The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Arts of Persia, by H. Kevorkian.

THE ENTIRE THIRD FLOOR GALLERIES
FROM THURSDAY, APRIL TWENTY-SECOND
TO SATURDAY, MAY FIFTEENTH, INCLUSIVE
[OPEN WEEK-DAYS, 9-6; SUNDAYS, 2-5 P.M.]

STUCCO BAS-RELIEF, PAINTED IN POLYCHROME. EXCAVATED AT RAY (RHAGES) ANTERIOR TO THE XIITH CENTURY

THIS exhibition has been arranged with a desire to meet the convenience of those who are interested in manifestations of the arts of different countries over which Islam held sway at one time or other in the past. An effort has been made to show under one roof representative examples of works produced at different epochs and stages of the civilizations referred to, so that they may be seen, and perhaps studied, with the minimum expenditure of time.

Fine examples of many branches of the arts of these peoples are in permanent exhibitions at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, and the museums of great cities throughout the country. It is difficult to find adequate words to describe the enchanting atmosphere of the halls at the Metropolitan Museum where Near Eastern art is installed; and the same can truly be said of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia. These exhibitions must inevitably contribute to the enjoyment and education of countless visitors to these institutions, and will continue to do so in increasing degree to the enjoyment of generations to come.

The present exhibition does not comprise a vast number of objects. Its claim to attention lies in the fact that it includes an important series of really first class works which are also of great historical importance. There will be on view as well some comparatively new types of objects of æsthetic and archæological interest, obtained as the result of recent excavations.

The briefness of time available precluded the possibility of compiling a catalogue, as was at first intended. The present booklet is issued to explain the scope of the exhibition, and extend a cordial invitation to visit it.

[Enlarge]

MUHAMMAD (THE PROPHET) WITNESSES ALI (HIS SON-IN-LAW AND SUCCESSOR) DEFEAT AMR BEN ABDWAD

One of the eight illustrations for a XIIIth Century Persian Manuscript entitled, "History of Tabari", compiled A.H. 310 (A.D. 922). The present copy is a subsequent one of the Persian version, translated by al B'ala'mi, A.H. 352.

It is interesting to note that Tabari records in the book here referred to, that three messages were sent by Muhammad to Khusraw Parniz, imparting the divine warnings. One of the messages, as recorded in an old Manuscript entitled Nihayat ul-Irab, reads:

"In the name of God, the merciful, the compassionate. From Muhammad the Apostle of God to Khusraw son of Hurmazd. But to proceed. Verily I extol unto thee God, beside whom there is no other God. He it is who guarded me when I was an orphan, and made me rich when I was destitute, and guided me when I was straying in error. Only he who is bereft of understanding, and over whom calamity triumphs, rejects the message which I am sent to announce. O Khusraw, submit and thou shalt be safe, or else prepare to wage with God and with his Apostle a war which shall not find them helpless. Farewell."

The rise of Islam and its rapid advent to power, is perhaps the most surprising chapter of the history of mankind. The great empires, Persian and Byzantine, which were subjected to the urgent onslaught of this rising power may have been in an enfeebled condition as a result of excess of despotism and internal dissensions, as historians affirm; but that the element of the power must have been in the rationality of the principles contained in the teaching, there can be no doubt.

"It was undoubtedly to Islam, that simple yet majestic creed of which no unprejudiced student can ignore the grandeur, that Arabs owed the splendid part which they were destined to play in the history of civilization. In judging of the Arabian Prophet, western critics are too often inclined to ignore the condition from which he raised his country, and to forget that many institutions which they condemn were not introduced but only tolerated by Islam. The early Muslims were very sensible of the immense amelioration in their life effected by Muhammad's teachings. What this same amelioration was is well shown in the following passage from the oldest extant biography of the Prophet," says Professor G. Browne in his memorable work on Persia,[1] and quotes Ibn Hisham (A.H. 213: A.D. 828) in support.

[Enlarge]

ACCESSION AT KUFA, A.D. 749, OF ABU'L-ABBAS ABDULLAH AS-SAFFAH FIRST CALIPH OF THE HOUSE OF ABBAS

One of eight illustrations for a XIIIth Century Manuscript entitled, "History of Tabari", compiled A.H. 310 (A.D. 922). The present copy is a subsequent one of the Persian version, translated by al B'ala'mi, A.H. 352.

"It was a dynasty abounding in good qualities, richly endowed with generous attributes, wherein the wares of science found a ready sale, the merchandise of culture was in great demand, the observances of religion were respected, charitable bequests flowed freely ... and the frontiers were bravely kept."—Al-Fakhri (historian of fame of the XIIIth Century) on the Abbasid Dynasty.

his excellent work on Islam,[2] "everything followed its accustomed course in the Byzantine as in the Persian Empire. These two states continued always to dispute the possession of western Asia; they were, to all outward appearance, flourishing; the taxes which poured into the treasuries of their Kings reached considerable sums, and the magnificence, as well as the luxury of their capitals had become proverbial. But all this was but in appearance, for secret disease consumed both empires; they were burdened by a crushing despotism; on either hand the history of the dynasties formed a concatenation of horrors, that of the state a series of persecutions born of dissensions in religious matters. At this juncture it was that, all of a sudden, there emerged from deserts hardly known and appeared on the scene of the world a new people, hitherto divided into innumerable nomad tribes, who, for the most part, had been at war with one another, now for the first time united. It was this people, passionately attached to liberty, simple in their food and dress, noble and hospitable, gay and witty, but at the same time proud, irascible, and, once their passions were aroused, vindictive, irreconcilable and cruel, who overthrew in an instant the venerable but rotten empire of the Persians, snatched from the successors of Constantine their fairest provinces, trampled under their feet a Germanic kingdom but lately founded, and menaced the rest of Europe, while at the same time, at the other end of the world, its victorious armies penetrated to the Himalayas. Yet it was not like so many other conquering peoples, for it preached at the same time a new religion. In opposition to the dualism of the Persians and a degenerate Christianity, it announced a pure monotheism which was accepted by millions of men, and which, even in our own time, constitutes the religion of a tenth part of the human race."

POLYCHROME ENAMELLED GLASS MOSQUE LAMP OF THE XIIITH CENTURY

Very few examples of this highly advanced art survive. They represent an extremely aristocratic manifestation of art and were executed by order of Mameluke Caliphs of Egypt, and dedicated by them to their great Mosques, individually inscribed in magnificent calligraphy.

intolerance.[3] History does not record the practice of compulsory conversion in the scheme of conquest of early converts. "It is often supposed," says Professor Browne, "that the choice offered by the warriors of Islam was between the Qur'an and the Sword; this, however, is not the fact." There are innumerable evidences to the contrary which history records.[4] It appears that the exemplary behavior of the Arabs, under their newly acquired faith, was the main factor not only in the success of their scheme of conquest, but also in the impression which it made on the defeated in determining them to adopt the faith which produced such upright warriors.

The tremendous political upheaval that the evolution of Islam brought in its train to the affairs of the world does not fall within the scope of this paper. A highly important fact, however, must not be lost sight of, that by consolidating and unifying the tottering states a new civilization was founded which knew how to turn to account the culture of the ancient states conquered. In this overwhelming transformation Persia came in, from the outset, to play the most conspicuous and important part. The

[Enlarge]

ROYAL IVORY BOX, WITH METAL MOUNTING. HISPANO-ARABIAN ART, XIITH-XIIITH CENTURY DECORATED IN ENAMEL AND GOLD, DEPICTING INSIGNIA OF SUCCESSORS OF UMAYYAD CALIPHS OF SPAIN, AND QUR'ANIC ROSETTES AND KUFIC CALLIGRAPHY OF THE HIGHEST DISTINCTION

FAIENCE CYLINDRICAL VASE, WITH RELIEF AND LUSTRE DECORATION. FROM FOSTAT (ANCIENT CAIRO), DYNASTY OF FATIMID ANTI-CALIPHS (A.D. 974-1171)

[Enlarge]

AN EARLY SAFAWID PAINTING (CIRCA A.D. 1525) OF EXQUISITE RHYTHM, DEPTH AND DIGNITY

artistic productions of the Muhammadan world that have come down to us as living monuments, substantiate this statement without a shadow of doubt, which makes it unnecessary to resort to recorded history, although its pages abound with incontestable evidences.[5]

It would be difficult to offer an explanation for the underlying unity and integrity of character manifest in the artistic expression of the Muhammadan countries, of vast geographical range, without a clear understanding of the vital force contained in the teachings of the Arabian Apostle, and the characteristics of his people, destined to carry those teachings from one end of the earth to the other. For this reason the foregoing brief survey has been ventured.

There can be no doubt that the pivot around which the artistic activities of Muhammadan countries revolved, was Persia.[6] She was to attain the function of the Sun, element of

ILLUSTRATIONS FOR TITLE-PAGES OF A SHAHNAMA (Epic of Kings) of the XVth Century.

Representing Timur-i-Lang (A.H. 736-807) attending a festival. The name and the full titles of Timur appear in excellent Thuluth lettering round the border of the rug upon which the monarch sits.

This important Manuscript was presented by the Emperor of Russia to the Ambassador of Persia at St. Petersburg, A.D. 1829. The Ambassador's autograph inscription reads:

"The Shahnama graciously presented by H.M. the Emperor at my third visit—may it be omen of good fortune. Muhammad Ali ibni Ghafouri Ambassador, 22nd of Rajab, A.H. 1245."

"Timur Beg was seated in a portal, in front of the entrance of a beautiful Palace; and he was sitting on the ground.... The lord was seated cross-legged, on silken embroidered carpets, amongst round pillows. He was dressed in a robe of silk, with white headdress on his head, on the top of which there was a spinel ruby, with pearls and precious stones round it. As soon as the ambassadors saw the lord, they made a reverential bow, placing the knee on the ground, and crossing the arms on the breast; then they went forward and made another and then a third, remaining with their knees on the ground. The lord ordered them to rise and come forward.... Three Mirzas, or secretaries, ... came and took the ambassadors by the arms, and led them forward until they stood before the lord.... He asked after the King, saying, 'How is my son the King? is he in good health?' When the ambassadors had answered, Timur Beg turned to the knights who were seated around him, amongst whom were one of the sons of Toktamish, the former Emperor of Tartary, several chiefs of the blood of the late Emperor of Samarquand, and others of the family of the lord himself, and said, 'Behold, here are the ambassadors sent by my son, the King of Spain, who is the greatest King of Franks, and lives at the end of the world. These Franks are truly great people, and I will give my benediction to the King of Spain, my son."—From the Diary of Ruy Gonzalez di Clavijo, principal of the embassy despatched A.D. 1404 to the Court of Samarquand by Henry III of Castile, Spain.

Clavijo describes the beautiful gardens with their tiled palaces where banquets were given. The ambassador, who was invited, marvelled at the gorgeous tents, one of which "was so large and high that from a distance it looked like a castle, and it was a very wonderful thing to see, and possessed more beauty than it is possible to describe". It is interesting to notice that Sharaf-u-din mentions the presence of the Ambassadors, "for," he writes, "even the smallest of fish have their place in the sea". Truly a delightful touch!—History of Persia, by Sir Percy Sykes, Vol. II, page 133.11

[Enlarge]

ILLUSTRATIONS FOR TITLE-PAGES OF A SHAHNAMA (EPIC OF KINGS) OF THE XVTH CENTURY

"On the extreme of the western side of the royal precincts opening on to the Chahar Bagh are a garden and building. The Garden was previously called "Bagh i Bulbul" (Garden of Nightingales).—Lord Curzon, History of Persia.

"Night drawing on, all the pride of Spahaun was met in the Chaur Baug and grandees were airing themselves, prancing about with their numerous trains, striving to outdo each other in pomp and generosity."—Dr. Fryer, recorded A.D. 1677.

Chardin, who was at Ispahan at the time of Shah Suleiman's reign (1667-1694), records in his "Voyages", Vol. VIII, page 43:

"When one walks in these places expressly made for the delights of love and when one passes through all these cabinets and niches, one's heart is melted to such an extent that to speak candidly, one always leaves with a very ill grace. The climate without doubt contributes much towards exciting this amorous disposition, but assuredly these places, although in some respects little more than cardboard castles, are nevertheless more smiling and agreeable than our most sumptuous palaces."

Lord Curzon says (History of Persia, Vol. II, page 37) that "Even Chardin, enthusiastic but seldom sentimental, was inspired to an unwonted outburst by the charms of Hasht Bahisht".13

VIEW OF CHAHAR BAGH (FOUR GARDENS) AND HASHT BAHISHT (PAVILION OF EIGHT PARADISES) AT ISPAHAN. CONSTRUCTED BY SHAH SULEIMAN SAFAWI ABOUT A.D. 1670. REPRODUCTION FROM "LA PERSE, LA CHALDEE ET LA SUSIANE" (1887) BY DIEULAFOY

PAIR OF DOORS FROM THE PAVILION OF CHAHAL SITUN (Hall of Forty Pillars) built by Shah Abbas the Great (A.D. 1588-1629).

These are decorated with representations of scenes from the Royal Court of the great Shah, painted minutely by Court artists.

"They transport us straight to the Court of the lordly Abbas and his predecessors or successors on the throne.... We see the King engaged at some royal festivity enjoying the pleasure of the Bowl."—Lord Curzon, History of Persia, Vol. II, page 34.

Ker Porter, who saw the Palace of Chahal Situn in its perfect condition, records: "The exhaustless profusion of its splendid materials reflected not merely their own golden lights on each other, but all the variegated colours of the Garden, so that the whole surface seemed formed of polished silver and mother of pearl set with precious stones."

Lord Curzon, who visited it soon after its last repair in 1891, quotes Ker Porter and by way of contrast says: "The bulk of this superb decoration which still remains in the Throne Room behind, to point bitter contrast, had on the walls of the Loggia been ruthlessly obliterated by the brush of the painter, who had left in its place pink wash; had I caught the Pagan, I would gladly have suffocated him in a barrel of his own paint."—History of Persia, Vol. II, page 33.15

[Enlarge]

PAIR OF DOORS FROM THE PAVILION OF CHAHAL SITUN (HALL OF FORTY PILLARS) BUILT BY SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT (A.D. 1588-1629)

[Enlarge]

RIZA ABBASI, FAVORED COURT ARTIST, PORTRAYS EUROPEANS AT THE COURT OF SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT (A.D. 1588-1629)

Detail of exquisitely painted woodwork from the Pavilion of Chahal Situn (Hall of Forty Pillars), the Palace at Ispahan built by Shah Abbas.

The young Shah, who was pleased with the leader of the party (Europeans), gave him royal gifts, Sir Anthony Sherley records (1598), including "forty horses all furnished, two with exceeding rich saddles, plated with gold, and set with rubies and turquoises." To these he added camels, tents, and a sum of money.

her old faith, source of sustaining energy; and continued to radiate into these planets of countries and races of the System, her all-stimulating cultural beams, the reflection of which is discernible in all artistic manifestations of those countries. In the field of literature, which is so little known in the western world, the influence is even greater than in the visual art with which we are concerned. Muhammadan literature, be it Arabic, Turkish, or Persian, is Persian in spirit and feeling.[7]

The fusion of Muhammadan doctrine with this Aryan (Persian) culture of old,[8] is an important event in the history of Art. For out of this fusion came forth into being a new phase of artistic expression completely different, in form and spirit, from its predecessors. Probably of equal importance is the fact that, although practised by divers races and subjected to many developments, fluctuations and variations, it has retained throughout the centuries its identical characteristics. What was the vital force that brought about this cultural evolution and unification? The answer appears to be Religion, as we shall see.

The foundation of the Muhammadan Empire was Religion. It was to the Holy Standard that the nations bent

"Lips sweet as sugar on my pen bestow,
And from my book let streams of odour flow."
—J'Ami.

ILLUSTRATED AND ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT

The complete volume of "Yusuf-ou-Zalikha", the popular poem by the famous mystic poet J'Ami, based on the Biblical story of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. The scribe, Mir Ali Sultani.

The colophon reads:

"Terminated by the sinner, humble Mir Ali Sultani the penman, may God forgive his sins and shelter his faults. Terminated in the month of Moharram al Haram in the year A.H. 944 (in letters) (A.D. 1537) in the glorious city of Bukhara."

The Dedication in the handwriting of the scribe, in ornate gold lettering, reads:

"For his majesty, the August, the just, the possessor of virtues, the great Khagan Ghazi Abd-ul-Aziz Bahadur Khan, may his domain last forever."

The autograph of the Emperor Shah Jahan, the "Great Mogul", on the magnificently decorated mount reads:

"In the name of God compassionate and merciful this Yusuf-ou-Zalikha treasured on the occasion of Blessed Accession." (A.D. 1627)

In confirmation of the foregoing, it is of great interest that Jahangir makes special reference in his memoirs (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) to an incident, as of highest importance, that he was presented by Abd-al-Rahim Khan, Khan-i-Khanan, with a superb copy of J'Ami's poem Yusuf-ou-Zalikha, transcribed by Mir Ali Sultani, "Prince of Penmen", and that the gift was appraised at "a thousand Muhr".19

[Enlarge]

COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED AND ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT OF "YUSUF-OU-ZALIKHA", BY THE FAMOUS MYSTIC POET J'AMI

ONE OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE MANUSCRIPT YUSUF-OU-ZALIKHA

Zalikha in old age, broken and in poverty, meets Yusuf in the market place in Egypt.

"Where is thy youth, and thy beauty, and pride?"
"Gone, since I parted from thee," she replied.
"Where is the light of thine eye?" said he.
"Drowned in blood-tears for the loss of thee."
"Why is that cypress tree bowed and bent?"
"By absence from thee and my long lament."
"Where is thy pearl, and thy silver and gold,
And the diadem bright on thy head of old?"...
—Quotation from Yusuf-ou-Zalikha (J'Ami).
Translation of R.T. Griffith.

[Enlarge]

CHISELLED SILVER BOWL, DECORATED IN FILIGREE AND POLYCHROME ENAMEL. PERSIAN WORK OF THE XVITH CENTURY, PROBABLY EXECUTED IN ASIA MINOR FOR A PRINCELY OTTOMAN PATRON

and professed unqualified allegiance. A powerful political unity came into existence and continued for a period of six centuries uninterrupted. The nations of this united kingdom of Islam were thus merged into one unit, under the stimulus of one formal religion, freely transmigrating local ideas. Arts and culture were transformed, but the evolution thus caused by the Religion was essentially political in nature.

"There is no God but God," said the Apostle of Arabia, but the poet reflected awhile, and his rejoinder was: "The Ways of God are as the number of souls of men."

The Prophet's religion was rational, its principles attainable; it secured for the poet social amelioration and physical comfort, but there was a voice from the depth of his soul that he could not silence. It was the voice of mystery; he was concerned with the problems of the "Wherefore, the Whence, and the Whither".... Was he not a Son of the land which Plotinus visited to learn mystery of the Orient of Old?[9]

We have to look therefore to the Religion, "The Ways" of whose God "are as the number of Souls of Men", to perceive the true nature of the evolution of the artistic expression of these people.

Souls with irresistible cravings for Mysticism, poets, artists, philosophers and the like, discovered for the first time from Muhammad's formal teachings, which contained certain esoteric elements, that the senses, unreal and phenomenal, have yet an important mission to fulfill in the task which aims to escape from Self (which is an illusion and the root of sin, pain, and sorrow) and to attain the height where the eternal beauty,

"PORTRAIT OF MEHDI ALI GULI KHAN, COMMANDER OF FORTRESS, BY RAMDAS"—A.D. 1630.

A leaf from the National Portrait Album conceived by the Emperor Akbar, and amplified and executed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The volume consists of portraits of the Royal Family of the Great Moguls and their principal supporters. These historic personages are represented in the centre as single individuals, with their chief officials and retainers in the border around them.

Ramdas, a Hindu artist, was one of Akbar's artists who worked under Jahangir and Shah Jahan. His signed works include the following:

Baburnama in the British Museum and South Kensington Museum.
Akbarnama in South Kensington Museum.
Razmnama in the State Library, Jaipur, India.
Timurnama in the Oriental Public Library, Bankipur, India.
25

[Enlarge]

"PORTRAIT OF MEHDI ALI GULI KHAN, COMMANDER OF FORTRESS, BY RAMDAS"—A.D. 1630

SILK FABRIC—A RARE EXAMPLE OF THE KIND PRODUCED BY THE ROYAL LOOMS AT ISPAHAN, WHICH FLOURISHED UNDER THE DIRECT PATRONAGE OF SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT (A.D. 1588-1629)

"Oct. 18th, 1666.—To Court. It being ye first time his Maty (Charles II of England) put himself solemnly into Eastern fashion of vest, changeing doublet, stiff collar, bands and cloake, into a comley dress, after ye Persian mode. I had sometime before presented an invective against our so much affecting the French fashion, to his Majesty, in which I took occasion to describe the comelinesse and usefulness of the Persian clothing, in ye very same manner his Maty now clad himself."—John Evelyn (A.D. 1666), celebrated historian and diarist.

which is but One, reveals itself through countless phenomena which are but reflections of One. "The Phantasmal is the Bridge to the Real," says the mystic, and the immortal lines of J'ami read:

The unreality of things material, the illusion of Self and desires, the perception that all living things and apparent phenomena reflected but one all-embracing Good and Beauty, was the philosophy of Hindu and all Oriental mystics of old; but they attempted to destroy the self and desires (Source of Sin) uncompromisingly and unreasonably. It was a philosophy "cold" and "bloodless", as Professor Browne points out, in trenchant terms. The Muhammadan mystic became conscious that the stream cannot be crossed without the aid of the Bridge constructed for this purpose.

Here (as it seems to us) lies the Keynote, the mainspring of inspiration of artistic expression, which (for the lack of better designation) might be termed Muhammadan Art: A merging of physical and spiritual, of worldly magnificence and eternal bliss.

THE PRINCES OF THE HOUSE OF TIMUR

Emir Timur (Timur-i-Lang) on the throne (A.D. 1335-1405)

On the right of the throne:

Babur A.D. 1526-1530
Humayun A.D. 1530-1556
Akbar A.D. 1556-1605
Jahangir A.D. 1605-1627
Shah Jahan A.D. 1627-1658

On the left are three sons of Shah Jahan:

Dara Shikoh
Shah Shuja
Aurengzib
(who succeeded Shah Jahan)

Mughal Painting from the Imperial Library of Delhi, A.D. 164029

[Enlarge]

THE PRINCES OF THE HOUSE OF TIMUR
MUGHAL PAINTING FROM THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY OF DELHI, A.D. 1640

TALAR (HALL OF AUDIENCE) RUG

From the looms of Ispahan or the adjoining city of Joshagan. Made during the reign of Shah Suleiman (A.D. 1667-1694), upon the model of Chahar Bagh Royal Garden at Ispahan, on the grounds of which the Royal Pavilion of Hasht Bahisht (Eight Paradises) stands. The Rug measures 29 feet by 9 feet 5 inches.

Lord Curzon in his History of Persia, Vol. II, page 38, gives the following description of the Garden of Chahar Bagh:

"At the upper extremity a two storeyed Pavilion connected by a corridor with the Seraglio of the palace, so as to enable the ladies of the harem to gaze unobserved upon the merry scene below, looked out upon the centre of the avenue. Water conducted in stone channels ran down the centre, falling in cascades from terrace to terrace, and was occasionally collected in great square or octagonal basins where cross roads cut the avenues. On either side of the central channel was a row of chenars and a paved pathway for pedestrians, then occurred a succession of open parterres, usually planted or sown. Next on either side was a second row of chenars, between which and flanking walls was a raised causeway for horsemen. At intervals corresponding with the successive terraces and basins, arched doorways with recessed open chambers overhead conducted through these walls into the various royal or noble gardens that stretched on either side and were known as the gardens of the throne; nightingale, vines, mulberries, Dervishes, etc. Some of these pavilions were places of public resort and were used as coffee houses, where when the business of the day was over the good burghers of Ispahan assembled to sip that beverage and inhale their Kalians the while. At the bottom quays lined the banks of the river and were bordered with the mansions of the nobility."

[Enlarge]

A desire to reach to our higher instincts through the vehicle of our senses is apparent in all forms in which these masters sought to express themselves; we feel that, in their entrancing rhythmical compositions, in their incomparable poetry of flowing melodious words, in all their literature, in the inimitable colors and lyrical lines of all branches of representation of visual art. We feel the presence of an element prevailing throughout, and underlying every form of expression, an element which may be described in a word, "Human".

It is stated that the Persian spirit and feeling were reflected in all forms of artistic expression of the Muhammadan world. It is not, however, intended that other nations and countries over which Islam held sway, contributed nothing in the building of the influences of each were felt in varying degrees in the transmigration of ideas continued to take place between the nations, and the influences of each were felt in varying degrees in the transformation that resulted. In the fusion referred to, the influence of the Persian culture was predominant, a fact so transparent, as to require (we may assume) no emphasis.

It is not intended to deal here with particular aspects or divers branches of arts in which the genius of these artists found expression. In offering briefly these lines as to the general aspect of the Art of the Muhammadan world, the intention is to offer an explanation to those who may not be familiar with its history.

FOOTNOTES

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS OF PERSIA & OTHER COUNTRIES OF ISLAM ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Arts of Persia & Other Countries of Islam

SPECIAL EXHIBITION

THE ARTS OF PERSIA
& OTHER COUNTRIES OF ISLAM

H. KEVORKIAN COLLECTION