiration (indicated by h).

vii

The initials to represent the Lower Series are—b, m, v, d, dz, z, l, n, ny, ng, g, j, gw, y, and w. Their pronunciation is much the same as in English. They are lower in pitch than corresponding initials of the “higher series,” and have more “voice,” being pronounced with more decided vibration of the larynx. The lower vowel initials, indicated by an inverted comma (‘) and attended with a slight aspiration, belong to this series. It will be noted that this sign differs from that employed to indicate that a consonant initial belongs to the upper series, an apostrophe being used to denote the “upper initial.” This inverted comma is used only before vowels, and if, by mistake, this sign is used before a consonant instead of the apostrophe, this need not confuse the reader, for the sign of the upper series is properly used only before the initial consonants m, v, l, n, ny, ng, w, and r.

It should be noted well that the difference between the corresponding initials of the upper and lower series is not so much a difference in consonantal quality as a difference in pitch, but there is a real consonantal difference. The higher series may be classified as surd and the lower as sonant.

FINALS

  1. The Vowel Endings are—a, e, i, au, o, oo, eu, u, ui, ia, iau, ieu, and ie.
  2. The Nasal Endings are—(a) an, en, ien and oen, in which the n is not sounded, but lengthens out and imparts a nasal quality to the preceding vowel; (b) ang, aung, oong, ung and iang, in which ng has the value of ng in song; (c) uin, in which n is sonant and has a value varying between n and ng.
  3. The Abrupt Vowel Endings are—ak, ah, eh, ih, auh, ok, oeh, uh, and iak, in which h and k are the signs of the zeh-sung viii(人聲), and the vowel is pronounced in a short, abrupt manner.

In ia, iau, ieu and ie, we have short i followed closely by a, au, eu, and e, as described above.

Of course it is understood that the Chinese sounds in a majority of cases vary somewhat from the English sounds which are given as the nearest equivalent. The true pronunciation of Chinese sounds should be learned from a Chinese teacher, and the student should always bear it in mind that any Romanization used does not represent English sounds, but Chinese sounds. This fact can not be too strongly emphasized.

The Dok-yoong Z-moo—“Initials used alone,” i.e., without vowels, are—ts, tsh, dz, s, z, m, ng, and r. The first five are followed by the vowel sound in the second syllable of able—prolonged. Mateer and Baller use ï for this sound and the new Mandarin Romanized uses i [C0]. It is not written, but understood in the Shanghai system. m has the sound of m in chasm and ng the sound of ng in hanger. r is a sound between final r and l.

ix

TONES

The tones are four in number, each occurring in the upper and lower series. As has been stated, the upper and lower series can be distinguished by the initials. Sounds in the upper series are of higher pitch and those in the lower series of a lower pitch.

The names of the tones are:—

Bing sung = Even sound 平聲.
Zang sung = Rising sound 上聲.
Chui-sung = Going sound 去聲.
Zeh-sung = Entering sound 人聲.

TONE SIGNS

° to the left of a word indicates the tone to be °zang-sung.

° to the right indicates the chui-sung. Final h or k indicate the zeh-sung. All other words are in the bing-sung.

SOUNDS OF THE TONES

The sounds of the tones of course can only be learnt from the Chinese teacher.

The Bing-sung is an even tone, the voice being level, with a slight falling inflection, as when we say “Come,” “Hear,” in our imperatives.

The Zang-sung in the upper series is a twanging sound, and sounds something like the vibration of a string of a musical instrument.

In the lower series it has a wave sound which can be symbolized to the eye by the curve [horizontal line with dip in middle]; the voice first falls and then rises.

The Chui-sung has the same sound in both the upper and lower series. The voice rises much as it does when we ask a question.

x

The students should practise with the teacher on the following table of sounds, and in time will be able to distinguish the tones clearly and to make the proper inflection himself. Foreigners are seldom able to perfect themselves in the use of tones, but this is due not so much to inability as to the lack of attention paid to the matter at the beginning of the study of the language.

It should be understood that the names of the tones are those of the original tones and often bear no relation to the inflection now used, which varies in different localities.


xi

COMPLETE LIST OF INITIALS AND FINALS USED IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT


ZAUNG-HE LOO-MO Z

Z-MOO 字母
Initial Sounds
P p
Ph ph
B b
’M ’m
M m
’V ’v
F f °粉
V v °忿
T t
Th h
D d
Ts ts [C1]
Tsh tsh
Dz dz
S s
Z z
’L ’l °擄
L l °櫓
’N ’n 懦°
N n 怒°
’Ny ’ny °撚
Ny ny °染
’Ng ’ng ’颜 一颜
Ng ng
K k 鴿
Kh kh
G g
Ky ky
Ch ch
J j
Kw kw
Khw khw
Gw gw
I i
Y y
’W ’w
W w
H h
Hy hy
Hw hw
IUNG-YUIN 音韻
Vowel sounds and finals
A a
Ang ang
Ak ak
An an
Ah ah
E e
En en 𢹞
Eh eh
I i 西
Ien ien
Ing ing
Ih ih
Au au
Aung aung
Auh auh
O o
Ok ok
Oo oo
Oong oong
Oe oe
Oen oen
Oeh oeh
Eu eu
Ung ung
Uh uh
U u
Ui ui
Uin uin
Ia ia
Iang iang
Iak iak
Iau iau
Ieu ieu
DOK YOONG Z-MOO 獨用字母
Constants used as words
M m
Ts ts
Tsh tsh
Dz dz
S s
Z z
’R ’r °耳
R r
Ng Ng

The student should practise repeating after the teacher the pronunciation of the characters in which these sounds occur.

xii

EXERCISE IN TONES


上平聲 Upper Bing-sung. Tau, Pa, Si,
下平聲 Lower Bing-sung. Dau, Ba, Zi,
上上聲 Upper Zang-sung. °Tau, °Pa, °Si,
下上聲 Lower Zang-sung. °Dau, °Ba, °Zi,
上去聲 Upper Chui-sung. Tau°, Pa°, Si°,
下去聲 Lower Chui-sung. Dau°, Ba°, Zi°,
上入聲 Upper Zeh-sung. Tauh, Pah, Sih,
下入聲 Lower Zeh-sung. Dauh, Bah, Zih,

The student should practise upon the sounds illustrating the different tones. The columns should be read from the top down. The teacher can guide him by first pronouncing the Chinese characters.


1

LESSONS IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT


LESSON I
The Classifier

A or an is translated into Chinese by the numeral ih (一) one, and a classifier placed between the numeral and the noun. There are over forty classifiers, different nouns taking different ones, according to the class to which they belong. Nouns being generally used with classifiers accounts for the fact that in Pidgin English we have the oft recurring expression, “one piecee.”

Most concrete nouns take classifiers, but not all. Exceptions will be pointed out later on. Sometimes when the object spoken of is quite definitely known, the noun is used without the classifier.

In this lesson, the two most common classifiers will be introduced, and in succeeding lessons the others will appear gradually.

It must be remarked that some nouns may take more than one classifier, sometimes one being used and sometimes another.

The most common classifier is kuh (個). “It is applied to such nouns as have no special classifier, and may upon occasion be applied to almost any noun as a substitute for the special classifier” (Mateer).

The classifier tsak (隻) is used with animals, birds, fowls, insects; also with articles of furniture having legs or resting on a base; also with vessels, boats, etc.

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

(Translate into Chinese)

Notes.


LESSON II
Demonstrative, and Personal Pronouns.

The definite article the is not expressed directly in Chinese, but the demonstrative pronoun takes its place.

The demonstrative pronouns are:

This or these, di° kuh 第個. That or those, i-kuh 伊個.

The demonstrative pronouns change their forms with different nouns, being formed by the di° (第) or i (伊) and the classifier belonging to the noun. Thus “this table” is not di°-kuh de-°ts but di°-tsak de-°ts (第隻檯子).

When the demonstrative is used with a numeral it retains the form di°-kuh (第個) or i-kuh (伊個) and the classifier of the noun comes between the numeral and the noun. Thus “this one table” is di°-kuh ih tsak de-°ts (第個一隻檯子).

The personal pronouns are as follows:

SINGULAR NUMBER

Nominative and Objective Possessive
I. Person: I or me, °ngoo 我. I. Person: My or mine, °ngoo-kuh 我個.
II. Person: Thou, thee or you, noong° 儂. II. Person: Thy, thine or yours, noong°-kuh 儂個.
III. Person: He, she, it, him, her, yi 伊. III. Person: His, hers, its, i-kuh 伊個.

4

PLURAL NUMBER

Nominative and Objective Possessive
I. Person: We, or us, nyi° or °ngoo-nyi° 我伲. I. Person: Ours, nyi°-kuh or °ngoo-nyi°-kuh 伲個, 我伲個.
II. Person: You or ye, na° II. Person: Your, or yours, na°-kuh 㑚個.
III. Person: They or them, yi-la 伊拉. III. Person: Their, or theirs, yi-la-kuh 伊拉個.

The use of kuh (個) in the possessive case must be noted. Kuh (個) serves to form the possessive case of nouns as it does of pronouns. Thus to say “a man’s table” would be ih kuh nyung kuh de-°ts (一個人個檯子). Exercises in possessive case formation will be found in this lesson.

VOCABULARY

°Po (把) is the classifier used with tools, instruments or articles grasped in the hand.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

5

(Translate into Chinese)

Notes.


6

LESSON III
The Numerals up to one Hundred

From ten to twenty the numerals are formed by adding the digits after ten.

The intervening numbers between twenty and thirty, etc., are formed regularly by adding the digits to the decimals. Thus twenty-one is nyan°-ih. Thirty-one, is san-seh-ih, etc.

Thirty-five is pronounced san-°so-°ng.

In using the numeral with the noun, the classifier of the noun is introduced between the numeral and the noun. Thus “Four men” is s° kuh nyung (四個人) not s° nyung. “Six chairs” is lok tsak iui°-°ts (六隻椅子) not lok iui°-°ts.

In speaking of a thing well understood the noun is often omitted, and we have simply the numeral with the classifier, as lok kuh, tshih tsak, etc.

7

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

(Translate into Chinese)

8

Note.

‘Ah-°ts is a small box in distinction from Siang-°ts, a large box, but as will be seen later the adjectives for large and small may also be used with both of these words.


LESSON IV
Adjectives

Certain words in Chinese are distinctly used as adjectives, but many other words, such as nouns, verbs and adverbs may be used to qualify nouns. In the expression dok su-nyung (讀書人), meaning “a scholar,” we have the verb dok (讀), “to read,” and the noun su (書), “book,” qualifying nyung (人) “man;” the whole expression being literally “the reading-book-man.”

Adjectives may be compared as follows: °tien (點) is added after the adjective to make the comparative degree, and °ting (頂) is placed before the adjective to form the superlative degree. Thus, Positive Degree, “Good,” is °hau (好). Comparative Degree, “Better,” is °hau °tien (好點). Superlative Degree, “Best,” is °ting °hau (頂好).

There are, however, many other ways of expressing the Superlative. Thus we may have °hau-le-°si (好來死), which is literally “good-come death” that is, “good to the death.” This is a very frequent expression.

We have also tsoe °hau (最好) or juh °hau (極好). Very good is usually ’man °hau (蠻好). °Hau-tuh-juh (好得極) means superlatively good.

9

The adjective °hau (好) has a very wide use. Everything that is good, suitable, correct, or proper, may be said to be °hau (好).

VOCABULARY

°Pung (本) is the classifier for book.

Diau (條) is the classifier with long, winding or limber objects.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

10

(Translate into Chinese)

Notes.


11

LESSON V
Interrogatives, and Negatives

Va° (否) is used as the sign of a direct question, expecting the answer “yes” or “no.” It is added at the end of the sentence. Thus di°-kuh °z noong° kuh va°? (第個是儂個否) means, “is this yours?” Di°-kuh °hau va°? (第個好否) means, “is this good?” (the verb °z being omitted). The Chinese do not use a rising inflection of the voice to indicate that a question is being asked.

Meh (末) is used for asking a question when the action is presumed to have been completed. Thus van° chuh meh? (飯吃末) means, “have you eaten your rice?” or “have you dined?” Sien-sang chi° meh? (先生去末) means, “has the teacher gone?”

Nyi (呢) is used for asking a question implying the alternative. Thus noong° chi° nyi ’veh chi°? (儂去呢勿去) means, “are you going or not going?” noong° le nyi ’veh le? (儂來呢勿來) means, “are you coming or not coming?”

Nyi (呢) is also used in a question expecting a negative answer, but the explanation of this must be reserved until later.

“Who” is sa° (啥). In this sense it is always joined to the noun nyung (人). Thus sa° nyung? (啥人) means, “who?” Pidgin English, “who man?”

Sa° (啥) is also used in the sense of “what.” It sometimes precedes the noun as sa° sang-i°? (啥生意). “what business?” In a sentence like “what do you want,” it follows the verb. Thus noong° iau° sa° (儂要啥). Literally, “you want what?”

Sa° is also used with va° in the sense of “any,” in asking a question, Thus noong° iau° sa° va°? (儂要啥否) means, “do you want anything?” °Yeu sa° nyung iau° chi° va°? 12 (有啥人要去否) means, “does any one wish to go?” Noong° °yeu sa° doong-dien va°? (儂有啥銅錢否) means, “have you any cash?”

Which is °‘a-°li (那裏). It is always used with numeral and classifier. Thus °‘a-°li ih kuh nyung? (那裏一個人) means, “which man?” °‘A-°li ih diau loo°? (那裏一條路) means, “which road?” °‘A-°li ih °pung su? (那裏一本書 ) means, “which book?” °‘A-°li °liang °po tau? (那裏兩把刀) means, “which two knives?” When the subject is understood about which you are conversing, the noun may be omitted, and °‘a-°li with the numeral and the classifier are sufficient. Thus in speaking of roads °‘a-°li ih diao? would be enough.

“No” or “not”, is expressed by ’veh (勿). Thus yi ’veh iau° chi° (伊勿要去) means, “he does not wish to go.”

M-meh (無末) is used in the sense of “not any” in answering a question asking whether you have any, thus noong° °yeu sa° yang-dien va°? (儂有啥洋錢否) “have you any dollars?”, the answer might be m-meh.

Sometimes m-sa° (無啥) is used in answering questions in the negative. Thus noong° °yeu sa° tsoo° va°? (儂有啥做否) “have you anything to do?” (Have you any employment?) The answer might be m-sa° tsoo° (無啥做) “not anything to do.”

No one is m-sa°-nyung (無啥人). Thus °yeu sa° nyung le va°? (有啥人來否), “has any one come?” The answer might be m-sa° nyung (無啥人).

VOCABULARY

13

Kung (根) Is the classifier denoting objects long and generally stiff.

Zoo° (座) is the classifier for hills and buildings.

Sen° (扇) is the classifier for broad objects.

EXERCISES

(Translated into English)

14

(Translated into Chinese)

Notes.


LESSON VI
Some Remarks on the Verb

In a monosyllabic language like the Chinese the words themselves are never inflected, and therefore the Moods and Tenses of the Verbs are formed by the addition of auxiliary words to mark the change of meaning.

We will take the verb chuh (吃) to illustrate.

INDICATIVE MOOD

The only change for the different persons is the above will be in the use of the pronouns of the different persons.

IMPERATIVE MOOD

PARTICIPLES

A few words of explanation are necessary. The use of leh-°li and leh-la° are a little difficult to understand at first. As stated °ngoo leh-°li chuh (我拉裏吃) means, “I am eating.” If, however, a third person asked your servant Sien-sang van° chuh meh? (先生飯吃 末), “Has the Teacher eaten his rice?”, the servant would answer, if you were still eating, yi leh-la° chuh (伊拉拉吃) meaning “he is eating.” If you yourself said °ngoo leh-la° chuh, it would mean, “I was eating.” In the Perfect Tense the word koo° (過) means literally ”to pass over.” In the Past Perfect the words °i-kyung (已經) mean “already.”

The real force of leh-°li (拉裏) is “here,” and the real force of leh-la° (拉拉) is “there.”

There are a great many ways of expressing completed action in Chinese. These will be explained later. In this lesson one of the most common will be explained. It is by the use of the adjective °hau after the verb. Thus chuh °hau tse (吃好哉) means, “I have finished eating.” Dok °hau tse (讀好哉) means, “I have finished reading.”

°Hau (好), “good,” is also used before the verb to qualify it. Thus we have the expressions °hau chuh kuh (好吃個) meaning “good to eat.” °Hau dok kuh (好讀個), “Easy to read.” °Hau tsoo° kuh (好做個), “Easy to do,” etc.

17

VOCABULARY

Jien° is the classifier denoting garments, pieces of baggage and merchandize, and also an affair.

Saung (雙) is the classifier denoting pairs.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON VII
Prepositions and Postpositions, and Common Connectives

The words expressing the relations of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some of them after the governed substantive. ‘At’ or ‘to’ is expressed by la° (拉). Thus °ngoo peh la° yi (我撥拉伊), “I gave it to him.”

‘To’ or ‘towards’ in the sense of direction is expressed by tau° (到). Thus: °ngoo iau° tau° °Zaung-°he chi° (我要到上海去), “I wish to go to Shanghai.” ‘To’ or ‘towards’ is also expressed by te° (對), as in the expression to speak to a person. Thus: °ngoo te° yi wo° (我對伊話), “I said to him.” ‘From’ is expressed by dzoong (從). Thus: °ngoo dzoong °Zaung-°he le (我從上海來), “I came from Shanghai.”

‘With’ is expressed by tah 搭 or doong 同. Thus: °ngoo tah yi bak wo° (我搭伊白話) or °ngoo doong yi bak wo° (我同伊白話), “I talked with him.”

‘Instead of’ is thi° (替) or °de thi° (代替). Thus: °ngoo °de thi° yi tsoo° (我代替伊做), “I do it instead of him.” 20The idea of doing it for a person is expressed by theh (忒). Thus: °ngoo theh yi tsoo° (我忒伊做), “I will do it for him.”

‘In’ is expressed by placing la° (拉) or leh-la° (拉拉) before the noun and °li (裏) or °li-hyang° (裏向) after the noun. Thus: la° vaung-°ts °li (拉房子裏) means, “In the house.” La° siang-°ts °li (拉箱子裏) means “In the box.”

‘On’ is expressed by placing la° or leh-la° before the noun and laung° (上) after it. Thus: la° loo° laung° (拉路上) means, “On the road.” La° de-°ts laung° (拉擡子上) means, “On the table.”

Nga° (外) means “out.” The usual expression is nga°-deu (外頭) “outside.” It follows the noun.

Other prepositions will be introduced later.

The most common connective is °lau (佬) and corresponds quite closely to our use of “and.” Thus °ngoo iau° °ma ‘a-°ts °lau mah (我要買鞋子佬襪) means, “I wish to buy shoes and stockings.” Nouns are often placed beside one another without any connective between them. Tah-ts (搭之) is used much in the same sense as °lau (佬).

‘Also’ is °‘a-°z (也是) or °‘a (也). Thus: di°-kuh °‘a-°z hau kuh (第個也是好個) means, “This also is good.” °Ngoo °‘a iau° °ma (我也要買) means, “I also wish to buy.” °Ngoo wan iau° °ma (我還要買) means, “I still wish to buy.”

VOCABULARY

21

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON VIII
Potential and Subjunctive Moods, and some Interrogative Adverbs

“May” or “can” is expressed by °khau-°i (可以). Thus “I may or can eat” is °ngoo °khau-°i chuh (我可以吃). When physical ability is implied nung-keu° (能彀) is frequently used.23 Thus “I have the physical ability to do,” is °ngoo nung-keu° tsoo° (我能彀做). When acquired ability is to be expressed we° (會) is generally used. Thus: “I have the ability to speak Chinese” is °ngoo we° wo° Tsoong-kok wo° (我會話中國話).

The Subjunctive Mood is expressed exactly like the Indicative Mood except that some word meaning “If” is placed at the beginning of the clause, and that the particle meh (末) is generally placed at the end of the clause.

“If” is zak (若), zak-s° (若使), zak-zen (若然), °thaung-zen (倘然), °thaung-s° (倘使). Thus “If I go, I will call you,” is expressed zak-zen °ngoo chi° meh, °ngoo iau° kyau° noong° (若然我去末我要叫儂).

Very often the word implying “If” is omitted at the beginning of the clause, and the condition is implied simply by the use of the meh (末) the end of the clause. Thus: “When he has finished it, come and tell me” is yi tsoo° °hau meh, le te° °ngoo wo° (伊做好末來對我話).

“How” is °na-nung (那能). Thus “How do you know”, is noong° °na-nung °hyau-tuh? (儂那能曉得).

“When?” is °kyi-z (幾時). Thus “When did you come?” is noong° °kyi-z le kuh? (儂幾時來個). “When did you arrive?”, is noong° kyi-z tau°? (儂幾時到). Beginners in Chinese often make the mistake of using °kyi-z as the ordinary adverb of time. To express such a sentence as “When I come he will go,” we say °ngoo le-°ts meh yi iau° chi° (我來仔末伊要去), the past participle being used, and meh implying that it is conditional. It is incorrect to say °ngoo °kyi-z le, yi iau° chi°. Let it be remembered that °kyi-z is only used in asking a question.

We have the °kyi-z used after the verb in such a sentence as noong° tau°-ts °kyi-z tse? (儂到仔幾時哉) meaning, “How24 long since you arrived?” or yi chi°-°ts °kyi-z tse? (伊去仔幾時哉) meaning, “How long since he went?”

VOCABULARY.

Boo (部) is the classifier used with carriages, and vehicles on wheels.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


27

LESSON IX
The Use of Dzak, Reduplication of Verbs, Reflexive Pronouns

In expressing the carrying of the action of the verb into effect dzak (着) is often used after it. Thus: zing-dzak (尋着) means that a thing has been actually found. Zing means ‘to find’. There are a great many active verbs which can take the dzak after them. For example we have tuh-dzak (得着), meaning a thing has been obtained. Tuh means ‘to get’. Bang°-dzak (掽着) means a person or thing has been met. Bang° (掽) means ‘to strike against’.

Verbs are often repeated for emphasis. We have had an example of this in the expression °zoo °zoo, meaning “sit down” Thus khoen° khoen° (看看) means “Look, look.”

In many cases ih (一) is inserted between the verbs, as khoen° ih khoen°. In such cases the last verb is changed into a verbal noun. Literally it would be “Look a look.”

The Reflexive Personal Pronouns hardly require any explanation. They are formed by adding z°-ka (自家) after the Personal Pronouns. Thus “I myself” would be °ngoo z°- ka (我自家). “You yourself” would be noong° z°-ka (儂自家) and so on for the rest.

VOCABULARY

In using iung-we° the particle °lau (佬) is generally added at the end of the clause. Thus: “Why did you not go? Because I did not want to go” is noong° we°- °sa ’veh chi°? Iung we° °ngoo ’veh iau° chi° °lau (儂爲啥勿去? 因爲我勿要去佬.)

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON X
Divisions of Time. More Adverbs

“An hour” in Chinese is ih °tien tsoong (一點鐘) or ih kuh tsoong-deu (一個鐘頭). Literally “one point of the clock.” This is a foreign division of time. The Chinese divide the day into twelve periods of two hours each, known as z-zung31 (時辰). Now, the divisions into hours has become very familiar.

Ih °tien tsoong may also mean “one o’clock,” and the other hours are indicated in the same way by the change of the numeral. Thus “Two o’clock” is °liang °tien tsoong (兩點鐘). Two hours would be °liang kuh tsoong deu (兩個鐘頭) or °liang °tien tsoong koong foo (兩點鐘功夫). “Three o’clock” is san °tien tsoong (三點鐘), etc.

“A day” is usually ih nyih 一日. The character nyih literally means “sun.” In speaking of the heavenly body, in the colloquial, deu is added to the nyih, making the expression nyih-deu (日頭). Sometimes the word thien (天), meaning “Heaven,” is used for “day.” Thus san thien means “three days.” No classifier is introduced between the numeral and the nyih or the thien. Thus we have for “four days” s° nyih (四日) or s° thien (四天).

“A week” is ih kuh °li-pa° (一個禮拜) or ih °li-pa° (一禮拜). This, of course, is a foreign division of time which has been adopted into Chinese. It takes its name from the name of Sunday, which is usually °li-pa°-nyih (禮拜日). Lit. “the day of ceremonial worship.” °Li means ceremony, pa° is to worship. The other days of the week are formed with the addition of the numerals as follows: Monday is °li-pa°-ih (禮拜一). Tuesday is °li-pa°-nyi°. Wednesday is °li-pa°-san. Thursday °li-pa°-s°. Friday °li-pa°-°ng and Saturday °li-pa°-lok.

A new way of expressing the days of the week is by the use of the words sing-ji (星期) meaning the star period. Thus: Sunday is sing-ji nyih (星期日), Monday, sing-ji ih (星期一), Tuesday, sing-ji nyi° (星期二), and so on for the other days.

“A month” is ih kuh nyoeh (一個月). Lit. “a moon.” The Chinese year is made up of twelve lunar months. The first month is called tsung nyoeh (正月), the second, nyi° nyoeh (二月), the third, san nyoeh (三月) and so forth.

“A year” is ih nyien (一年). No classifier is used between the numeral and the word “year”, nyien.

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“How many?” or “How much?” is °kyi-hau°? (幾化). Thus °kyi-hau° nyung le? (幾化人來) means “How many men came?” °Kyi-hau° °s (幾化水) means “How much water?”

°Kyi is often used without the hau°. In such cases it is followed by the classifier of the noun. Thus “How many men came?” might be °kyi kuh nyung le? (幾個人來). “How many horses have you?” noong° °yeu °kyi tsak °mo? (儂有幾隻馬).

“Where?” is °‘a-°li (那裏). Thus “Where are you going?” is noong° tau° °‘a- °li chi°? (儂到那裏去). “Where are you?” is noong° la°-°‘a-°li? (儂拉那裏).

Sa° meaning “what” with di°-faung meaning “place” also expresses “Where?” Thus sa° di°-faung? (啥地方). We also have sa° dzang-hau°? (啥塲化) meaning “What place?” or “Where?” but this refers to a more circumscribed area than di°- faung. We also have sa° °‘oo-daung° (啥戸蕩) used much in the same way as sa° dzang-hau°.

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XI
The Passive Voice, and Adverbs of Place and Time

Peh (撥) (Mandarin 被) is used to form the Passive, and is the regular and proper form of the Passive. Thus: the verb °tang (打) means to “Strike.” °Ngoo °tang yi (我打伊) means “I strike him.” To put this into the Passive we would say °ngoo peh yi °tang (我撥伊打). Literally “I gave him strike,” or “I was struck by him.”

“Here” is expressed by leh-°li or °tsh-di° (垃裏, 此地) or di°-deu (第頭). °Tsh-di° means literally “this place.”

“There” is leh-la° (垃拉) or i-deu (伊頭) or i-kwhe° (伊塊). “I am here” is °ngoo leh-li° (我垃裏). “I am there” is °ngoo leh-la° (我垃拉).

These adverbs are often used as adverbial nouns and may take prepositions before them. Thus Tau° °di-deu le (到第頭來) means “Come here.” Lit. “To here come.” Tau° i-deu chi° (到伊頭去) means “Go there.” Lit. “To there go.” °Pa la° °tsh-di° (擺拉此地) means “Place it here,” Lit. “Place it at here.” °Pa la° i-kwhe° (擺拉伊塊) means “Place it there.” Lit. “Place it at there.”

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Notes.


39

LESSON XII
Some Verbal Idioms

We have already explained the use of °khau-°i, nung-keu°, and we°. There are other ways of expressing the possibility and impossibility of doing things in Chinese. For instance one way is by the addition of tuh le or ’veh le after the verb. Thus: Dok-tuh-le (讀得來) means “Able to read.” Dok-’veh-le (讀勿來) means “Unable to read it.” Many verbs of one character admit of this construction. Thus: Wo°-tuh-le means “Able to speak.” Wo°-’veh-le means “Unable to speak.” Tsoo°-tuh-le (做得來), “Able to do.” Tsoo°-’veh-le (做勿來), “Unable to do.”

Verbs made up of two characters do not take tuh-le and ’veh-le after them. Thus we do not hear °hyau-tuh-’veh-le for “Unable to know,” but ’veh we° °hyau-tuh (勿會曉得).

The literal meaning of tuh-le is “Obtain, come,” and the literal meaning of ’veh-le is “Not come.”

We also have the use of tuh-kuh after verbs, expressing possibility, and ’veh-tuh, expressing impossibility. Thus we have tsoo°-tuh-kuh (做得個), meaning “it is possible to do a thing,” and tsoo°-’veh-tuh (做勿得), meaning “it is impossible to do a thing.” With verbs of physical action, we have tuh-°doong (得動) and ’veh-°doong (勿動) used after the verb implying possibility and impossibility. Thus we have °tseu-tuh-°doong (走得動), meaning “I have the physical ability to walk,” and °tseu-’veh-°doong (走勿動), meaning “I have not the physical ability to walk.” In the same way we have tsoo°-tuh-°doong (做得動) and tsoo°-’veh-°doong (做勿動). ’Veh-°doong literally means “Not move.”

Strange to say we have °zoo-’veh-°doong (坐勿動), meaning “I have not the physical ability to sit up,” and °zoo-tuh-°doong40 (坐得動), meaning “I have the physical ability to sit up.”

°Ma-tuh-°doong (買得動) means “Possible to buy.” °Ma-’veh-°doong (買勿動) means “Impossible to buy.”

With verbs of hearing and seeing impossibility is expressed in still another way. Thus we have khoen°-tuh-kyien° (看得見), meaning “It is possible to see,” and khoen°-’veh-kyien° (看勿見) meaning “It is impossible to see it.” Literally translated these expressions are “See, obtain, behold,” and “See, not behold.” We also have khoen°-tuh-tsheh (看得出), meaning to see a thing clearly. Literally “See, obtain, come forth,” and khoen°-’veh-tsheh (看勿出), meaning not to be able to see, or literally “See, not come forth.”

In the same way we have thing-tuh-tsheh (聽得出) and thing-’veh-tsheh (聽勿出) in regard to hearing. Instead of thing-tuh-kyien° and thing-’veh-kyien° we have thing-tuh-dzak (聽得着) and thing-’veh-dzak (聽勿着). Literally “Hear, obtain” and “Hear, not obtain.”

We have already explained the use of °hau after verbs expressing completed action. We also have other words used much in the same way. Thus dok-°hau-tse (讀好哉), dok-wen-tse (讀完哉) or dok-°ba-tse (讀罷哉) all mean the same thing. The verb wen means “to finish.” Accordingly in asking a question tsoo°-°hau-meh (做好末), tsoo°-wen-meh (做完末) and tsoo°-°ba-meh (做罷末), all mean “Have you finished it?”

Verbal nouns are often formed by the addition of deu (頭) or fah (法) after the verb. Thus tsoo°-deu (做頭) or tsoo°-fah (做法) means the manner of doing a thing.

VOCABULARY

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Kan (間) is the classifier used with rooms.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


44

LESSON XIII
Auxiliary Verbs

The verb °chi (起) is often used as an auxiliary verb after the principal verb to express the idea of inception. Thus dok-°chi (讀起) means “Begin to read.” °Chi also expresses the idea of erectness, but when used in this sense, le (來) follows the °chi. Thus Lih-°chi-le (立起來) means “Stand up.” Lok-°chi-le (䟿起來) means “Get up.” It also has a progressive meaning, as when you say Doh-°chi-le (讀起來) it means “read on,” “go on reading.”

We have the °chi, also used in combination with tuh (得). Thus Lok-tuh-°chi (䟿得起) means “Able to get up.” Lok-’veh-°chi (䟿勿起) means “Unable to get up.” °Ma-tuh-°chi (買得起) means “Can afford to buy it.” °Ma-’veh-°chi (買勿起) means “Cannot afford to buy it.” Kwhung°-’veh-°chi (睏勿起) means “unable to sleep.” Khoen°-’veh-°chi (看勿起) means “to look down upon,” “to disdain.”

°Zaung (上) and °‘Au (下) are used both as principal verbs and as auxiliaries. Thus we have the expressions °Zaung san (上山), meaning “to go up hill.” °‘Au san (下山), “to go down hill.” °‘Au zen (下船), “to go on board a boat,” °Zaung su (上書), “to take an advanced lesson in a book,” etc. In these cases they are used as principal verbs.

As auxiliary verbs, they express motion upwards and motion downwards.

They are not confined to verbs of motion, but are used freely with other verbs. To both of them le (來) and chi° (去) are frequently added.

Thus we have dok-°‘au-chi° (讀下去), meaning “Read on down.” Tsoo°-°‘au-chi° (做下去), meaning “Go on doing it.” Thiau°-°‘au-le (跳下來), meaning “Jump down.”45 Thiau°-°zaung-chi° (跳上去), meaning “Jump up to that place.” Thiau°-°zaung-le (跳上來) “Jump up to this place.”

Although the Chinese language is, strictly speaking, a monosyllabic language, yet as has already been noticed there is a strong tendency to use two or more words together forming as it were disyllables or trisyllables. In this lesson some verbs are used, composed of two characters occurring together.

VOCABULARY

Ban (爿) is the Classifier for firms, shops, etc.

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EXERCISES

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Notes.


49

LESSON XIV
Causality, and Necessity

The idea of causality, in the sense of causing a person to do a thing, is expressed in Chinese by the use of the auxiliary verbs kau (敎) and tsha (差). Thus “I caused him to do it,” would be °ngoo kao yi tsoo° (我敎伊做). “I caused him to go,” would be °ngoo tsha yi chi (我差伊去). The word tsha literally means “to send.” The word kau is the same as kyau°, but used with different pronunciation and different tone. When one of higher rank causes a person of lower rank to do a thing the word (使) is used. Thus S° °ngoo ieu-mung, “Caused me to sorrow.”

“Must” is expressed by the expressions tsoong-iau° (總要), pih-ding° iau° (必定要), ih-ding° iau° (一定要).

“It must be” is tsoong °z (總是). Thus “It must be so” is tsoong-°z zeh-ke° (總是實蓋).

“Ought” implying obligation, is expressed by iung-ke (應該). Thus “You ought to do it” is noong° iung-ke tsoo° kuh (儂應該做個).

VOCABULARY

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Foong (封) is the classifier used for letters and other sealed parcels.

Tsang (張) is the classifier denoting sheets.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XV
Further Remarks on Numerals, the Relative Pronoun

Numbers above one hundred are expressed as follows: One hundred and one, is ih pak ling ih, and so on to ih pak ling °kyeu; then the ling is dropped, and we have ih pah zeh (一百十), 53 ih pak zeh ih, ih pak zeh nyi°, ih pak zeh san, etc. Ling really means “in addition.”

The hundreds are expressed simply by nyi pak (二百), “two hundred,” san pak (三百), “three hundred,” etc. “One thousand” is ih tshien (一千). In expressing “one hundred and one,” we say ih pak ling ih (一百零一). In expressing “one thousand and one,” we say ih tshien ling ling ih.

“Ten thousand” is ih man° (一萬). “One million” is ih pak man° (一百萬). The ordinal numerals are expressed in Chinese by prefixing di° (第) before the cardinal. Thus “the first” is di° ih (第一) or deu-ih (頭一), “the second” di° nyi° (第二), and so forth.

°Soo 所 (lit. a place) is often used as a relative pronoun. It translates the English “who,” “which,” “what,” “that,” and “the things which.” The clause it introduces usually comes before the subject of the sentence. Thus “All which you do, I am able to do also,” would be noong° °soo tsoo° kuh z°-°thi °ngoo °‘a nung-keu° tsoo° kuh. As has already been pointed out kuh often has the force of the relative.

VOCABULARY.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XVI
Verbal Idioms

The idea of there being time to accomplish a thing is expressed by adding the words tuh-ji° (得及) after the principal verb. If there is not sufficient time to do a thing you add ’veh-ji° (勿及) after the principal verb. Thus, Tsoo°-tuh-ji° (做得及) means “there is time to do a thing.” Tsoo°-’veh-ji° (做勿及) means “there is not time.”

This expression is used most frequently with the verb le (來). Le-tuh-ji means “there is time,” and le-’veh-ji means “there is not time.”

The idea of a thing being important is expressed by the words iau°-°kyung kuh (要緊個). “Not being important,” by the words ’veh iau° °kyung (勿要緊), or ’veh nge° sa° (勿礙啥). “Is it important?” or “Does it make any difference?” would be nge° sa° va° (礙啥否).

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’Veh lauh is often used after verbs giving the idea of inability to do a thing. Thus Chuh ’veh lauh (吃勿落) means “unable to eat.” °Zoo ’veh lauh (坐勿落) “Unable to sit because of lack of room.” We also have the affirmative forms °zoo tuh lauh (坐得落) and chuh tuh lauh (吃得落).

VOCABULARY

°Kwen (管) is the classifier for tubular things.

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EXERCISES

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Notes.


61

LESSON XVII
More Verbal Idioms

In asking questions °yeu tuh? (有得) sometimes precedes a verb with the sense, “is there to be had?” Thus °Yeu-tuh °ma va°? (有得買否) means, “Is there to be bought?” °Yeu-tuh chuh va°? (有得吃否) means, “Is there anything to eat?” The answers to these questions would be °yeu-tuh °ma kuh (有得買個), °yeu tuh chuh kuh (有得吃個), “It can be bought.” “There is something to eat.”

’Veh pih (勿必) means “It is not necessary.” Thus ’Veh pih khok (勿必哭), “It is not necessary to cry.” ’Veh pih chi° (勿必去), “It is not necessary to go.”

Ih ngan ’veh (一顏勿) before the verbs means, “Not at all.” Thus °Ngoo ih ngan ’veh °hyau-tuh (我一顏勿曉得) means, “I do not know at all.” Ih ngan ’veh zung khoen°-kyien° hyih (一顏勿曾看見歇) means, “I have not seen it at all.” Ih ngan ’veh iau° khoen° (一顏勿要看) means, “I do not want to see it at all.”

VOCABULARY

Fok (幅) is the classifier of paintings or engravings.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XVIII
More Verbal Idioms

Siang (相) is often placed before transitive verbs and usually gives the idea of mutual or reciprocal. In some cases it is reflexive. As instances of reciprocal action we have siang-°tang (相打), “to fight with one another.” Siang-mo° (相駡), “to revile one another.” siang-lien (相聯), “to be connected together.” Siang-paung (相幫), “to help one another.”

Khe (開) or Khe-le (開來) is used with many verbs to give the idea of spreading wide open. Thus Than-khe-le (攤開來) means “to unroll a bundle.” Hyih-khe-le (揭開來) means “to open a box.” Fung-khe (分開), “to divide,” san°-khe (散開), “to scatter wide cast.” Tshih-khe (切開) or tshih-khe-le (切開來) means “to cut open, etc.”

Not inclined to do a thing is expressed by the phrase ’veh kau-hyung° (勿高興). Thus ’Veh kau-hyung° chi° (勿高興去), “not inclined to go.”

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VOCABULARY

Mien° (面) is used as the classifier for flat objects.

Tsung (尊) is the classifier denoting idols or cannon.

Khoo (顆) is the classifier used with plants, trees and flowers.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


69

LESSON XIX
Asking Questions, Expecting Negative and Affirmative Answers

In addition to the interrogative forms already given there are ways of asking questions when a negative, or when an affirmative answer is expected.

Thus when the negative answer is expected, the clause begins with °chi (豈) and ends with nyi (呢). Thus °Chi °yeu sa° yoong°-deu nyi (豈有啥用頭呢). “Is it of any use?” It implies that it is not of any use and expects the negative answer. °Chi (豈) corresponds to the Latin num, and implies No, or a negative of the proposition conveyed.

When the affirmative answer is expected the clause begins with °chi ’veh (豈吥) and ends with the usual interrogative va° (否).

Thus °Chi ’veh iung-ke tsoo° va° (豈吥應該做否), “Ought you not to do it?” Implies that you ought to do it and expects the affirmative answer.

It will be seen that in this case also the °chi (豈) expects the negative of the proposition conveyed, that is, the negative of a negative proposition which is an affirmative. In other words the answer is, “That you ought not not to do it,” or “You ought to do it.”

VOCABULARY

70

Phih (疋) is the classifier denoting whole pieces of dry goods.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


73

LESSON XX
More Verbal Idioms

Tuk dzu° (得住) and ’veh dzu° (勿住) are often used after the verb Lih (立) to stand, and give the sense of “able to stand,” or “unable to stand.” Thus Lih-tuh-dzu° (立得住) means “able to stand,” and Lih-’veh-dzu° (立勿住) unable to stand. The same words are used after other verbs also. Thus we have Khau°-tuh-dzu° (靠得住), meaning “Worthy to be trusted” and Khau°-’veh-dzu° (靠勿住), meaning “Unworthy to be trusted.”

Tuh-koo° (得過) is also used after verbs, and ’Veh-koo° (勿過). Thus we have °Tang-tuh-koo° (打得過), meaning “Able to beat him.” Literally “Beat, obtain surpass.” °Tang-’veh-koo° (打勿過) means “Unable to beat him.” Literally “Beat, not surpass.”

The expressions I°-tuh-koo° (意得過) and I°-’veh-koo° (意勿過) are also idiomatic. The former means, “Within the range of pity;” the latter “Beyond the range of pity,” or “greatly to be commiserated.”

VOCABULARY

Tsang (張) is the classifier used for sheets of things.

Pau (包) is the classifier used for bales of things.

Te (堆) is the classifier used for piles of things.

°Kwen (管) is the classifier for tubular things.

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EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXI
Verbal Idioms, Ordinals, and Remarks on the Expression of Time

To express the idea of “about to do a thing” in Chinese you can use the words tsiang-iau° (將要). Tsiang-iau°-chi° (將要去) means “about to go.” Tsiang-iau° °si (將要死) means “about to die.” Another way of expressing the same idea is by adding kwha° tse after the verb. Kwha° means “fast.” Chi° kwha° tse (去快哉) means “I will go fast,” that is, in a moment. Le kwha° tse (來快哉) means “will come fast,” that is, in a few minutes. Thih-°tsung is often used, meaning “just on the point of doing a thing.” Thus °Ngoo thih-°tsung iau° chi° (我貼準要去) means “I was just going.”

The expression “According to,” or “as it seems to me,” is expressed in Chinese by the words tsau° °ngoo khoen° (照我看). Tsau° °ngoo (照我) used alone would mean “Follow me,” “Follow my example.”

The Ordinals are formed from the Numerals in a very simple way. The word deu (頭) is prefixed before the first numeral and di° (第) before all the others. Thus “the first” is deu ih (頭一), the second is di° nyi° (第二), the third is di° san (第三), and so on. When first is used with the verb in the sense of the action being prior to some other action the word sien (先) is used. Thus we have Noong° veh zung tsheh chi° kuh zien-deu79 °ngoo sien iau° kau°-soo° noong° ih tsaung z°-°thi (儂勿曾出去個前頭我先要告訴儂一莊事體), meaning, “Before you go I first want to tell you something.” Again Sien tsoo° di°-yang° nan-meh tsoo° i-yang° (先做第樣難末做伊樣) means “First do this and then do that.” Again we have for the same expression Sien tsoo° di° kuh, man° tsoo° i-kuh (先做第個慢做 伊個), “First do this, slowly do that.”

REMARKS ON TIME

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EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXII
On Comparison

The usual way of forming the Comparative Degree of Adjectives has already been stated.

When two things are compared with one another in Chinese the words °pi (比) or °pi-ts (比之) are used between them. Thus °Mo °pi-ts °keu doo° (馬此之狗大) means, “the horse is larger than the dog.” Yi °pi noong° °hau (伊此儂好), “He is better than you.”

There are a good many other ways of expressing comparison. Thus ’Veh jih (勿及) means, “not equal to.” Also we have ’Veh zu (勿如), meaning, “not equal to, or not up to.”

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VOCABULARY

Te° (一對) is the classifier denoting a pair or a brace.

°Kheu (口) is the classifier for some articles of furniture, and for a well.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXIII
The Points of the Compass

The four cardinal points of the compass in Chinese are expressed: Toong, nen, si, pok (東, 南, 西, 北) East, South, West, North. Thus it will be seen that they do not follow the same order as we. North East is Toong-pok (東北), lit. East North. North West is Si-pok (西北), lit. West North. South East is Toong-nen (東南) , and South West is Si-nen (西南).

The word pien (邊) is generally added when direction or place is indicated. Thus we have for the North Pok-pien, for the West Si-pien. Pien literally means “side,” and is a shortened form of pien-deu (邊頭).

In giving directions as to locality, the Chinese make very frequent use of the points of the compass.If you wish a person to go towards the North you say dzau pok (朝北) “towards the North.”

VOCABULARY

°Doong (桶) is the classifier for casks, tubs and buckets.

Bing (瓶) is the classifier for bottles.

Siang (箱) is the classifier for boxes of things.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXIV
Some Remarks on Gender

As already remarked, words in Chinese do not change their form to indicate gender. Sometimes, however, words indicating gender are placed before them. Nen (男), “Male” and °Nyui (女), “female”, are used with human beings in this way. Thus we have Nen nyung (男人) for “man”, and °Nyui nyung (女人) for “woman”. Nen noen (男囝) means “a male child,” and °Nyui noen91 (女囝) “a female child.”

When speaking of the male and female of animals Yoong (雄) and Tsh (雌) are used. Thus we have Yoong kyi (雄鷄) for “cock,” and Tsh kyi (雌鷄) for “hen,” Yoong s-°ts (雄獅子) for “lion,” and Tsh s-°ts (雌獅子) for “lioness.”

VOCABULARY

Dzung (層) is the classifier for a story of a house or for anything like a ladder.

Dzaung° (幢) is the classifier denoting things piled one on top of the other.

Da° (埭) is the classifier for rows of things.

EXERCISES

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Notes.


95

LESSON XXV
Weights and Measures

The following three Tables are very commonly used in China, and the speaker of the language should be familiar with them.

MEASURE OF WEIGHT

MEASURE OF DISTANCE

MEASURE OF AREA

CURRENCY

Until recently, aside from copper cash, the Chinese had no regular system of currency. An ounce of silver was taken as a standard. The following Table is based upon that:—

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VOCABULARY

°Kwhung (梱) is the classifier denoting bundles of things.

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EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXVI
Family Relations

The relations in Chinese are exceedingly complex. Here only the simplest will be given. To be able to understand the complicated ramifications will take a long time, and can only be learnt by long experience.

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It must be noted that different words are used when one speaks of his own relations from what are used when another person is referring to them. In the latter case more polite language is employed.

Thus the following words for “father” are used: If you yourself are speaking of your father, you might call him Ya (爺), or °Lau-nyang-ka (老娘家), or Kya-°voo (家父), or °Voo-tshing (父親), or Kya-nyien (家嚴). Other people would refer to your father if they were polite as Tsung-da°-zung (尊大人) Lit. “The honorable great man.” Kya (家) or Ling°-tsung (令尊). Children often call their father Tia-tia (爹爹), or Ya-ya (爺爺), or Pak-pak (伯伯).

So in regard to mother. If you speak of her you say Nyang (娘), or Kya-°moo (家母), or °Moo-tshing (母親), or Kya-dz (家慈). If you speak of the mother of another person you may say Ling°-daung (令堂).

Brother is different as to whether you refer to an older or a younger one. An older brother is Ak-koo (阿哥). A younger brother is Hyoong-°di (兄弟). Brothers (plural) is Di°-hyoong or hyoong-°di (弟兄). A familiar term for a younger brother is °Di-°di (弟弟). An older sister is Ah-°tsi (阿姊). A younger sister is Me°-me° (妹妹). °Tsi-me° (姊妹) means sister or sisters.

In referring to a son a father would call him Nyi-°ts (兒子) or °Siau-noen (小囝); others would refer to your son by saying Ling°-laung (令郞) or (公郞) Koong-laung. In speaking of one’s own daughter you would say °Siau-°nyui (小女); others would refer to her as Tshien-kyung (千金) Lit. “A thousand catties of gold,” or Ling°- e° (令嬡).

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXVII
Compound Verbs

By compound verbs we mean those made up of more than one verb. As we have already seen, Chinese words having a distinct meaning when used by themselves also form part of larger compound words. This is true especially of verbs. A good example is the verb °Tang (打) to strike. It enters into combination with many other words to form compound verbs.

Thus:

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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108

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Notes.


LESSON XXVIII
Abstract Nouns formed from two Adjectives of opposite meaning

Very often two adjectives of opposite meaning are joined together to form an abstract noun of quality. Naturally the Chinese language is defective in abstract nouns, and their lack is partially supplied is this way. Thus Too-°sau (多少), “Much-little,” means “quantity.”

Dzang-°toen (長短), “Long-short,” means “length.” °Yoen-°jung (遠近), “Far-near,” means “distance.” Kau-ti° (高低), “High-low,” means “height.” °‘Eu-bok (厚薄), “Thick-thin,” means “thickness.” Kwheh-‘ah (關狹), “Broad-narrow,” means “breadth.” °Lang-nyih (冷熱), “Cold-hot,” means “temperature.” Sung-°tshien (深淺), “Deep-shallow,” means “depth.” Chung-°dzoong (輕重), “Light-heavy,” means “weight.” Tshoo-si° (粗細), “Coarse-fine,” means “texture” (of cloth).

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Verbs are also used in much the same way. Thus we have Le-°waung (來往). “Come-go,” meaning “intercourse,” or Le-chi° (來去), “Come-go,” meaning, “going back and forth.” It generally occurs as Le-le-chi°-chi°. °Ma-ma° (買賣), “Buy-sell,” means “business.”

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXIX
Some Useful Phrases

As will be seen from the lessons already gone over Chinese is very largely composed of idiomatic phrases. The only way to become acquainted with these phrases is by the constant hearing of the spoken language. We shall introduce in this lesson a few useful phrases and show how they occur in sentences.

“All one’s life,” ih sang-ih-s° (一生一世). Lit. “One life, one world.” “To run about,” Bau-le-bau-chi° (跑來跑去). Lit. “Run come, run go.” “To decide,” Lih-ding-°tsu-i° (立定主意). Lit. “To stand still the will.”

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Good-bye (French, au-revoir), An°-hyih-we° (宴歇會). Lit. “We will meet later,” or Tse°-we° (再會). Lit. “I will see you again.”

The ordinary way of saying “good-bye” when you have been to call on a person is to say Chi°-tse (去哉). Lit. “I am going.” Your host will say Man°-chi° (慢去), meaning “Go slowly.”

The expression. Kan-nyih-we° (間日會) would mean: “I will see you in a day or two.”

“Universal” °Phoo-thien-‘au° (普天下), or ‘Eh-thien-°ti-°‘au (合天底下). Lit. “Beneath the whole of heaven.”

“Useless, in vain,” Bak-bak-°li (白白裏). “Indispensable” is °Ba-’veh-tuk (罷勿得).

VOCABULARY

°Boo (部) is the classifier for sets of books.

115

EXERCISES

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117

Notes.


LESSON XXX
More Useful Words and Phrases

In the preceding lessons emphasis has been laid upon idiom and construction. Here a few useful words and phrases are given for the purpose of increasing the vocabulary of the student.

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Notes.


LESSON XXXI
Polite Language

In the Chinese language there are a great many polite phrases used in conversation. The ability to use these is a sign of education. Every student of the language should become acquainted with the most common ones, for he will have occasion to use them constantly. Some of these phrases have been introduced and explained in these lessons already, but here an attempt will be made to gather together all those that would be ordinarily used is conversation.

When you meet any one for the first time, according to Chinese etiquette you are at liberty to ask him what his honorable name may be. The expression for this is Tsung sing° (尊姓), or Kwe°-sing° (貴姓). In answer he will tell you his surname, but in doing so he will refer to it as his humble name. Thus he will say Bi°-sing° Tsang (敝姓張) (if his surname is Tsang).

Next you might proceed to inquire what his other name was, that is, his private name in distinction from his surname. This you would ask by saying °Tshing kyau° da° ‘au° (請叫大號),121 “Please teach me your great appellation” or The °foo (台甫). In answer he might say °Tshau-z° Kya-foo (草字嘉甫), meaning “the grass characters are Kya-foo,” or he might say °Siau-ming (小名). (Kya-foo is taken as an example of a name).

Then you might proceed to ask his age. This you would do by saying Too-sau kwe°-kang (多少貴庚). The answer would be °Ngoo hyui doo° san seh soe° (我虛度三十歲). Lit. “I have vainly passed thirty years.” If you ask an old gentleman his age, you would say °Kyi-hau° kau-zeu° (幾化高壽). Lit. “What is your high longevity?”

If you ask a person how he is, as has been already intimated, you would say °Hau-la°-va° (好拉否). The answer might be Khau° fok (靠福), meaning “I depend upon you for my happiness.”

If a person asked you how many years you had been in China, he would say Tau°-ts bi°-kok °kyi z-tse (到之敝國幾時哉). You would answer °Ngoo tau°-ts kwe°-kok nyan nyien (我到之貴國念年). “I arrived in your honorable country twenty years ago” (or any length of time you had been in the country).

When you are asking a guest to take a seat, if he is at all an honorable guest, you must request him to take an honorable seat. This you do by saying °Tshing °zaung-deu °zoo (請上頭坐), meaning “Please sit up higher.”

In asking how many children you have your guest would say °Kyi-we °sau-kyuin (幾位少君), “How many little princes have you.” Your answer is San kuh °siau-koen (三個小干), or °san kuh °siau-noen (三個小囝), or san kuh °siau-°choen (三個小犬).

At table, if you finish before others, you raise your chop-sticks and say to the others Man°-yoong° (慢用), “use slowly.”122 Then place the chop-sticks on top of the bowl. Your host could answer Yoong°-°pau (用飽), meaning, “Take plenty.”

When a guest is leaving, in addition to saying Chi°-tse, he may say Kyung-tshau 驚吵), meaning, “I have troubled you.” Your answer may be De-man de-man (待慢), meaning, “I have treated you without proper respect.” Or he may say, as he is walking away °Tshing lieu kyung-boo° (請留經步), meaning, “Please restrain your orderly footsteps”; or simply Lieu-boo°, meaning “Don’t trouble to come out.” If you have to excuse yourself after a short stay, you should say Sau-be (少陪).

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Notes.


125

LESSON XXXII
Proverbs

As is well known, the Chinese are very fond of proverbs. Their language is exceedingly rich with sententious sayings. They also make use of many felicitous expressions on New Year’s Day, at marriages, etc. Here is a short list of those in common use. Most of them are in literary style, but are used in ordinary speech.

一念之差終身之悔.
ih nyan° ts tsho tsoong sung ts hwe°.
The evil done in a moment’s thought may entail the repentance of a life time.

一言已出駟馬難追.
Ih yien i tsheh, s° °mo nan tsoe.
When a word has gone forth, four horses cannot overtake it.

一心舉念.
Ih sing °kyui nyan°.
A heart holding one thought; a mind set on one purpose.

一榻糊塗.
Ih thah oo-doo.
Everything in confusion.

吃人碗半, 由人使換喚.
Chuh zung °wen pen°, yeu *zung s° hwen°.
If you eat half a bowl of rice of another man, you thereby are placed under obligations.

*Note that the character for man is pronounced Nyung in the vernacular and Zung in the literary language.

皇天不負苦人心.
Waung Thien peh veu° °khoo zung sing.
Great Heaven never forgets the desire of a person in misery.

敗子回頭金不換.
Ba°-°ts we deu kyung peh wen°.
The repentance of a prodigal is more precious than gold.

推車撞之壁.
The tsho dzaung ts pih.
To wheel the cart against the wall,—equivalent to knock your head against a stone wall.

捨近而求遠.
So° °jung r jeu °yoen.
To forfeit what is near and seek what is far. It implies the folly of giving up the bird in the hand for the bird in the bush.

忘恩負義.
Vaung° ung veu° nyi°.
To forget benefits received.

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順風扯旗.
Zung° foong °tsha ji.
To float the flag in the wind. This implies “to follow the crowd,” and applies to a person of weak character.

人心皆同.
Zung sing kya doong.
Human nature is one.

惡有惡報, 善有善報, 若使勿報, 時刻未到.
Auh °yeu auh pau°, °zen yeu °zen pau°, zak-s ’veh pau°, z khuk vi tau°.
Evil has an evil recompense—virtue has a good recompense. If the recompense does not appear, it is because the time has not yet arrived.

冤有頭, 債有生.
Ioen °yeu deu, tsa° °yeu tsu.
Enmity has a source, just as debt has a creditor.

欺人自欺自.
Chi zung z° chi z°.
To cheat others is to cheat oneself.

樹高千丈, 葉落歸根.
Zu° kau tshien °dzang, yih lauh kwe kung.
*Although the tree may be ten thousand feet high, its leaves fall down to the roots.

*This means that all, sooner or later, return to their original homes.

人面獸心.
Zung mien° sen° sing.
He has the face of a man and the heart of an animal.

看死捻鼻頭.
Khoen° °si nyah pih-deu.
To catch hold of the note of a man who is dying. Equivalent to the expression “To hit a man when he is down.”

落水搇.
Lauh °s chung.
To press a drowning man down in the water. This has much the same meaning as the preceding.

近朱者赤, 近墨者黑.
°Jung tsu tse tshuh, °jung muh tse huh.
Contact with red ink makes you red. Contact with black ink makes you black.

損人利己眞小人.
Sung zung li° kyi tsung °siau zung.
To injure another to benefit yourself, is the part of a mean fellow.

欺衆不欺一.
Chi °tsoong peh chi ih.
In dealing harshly with all, you do not deal harshly with any one in particular.

狗看滿天星.
°Keu khoen° °men thien sing.
The dog looks at the sky full of stars. This describes a stupid person who does not understand what he sees.

始終如一.
°S tsoong xu ih.
To continue the same from the beginning to the end.

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半途而廢.
Pen° doo r fi.
To give up half-way.

謀事在人, 成事在天.
Meu z° dze zung, dzung z° dze thien.
Man contrives, God accomplishes. Equivalent to “Man proposeth, God disposeth.”

步步升高.
Boo°-boo° sang kau.
May you rise step by step.

壽比南山, 福如東海.
Zeu° °pi nen san, fok zu toong °he.
May your longevity be like the Southern Mountain, and your happiness like the Eastern Sea.

琴瑟調和.
Jung seh diau ‘oo.
May the harp and guitar harmonize. Note. This is a wedding wish, the harp and guitar signifying the bride and groom.

百年偕老.
Pak nyien kya °lau.
May you have happiness for a hundred year. A wedding wish.

成雙到老.
Dzung saung tau° °lau.
May the couple remain united until old age. A wedding wish.

稱心如意.
Tshung sing zu-i°.
May everything be according to your own wishes.

壽年千歲.
Zeu° nyien tshien soe°.
May you have a long life of a thousand years.

一路順風.
Ih loo° zung° foong.
May you have favorable winds journey.

恭喜發財.
Koong-°hyi fah ze.
*May wealth and happiness both be yours.

*This wish is often used at New Year’s time.

四季平安.
S° kyi° bing-oen.
May you have peace through the four seasons.


128

CHINESE-ENGLISH VOCABULARY



149

ENGLISH-CHINESE VOCABUARY


Transcriber's Notes

Some character usage is inconsistent in this text:

Sometimes the variant 念 has been used for 廿.

Sometimes the variant 担 has been used for 擔.

Sometimes the variant 蘋 has been used for 苹.

Sometimes the variant 咾 has been used for 佬.

Sometimes the variant 困 has been used for 睏.

Sometimes the variant 莊 has been used for 庄.

Sometimes the variant 秃 has been used for 禿.

Sometimes the variant 略 has been used for 畧.

Sometimes the variant 只 has been used for 隻.

Sometimes the variant 梱 has been used for 捆.

Sometimes the variant 回 has been used for 囘.

Sometimes the variant 嘸 has been used for 無.

Sometimes the variant 鈿 has been used for 錢.

Sometimes the variant 用人 has been used for 傭人.

Sometimes the variant 勿 has been used for 吥.

Sometimes the variant 礮 has been used for 砲.

Sometimes the variant 鬭 has been used for 鬥.

Sometimes the variant 掽 has been used for 碰

Transcriber’s Notes: Unknown Characters

[C0] The actual representation is an i with a double dot underneath.

[C1] 幸 on left, 九 with horizontal line on right. Ideographic Description Sequence: ⿰幸⿻九一

[C2] [C2] tsiang, 爿 + 手 stacked over 鳥. Ideographic Description Sequence: ⿰爿手⿱鳥

[C3] [C3] [C3] [C3] thaung, 辶 + 湯 as one character. Ideographic Description Sequence: ⿺辶湯