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You can also find out about how to make a donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. **Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** **eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** *****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** Title: EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Author: HUTTON WEBSTER Release Date: April, 2005 [EBook #7960] [This file was first posted on June 5, 2003] Edition: 10 Language: English Character set encoding: ISO Latin-1 *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY *** Anne Soulard, Charles Franks, Robert Fite, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY BY HUTTON WEBSTER, PH.D. "There is no part of history so generally useful as that which relates to the progress of the human mind, the gradual improvement of reason, the successive advances of science, the vicissitudes of learning and ignorance, which are the light and darkness of thinking beings, the extinction and resuscitation of arts, and the revolutions of the intellectual world." --SAMUEL JOHNSON, _Rasselas_. PREFACE This book aims to furnish a concise and connected account of human progress during ancient, medieval, and early modern times. It should meet the requirements of those high schools and preparatory schools where ancient history, as a separate discipline, is being supplanted by a more extended course introductory to the study of recent times and contemporary problems. Such a course was first outlined by the Regents of the University of the State of New York in their _Syllabus for Secondary Schools_, issued in 1910. Since the appearance of the Regents' _Syllabus_ the Committee of Five of the American Historical Association has made its _Report_ (1911), suggesting a rearrangement of the curriculum which would permit a year's work in English and Continental history. Still more recently the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, in its _Report_ (1916) to the National Education Association has definitely recommended the division of European history into two parts, of which the first should include ancient and Oriental civilization, English and Continental history to approximately the end of the seventeenth century, and the period of American exploration. The first twelve chapters of the present work are based upon the author's _Ancient History_, published four years ago. In spite of many omissions, it has been possible to follow without essential modification the plan of the earlier volume. A number of new maps and illustrations have been added to these chapters. The selection of collateral reading, always a difficult problem in the secondary school, is doubly difficult when so much ground must be covered in a single course. The author ventures, therefore, to call attention to his _Readings in Ancient History_. Its purpose, in the words of the preface, is "to provide immature pupils with a variety of extended, unified, and interesting extracts on matters which a textbook treats with necessary, though none the less deplorable, condensation." A companion volume, entitled _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, will be published shortly. References to both books are inserted in footnotes. At the end of what has been a long and engrossing task, it becomes a pleasant duty to acknowledge the help which has been received from teachers in school and college. Various chapters, either in manuscript or in the proofs, have been read by Professor James M. Leake of Bryn Mawr College; Professor J. C. Hildt of Smith College; Very Rev. Patrick J. Healy, Professor of Church History in the Catholic University of America; Professor E. F. Humphrey of Trinity College; Dr. James Sullivan, Director of the Division of Archives and History, State Dept. of Education of New York; Constantine E. McGuire, Assistant Secretary General, International High Commission, Washington; Miss Margaret E. McGill, of the Newton (Mass.) High School; and Miss Mabel Chesley, of the Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn. The author would also express appreciation of the labors of the cartographers, artists, and printers, to whose accuracy and skill every page of the book bears witness. HUTTON WEBSTER LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, February, 1917 [Illustration: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL GEMS. 1 Steatite from Crete, two lions with forefeet on a pedestal, above a sun 2 Sardonyx from Elis, a goddess holding up a goat by the horns 3 Rock crystal a bearded Triton 4 Carnelian, a youth playing a trigonon 5 Chalcedony from Athens, a Bacchante 6 Sard, a woman reading a manuscript roll, before her a lyre 7 Carnelian, Theseus 8 Chalcedony, portrait head, Hellenistic Age 9 Aquamarine, portrait of Julia daughter of the emperor Titus 10 Chalcedony, portrait head, Hellenistic Age 11 Carnelian, bust portrait of the Roman emperor Decius 12 Beryl, portrait of Julia Domna wife of the emperor Septimius Severus 13 Sapphire, head of the Madonna 14 Carnelian, the judgment of Paris, Renaissance work 15 Rock crystal, Madonna with Jesus and St. Joseph, probably Norman Sicilian work] CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF MAPS LIST OF PLATES SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY CHAPTER I. THE AGES BEFORE HISTORY. 1. The Study of History 2. Prehistoric Peoples 3. Domestication of Animals and Plants 4. Writing and the Alphabet 5. Primitive Science and Art 6. Historic Peoples II. THE LANDS AND PEOPLES OF THE EAST TO ABOUT 500 B.C. 7. Physical Asia 8. Babylonia and Egypt 9. The Babylonians and the Egyptians 10. The Phoenicians and the Hebrews 11. The Assyrians 12. The World Empire of Persia III. ORIENTAL CIVILIZATION. 13. Social Classes 14. Economic Conditions 15. Commerce and Trade Routes 16. Law and Morality 17. Religion 18. Literature and Art 19. Science and Education IV. THE LANDS OF THE WEST AND THE RISE OF GREECE TO ABOUT 500 B.C. 20. Physical Europe 21. Greece and the Aegean 22. The Aegean Age (to about 1100 B.C.) 23. The Homeric Age (about 1100-750 B.C.) 24. Early Greek Religion 25. Religious Institutions--Oracles and Games 26. The Greek City-State 27. The Growth of Sparta (to 500 B.C.) 28. The Growth of Athens (to 500 B.C.) 29. Colonial Expansion of Greece (about 750-500 B.C.) 30. Bonds of Union among the Greeks V. THE GREAT AGE OF THE GREEK REPUBLICS TO 362 B.C. 31. The Perils of Hellas 32. Expeditions of Darius against Greece 33. Xerxes and the Great Persian War 34. Athens under Themistocles, Aristides, and Cimon 35. Athens under Pericles 36. The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B.C. 37. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies, 404-362 B.C. 38. Decline of the City-State VI. MINGLING OF EAST AND WEST AFTER 359 B.C. 39. Philip and the Rise of Macedonia 40. Demosthenes and the End of Greek Freedom 41. Alexander the Great 42. Conquest of Persia and the Far East, 334-323 B.C. 43. The Work of Alexander 44. Hellenistic Kingdoms and Cities 45. The Hellenistic Age 46. The Graeco-Oriental World VII. THE RISE OF ROME TO 264 B.C. 47. Italy and Sicily 48. The Peoples of Italy 49. The Romans 50. Early Roman Society 51. Roman Religion 52. The Roman City State 53. Expansion of Rome over Italy, 509 (?)-264 B.C. 54. Italy under Roman Rule 55. The Roman Army VIII. THE GREAT AGE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, 264-31 B.C. 56. The Rivals Rome and Carthage, 264-218 B.C. 57. Hannibal and the Great Punic War, 218-201 B.C. 58. Roman Supremacy in the West and in the East, 201-133 B.C. 59. The Mediterranean World under Roman Rule 60. The Gracchi 61. Marius and Sulla 62. Pompey and Caesar 63. The Work of Caesar 64. Antony and Octavian 65. The End of an Epoch IX. THE EARLY EMPIRE: THE WORLD UNDER ROMAN RULE, 31 B.C.-l80 A.D. 66. Augustus, 31 B.C.-l4 A.D. 67. The Successors of Augustus, 14-96 A.D. 68. The "Good Emperors," 96-180 A.D. 69. The Provinces of the Roman Empire 70. The Roman Law and the Latin Language 71. The Municipalities of the Roman Empire 72. Economic and Social Conditions in the First and Second Centuries 73. The Graeco-Roman World X. THE LATER EMPIRE: CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN WORLD, 180-395 A.D. 74. The "Soldier Emperors," 180-284 A.D. 75. The "Absolute Emperors," 284-395 A.D. 76. Economic and Social Conditions in the Third and Fourth Centuries 77. The Preparation for Christianity 78. Rise and Spread of Christianity 79. The Persecutions 80. Triumph of Christianity 81. Christian Influence on Society XI. THE GERMANS TO 476 A.D. 82. Germany and the Germans 83. Breaking of the Danube Barrier 84. Breaking of the Rhine Barrier 85. Inroads of the Huns 86. End of the Roman Empire in the West, 476 A.D. 87. Germanic Influence on Society XII. CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION. 88. The Classical City 89. Education and the Condition of Children 90. Marriage and the Position of Women 91. The Home and Private Life 92. Amusements 93. Slavery 94. Greek Literature 95. Greek Philosophy 96. Roman Literature 97. Greek Architecture 98. Greek Sculpture 99. Roman Architecture and Sculpture 100. Artistic Athens 101. Artistic Rome XIII. WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 476-962 A.D. 102. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 A.D. 103. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 A.D. 104. The Franks under Clovis and His Successors 105. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the Short 106. The Reign of Charlemagne, 768-814 A.D. 107. Charlemagne and the Revival of the Roman Empire, 800 A.D. 108. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 A.D. 109. Germany under Saxon Kings, 919-973 A.D. 110. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the Roman Empire, 962 A.D. 111. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 A.D. 112. Christianity in the British Isles 113. The Fusion of Germans and Romans XIV. EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 395-1095 A.D. 114. The Roman Empire in the East 115. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 A.D. 116. The Empire and its Asiatic Foes 117. The Empire and its Foes in Europe 118. Byzantine Civilization 119. Constantinople XV. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH IN THE EAST AND IN THE WEST TO 1054 A.D. 120. Development of the Christian Church 121. Eastern Christianity 122. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy 123. Growth of the Papacy 124. Monasticism 125. Life and Work of the Monks 126. Spread of Christianity over Europe 127. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity 128. The Greek Church 129. The Roman Church XVI. THE ORIENT AGAINST THE OCCIDENT: RISE AND SPREAD OF ISLAM, 622-1058 A.D. 130. Arabia and the Arabs 131. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 A.D. 132. Islam and the Koran 133. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 134. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain 135. The Caliphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 A.D. 136. Arabian Civilization 137. The Influence of Islam XVII. THE NORTHMEN AND THE NORMANS TO 1066 A.D. 138. Scandinavia and the Northmen 139. The Viking Age 140. Scandinavian Heathenism 141. The Northmen in the West 142. The Northmen in the East 143. Normandy and the Normans 144. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred the Great 145. Norman Conquest of England; William the Conqueror 146. Results of the Norman Conquest 147. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily 148. The Normans in European History XVIII. FEUDALISM 149. Rise of Feudalism 150. Feudalism as a System of Local Government 151. Feudal Justice 152. Feudal Warfare 153. The Castle and Life of the Nobles 154. Knighthood and Chivalry 155. Feudalism as a System of Local Industry 156. The Village and Life of the Peasants 157. Serfdom 158. Decline of Feudalism XIX THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 A.D. 159. Characteristics of the Medieval Church 160. Church Doctrine and Worship 161. Church Jurisdiction 162. The Secular Clergy 163. The Regular Clergy 164. The Friars 165. Power of the Papacy 166. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 A.D. 167. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 A.D. 168. Significance of the Medieval Church XX. THE OCCIDENT AGAINST THE ORIENT, THE CRUSADES, 1095-1291 A.D. 169. Causes of the Crusades 170. First Crusade, 1095-1099 A.D. 171. Crusaders' States in Syria 172. Second Crusade, 1147-1149 A.D., and Third Crusade, 1189-1192 A.D. 173. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1202-1261 A.D. 174. Results of the Crusades XXI THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS TO 1453 A.D. 175. The Mongols 176. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 A.D. 177. The Mongols in China and India 178. The Mongols in Eastern Europe 179. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests, 1227-1453 A.D. 180. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe XXII. EUROPEAN NATIONS DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 181. Growth of the Nations 182. England under William the Conqueror, 1066-1087 A.D., the Norman Kingship 183. England under Henry II, 1154-1189 A.D., Royal Justice and the Common Law 184. The Great Charter, 1215 A.D. 185. Parliament during the Thirteenth Century 186. Expansion of England under Edward I, 1272-1307 A.D. 187. Unification of France, 987-1328 A.D. 188. The Hundred Years' War between England and France, 1337-1453 A.D. 189. The Unification of Spain (to 1492 A.D.) 190. Austria and the Swiss Confederation, 1273-1499 A.D. 191. Expansion of Germany XXIII. EUROPEAN CITIES DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 192. Growth of the Cities 193. City Life 194. Civic Industry--the Guilds 195. Trade and Commerce 196. Money and Banking 197. Italian Cities 198. German Cities, the Hanseatic League 199. The Cities of Flanders XXIV. MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION 200. Formation of National Languages 201. Development of National Literatures 202. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture, the Cathedrals 203. Education, the Universities 204. Scholasticism 205. Science and Magic 206. Popular Superstitions 207. Popular Amusements and Festivals 208. Manners and Customs XXV. THE RENAISSANCE 209. Meaning of the Renaissance 210. Revival of Learning in Italy 211. Paper and Printing 212. Revival of Art in Italy 213. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy 214. The Renaissance in Literature 215. The Renaissance in Education 216. The Scientific Renaissance 217. The Economic Renaissance XXVI. GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 218. Medieval Geography 219. Aids to Exploration 220. To the Indies Eastward--Prince Henry and Da Gama 221. The Portuguese Colonial Empire 222. To the Indies Westward: Columbus and Magellan 223. The Indians 224. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America 225. The Spanish Colonial Empire 226. French and English Explorations in America 227. The Old World and the New XXVII. THE REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS WARS, 1517-1648 A.D. 228. Decline of the Papacy 229. Heresies and Heretics 230. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation in Germany, 1517-1522 A.D. 231. Charles V and the Spread of the German Reformation, 1519-1556 A.D. 232. The Reformation in Switzerland: Zwingli and Calvin 233. The English Reformation, 1533-1558 A.D. 234. The Protestant Sects 235. The Catholic Counter Reformation 236. Spain under Philip II, 1556-1598 A.D. 237. Revolt of the Netherlands 238. England under Elizabeth, 1558-1603 A.D. 239. The Huguenot Wars in France 240. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 A.D. XXVIII. ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND, 1603-1715 A.D. 241. The Divine Right of Kings 242. The Absolutism of Louis XIV, 1661-1715 A.D. 243. France under Louis XIV 244. The Wars of Louis XIV 245. The Absolutism of the Stuarts, 1603-1642 A.D. 246. Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War, 1642-1649 A.D. 247. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 1649-1660 A.D. 248. The Restoration and the "Glorious Revolution," 1660-1689 A.D. 249. England in the Seventeenth Century APPENDIX--Table of Events and Dates INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Disk of Phaestus. A Papyrus Manuscript. A Prehistoric Egyptian Grave. A Hatchet of the Early Stone Age. Arrowheads of the Later Stone Age. Early Roman Bar Money. Various Signs of Symbolic Picture Writing. Mexican Rebus. Chinese Picture Writing and Later Conventional Characters. Cretan Writing. Egyptian and Babylonian Writing. The Moabite Stone (Louvre, Paris). Head of a Girl (Musée S. Germain, Paris). Sketch of Mammoth on a Tusk found in a Cave in France. Bison painted on the Wall of a Cave. Cave Bear drawn on a Pebble. Wild Horse on the Wall of a Cave in Spain. A Dolmen. Carved Menhir. Race Portraiture of the Egyptians. The Great Wall of China. Philae. Top of Monument containing the Code of Hammurabi (British Museum, London). Khufu (Cheops), Builder of the Great Pyramid. Menephtah, the supposed Pharaoh of the Exodus. Head of Mummy of Rameses II (Museum of Gizeh). The Great Pyramid. The Great Sphinx. A Phoenician War Galley. An Assyrian. An Assyrian Relief (British Museum, London). The Ishtar Gate, Babylon. The Tomb of Cyrus the Great. Darius with his Attendants. Rock Sepulchers of the Persian Kings. A Royal Name in Hieroglyphics (Rosetta Stone). An Egyptian Court Scene. Plowing and Sowing in Ancient Egypt. Transport of an Assyrian Colossus. Egyptian weighing Cow Gold. Babylonian Contract Tablet. An Egyptian Scarab. Amenhotep IV. Mummy and Cover of Coffin (U.S. National Museum, Washington). The Judgment of the Dead. The Deluge Tablet (British Museum, London). An Egyptian Temple (Restored). An Egyptian Wooden Statue (Museum of Gizeh). An Assyrian Palace (Restored). An Assyrian Winged Human headed Bull. An Assyrian Hunting Scene (British Museum, London). A Babylonian Map of the World. An Egyptian Scribe (Louvre, Paris). Excavations at Nippur. Excavations at Troy. Lions' Gate, Mycenae. Silver Fragment from Mycenae (National Museum, Athens). A Cretan Girl (Museum of Candia, Crete). Aegean Snake Goddess (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). A Cretan Cupbearer (Museum of Candia, Crete). The François Vase (Archaeological Museum, Florence). Consulting the Oracle at Delphi. The Discus Thrower (Lancelotti Palace, Rome). Athlete using the Strigil (Vatican Gallery, Rome). "Temple of Neptune," Paestum. Croesus on the Pyre. Persian Archers (Louvre, Paris). Gravestone of Aristion (National Museum, Athens). Greek Soldiers in Arms. The Mound at Marathon. A Themistocles Ostrakon (British Museum, London). An Athenian Trireme (Reconstruction). "Theseum". Pericles (British Museum, London). An Athenian Inscription. The "Mourning Athena" (Acropolis Museum, Athens). A Silver Coin of Syracuse. Philip II. Demosthenes (Vatican Museum, Rome). Alexander (Glyptothek, Munich). The Alexander Mosaic (Naples Museum). A Greek Cameo (Museum, Vienna). The Dying Gaul (Capitoline Museum, Rome). A Graeco-Etruscan Chariot (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). An Etruscan Arch. Characters of the Etruscan Alphabet. An Early Roman Coin. A Roman Farmer's Calendar. Cinerary Urns in Terra Cotta (Vatican Museum, Rome). A Vestal Virgin. Suovetaurilia (Louvre, Paris). An Etruscan Augur. Coop with Sacred Chickens. Curule Chair and Fasces. The Appian Way. A Roman Legionary. A Roman Standard Bearer (Bonn Museum). Column of Duilius (Restored). A Carthaginian or Roman Helmet (British Museum, London). A Testudo. Storming a City (Reconstruction). Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Spada Palace, Rome). Marcus Tullius Cicero (Vatican Museum, Rome). Gaius Julius Caesar (British Museum, London). A Roman Coin with the Head of Julius Caesar. Augustus (Vatican Museum, Rome). Monumentum Ancyranum. Pompeii. Nerva (Vatican Museum, Rome). Column of Trajan. The Pantheon. The Tomb of Hadrian. Marcus Aurelius in his Triumphal Car (Palace of the Conservatori, Rome). Wall of Hadrian in Britain. Roman Baths, at Bath, England. A Roman Freight Ship. A Roman Villa. A Roman Temple. The Amphitheater at Arles. A Megalith at Baalbec The Wall of Rome A Mithraic Monument Modern Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives Madonna and Child Christ the Good Shepherd (Imperial Museum, Constantinople) Interior of the Catacombs The Labarum Arch of Constantine Runic Alphabet A Page of the Gothic Gospels (Reduced) An Athenian School (Royal Museum, Berlin) A Roman School Scene Youth reading a Papyrus Roll House of the Vettii at Pompeii (Restored) Atrium of a Pompeian House Pompeian Floor Mosaic Peristyle of a Pompeian House A Greek Banquet A Roman Litter Theater of Dionysus, Athens A Dancing Girl The Circus Maximus (Restoration) Gladiators A Slave's Collar Sophocles (Lateran Museum, Rome) Socrates (Vatican Museum, Rome) Corner of a Doric Façade Corner of an Ionic Façade Corinthian Capital Composite Capital Tuscan Capital Interior View of the Ulpian Basilica (Restoration) A Roman Aqueduct The Colosseum (Exterior) The Colosseum (Interior) A Roman Cameo Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna Charlemagne (Lateran Museum Rome) The Iron Crown of Lombardy Cathedral at Aix la Chapelle Ring Seal of Otto the Great Anglo Saxon Drinking Horn St. Martin's Church, Canterbury Canterbury Cathedral A Mosaic of Justinian The Three Existing Monuments of the Hippodrome, Constantinople Religious Music The Nestorian Monument Papal Arms St. Daniel the Stylite on his Column Abbey of Saint Germain des Prés, Paris A Monk Copyist Mecca A Letter of Mohammed A Passage from the Koran Naval Battle showing Use of "Greek Fire" Interior of the Mosque of Cordova Capitals and Arabesques from the Alhambra Swedish Rock Carving A Runic Stone A Viking Ship Norse Metal Work (Museum, Copenhagen) Alfred the Great Alfred's Jewel (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry (Museum of Bayeux, Normandy) Trial by Combat Mounted Knight Pierrefonds Château Gaillard (Restored) King and Jester Falconry Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century Pilgrims to Canterbury A Bishop ordaining a Priest St. Francis blessing the Birds The Spiritual and the Temporal Power Henry IV, Countess Matilda, and Gregory VII Contest between Crusaders and Moslems "Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem Effigy of a Knight Templar Richard I in Prison Hut-Wagon of the Mongols (Reconstruction) Tomb of Timur at Samarkand Mohammed II The "White Tower" A Passage from Domesday Book Windsor Castle Extract from the Great Charter Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey A Queen Eleanor Cross Royal Arms of Edward III English Archer Walls of Carcassonne A Scene in Rothenburg House of the Butchers' Guild, Hildesheim, Germany Baptistery, Cathedral, and "Leaning Tower" of Pisa Venice and the Grand Canal Belfry of Bruges Town Hall of Louvain, Belgium Geoffrey Chaucer Roland at Roncesvalles Cross Section of Amiens Cathedral Gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris View of New College, Oxford Tower of Magdalen College, Oxford Roger Bacon Magician rescued from the Devil The Witches' Sabbath Chess Pieces of Charlemagne Bear Baiting Mummers A Miracle Play at Coventry, England Manor House in Shropshire, England Interior of an English Manor House Costumes of Ladies during the Later Middle Ages Dante Alighieri Petrarch An Early Printing Press Facsimile of Part of Caxton's "Aeneid" (Reduced) Desiderius Erasmus (Louvre, Paris) Cervantes William Shakespeare Shakespeare's Birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon Richard II Geographical Monsters An Astrolabe Vasco da Gama Christopher Columbus (Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid) Isabella Ship of 1492 A.D. The Name "America" Ferdinand Magellan Aztec Sacrificial Knife Aztec Sacrificial Stone Cabot Memorial Tower John Wycliffe Martin Luther Charles V John Calvin Henry VIII Ruins of Melrose Abbey Chained Bible St. Ignatius Loyola Philip II The Escorial William the Silent Elizabeth Crown of Elizabeth's Reign London Bridge in the Time of Elizabeth The Spanish Armada in the English Channel Cardinal Richelieu (Louvre, Paris.) Gustavus Adolphus Cardinal Mazarin Louis XIV Versailles Medal of Louis XIV Marlborough Gold Coin of James I A Puritan Family Charles I Execution of the Earl of Strafford Oliver Cromwell Interior of Westminster Hall Great Seal of England under the Commonwealth (Reduced) Boys' Sports Silver Crown of Charles II A London Bellman Coach and Sedan Chair Death Mask of Sir Isaac Newton LIST OF MAPS Distribution of Semitic and Indo-European Peoples. Physical Map of Asia. Egyptian Empire (about 1450 B.C.) Canaan as divided among the Tribes. Solomon's Kingdom. Assyrian Empire (about 660 B.C.) Lydia, Media, Babylonia, and Egypt (about 550 B.C.) Persian Empire at its Greatest Extent (about 500 B.C.) Ancient Trade Routes Phœnician and Greek Colonies. Physical Map of Europe. Ancient Greece and the Aegean. Aegean Civilization. Greek Conquests and Migrations. The World according to Homer, 900 B.C. Greece at the Opening of the Persian Wars, 490 B.C. Vicinity of Athens. Greece at the Opening of the Peloponnesian War. Route of the Ten Thousand. Empire of Alexander the Great (about 323 B.C.) Kingdoms of Alexander's Successors (about 200 B.C.) The World according to Eratosthenes, 200 B.C. The World according to Ptolemy, 150 A.D. Ancient Italy and Sicily. Vicinity of Rome. Expansion of Roman Dominions in Italy, 509-264 B.C. Colonies and Military Roads in Italy. Expansion of Roman Dominions, 264-133 B.C. Expansion of Roman Dominions, 133-31 B.C. Expansion of Roman Dominions, 31 B.C.-180 A.D. Plan of Jerusalem and its Environs. Roman Britain. Roman Empire (about 395 A.D.) Palestine. Growth of Christianity to the End of the Fourth Century. Germanic Migrations to 476 A.D. Europe at the Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476 A.D. Plan of the Ulpian Basilica Plan of Ancient Athens Plan of the Parthenon Plan of Ancient Rome Europe at the Death of Theodoric, 526 A.D. Europe at the Death of Justinian, 565 A.D. Growth of the Frankish Dominions, 481-768 A.D. Europe in the Age of Charlemagne, 800 A.D. The Frankish Dominions as divided by the Treaties of Verdun (843 A.D.) and Mersen (870 A.D.) Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 972 A.D. Anglo-Saxon Britain Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Tenth Century The Roman Empire in the East during the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries Vicinity of Constantinople Plan of Constantinople Plan of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire Growth of Christianity from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century Expansion of Islam Discoveries of the Northmen in the West England under Alfred the Great Dominions of William the Conqueror Plan of Château Gaillard Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire Germany and Italy during the Interregnum, 1254-1273 A.D. Mediterranean Lands after the Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204 A.D. The Mongol Empire Russia at the End of the Middle Ages Empire of the Ottoman Turks at the Fall of Constantinople, 1453 A.D. Dominions of the Plantagenets in England and France Scotland in the Thirteenth Century Unification of France during the Middle Ages Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages Growth of the Hapsburg Possessions The Swiss Confederation, 1291-1513 A.D. German Expansion Eastward during the Middle Ages Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Medieval Trade Routes Plan of Salisbury Cathedral, England The World according to Cosmas Indicopleustes, 535 A.D. The Hereford Map, 1280 A.D. Behaim's Globe Portuguese and Spanish Colonial Empires in the Sixteenth Century The West Indies An Early Map of the New World (1540 A.D.) The Great Schism, 1378-1417 A.D. Europe at the Beginning of the Reformation, 1519 A.D. Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 A.D. The Netherlands in the Sixteenth Century Western Europe in the Time of Elizabeth Europe at the End of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 A.D. Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 A.D. England and Wales--The Civil Wars of the Seventeenth Century Ireland in the Sixteenth Century LIST OF PLATES Ancient and Medieval Gems Stonehenge The Rosetta Stone (British Museum, London) The Vaphio Gold Cups (National Museum, Athens) Greek Gods and Goddesses: Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Aphrodite Aphrodite of Melos (Louvre, Paris) Hermes and Dionysus (Museum of Olympia) Sarcophagus from Sidon (Imperial Ottoman Museum, Constantinople) Laocoön and his Children (Vatican Museum, Rome) Victory of Samothrace (Louvre, Paris) Oriental, Greek, and Roman Coins A Scene in Sicily Bay of Naples and Vesuvius Relief on the Arch of Titus The Parthenon Views of Pediment and Frieze of Parthenon Acropolis of Athens (Restoration) Acropolis of Athens from the Southwest Roman Forum and Surrounding Buildings (Restored) Roman Forum at the Present Time Sancta Sophia, Constantinople Fountain of Lions in the Alhambra The Taj Mahal, Agra Campanile and Doge's Palace, Venice Illuminated Manuscript Reims Cathedral Cologne Cathedral Interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge Ghiberti's Bronze Doors at Florence St. Peter's, Rome Italian Paintings of the Renaissance Flemish, Spanish, and Dutch Paintings of the Renaissance SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY PERIODICALS All serious students of history should have access to the _American Historical Review_ (N. Y., 1895 to date, quarterly, $4.00 a year). This journal, the organ of the American Historical Association, contains articles by scholars, critical reviews of all important works, and notes and news. The _History Teacher's Magazine_ is edited under the supervision of a committee of the American Historical Association (Philadelphia, 1909 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year). Every well-equipped school library should contain the files of the _National Geographic Magazine_ (Washington, 1890 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year) and of _Art and Archeology_ (Washington, 1914 to date, monthly, $3.00 a year). These two periodicals make a special feature of illustrations. WORKS ON THE STUDY AND TEACHING OF HISTORY Useful books for the teacher's library include H. E. Bourne, _The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and the Secondary School_ (N. Y., 1902, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.50), Henry Johnson, _The Teaching of History_ (N. Y., 1915, Macmillan, $1.40), H. B. George, _Historical Evidence_ (N.Y., 1909, Oxford University Press, American Branch, 75 cents), Frederic Harrison, _The Meaning of History and Other Historical Pieces_ (New ed., N.Y., 1900, Macmillan, $1.75), J. H. Robinson, _The New History_ (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $1.50), and H. B. George, _The Relations of History and Geography_ (4th ed., N. Y., 1910, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.10). The following reports are indispensable: _The Study of History in Schools_. Report to the American Historical Association by the Committee of Seven (N. Y., 1899, Macmillan, 50 cents). _The Study of History in Secondary Schools_. Report to the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five (N. Y., 1911, Macmillan, 25 cents). _Historical Sources in Schools._ Report to the New England History Teachers' Association by a Select Committee (N. Y., 1902, Macmillan, out of print). _A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools_. Report by a Special Committee of the New England History Teachers' Association (N. Y., 1904, Heath, $1.32). _A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries._ Published under the auspices of the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland (2d ed., N. Y., 1915, Longmans, Green, and Co., 60 cents). DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS The most useful dictionaries of classical antiquities are H. B. Walters, _A Classical Dictionary_ (N. Y., 1916, Putnam, $6.50) and H. T. Peck, _Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities_ (N. Y., 1897, American Book Co., $6.00). Cambridge University, England, has published _A Companion to Greek Studies_, edited by L. Whibley (2d ed., N. Y., 1906, Putnam, $6.00), and _A Companion to Latin Studies_, edited by J. E. Sandys (N. Y., 1911, Putnam, $6.00). These two volumes treat every phase of ancient life in separate essays by distinguished scholars. For chronology, genealogies, lists of sovereigns, and other data the most valuable works are Arthur Hassall, _European History, 476-1910_ (new ed., N. Y., 1910, Macmillan, $2.25), G. P. Putnam, _Tabular Views of Universal History_ (new ed., N. Y., 1915, Putnam, $2.50), and Karl J. Ploetz, _A Handbook of Universal History_, translated by W. H. Tillinghast (Boston, 1915, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). SYLLABI The _Illustrated Topics for Ancient History_, arranged by D. C. Knowlton (Philadelphia, McKinley Publishing Co., 65 cents), contain much valuable material in the shape of a syllabus, source quotations, outline maps, pictures, and other aids. The following syllabi have been prepared for collegiate instruction: Botsford, G. W. _A Syllabus of Roman History_ (N. Y., 1915, Macmillan, 50 cents). Munro, D. C., and SELLERY, G. C. _A Syllabus of Medieval History, 395- 1500_ (N. Y., 1913, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.00). Richardson, O. H. _Syllabus of Continental European History from the Fall of Rome to 1870_ (Boston, 1904, Ginn, boards, 75 cents). Stephenson, Andrew. _Syllabus of Lectures on European History_ (Terre Haute, Ind., 1897, Inland Publishing Co., $1.50). Thompson, J. W. _Reference Studies in Medieval History_ (2d ed., Chicago, 1914, University of Chicago Press, $1.25). A rich collection of classified references. ATLASES An admirable collection of maps for school use is W. R. Shepherd, _Historical Atlas_ (N. Y., 1911, Holt, $2.50), with about two hundred and fifty maps covering the historical field. The latest and one of the best of the classical atlases is _Murray's Small Classical Atlas_, edited by G. B. Grundy (N. Y., 1904, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.35). A special feature of this work is the adoption of the system of colored contours to indicate configuration. The _Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography_ in "Everyman's Library" (N. Y., 1910, Dutton, 35 cents) might well be purchased by every student. Other valuable works are E. W. Dow, _Atlas of European History_ (N. Y., 1907, Holt, $1.50) and Ramsay Muir, _A New School Atlas of Modern History_ (N. Y., 1911, Holt, $1.25). Much use can be made of the inexpensive and handy _Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe_ by J. G. Bartholomew in "Everyman's Library" (N. Y., 1910, Dutton, 35 cents). WALL MAPS AND CHARTS Kiepert's _New Wall Maps of Ancient History_ (Chicago, Rand, McNally, and Co.) and Johnston's _Classical Series_ (Chicago, A. J. Nystrom and Co.) may be obtained singly, mounted on common rollers, or by sets in a case with spring rollers. The text is in Latin. The Spruner-Bretschneider _Historical Maps_ are ten in number, size 62 x 52 inches, and cover the period from A.D. 350 to 1815. The text is in German (Chicago, Nystrom, each $6.00; Rand, McNally, and Co., each $6.50). Johnston's _Maps of English and European History_ are sixteen in number, size 40 x 30 inches, and include four maps of ancient history (Chicago, Nystrom, each $2.50). A new series of _European History Maps_, thirty-nine in number, size 44 x 32 inches, has been prepared for the study of ancient history by Professors J. H. Breasted and C. F. Huth, and for medieval and modern history by Professor S. B. Harding (Chicago, Denoyer-Geppert Co., complete set with tripod stand, $52.00; in two spring roller cases, $73.00). These maps may also be had separately. The maps in this admirable series omit all irrelevant detail, present place names in the modern English form, and in choice of subject matter emphasize the American viewpoint. The school should also possess good physical wall maps such as the Sydow-Habenicht or the Kiepert series, both to be obtained from Rand, McNally, and Co. The text is in German. Phillips's _Model Test Maps_ and Johnston's _New Series of Physical Wall Maps_ are obtainable from A. J. Nystrom and Co. The only large charts available are those prepared by MacCoun for his _Historical Geography Charts of Europe_. The two sections, "Ancient and Classical" and "Medieval and Modern," are sold separately (N. Y., Silver, Burdett, and Co., $15.00). A helpful series of _Blackboard Outline Maps_ is issued by J. L. Engle, Beaver, Penn. These are wall maps, printed with paint on blackboard cloth, for use with an ordinary crayon. Such maps are also sold by the Denoyer-Geppert Co., Chicago. OUTLINE MAPS The "Studies" following each chapter of this book include various exercises for which small outline maps are required. Such maps are sold by D. C. Heath and Co., Boston, New York, Chicago. Useful atlases of outline maps are also to be had of the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Atkinson, Mentzer and Grover, Chicago, W. B. Harison, New York City, and of other publishers. ILLUSTRATIONS The best photographs of ancient works of art must usually be obtained from the foreign publishers in Naples, Florence, Rome, Munich, Paris, Athens, and London, or from their American agents. Such photographs, in the usual size, 8 x 10 inches, sell, unmounted, at from 6 to 8 francs a dozen. All dealers in lantern slides issue descriptive catalogues of a great variety of archaeological subjects. In addition to photographs and lantern slides, a collection of stereoscopic views is very helpful in giving vividness and interest to instruction in ancient history. An admirable series of photographs for the stereoscope, including Egypt, Palestine, Greece, and Italy, is issued by Underwood and Underwood, New York City. The same firm supplies convenient maps and handbooks for use in this connection. The Keystone stereographs, prepared by the Keystone View Company, Meadville, Penn., may also be cordially recommended. The architecture, costumes, amusements, and occupations of the Middle Ages in England are shown in _Longmans' Historical Illustrations_ (six portfolios, each containing twelve plates in black-and-white, Longmans, Green, and Co., 90 cents, each portfolio). The same firm issues _Longmans' Historical Wall Pictures_, consisting of twelve colored pictures from original paintings illustrating English history (each picture, separately, 80 cents; in a portfolio, $10.50). Other notable collections are Lehmann's _Geographical Pictures, Historical Pictures_, and _Types of Nations_, and Cybulski's _Historical Pictures_ (Chicago, Denoyer-Geppert Co.; each picture separately mounted on rollers, $1.35 to $2.25). The New England History Teachers' Association publishes a series of _Authentic Pictures for Class Room Use_, size 5 x 8 inches, price 3 cents each. The _Catalogue of the Collection of Historical Material at Simmons College_, prepared by the New England History Teachers' Association (2d ed., Boston, 1912, Houghton Mifflin Co., 25 cents), contains an extensive list of pictures, slides, models, and other aids to history teaching. Among the more useful collections in book form of photographic reproductions and drawings are the following: Fechneimer, Hedwig. _Die Plastik der Ägypter_ (2d. ed., Berlin, 1914, B. Cassirer, 12 marks). 156 plates of Egyptian sculpture. Fougères, Gustvae. _La vie publique et privée des Grecs et des Romains_ (2d ed., Paris, 1900, Hachette, 15 francs). An album of 85 pictures. Furtwängler, Adolf. _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_ (N. Y., Scribner, $15.00). Hekler, Anton. _Greek and Roman Portraits_ (N. Y., 1913, Putnam, $7.50). 311 plates, with comment and bibliography. Hill, G. F. _Illustrations of School Classics_ (N. Y., 1903, Macmillan, $2.50). Muzik, H., and Perschinka, F. _Kunst und Leben im Altertum_ (Vienna, 1909, F. Tempsky; Leipzig, G. Freytag, 4.40 marks). Osborne, Duffield. _Engraved Gems_ (N. Y., 1913, Holt, $6.00). Parmentier, A. _Album historique_ (Paris, 1894-1905, Colin, 4 vols., each 15 francs). Illustrations covering the medieval and modern periods, with descriptive text in French. Rheinhard, Hermann. _Album des klassischen Altertums_ (Stuttgart, 1882, Hoffman, 18 marks). 72 pictures in colors. Rouse, W. H. D. _Atlas of Classical Portraits._ Greek Section, Roman Section (London, 1898, Dent, 2 vols., each 1_s_. 6_d_.). Small, half-tone engravings, accompanied by brief biographies. Schreiber, Theodor. _Atlas of Classical Antiquities_ (N. Y., 1895, Macmillan, $6.50). WORKS OF TRAVEL To vitalize the study of geography and history there is nothing better than the reading of modern books of travel. Among these may be mentioned: Allinson, F. G. and Allinson, Anne C. E. _Greek Lands and Letters_ (Boston, 1909, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.50). An entertaining work of mingled history and geography. Barrows, S. J. _The Isles and Shrines of Greece_ (Boston, 1898, Little, Brown, and Co., $2.00). Clark, F. E. _The Holy Land of Asia Minor_ (N. Y., 1914, Scribner, $1.00). Popular sketches. Dunning, H. W. _To-day on the Nile_ (N. Y., 1905, Pott, $2.50). ------ _To-day in Palestine_ (N. Y., 1907, Pott, $2.50). Dwight, H. G. _Constantinople, Old and New_ (N. Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00). Edwards, Amelia B. _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1888, Dutton, $2.50). Forman, H. J. _The Ideal Italian Tour_ (Boston, 1911, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.50). A brief and attractive volume covering all Italy. Hay, John. _Castilian Days_ (Boston, 1871, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.25). Hutton, Edward, _Rome_ (N. Y., 1909, Macmillan, $2.00). Jackson, A. V. W. _Persia, Past and Present_ (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, $4.00). Lucas, E. V. _A Wanderer in Florence_ (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $1.75). Manatt, J. I. _Aegean Days_ (Boston, 1913, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). Describes the most important islands of the Aegean. Marden, P. S. _Greece and the Aegean Islands_ (Boston, 1907, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). Paton, W. A. _Picturesque Sicily_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1902, Harper, $2.50). Richardson, R. B. _Vacation Days in Greece_ (N. Y., 1903, Scribner, $2.00). Warner, C. D. _In the Levant_ (N. Y., 1876, Harper, $2.00). HISTORICAL FICTION The following works of historical fiction comprise only a selection from a very large number of books suitable for supplementary reading. For extended bibliographies see E. A. Baker, _A Guide to Historical Fiction_ (new ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $6.00) and Jonathan Nield, _A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and Tales_ (3d ed., N. Y., 1904, Putnam, $1.75). An excellent list of historical stories, especially designed for children, will be found in the _Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries_, parts viii-ix. Bulwer-Lytton, Edward. _The Last Days of Pompeii_ (Boston, 1834, Little, Brown, and Co., $1.25). Champney, Elizabeth W. _The Romance of Imperial Rome_ (N. Y., 1910, Putnam, $3.50). Church, A. J. _Roman Life in the Days of Cicero_ (N. Y., 1883, Macmillan, 50 cents). ------ _Stories of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France_ (N. Y., 1902, Macmillan, $1.75). Cox, G. W. _Tales of Ancient Greece_ (Chicago, 1868, McClurg, $1.00). Dahn, Felix, _Felicitas_ (Chicago, 1883, McClurg, 75 cents). Rome, 476 A.D. Doyle, A. C. _The White Company_ (Boston, 1890, Caldwell, 75 cents). The English in France and Castile, 1366-1367 A.D. Ebers, Georg, _Uarda_ (N. Y., 1877, Appleton, 2 vols., $1.50). Egypt, fourteenth century B.C. Eliot, George. _Romola_ (N. Y., 1863, Dutton, 35 cents). Florence and Savonarola in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Fénelon, François. _Adventures of Telemachus_, translated by Dr. Hawkesworth (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.25). Hale, E. E. _In His Name_ (Boston, 1873, Little, Brown, and Co., $1.00). The Waldenses about 1179 A.D. Hardy, A. S. _Passe Rose_ (Boston, 1889, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.25). Franks and Saxons of Charlemagne's time. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. _The Scarlet Letter_ (N. Y., 1850, Dutton, 35 cents). Massachusetts in the seventeenth century. Henty, G. A. _The Young Carthaginian_ (N. Y., 1886, Scribner, $1.50). Second Punic War. Hugo, Victor. _Notre Dame_ (N. Y. 1831, Dutton, 35 cents). Paris, late fifteenth century. Irving, Washington. _The Alhambra_ (N. Y., 1832, Putnam, $1.00). Sketches of the Moors and Spaniards. Jacobs, Joseph (editor). _The Most Delectable History of Reynard the Fox_ (N. Y., 1895, Macmillan, $1.50). Kingsley, Charles S. _Hypatia_ (N. Y., 1853, Macmillan, $1.25). Alexandria, 391 A.D. ------ _Westward Ho!_ (N. Y., 1855, Button, 35 Cents). Voyages of Elizabethan seamen and the struggle with Spain. Kipling, Rudyard. _Puck of Pooks Hill_ (N. Y., 1906, Doubleday, Page, and Co., $1.50). Roman occupation of Britain. Lang, Andrew. _The Monk of Fife_ (N. Y., 1895, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.25). The Maid of Orleans and the Hundred Years' War. Lane, E. W. (translator). _The Arabian Nights' Entertainments_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1859, Macmillan, 35 cents). London, Jack. _Before Adam_ (N. Y., 1907, Macmillan, $1.50). Prehistoric life. Manzoni, Alessandro. _The Betrothed_ (N. Y., 1825, Macmillan, 2 vols., 70 cents). Milan under Spanish rule, 1628-1630 A.D. Mason, Eugene (translator). _Aucassin and Nicolette and other Medieval Romances, and Legends_ (N. Y., 1910, Dutton, 35 cents). Newman, J. H. _Callista_ (N. Y., 1856, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.25). Persecution of Christians in North Africa, 250 A.D. Reade, Charles. _The Cloister and the Hearth_ (N. Y., 1861, Dutton, 35 cents). Eve of the Reformation. Scheffel, J. Von. _Ekkehard_, translated by Helena Easson (N. Y., 1857, Dutton, 35 cents). Germany in the tenth century. Scott, (Sir) Walter. _The Talisman_ (N. Y., 1825, Dutton, 35 cents). Reign of Richard I, 1193 A.D. ------ Ivanhoe (N. Y., Heath, 50 cents). Richard I, 1194 A.D. Sienkiewicz, Henryk. _Quo Vadis?_ (Boston, 1896, Little, Brown, and Co., $2.00). Reign of Nero. Stevenson, R. L. _The Black Arrow_ (N. Y., 1888, Scribner, $1.00). War of the Roses. "Twain, Mark." _A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of King Arthur_ (N. Y., 1889, Harper, $1.75). Wallace, Lew. _Ben-Hur; a Tale of the Christ_ (N. Y., 1880, Harper, $1.50). Waterloo, Stanley. _The Story of Ab_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1905, Doubleday, Page, and Co., $1.50). Prehistoric life. HISTORICAL POETRY It is unnecessary to emphasize the value, as collateral reading, of historical poems and plays. To the brief list which follows should be added the material in Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman, _English History told by English Poets_ (N. Y., 1902, Macmillan, 60 cents). Browning, Robert. _Echetlos and Pheidippides._ Burns, Robert. _The Battle of Bannockburn._ Byron (Lord). _Song of Saul before His Last Battle, The Destruction of Sennacherib, Belshazzar's Feast, Prometheus,_ "Greece" (_The Corsair_, canto iii, lines 1-54), "Modern Greece" (_Childe Harold_, canto ii, stanzas 85-91), "The Death of Greece" (_The Giaour_, lines 68-141), "The Isles of Greece" (_Don Juan_, canto in), and "The Colosseum" (_Childe Harold_, canto iv, stanzas 140-145). Clough, A. H. _Columbus_. Coleridge, S. T. _Kubla Khan_. Domett, Alfred. _A Christmas Hymn_ Drayton, Michael. _The Battle of Agincourt._ Dryden, John. _Alexander's Feast._ Jonson, Ben. _Hymn to Diana._ Keats, John. _Ode on a Grecian Urn._ Kingsley, Charles. _Andromeda and The Red King._ Landor, W. S. _Orpheus and Eurydice._ Longfellow, H. W. "The Saga of King Olaf" (_Tales of a Wayside Inn_) and _The Skeleton in Armor._ Lowell, J. R. _Rhoecus_ and _The Shepherd of King Admetus._ Macaulay, T. B. _Lays of Ancient Rome_ ("Horatius," "Virginia," "The Battle of Lake Regillus," and "The Prophecy of Capys"), _The Armada_, and _The Battle of Ivry._ Miller, Joaquin. _Columbus._ Milton, John. _Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity._ Praed, W. M. _Arminius._ Rossetti, D. G. _The White Ship._ Schiller, Friedrich. _The Maid of Orleans, William Tell, Maria Stuart_, and _Wallenstein._ Scott, (Sir) Walter. "Flodden Field" (_Marmion_, canto vi, stanzas 19-27, 33-35). Shakespeare, William. _Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, King John, Richard the Second, Henry the Fourth,_ parts i and ii, _Henry the Fifth, Henry the Sixth_, parts i, ii, and iii, _Richard the Third, Henry the Eighth_, and _The Merchant of Venice._ Shelley, P. B. _To the Nile, Ozymandias, Hymn of Apollo, Arethusa_, and _Song of Proserpine._ Tennyson, Alfred. _Ulysses, Oenone, The Death of Oenone, Demeter and Persephone, The Lotus-Eaters, Boadicea, St. Telemachus, St. Simeon Stylites, Sir Galahad_, and _The Revenge: a Ballad of the Fleet._ Thackeray, W. M. _King Canute._ Wordsworth, William. _Laodamia._ SOURCES Full information regarding the best translations of the sources of ancient, medieval, and modern history is to be found in one of the Reports previously cited--_Historical Sources in Schools_, parts ii-iv. The use of the following collections of extracts from the sources will go far toward remedying the lack of library facilities. Botsford, G. W., and Botsford, Lillie S. _Source Book of Ancient History_ (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $1.30). Davis, W. S. _Readings in Ancient History_ (Boston, 1912, Allyn and Bacon, 2 vols., $2.00). Duncalf, Frederic, and Krey, A. C. _Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History_ (N. Y., 1912, Harper, $1.10). Fling, F. M. _A Source Book of Greek History_ (N. Y., 1907, Heath, $1.12). Munro, D. C. _A Source Book of Roman History_ (N. Y., 1904, Heath, $1.12). Ogg, F. A. _A Source Book of Medieval History_ (N. Y., 1907, American Book Co., $1.50). Robinson, J. H. _Readings in European History_ (Abridged ed., Boston, 1906, Ginn, $1.50). Thallon, Ida C. _Readings in Greek History_ (Boston, 1914, Ginn, $2.00). Thatcher, O. J., and McNeal, E. H. _A Source Book for Medieval History_ (N. Y., 1905, Scribner, $1.85). Webster, Hutton. _Readings in Ancient History_ (N. Y., 1913, Heath, $1.12). ------ _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_ (N. Y., 1917, Heath, $1.12). _Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History_ (N. Y., 1894-1899, Longmans, Green, and Co., 6 vols., each $1.50). MODERN WORKS Most of the books in the following list are inexpensive, easily procured, and well adapted in style and choice of topics to the needs of immature pupils. A few more elaborate and costly volumes, especially valuable for their illustrations, are indicated by an asterisk (*). For detailed bibliographies, often accompanied by critical estimates, see C. K. Adams, _A Manual of Historical Literature_ (3d ed., N. Y., 1889, Harper, $2.50), and the _Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries_, parts iii-v. GENERAL WORKS Carlyle, Thomas. _On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History_ (N. Y., 1840, Dutton, 35 cents). Creasy, E. S. _The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo_ (N. Y., 1854, Dutton, 35 cents). Gibbins, H. De B. _The History of Commerce in Europe_ (26. ed., N. Y., 1897, Macmillan, 90 cents). Herbertson, A. J., and Herbertson, F. D. _Man and His Work_ (3d ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, 60 cents). An introduction to the study of human geography. Jacobs, Joseph. _The Story of Geographical Discovery_ (N. Y., 1898, Appleton, 35 cents). Jenks, Edward. _A History of Politics_ (N. Y., 1900, Dutton, 35 cents). A very illuminating essay. Keane, John. _The Evolution of Geography_ (London, 1899, Stanford, 6s.). Helpfully illustrated. Myres, J. L. _The Dawn of History_ (N. Y., 1912, Holt, 50 cents). Pattison, R. P. B. _Leading Figures in European History_ (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $1.60). Biographical sketches of European statesmen from Charlemagne to Bismarck. Reinach, Salomon. _Apollo; an Illustrated Manual of the History of Art throughout the Ages_, translated by Florence Simmonds (last ed., N. Y., 1914, Scribner, $1.50). The best brief work on the subject. Seignobos, Charles. _History of Ancient Civilization_, edited by J. A. James (N. Y., 1906, Scribner, $1.25). ------ _History of Medieval and of Modern Civilization_, edited by J. A. James (N. Y., 1907, Scribner, $1.25). PREHISTORIC TIMES Clodd, Edward. _The Story of Primitive Man_ (N Y., 1895, Appleton, 35 cents). Generally accurate and always interesting. ------ _The Childhood of the World_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $1.25). Elliott, G. F. S. _Prehistoric Man and His Story_ (Philadelphia, 1915, Lippincott, $2.00). Holbrook, Florence. _Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers_ (N. Y., 1911, Heath, 44 cents). Mason, O. T, _Woman's Share in Primitive Culture_ (N. Y., 1900, D. Appleton, $1.75). The only work on the subject; by a competent anthropologist. * Osborn, H. F. _Men of the Old Stone Age_ (N. Y., 1915 Scribners, $5.00). An authoritative, interesting, and amply illustrated work. * Spearing, H. G. _The Childhood of Art_ (N. Y., 1913, Putnam, $6.00). Deals with primitive and Greek art; richly illustrated. Starr, Frederick. _Some First Steps in Human Progress_ (Chautauqua, N. Y., 1895, Chautauqua Press, $1.00). A popular introduction to anthropology. Tylor, (Sir) E. B. _Anthropology_ (N. Y., 1881, Appleton, $2.00). Incorporates the results of the author's extensive studies and still remains the best introduction to the entire field. ORIENTAL HISTORY Baikie, James. _The Story of the Pharaohs_ (N. Y., 1908, Macmillan, $2.00). A popular work; well illustrated. * Ball, C. J. _Light from the East_ (London, 1899, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 15s.). An account of Oriental archaeology, with special reference to the Old Testament. Banks, E. G. _The Bible and the Spade_ (N. Y., 1913, Association Press, $1.00). A popular presentation of Oriental archaeology. * Breasted, J. H. _A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1909, Scribner, $5.00). The standard work on Egyptian history. Clay, A. T. _Light on the East from Babel_ (4th ed., Philadelphia, 1915, Sunday School Times Co., $2.00). * Erman, Asolf. _Life in Ancient Egypt_ (N. Y., 1894, Macmillan, $6.00). * Handcock, P. S. P. _Mesopotamian Archaeology_ (N. Y. 1912, Putnam, $3.50). Hogarth, D. G. _The Ancient East_ (N. Y., 1915, Holt, 50 cents). "Home University Library." * Jastrow, Morris, Jr. _The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Philadelphia, 1915, Lippincott, $6.00). A finely illustrated work by a great scholar. Macalister, R. A. S. _A History of Civilization in Palestine_ (N. Y., 1912, Putnam, 35 cents). "Cambridge Manuals." Maspero, (Sir) Gaston. _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_ (N.Y., 1892, Appleton, $1.50). Fascinating and authoritative. Ragozin, Zénaïde A. _Earliest Peoples_ (N. Y., 1899, Harison, 60 cents). A well-written, fully-illustrated account of prehistoric man and the beginnings of history in Babylonia. ------ _Early Egypt_ (N. Y., 1900, Harison, 60 cents). GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY Abbott, Evelyn. _Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens_ (N. Y., 1891, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Baikie, James. _The Sea-Kings of Crete_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $1.75). A clear and vivid summary of Cretan archaeology. Blümner, Hugo. _The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks_, translated by Alice Zimmern (3d ed., N. Y., 1910, Funk and Wagnalls Co., $2.00). Bulley, Margaret H. _Ancient and Medieval Art_ (N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $1.75). An elementary treatment, particularly designed for schools. Church, A. J., and Gilman, Arthur. _The Story of Carthage_ (N. Y., 1886, Putnam, $1.50). "Story of the Nations" Davis, W. S. _The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome_ (N. Y., 1910, Macmillan, $2.00). An interesting treatment of an important theme. ------ _A Day in Old Athens_ (Boston, 1914, Allyn and Bacon, $1.00). ------ _An Outline History of the Roman Empire_ (N. Y., 1909, Macmillan, 65 cents). Covers the period 44 B.C.-378 A.D. * Dennie, John. _Rome of To-day and Yesterday; the Pagan City_ (5th ed., N. Y., 1909, Putnam, $3.50). Fowler, W. W. _Rome_ (N. Y., 1912, Holt, 50 cents). ------ _The City-State of the Greeks and Romans_ (N. Y., 1893, Macmillan, $1.00). The only constitutional history of the classical peoples intelligible to elementary students. ------ _Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero_ (N. Y., 1909, Macmillan, 50 cents). In every way admirable. ------ _Julius Caesar and the Foundation of the Roman Imperial System_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1897, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." * Gardner, E. A. _Ancient Athens_ (N. Y., 1902, Macmillan, $3.50). Gayley, C. M. _The Classic Myths in English Literature and in Art_ (2d ed., Boston, 1911, Ginn, $1.60). Of special importance for the illustrations. Goodyear, W. H. _Roman and Medieval Art_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1897, Macmillan, $1.00). Grant, A. J. _Greece in the Age of Pericles_ (N. Y., 1893, Scribner, $1.25). Gulick, C. B. _The Life of the Ancient Greeks_ (N. Y., 1902, Appleton, $1.40). * Hall, H. R. _Aegean Archeology_ (N. Y., 1915, Putnam, $3.75). A well- written and well-illustrated volume. Hawes, C. H., and Hawes, HARRIET B. _Crete, the Forerunner of Greece_ (N. Y., 1909, Harper, 75 cents). How, W. W. _Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage_ (London, 1899, Seeley, 2_s_.). Jones, H. S. _The Roman Empire, B.C. 29-A.D. 476_ (N. Y., 1908, Putnam, $1.50). "Story of the Nations." * Lanciani, Rudolfo. _The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome_ (Boston, 1898, Houghton Mifflin Co., $4.00). Mahaffy, J. P. _Old Greek Life_ (N. Y., 1876, American Book Co., 35 cents). ------ _What have the Greeks done for Modern Civilization?_ (N. Y., 1909, Putnam, $1.50). Mahaffy, J. P., and Gilman, Arthur. _The Story of Alexander's Empire_ (N. Y., 1887, Putnam, $1.50). The only concise narrative of the Hellenistic period. * Mau, August. _Pompeii: its Life and Art_, translated by F. W. Kelsey (N. Y., 1899, Macmillan, $2.50). Morris, W. O'C. _Hannibal and the Crisis of the Struggle between Carthage and Rome_ (N. Y., 1897, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Oman, Charles. _Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic_ (N. Y., 1902, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.60). A biographical presentation of Roman history. Pellison, Maurice. _Roman Life in Pliny's Time_, translated by Maud Wilkinson (Philadelphia, 1897, Jacobs, $1.00). Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. _Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom_ (N. Y., 1914, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Powers, H. H. _The Message of Greek Art_ (N. Y., 1913, Macmillan, 50 cents). Preston, Harriet W., and Dodge, Louise. _The Private Life of the Romans_ (N. Y., 1893, Sanborn, $1.05). Robinson, C. E. _The Days of Alcibiades_ (N. Y., 1916, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.50), A picture of Greek life and culture in the Age of Pericles. * Seymour, T. D. _Life in the Homeric Age_ (N. Y., 1907, Macmillan, $4.00). * Stobart, J. C. _The Glory that was Greece: a Survey of Hellenic Culture and Civilization_ (Philadelphia, 1911, Lippincott, $7.50). ------ _The Grandeur that was Rome: a Survey of Roman Culture and Civilization_ (Philadelphia, 1912, Lippincott, $7.50). Strachan-Davidson, J. S. _Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic_ (N. Y., 1894, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Tarbell, F. B. _A History of Greek Art_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1905, Macmillan, $1.00). Tozer, H. F. _Classical Geography_ (N. Y., 1883, American Book Co., 35 cents). A standard manual. Tucker, T. G. _Life in Ancient Athens_ (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, $1.25). The most attractive treatment of the subject. ------ _Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul_ (N. Y., 1910, Macmillan, $2.50). * Walters, H. B. _The Art of the Greeks_ (N. Y., 1900, Macmillan, $6.00). * ------ _The Art of the Romans_ (N. Y., 1911, Macmillan, $5.00). * Weller, C. H. _Athens and its Monuments_ (N. Y., 1913, Macmillan, $4.00). Wheeler, B.I. _Alexander the Great and the Merging of East and West into Universal History_ (N. Y., 1900, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Wilkins, A. S. _Roman Antiquities_ (N. Y., 1884, American Book Co., 35 cents). MEDIEVAL HISTORY Adams, G. B. _The Growth of the French Nation_ (N. Y., 1896, Macmillan, $1.25). The best short history of France. Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L. _The Crusades_ (N. Y., 1894, Putnam, $1.50). Baring-Gould, Sabine. _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_ (N. Y., 1869, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.25). Bateson, Mary. _Medieval England_ (N. Y., 1903, Putnam, $1.50). Deals with social and economic life. "Story of the Nations." Cheyney, E. P. _An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England_ (N. Y., 1901, Macmillan, $1.40). The best brief work on the subject. Church, R. W. _The Beginning of the Middle Ages_ (N. Y., 1877, Scribner, $1.00). Cutts, E. L. _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1872, De La More Press, 7s. 6d.). An almost indispensable book; illustrated. Davis, H. W. C. Medieval Europe (N. Y., 1911, Holt, 50 cents). ------ _Charlemagne, the Hero of Two Nations_ (N. Y., 1899, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Emerton, Ephraim. _An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_ (Boston, 1888, Ginn, $1.10). The most satisfactory short account, and of special value to beginners. Foord, Edward. _The Byzantine Empire_ (N. Y., 1911, Macmillan, $2.00). The most convenient short treatment; lavishly illustrated. * Gibbon, Edward. _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, edited by J. B. Bury (N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, 7 vols., $25.00). The best edition, illustrated and provided with maps, of this standard work. * Green, J. R. _Short History of the English People_, edited by Mrs. J. R. Green and Miss Kate Norgate (N. Y., 1893-1895, Harper, 4 vols., $20.00). A beautifully illustrated edition of this standard work. Guerber, H. A. _Legends of the Middle Ages_ (N. Y., 1896, American Book Co., $1.50). Haskins, C. H. _The Normans in European History_ (Boston, 1915, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.00). Hodgkin, Thomas. _The Dynasty of Theodosius_ (N. Y., 1899, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.50). Popular lectures summarizing the author's extensive studies. Jessopp, Augustus. _The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essays_ (N. Y., 1888, Putnam, $1.25). A book of great interest. * Lacroix, Paul. _Science and Literature in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance_ (London, 1880, Bickers and Son, out of print). Lawrence, W. W. _Medieval Story_ (N. Y., 1911, Columbia University Press, $i.50). Discusses the great literary productions of the Middle Ages. Mawer, Allen. _The Vikings_ (N. Y, 1913, Putnam, 35 cents). Munro, D. C., and Sellery, G. C _Medieval Civilization_ (2d ed., N. Y., 1907, Century Co., $2.00). Translated selections from standard works by French and German scholars. Rait, R. S. _Life in the Medieval University_ (N. Y., 1912, Putnam, 35 cents). "Cambridge Manuals." Synge, M. B. _A Short History of Social Life in England_ (N. Y., 1906, Barnes, $1.50). Tappan, Eva M. _When Knights were Bold_ (Boston, 1912, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.00). An economic and social study of the Feudal Age; charmingly written. Tickner, F. W. _A Social and Industrial History of England_ (N. Y., 1915, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.00). Very simply written and well illustrated. * Wright, Thomas. _The Homes of Other Days_ (London, 1871, Trübner, out of print). Valuable for both text and illustrations. TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES Cheyney, E. P. _European Background of American History, 1300-1600_ (N. Y., 1904, Harper, $2.00). Creighton, Mandell. _The Age of Elizabeth_ (13th ed., N. Y., 1897, Scribner, $ 1.00). "Epochs of Modern History." Fiske, John. _The Discovery and Colonization of North America_ (Boston, 1905, Ginn, 90 cents). Gardiner, S. R. _The Thirty Years' War_ (N. Y., 1874, Scribner, $1.00). Goodyear, W. H. _Renaissance and Modern Art_ (N. Y., 1894, Macmillan, $1.00). Hudson, W. H. _The Story of the Renaissance_ (N. Y., 1912, Cassell, $1.50). A well-written volume. Hulme, E. M. _The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Reformation in Continental Europe_ (rev. ed., N. Y., 1915, Century Co., $2.50). The best work on the subject by an American scholar. * Joyce, T. A. _Mexican Archaeology_ (N. Y., 1914, Putnam, $4.00). ------ _South American Archaeology_ (N. Y., 1912, Putnam, $3.50). Kerr, P. H., and Kerr, A. C. _The Growth of the British Empire_ (N. Y., 1911, Longmans, Green, and Co., 50 cents). Oldham, J. B. _The Renaissance_ (N. Y., 1912, Dutton, 35 cents). Seebohm, Frederic. _The Era of the Protestant Revolution_ (N. Y., 1875, Scribner, $1.00). "Epochs of Modern History." CHAPTER I THE AGES BEFORE HISTORY 1. THE STUDY OF HISTORY SUBJECT MATTER OF HISTORY History is the narrative of what civilized man has done. It deals with those social groups called states and nations. Just as biography describes the life of individuals, so history relates the rise, progress, and decline of human societies. MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS History cannot go back of written records. These alone will preserve a full and accurate account of man's achievements. Manuscripts and books form one class of written records. The old Babylonians used tablets of soft clay, on which signs were impressed with a metal instrument. The tablets were then baked hard in an oven. The Egyptians made a kind of paper out of the papyrus, a plant native to the Nile valley. The Greeks and Romans at first used papyrus, but later they employed the more lasting parchment prepared from sheepskin. Paper seems to have been a Chinese invention. It was introduced into Europe by the Arabs during the twelfth century of our era. [Illustration: THE DISK OF PHAESTUS Found in 1908 A.D. in the palace at Phaestus, Crete. The disk is of refined clay on which the figures were stamped in relief with punches. Both sides of the disk are covered with characters. The side seen in the illustration contains 31 sign groups (123 signs) separated from one another by incised lines. The other side contains 30 sign groups (118 signs). The inscription dates from about 1800 B.C.] [Illustration: A PAPYRUS MANUSCRIPT The pith of the papyrus, a plant native to the Nile valley, was cut into slices, which were then pressed together and dried in the sun. Several of the paper sheets thus formed were glued together at their edges to form a roll. From _papyros_ and _byblos_, the two Greek names of this plant, have come our own words, "paper" and "Bible." The illustration shows a manuscript discovered in Egypt in 1890 A.D. It is supposed to be a treatise, hitherto lost, on the Athenian constitution by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.] INSCRIPTIONS AND REMAINS A second class of written records consists of inscriptions. These are usually cut in stone, but sometimes we find them painted over the surface of a wall, stamped on coins, or impressed upon metal tablets. The historian also makes use of remains, such as statues, ornaments, weapons, tools, and utensils. Monuments of various sorts, including palaces, tombs, fortresses, bridges, temples, and churches, form a very important class of remains. BEGINNINGS OF HISTORY History, based on written records, begins in different countries at varying dates. A few manuscripts and inscriptions found in Egypt date back three or four thousand years before Christ. The annals of Babylonia are scarcely less ancient. Trustworthy records in China and India do not extend beyond 1000 B.C. For the Greeks and Romans the commencement of the historic period must be placed about 750 B.C. The inhabitants of northern Europe did not come into the light of history until about the opening of the Christian era. 2. PREHISTORIC PEOPLES THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD In studying the historic period our chief concern is with those peoples whose ideas or whose deeds have aided human progress and the spread of civilization. Six-sevenths of the earth's inhabitants now belong to civilized countries, and these countries include the best and largest regions of the globe. At the beginning of historic times, however, civilization was confined within a narrow area--the river valleys of western Asia and Egypt. The uncounted centuries before the dawn of history make up the prehistoric period, when savagery and barbarism prevailed throughout the world. Our knowledge of it is derived from the examination of the objects found in caves, refuse mounds, graves, and other sites. Various European countries, including England, France, Denmark, Switzerland, and Italy, are particularly rich in prehistoric remains. [Illustration: A PREHISTORIC EGYPTIAN GRAVE The skeleton lay on the left side, with knees drawn up and hands raised to the head. About it were various articles of food and vessels of pottery.] THE TWO AGES The prehistoric period is commonly divided, according to the character of the materials used for tools and weapons, into the Age of Stone and the Age of Metals. The one is the age of savagery; the other is the age of barbarism or semicivilization. THE STONE AGE Man's earliest implements were those that lay ready to his hand. A branch from a tree served as a spear; a thick stick in his strong arms became a powerful club. Later, perhaps, came the use of a hard stone such as flint, which could be chipped into the forms of arrowheads, axes, and spear tips. The first stone implements were so rude in shape that it is difficult to believe them of human workmanship. They may have been made several hundred thousand years ago. After countless centuries of slow advance, savages learned to fasten wooden handles to their stone tools and weapons and also to use such materials as jade and granite, which could be ground and polished into a variety of forms. Stone implements continued to be made during the greater part of the prehistoric period. Every region of the world has had a Stone Age. [1] Its length is reckoned, not by centuries, but by milleniums. [Illustration: A HATCHET OF THE EARLY STONE AGE A hatchet of flint, probably used without a helve and intended to fit the hand. Similar implements have been found all over the world, except in Australia.] [Illustration: ARROWHEADS OF THE LATER STONE AGE Different forms from Europe, Africa, and North America.] THE AGE OF METALS The Age of Metals, compared with its predecessor, covers a brief expanse of time. The use of metals came in not much before the dawn of history. The earliest civilized peoples, the Babylonians and Egyptians, when we first become acquainted with them, appear to be passing from the use of stone implements to those of metal. COPPER Copper was the first metal in common use. The credit for the invention of copper tools seems to belong to the Egyptians. At a very early date they were working the copper mines on the peninsula of Sinai. The Babylonians probably obtained their copper from the same region. Another source of this metal was the island of Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean. The Greek name of the island means "copper." BRONZE But copper tools were soft and would not keep an edge. Some ancient smith, more ingenious than his fellows, discovered that the addition of a small part of tin to the copper produced a new metal--bronze--harder than the old, yet capable of being molded into a variety of forms. At least as early as 3000 B.C. we find bronze taking the place of copper in both Egypt and Babylonia. Somewhat later bronze was introduced into the island of Crete, then along the eastern coast of Greece, and afterwards into other European countries. IRON The introduction of iron occurred in comparatively recent times. At first it was a scarce, and therefore a very precious, metal. The Egyptians seem to have made little use of iron before 1500 B.C. They called it "the metal of heaven," as if they obtained it from meteorites. In the Greek Homeric poems, composed about 900 B.C. or later, we find iron considered so valuable that a lump of it is one of the chief prizes at athletic games. In the first five books of the Bible iron is mentioned only thirteen times, though copper and bronze are referred to forty-four times. Iron is more difficult to work than either copper or bronze, but it is vastly superior to those metals in hardness and durability. Hence it gradually displaced them throughout the greater part of the Old World. [2] FIRST STEPS TOWARD CIVILIZATION During the prehistoric period early man came to be widely scattered throughout the world. Here and there, slowly, and with utmost difficulty, he began to take the first steps toward civilization. The tools and weapons which he left behind him afford some evidence of his advance. We may now single out some of his other great achievements and follow their development to the dawn of history. 3. DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS HUNTING AND FISHING STAGE Prehistoric man lived at first chiefly on wild berries, nuts, roots, and herbs. As his implements improved and his skill increased, he became hunter, trapper, and fisher. A tribe of hunters, however, requires an extensive territory and a constant supply of game. When the wild animals are all killed or seriously reduced in number, privation and hardship result. It was a forward step, therefore, when man began to tame animals as well as to kill them. DOMESTICATION OF THE DOG The dog was man's first conquest over the animal kingdom. As early as the Age of Metals various breeds appear, such as deerhounds, sheep dogs, and mastiffs. The dog soon showed how useful he could be. He tracked game, guarded the camp, and later, in the pastoral stage, protected flocks and herds against their enemies. THE COW The cow also was domesticated at a remote period. No other animal has been more useful to mankind. The cow's flesh and milk supply food: the skin provides clothing; the sinews, bones, and horns yield materials for implements. The ox was early trained to bear the yoke and draw the plow, as we may learn from ancient Egyptian paintings. [3] Cattle have also been commonly used as a kind of money. The early Greeks, whose wealth consisted chiefly of their herds, priced a slave at twenty oxen, a suit of armor at one hundred oxen, and so on. The early Romans reckoned values in cattle (one ox being equivalent to ten sheep). Our English word "pecuniary" goes back to the Latin _pecus_, or "herd" of cattle. [Illustration: EARLY ROMAN BAR MONEY A bar of copper marked with the figure of a bull. Dates from the fourth century B.C.] THE HORSE The domestication of the horse came much later than that of the cow. In the early Stone Age the horse ran wild over western Europe and formed an important source of food for primitive men. This prehistoric horse, as some ancient drawings show, [4] was a small animal with a shaggy mane and tail. It resembled the wild pony still found on the steppes of Mongolia. The domesticated horse does not appear in Egypt and western Asia much before 1500 B.C. For a long time after the horse was tamed, the more manageable ox continued to be used as the beast of burden. The horse was kept for chariots of war, as among the Egyptians, or ridden bareback in races, as by the early Greeks. OTHER ANIMALS DOMESTICATED At the close of prehistoric times in the Old World nearly all the domestic animals of to-day were known. Besides those just mentioned, the goat, sheep, ass, and hog had become man's useful servants. [5] PASTORAL STAGE The domestication of animals made possible an advance from the hunting and fishing stage to the pastoral stage. Herds of cattle and sheep would now furnish more certain and abundant supplies of food than the chase could ever yield. We find in some parts of the world, as on the great Asiatic plains, the herdsman succeeding the hunter and fisher. But even in this stage much land for grazing is required. With the exhaustion of the pasturage the sheep or cattle must be driven to new fields. Hence pastoral peoples, as well as hunting and fishing folk, remained nomads without fixed homes. Before permanent settlements were possible, another onward step became necessary. This was the domestication of plants. AGRICULTURAL STAGE The domestication of plants marked almost as wonderful an advance as the domestication of animals. When wild seedgrasses and plants had been transformed into the great cereals--wheat, oats, barley, and rice--people could raise them for food, and so could pass from the life of wandering hunters or shepherds to the life of settled farmers. There is evidence that during the Stone Age some of the inhabitants of Europe were familiar with various cultivated plants, but agriculture on a large scale seems to have begun in the fertile regions of Egypt and western Asia. [6] Here first arose populous communities with leisure to develop the arts of life. Here, as has been already seen, [7] we must look for the beginnings of history. 4. WRITING AND THE ALPHABET PICTURE WRITING Though history is always based on written records, the first steps toward writing are prehistoric. We start with the pictures or rough drawings which have been found among the remains of the early Stone Age. [8] Primitive man, however, could not rest satisfied with portraying objects. [Illustration: VARIOUS SIGNS OF SYMBOLIC PICTURE WRITING 1, "war" (Dakota Indian); 2, "morning" (Ojibwa Indian); 3, "nothing" (Ojibwa Indian); 4 and 5, "to eat" (Indian, Mexican, Egyptian, etc.).] He wanted to record thoughts and actions, and so his pictures tended to become symbols of ideas. The figure of an arrow might be made to represent, not a real object, but the idea of an "enemy." A "fight" could then be shown simply by drawing two arrows directed against each other. Many uncivilized tribes still employ picture writing of this sort. The American Indians developed it in most elaborate fashion. On rolls of birch bark or the skins of animals they wrote messages, hunting stories, and songs, and even preserved tribal annals extending over a century. SOUND WRITING; THE REBUS A new stage in the development of writing was reached when the picture represented, not an actual object or an idea, but a sound of the human voice. This difficult but all-important step appears to have been taken through the use of the rebus, that is, writing words by pictures of objects which stand for sounds. Such rebuses are found in prehistoric Egyptian writing; for example, the Egyptian words for "sun" and "goose" were so nearly alike that the royal title, "Son of the Sun," could be suggested by grouping the pictures of the sun and a goose. Rebus making is still a common game among children, but to primitive men it must have been a serious occupation. [Illustration: MEXICAN REBUS The Latin _Pater Noster,_ "Our Father," is written by a flag _(pan)_, a stone _(te)_, a prickly pear _(noch)_, and another stone _(te)_.] [Illustration: CHINESE PICTURE WRITING AND LATER CONVENTIONAL CHARACTERS] WORDS AND SYLLABLES In the simplest form of sound writing each separate picture or symbol stands for the sound of an entire word. This method was employed by the Chinese, who have never given it up. A more developed form of sound writing occurs when signs are used for the sounds, not of entire words, but of separate syllables. Since the number of different syllables which the voice can utter is limited, it now becomes possible to write all the words of a language with a few hundred signs. The Japanese, who borrowed some of the Chinese symbols, used them to denote syllables, instead of entire words. The Babylonians possessed, in their cuneiform [9] characters, signs for about five hundred syllables. The prehistoric inhabitants of Crete appear to have been acquainted with a somewhat similar system. [10] LETTERS The final step in the development of writing is taken when the separate sounds of the voice are analyzed and each is represented by a single sign or letter. With alphabets of a few score letters every word in a language may easily be written. [Illustration: CRETAN WRITING A large tablet with linear script found in the palace at Gnossus, Crete There are eight lines of writing, with a total of about twenty words Notice the upright lines, which appear to mark the termination of each group of signs.] EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS The Egyptians early developed such an alphabet. Unfortunately they never gave up their older methods of writing and learned to rely upon alphabetic signs alone. Egyptian hieroglyphics [11] are a curious jumble of object- pictures, symbols of ideas, and signs for entire words, separate syllables, and letters. The writing is a museum of all the steps in the development from the picture to the letter. PHOENICIAN ALPHABET As early, apparently, as the tenth century B.C. we find the Phoenicians of western Asia in possession of an alphabet. It consisted of twenty-two letters, each representing a consonant. The Phoenicians do not seem to have invented their alphabetic signs. It is generally believed that they borrowed them from the Egyptians, but recent discoveries in Crete perhaps point to that island as the source of the Phoenician alphabet. [Illustration: EGYPTIAN AND BABYLONIAN WRITING Below the pictured hieroglyphics in the first line is the same text in a simpler writing known as hieratic. The two systems, however, were not distinct; they were as identical as our own printed and written characters. The third line illustrates old Babylonian cuneiform, in which the characters, like the hieroglyphics, are rude and broken-down pictures of objects. Derived from them is the later cuneiform shown in lines four and five.] DIFFUSION OF THE PHOENICIAN ALPHABET If they did not originate the alphabet now in use, the Phoenicians did most to spread a knowledge of it in other lands. They were bold sailors and traders who bought and sold throughout the Mediterranean. Wherever they went, they took their alphabet. From the Phoenicians the Greeks learned their letters. Then the Greeks taught them to the Romans, from whom other European peoples borrowed them. [12] [Illustration: THE MOABITE STONE, (Louvre, Paris) Found in 1868 A.D. at Diban east of the Dead Sea. The monument records the victory of Mesha king of Moab, over the united armies of Israel and Judah about 850 B.C. The inscription, consisting of 34 lines is one of the most ancient examples of Phoenician writing.] 5. PRIMITIVE SCIENCE AND ART FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE We have already seen that prehistoric men in their struggle for existence had gathered an extensive fund of information. They could make useful and artistic implements of stone. They could work many metals into a variety of tools and weapons. They were practical botanists, able to distinguish different plants and to cultivate them for food. They were close students of animal life and expert hunters and fishers. They knew how to produce fire and preserve it, how to cook, how to fashion pottery and baskets, how to spin and weave, how to build boats and houses. After writing came into general use, all this knowledge served as the foundation of science. COUNTING AND MEASURING We can still distinguish some of the first steps in scientific knowledge. Thus, counting began with calculations on one's fingers, a method still familiar to children. Finger counting explains the origin of the decimal system. The simplest, and probably the earliest, measures of length are those based on various parts of the body. Some of our Indian tribes, for instance, employed the double arm's length, the single arm's length, the hand width, and the finger width. Old English standards, such as the span, the ell, and the hand, go back to this very obvious method of measuring on the body. CALCULATION OF TIME; THE CALENDAR It is interesting to trace the beginnings of time reckoning and of that most important institution, the calendar. Most primitive tribes reckon time by the lunar month, the interval between two new moons (about twenty- nine days, twelve hours). Twelve lunar months give us the lunar year of about three hundred and fifty-four days. In order to adapt such a year to the different seasons, the practice arose of inserting a thirteenth month from time to time. Such awkward calendars were used in antiquity by the Babylonians, Jews, and Greeks; in modern times by the Arabs and Chinese. The Egyptians were the only people in the Old World to frame a solar year. From the Egyptians it has come down, through the Romans, to us. [13] [Illustration: STONEHENGE On Salisbury Plain in the south of England: appears to date from the close of the New Stone Age or the beginning of the Bronze Age. The outer circle measures 300 feet in circumference; the inner circle, 106 feet. The tallest stones reach 25 feet in height. This monument was probably a tomb, or group of tombs, of prehistoric chieftains.] EARLY DRAWING AND PAINTING The study of prehistoric art takes us back to the early Stone Age. The men of that age in western Europe lived among animals such as the mammoth, cave bear, and woolly-haired rhinoceros, which have since disappeared, and among many others, such as the lion and hippopotamus, which now exist only in warmer climates. Armed with clubs, flint axes, and horn daggers, primitive hunters killed these fierce beasts and on fragments of their bones, or on cavern walls, drew pictures of them. Some of these earliest works of art are remarkably lifelike. [Illustration: HEAD OF A GIRL (Musée S. Germain, Paris) A small head of a young girl carved from mammoth ivory. Found at Brassempouy, France, in cave deposits belonging to the early Stone Age. The hair is arranged somewhat after the early Egyptian fashion. Of the features the mouth alone is wanting.] [Illustration: PREHISTORIC ART SKETCH OF MAMMOTH ON A TUSK FOUND IN A CAVE IN FRANCE CAVE BEAR DRAWN ON A PEBBLE BISON PAINTED ON THE WALL OF A CAVE WILD HORSE ON THE WALL OF A CAVE IN SPAIN. Later he pictured an aurochs--later he pictured a bear-- Pictured the sabre toothed tiger dragging a man to his lair-- Pictured the mountainous mammoth hairy abhorrent alone-- Out of the love that he bore them scribing them clearly on bone-- KIPLING.] EARLY ARCHITECTURE A still later period of the Stone Age witnessed the beginnings of architecture. Men had begun to raise huge dolmens which are found in various parts of the Old World from England to India. They also erected enormous stone pillars, known as menhirs. Carved in the semblance of a human face and figure, the menhir became a statue, perhaps the first ever made. As we approach historic times, we note a steady improvement in the various forms of art. Recent discoveries in Egypt, Greece, Italy, and other lands indicate that their early inhabitants were able architects, often building on a colossal scale. [Illustration: A DOLMEN Department of Morbihan, Brittany. A dolmen was a single chambered tomb formed by laying one long stone over several other stones set upright in the ground. Most if not all dolmens were originally covered with earth.] [Illustration: CARVED MENHIR From Saint Sernin in Aveyron, a department of southern France.] SIGNIFICANCE OF PREHISTORIC ART Their paintings and sculptures prepared the way for the work of later artists. Our survey of the origins of art shows us that in this field, as elsewhere, we must start with the things accomplished by prehistoric men. 6. HISTORIC PEOPLES RACES OF MAN At the dawn of history the various regions of the world were already in the possession of many different peoples. Such physical characteristics as the shape of the skull, the features, stature, or complexion may serve to distinguish one people from another. Other grounds for distinction are found in language, customs beliefs, and general intelligence. CLASSIFICATION OF RACES If we take complexion or color as the basis of classification, it is possible to distinguish a few large racial groups. Each of these groups occupies, roughly speaking, its separate area of the globe. The most familiar classification is that which recognizes the Black or Negro race dwelling in Africa, the Yellow or Mongolian race whose home is in central and eastern Asia, and the White or Caucasian race of western Asia and Europe. Sometimes two additional divisions are made by including, as the Red race, the American Indians, and as the Brown race, the natives of the Pacific islands. THE WHITE RACE These separate racial groups have made very unequal progress in culture. The peoples belonging to the Black, Red, and Brown races are still either savages or barbarians, as were the men of prehistoric times. The Chinese and Japanese are the only representatives of the Yellow race that have been able to form civilized states. In the present, as in the past, it is chiefly the members of the White race who are developing civilization and making history. INDO-EUROPEANS AND SEMITES Because of differences in language, scholars have divided the White or Caucasian race into two main groups, called Indo-Europeans and Semites. [14] This classification is often helpful, but the student should remember that Indo-European and Semitic peoples are not always to be sharply distinguished because they have different types of language. There is no very clear distinction in physical characteristics between the two groups. A clear skin, an oval face, wavy or curly hair, and regular features separate them from both the Negro and the Mongolian. PRINCIPAL INDO-EUROPEAN PEOPLES The Indo-Europeans in antiquity included the Hindus of India, the Medes and Persians dwelling on the plateau of Iran, the Greeks and Italians, and most of the inhabitants of central and western Europe. All these peoples spoke related languages which are believed to be offshoots from one common tongue. Likeness in language does not imply that all Indo-Europeans were closely related in blood. Men often adopt a foreign tongue and pass it on to their children. PRINCIPAL SEMITIC PEOPLES The various Semitic nations dwelling in western Asia and Arabia were more closely connected with one another. They spoke much the same type of language, and in physical traits and habits of life they appear to have been akin. The Semites in antiquity included the Babylonians and Assyrians, the Hebrews, Phoenicians, and Arabs. [Illustration: RACE PORTRAITURE OF THE EGYPTIANS Paintings on the walls of royal tombs. The Egyptians were painted red, the Semites yellow, the Negroes black, and the Libyans white, with blue eyes and fair beards. Each racial type is distinguished by peculiar dress and characteristic features.] [Illustration: Map. Distribution of SEMITIC and INDO-EUROPEAN PEOPLES] PEOPLES OF UNCERTAIN RELATIONSHIP At the opening of the historic period still other parts of the World were the homes of various peoples who cannot be classed with certainty as either Indo-Europeans or Semites. Among these were the Egyptians and some of the inhabitants of Asia Minor. We must remember that, during the long prehistoric ages, repeated conquests and migrations mingled the blood of many different communities. History, in fact, deals with no unmixed peoples. STUDIES 1. On an outline map indicate the areas occupied in antiquity by Semites and Indo-Europeans. 2. Find definitions for the following terms: society, nation, state, government, institution, culture, and civilization. 3. Explain the abbreviations B.C. and A.D. In what century was the year 1917 B.C.? the year 1917 A.D.? 4. Look up the derivation of the words "paper" and "Bible." 5. Distinguish between the three stages of savagery, barbarism, and civilization, and give examples of existing peoples in each stage. 6. Can you name any savages still living in the Stone Age? 7. What stone implements have you ever seen? Who made them? Where were they? 8. Why should the discovery of fire be regarded as of more significance than the discovery of steam? 9. Why has the invention of the bow-and-arrow been of greater importance than the invention of gunpowder? 10. How does the presence of few tameable animals in the New World help to account for its tardier development as compared with the Old World? 11. What examples of pastoral and agricultural life among the North American Indians are familiar to you? 12. Give examples of peoples widely different in blood who nevertheless speak the same language. 13. In the classification of mankind, where do the Arabs belong? the Persians? the Germans? the inhabitants of the United States? 14. Enumerate the most important contributions to civilization made in prehistoric times. FOOTNOTES [1] There are still some savage peoples, for instance, the Australians, who continue to make stone implements very similar to those of prehistoric men. Other primitive peoples, such as the natives of the Pacific islands, passed directly from the use of stone to that of iron, after this part of the world was opened up to European trade in the nineteenth century. [2] Iron was unknown to the inhabitants of North America and South America before the coming of the Europeans. The natives used many stone implements, besides those of copper and bronze. The Indians got most of their copper from the mines in the Lake Superior region, whence it was carried far and wide. [3] See the illustration, page 45. [4] See the illustration, page 14. [5] In the New World, the only important domestic animal was the llama of the Andes. The natives used it as a beast of burden, ate its flesh, and clothed themselves with its wool. [6] The plants domesticated in the New World were not numerous. The most important were the potato of Peru and Ecuador, Indian corn or maize, tobacco, the tomato, and manioc. From the roots of the latter, the starch called tapioca is derived. [7] See page 2. [8] See the illustration, page 14. [9] Latin cuneus, "a wedge". [10] See page 71. [11] From the Greek words hieros, "holy," and glyphein, "to carve" The Egyptians regarded their signs as sacred. [12] Our word "alphabet" comes from the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, _alpha_ (a) and _beta_ (b). [13] See page 186 and note 2. [14] The Old Testament (_Genesis_, x 21-22) represents Shem (or Sem), son of Noah, as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. The title "Indo- Europeans" tells us that the members of that group now dwell in India and in Europe. Indo-European peoples are popularly called "Aryans," from a word in Sanskrit (the old Hindu language) meaning "noble." CHAPTER II THE LANDS AND PEOPLES OF THE EAST TO ABOUT 600 B.C. [1] 7. PHYSICAL ASIA GRAND DIVISIONS OF ASIA Ancient history begins in the East--in Asia and in that part of Africa called Egypt, which the peoples of antiquity always regarded as belonging to Asia. If we look at a physical map of Asia, we see at once that it consists of two very unequal divisions separated by an almost continuous mass of mountains and deserts. These two divisions are Farther and Nearer, or Eastern and Western, Asia. [Illustration: Map, PHYSICAL MAP OF ASIA.] FARTHER ASIA Farther Asia begins at the center of the continent with a series of elevated table-lands which rise into the lofty plateaus, known as the "Roof of the World." Here two tremendous mountain chains diverge. The Altai range runs out to the northeast and reaches the shores of the Pacific near Bering Strait. The Himalaya range extends southeast to the Malay peninsula. In the angle formed by their intersection lies the cold and barren region of East Turkestan and Tibet, the height of which, in some places, is ten thousand feet above the sea. From these mountains and plateaus the ground sinks gradually toward the north into the lowlands of West Turkestan and Siberia, toward the east and south into the plains of China and India. CHINA The fertile territory of central China, watered by the two streams, Yangtse and Hoangho, was settled at a remote period by barbarous tribes. The civilization which they slowly developed in antiquity has endured with little change until the present day. The inhabitants of neighboring countries, Korea, Japan, and Indo-China, owe much to this civilization. It has exerted slight influence on the other peoples of Asia because the Chinese have always occupied a distant corner of the continent, cut off by deserts and mountains from the lands on the west. As if these barriers were not enough, they raised the Great Wall to protect their country from invasion. [Illustration: THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA The wall extends for about fifteen hundred miles along the northern frontier of China. In 1908 AD it was traversed for its entire length by an American Mr. W. E. Geil. He found many parts of the fortification still in good repair, though built twenty one centuries ago.] Behind this mighty rampart the Chinese have lived secluded and aloof from the progress of our western world. In ancient times China was a land of mystery. INDIA India was better known than China, especially its two great rivers, the Indus and the Ganges, which flow to the southwest and southeast, respectively, and make this part of the peninsula one of the most fertile territories on the globe. Such a land attracted immigrants. The region now known as the Punjab, where the Indus receives the waters of five great streams, was settled by light-skinned Indo-Europeans [2] perhaps as early as 2000 B.C. Then they occupied the valley of the Ganges and so brought all northern India under their control. INDIA AND THE WEST India did not remain entirely isolated from the rest of Asia, The Punjab was twice conquered by invaders from the West; by the Persians in the sixth century B.C., [3] and about two hundred years later by the Greeks. [4] After the end of foreign rule India continued to be of importance through its commerce, which introduced such luxuries as precious stones, spices, and ivory among the western peoples. NEARER ASIA Nearer, or Western Asia, the smaller of the two grand divisions of the Asiatic continent, is bounded by the Black and Caspian seas on the north, by the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean on the south, eastward by the Indus River, and westward by the Mediterranean and the Nile. Almost all the countries within this area played a part in the ancient history of the Orient. COUNTRIES OF NEARER ASIA The lofty plateaus of central Asia decline on the west into the lower but still elevated region of Iran. The western part of Iran was occupied in antiquity by the kindred people known as Medes and Persians. Armenia, a wild and mountainous region, is an extension to the northwest of the Iranian table-land. Beyond Armenia we cross into the peninsula of Asia Minor, a natural link between Asia and Europe. Southward from Asia Minor we pass along the Mediterranean coast through Syria to Arabia. The Arabian peninsula may be regarded as the link between Asia and Africa. INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS These five countries of Nearer Asia were not well fitted to become centers of early civilization. They possessed no great rivers which help to bring people together, and no broad, fertile plains which support a large population. Armenia, Asia Minor, and Syria were broken up into small districts by chains of mountains. Iran and Arabia were chiefly barren deserts. But two other divisions of Nearer Asia resembled distant India and China in the possession of a warm climate, a fruitful soil, and an extensive river system. These lands were Babylonia and Egypt, the first homes of civilized man. 8. BABYLONIA AND EGYPT THE TIGRIS AND THE EUPHRATES Two famous rivers rise in the remote fastnesses of Armenia--the Tigris and the Euphrates. As they flow southward, the twin streams approach each other to form a common valley, and then proceed in parallel channels for the greater part of their course. In antiquity each river emptied into the Persian Gulf by a separate mouth. This Tigris-Euphrates valley was called by the Greeks Mesopotamia, "the land between the rivers." PRODUCTIONS OF BABYLONIA Babylonia is a remarkably productive country. The annual inundation of the rivers has covered its once rocky bottom with deposits of rich silt. Crops planted in such a soil, under the influence of a blazing sun, ripen with great rapidity and yield abundant harvests. "Of all the countries that we know," says an old Greek traveler, "there is no other so fruitful in grain." [5] Wheat and barley were perhaps first domesticated in this part of the world. [6] Wheat still grows wild there. Though Babylonia possessed no forests, it had the date palm, which needed scarcely any cultivation. If the alluvial soil yielded little stone, clay, on the other hand, was everywhere. Molded into brick and afterwards dried in the sun, the clay became _adobe_, the cheapest building material imaginable. BABYLONIA AN EARLY CENTER OF CIVILIZATION In Babylonia Nature seems to have done her utmost to make it easy for People to gain a living. We can understand, therefore, why from prehistoric times men have been attracted to this region, and why it is here that we must look for one of the earliest seats of civilization. [7] LOWER AND UPPER EGYPT Egypt may be described as the valley of the Nile. Rising in the Nyanza lakes of central Africa, that mighty stream, before entering Egypt, receives the waters of the Blue Nile near the modern town of Khartum. From this point the course of the river is broken by a series of five rocky rapids, misnamed cataracts, which can be shot by boats. The cataracts cease near the island of Philae, and Upper Egypt begins. This is a strip of fertile territory, about five hundred miles in length but averaging only eight miles in width. Not far from modern Cairo the hills inclosing the valley fall away, the Nile divides into numerous branches, and Lower Egypt, or the Delta, begins. The sluggish stream passes through a region of mingled swamp and plain, and at length by three principal mouths empties its waters into the Mediterranean. [Illustration: PHILAE The island was originally only a heap of granite bowlders. Retaining walls were built around it, and the space within when filled with rich Nile mud, became beautiful with groves of palms and mimosas. As the result of the construction of the Assuan dam, Philae and its exquisite temples are now submerged during the winter months, when the reservoir is full.] EGYPT THE GIFT OF THE NILE Egypt owes her existence to the Nile. All Lower Egypt is a creation of the river by the gradual accumulation of sediment at its mouths. Upper Egypt has been dug out of the desert sand and underlying rock by a process of erosion centuries long. Once the Nile filled all the space between the hills that line its sides. Now it flows through a thick layer of alluvial mud deposited by the yearly inundation. ANNUAL INUNDATION OF THE NILE The Nile begins to rise in June, when the snow melts on the Abyssinian mountains. High-water mark, some thirty feet above the ordinary level, is reached in September. The inhabitants then make haste to cut the confining dikes and to spread the fertilizing water over their fields. Egypt takes on the appearance of a turbid lake, dotted here and there with island villages and crossed in every direction by highways elevated above the flood. Late in October the river begins to subside and by December has returned to its normal level. As the water recedes, it deposits that dressing of fertile vegetable mold which makes the soil of Egypt perhaps the richest in the world. [8] EGYPT AN EARLY CENTER OF CIVILIZATION It was by no accident that Egypt, like Babylonia, became one of the first homes of civilized men. Here, as there, every condition made it easy for people to live and thrive. Food was cheap, for it was easily produced. The peasant needed only to spread his seed broadcast over the muddy fields to be sure of an abundant return. The warm, dry climate enabled him to get along with little shelter and clothing. Hence the inhabitants of this favored region rapidly increased in number and gathered in populous towns and cities. At a time when most of their neighbors were still in the darkness of the prehistoric age, the Egyptians had entered the light of history. 9. THE BABYLONIANS AND THE EGYPTIANS INHABITANTS OF BABYLONIA The earliest inhabitants of Babylonia of whom we know anything were a people called Sumerians. They entered the Babylonian plain through the passes of the eastern mountains, three or four thousand years before the Christian era. Here they formed a number of independent states, each with its capital city, its patron god, and its king. After them came Semitic tribes from the deserts of northern Arabia. The Semites mingled with the Sumerians and adopted Sumerian civilization. HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLONIA, ABOUT 2000 B.C. Of all the early Babylonian kings the most famous was Hammurabi. Some inscriptions still remain to tell how he freed his country from foreign invaders and made his native Babylon the capital of the entire land. This city became henceforth the real center of the Euphrates valley, to which, indeed, it gave its name. Hammurabi was also an able statesman, who sought to develop the territories his sword had won. He dug great canals to distribute the waters of the Euphrates and built huge granaries to store the wheat against a time of famine. In Babylon he raised splendid temples and palaces. For all his kingdom he published a code of laws, the oldest in the world. [9] Thus Hammurabi, by making Babylonia so strong and flourishing, was able to extend her influence in every direction. Her only important rival was Egypt. [Illustration: TOP OF MONUMENT CONTAINING THE CODE OF HAMMURABI (British Museum, London) A block of black diorite nearly 8 feet high, on which the code is chiseled in 44 columns and over 3600 lines. The relief at the top of the monument shows the Babylonian king receiving the laws from the sun god who is seated at the right.] The origin of the Egyptians is not known with certainty. In physical characteristics they resembled the native tribes of northern and inhabitants eastern Africa. Their language, however, shows of Egypt close kinship to the Semitic tongues of western Asia and Arabia. It is probable that the Egyptians, like the Babylonians, arose from the mingling of several peoples. MENES, KING OF EGYPT, ABOUT 3400 B.C. The history of Egypt commences with the union of the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes. An ancient tradition made him the builder of Memphis, near the head of the Delta, and the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. Scholars once doubted these exploits and even regarded Menes himself as mythical. Recently, however, his tomb has been discovered. In the gray dawn of history Menes appears as a real personage, the first of that line of kings, or "Pharaohs," who for nearly three thousand years ruled over Egypt. [Illustration: Map, EGYPTIAN EMPIRE About 1450 B.C.] THE PYRAMID KINGS, ABOUT 3000-2500 B.C. Several centuries after Menes we reach the age of the kings who raised the pyramids. Probably no other rulers have ever stamped their memory so indelibly on the pages of history as the builders of these mighty structures. The most celebrated monarch of this line was the Pharaoh whom the Greeks called Cheops. The Great Pyramid near Memphis, erected for his tomb, remains a lasting witness to his power. [Illustration: TWO FAMOUS PHARAOHS Khufu (Cheops) builder of the Great Pyramid Menephtah the supposed Pharaoh of the Exodus] [Illustration: THE GREAT PYRAMID The pyramid when completed had a height of 481 feet. It is now 451 feet high. Its base covers about thirteen acres. Some of the blocks of white limestone used in construction weigh fifty tons. The facing of polished stone was gradually removed for building purposes by the Arabs. On the northern side of the pyramid a narrow entrance once carefully concealed, opens into tortuous passages which lead to the central vault. Here the sarcophagus of the king was placed. This chamber was long since entered and its contents rifled.] [Illustration: THE GREAT SPHINX This colossal figure, human headed and lion bodied, is hewn from the natural rock. The body is about 150 feet long, the paws 50 feet, the head 30 feet. The height from the base to the top of the head is 70 feet. Except for its head and shoulders the figure has been buried for centuries in the desert sand. The eyes, nose and beard have been mutilated by the Arabs. The face is probably that of one of the pyramid kings.] AFTER THE PYRAMID KINGS For a long time after the epoch of the pyramid kings the annals of Egypt furnish a record of quiet and peaceful progress. The old city of Memphis gradually declined in importance and Thebes in Upper Egypt became the capital. The vigorous civilization growing up in Egypt was destined, however, to suffer a sudden eclipse. About 1800 B.C. barbarous tribes from western Asia burst into the country, through the isthmus of Suez, and settled in the Delta. The Hyksos, as they are usually called, extended their sway over all Egypt. At first they ruled harshly, plundering the cities and enslaving the inhabitants, but in course of time the invaders adopted Egyptian culture and their kings reigned like native Pharaohs. The Hyksos are said to have introduced the horse and military chariot into Egypt. A successful revolt at length expelled the intruders and set a new line of Theban monarchs on the throne. THE EGYPTIAN EMPIRE The overthrow of the Hyksos marked a new era in the history of Egypt. From a home-loving and peaceful people the Egyptians became a warlike race, ambitious for glory. The Pharaohs raised powerful armies and by extensive conquests created an Egyptian Empire, reaching from the Nile to the Euphrates. IMPERIAL SPLENDOR OF EGYPT This period of the imperial greatness of Egypt is the most splendid in its history. An extensive trade with Cyprus, Crete, and other Mediterranean Islands introduced many foreign luxuries. The conquered territories in Syria paid a heavy tribute of the precious metals, merchandise, and slaves. The forced labor of thousands of war captives enabled the Pharaohs to build public works in every part on their realm. Even the ruins of these stupendous structures are enough to indicate the majesty and power of ancient Egypt. RAMESES II, ABOUT 1292-1225 B.C. Of all the conquering Pharaohs none won more fame than Rameses II, who ruled for nearly seventy years. His campaigns in Syria were mainly against the Hittites, a warlike people who had moved southward from their home in Asia Minor and sought to establish themselves in the Syrian lands. Rameses does not appear to have been entirely successful against his foes. We find him at length entering into an alliance with "the great king of the Hittites," by which their dominion over northern Syria was recognized. In the arts of peace Rameses achieved a more enduring renown. He erected many statues and temples in various parts of Egypt and made Thebes, his capital, the most magnificent city of the age. [Illustration: HEAD OF MUMMY OF RAMESES II (Museum of Gizeh) The mummy was discovered in 1881 AD in an underground chamber near the site of Thebes. With it were the coffins and bodies of more than a score of royal personages. Rameses II was over ninety years of age at the time of his death. In spite of the somewhat grotesque disguise of mummification, the face of this famous Pharaoh still wears an aspect of majesty and pride.] DECLINE OF THE EGYPTIAN POWER Rameses II was the last of the great Pharaohs. After his death the empire steadily declined in strength. The Asiatic possessions fell away, never to be recovered. By 1100 B.C. Egypt had been restricted to her former boundaries in the Nile valley. The Persians, in the sixth century, brought the country within their own vast empire. 10. THE PHOENICIANS AND THE HEBREWS THE PHOENICIANS The Phoenicians were the first Syrian people to assume importance. Their country was a narrow stretch of coast, about one hundred and twenty miles in length, seldom more than twelve miles in width, between the Lebanon Mountains and the sea. This tiny land could not support a large population. As the Phoenicians increased in numbers, they were obliged to betake themselves to the sea. The Lebanon cedars furnished soft, white wood for shipbuilding, and the deeply indented coast offered excellent harbors. Thus the Phoenicians became preeminently a race of sailors. Their great cities, Sidon and Tyre, established colonies throughout the Mediterranean and had an extensive commerce with every region of the known world. THE HEBREWS The Hebrews lived south of Phoenicia in the land of Canaan, west of the Jordan River Their history begins with the emigration of twelve Hebrew tribes (called Israelites) from northern Arabia to Canaan. In their new home the Israelites gave up the life of wandering shepherds and became farmers. They learned from the Canaanites to till the soil and to dwell in towns and cities. PERIOD OF THE JUDGES The thorough conquest of Canaan proved to be no easy task. At first the twelve Israelitish tribes formed only a loose and weak confederacy without a common head. "In those days there was no king in Israel, every man did what was right in his own eyes." [10] The sole authority was that held by valiant chieftains and law-givers, such as Samson, Gideon, and Samuel, who served as judges between the tribes and often led them in successful attacks upon their foes. Among these were the warlike Philistines, who occupied the southwestern coast of Canaan. To resist the Philistines with success it was necessary to have a king who could bring all the scattered tribes under his firm, well-ordered rule. REIGNS OF SAUL AND DAVID In Saul, "a young man and a goodly," the warriors of Israel found a leader to unite them against their enemies. His reign was passed in constant struggles with the Philistines. David, who followed him, utterly destroyed the Philistine power and by further conquests extended the boundaries of the new state. For a capital city he selected the ancient fortress of Jerusalem. Here David built himself a royal palace and here he fixed the Ark, the sanctuary of Jehovah. Jerusalem became to the Israelites their dearest possession and the center of their national life. [Illustration: Map, CANAAN as Divided among THE TRIBES] REIGN OF SOLOMON, ABOUT 955-925 B.C. The reign of Solomon, the son and successor of David, was the most splendid period in Hebrew history. His kingdom stretched from the Red Sea and the peninsula of Sinai northward to the Lebanon Mountains and the Euphrates. With the surrounding peoples Solomon was on terms of friendship and alliance. He married an Egyptian princess, a daughter of the reigning Pharaoh. He joined with Hiram, king of Tyre, in trading expeditions on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The same Phoenician monarch supplied him with the "cedars of Lebanon," with which he erected at Jerusalem a famous temple for the worship of Jehovah. A great builder, a wise administrator and governor, Solomon takes his place as a typical Oriental despot, the most powerful monarch of the age. [Illustration: A PHOENICIAN WAR GALLEY From a slab found at Nineveh in the palace of the Assyrian king, Sennacherib. The vessel shown is a bireme with two decks. On the upper deck are soldiers with their shields hanging over the side. The oarsmen sit on the lower deck, eight at each side. The crab catching the fish is a humorous touch.] SECESSION OF THE TEN TRIBES, ABOUT 925 B.C. But the political greatness of the Hebrews was not destined to endure. The people were not ready to bear the burdens of empire. They objected to the standing army, to the forced labor on public buildings, and especially to the heavy taxes. The ten northern tribes seceded shortly after Solomon's death and established the independent kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Samaria. The two southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin, formed the kingdom of Judea, and remained loyal to the successors of Solomon. [Illustration: Map, SOLOMON'S KINGDOM] DECLINE OF THE HEBREW POWER The two small Hebrew kingdoms could not resist their powerful neighbors. About two centuries after the secession of the Ten Tribes, the Assyrians overran Israel. Judea was subsequently conquered by the Babylonians. Both countries in the end became a part of the Persian Empire. 11. THE ASSYRIANS GREATNESS OF ASSYRIA, 745-626 B.C. Assyria, lying east of the Tigris River, was colonized at an early date by emigrants from Babylonia. After the Assyrians freed themselves from Babylonian control, they entered upon a series of sweeping conquests. Every Asiatic state felt their heavy hand. The Assyrian kings created a huge empire stretching from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean, and the Nile. For the first time in Oriental history Mesopotamia and Egypt, with the intervening territory, were brought under one government. CHARACTER OF ASSYRIAN RULE This unification of the Orient was accomplished only at a fearful cost. The records of Assyria are full of terrible deeds--of towns and cities without number given to the flames, of the devastation of fertile fields and orchards, of the slaughter of men, women, and children, of the enslavement of entire nations. Assyrian monarchs, in numerous inscriptions, boast of the wreck and ruin they brought to many flourishing lands. [Illustration: AN ASSYRIAN From a Nineveh bas-relief. The original is colored.] SARGON II, 722-705 B.C. The treatment of conquered peoples by the Assyrian rulers is well illustrated by their dealings with the Hebrews. One of the mightiest monarchs was an usurper, who ascended the throne as Sargon II. Shortly after his succession he turned his attention to the kingdom of Israel, which had revolted. Sargon in punishment took its capital city of Samaria (722 B.C.) and led away many thousands of the leading citizens into a lifelong captivity in distant Assyria. The Ten Tribes mingled with the population of that region and henceforth disappeared from history. [Illustration: ANCIENT ORIENTAL EMPIRES Map, THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE about 660 B.C. Map, LYDIA, MEDIA, BABYLONIA and EGYPT about 550 B.C.] SENNACHERIB, 705-681 B.C. Sargon's son, Sennacherib, though not the greatest, is the best known of Assyrian kings. His name is familiar from the many references to him in Old Testament writings. An inscription by Sennacherib describes an expedition against Hezekiah, king of Judea, who was shut up "like a caged bird in his royal city of Jerusalem." Sennacherib, however, did not capture the place. His troops were swept away by a pestilence. The ancient Hebrew writer conceives it as the visitation of a destroying angel: "It came to pass that night that the angel of Jehovah went forth, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand; and when men arose early in the morning, behold, these were all dead bodies." [11] So Sennacherib departed, and returned with a shattered army to Nineveh, his capital. [Illustration: AN ASSYRIAN RELIEF (British Museum, London) The relief represents the siege and capture of Lachish, a city of the Canaanites, by Sennacherib's troops. Notice the total absence of perspective in this work.] DOWNFALL OF ASSYRIA, 606 B.C. Although Assyria recovered from this disaster, its empire rested on unstable foundations. The subject races were attached to their oppressive masters by no ties save those of force. When Assyria grew exhausted by its career of conquest, they were quick to strike a blow for freedom. By the middle of the seventh century Egypt had secured her independence, and many other provinces were ready to revolt. Meanwhile, beyond the eastern mountains, the Medes were gathering ominously on the Assyrian frontier. The storm broke when the Median monarch, in alliance with the king of Babylon, moved upon Nineveh and captured it. The city was utterly destroyed. [Illustration: THE ISHTAR GATE, BABYLON Explorations on the site of Babylon have been conducted since 1899 A.D. by the German Oriental Society. Large parts of the temple area, as well as sections of the royal palaces, have been uncovered. The most important structure found is the Ishtar Gate. The towers which flank it are adorned with figures of dragons and bulls in brilliantly colored glazed tile.] PARTITION OF ASSYRIA After the conquest of the Assyrian Empire the victors proceeded to divide the spoils. The share of Media was Assyria itself, together with the long stretch of mountain country extending from the Persian Gulf to Asia Minor. Babylonia obtained the western half of the Assyrian domains, including the Euphrates valley and Syria. Under its famous king, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.), Babylonia became a great power in the Orient. It was Nebuchadnezzar who brought the kingdom of Judea to an end. He captured Jerusalem in 586 B.C., burned the Temple, and carried away many Jews into captivity. The day of their deliverance, when Babylon itself should bow to a foreign foe, was still far distant. 12. THE WORLD EMPIRE OF PERSIA CYRUS THE GREAT, 553-529 B.C. Not much earlier than the break-up of the Assyrian Empire, we find a new and vigorous people pressing into western Iran. They were the Persians, near kinsmen of the Medes. Subjects at first of Assyria, and then of Media, they regained their independence and secured imperial power under a conquering king whom history knows as Cyrus the Great. In 553 B.C. Cyrus revolted against the Median monarch and three years later captured the royal city of Ecbatana. The Medes and Persians formed henceforth a united people. [Illustration: THE TOMB OF CYRUS THE GREAT The mausoleum is built of immense marble blocks joined together without cement. Its total height including the seven steps is about thirty five feet. A solitary pillar near the tomb still bears the inscription 'I am Cyrus, the King, the Achaemenian.'] CONQUEST OF LYDIA BY CYRUS, 546 B.C. The conquest of Media was soon followed by a war with the Lydians, who had been allies of the Medes. The throne of Lydia, a state in the western part of Asia Minor, was at this time held by Croesus, the last and most famous of his line. The king grew so wealthy from the tribute paid by Lydian subjects and from his gold mines that his name has passed into the proverb, "rich as Croesus." He viewed with alarm the rising power of Cyrus and rashly offered battle to the Persian monarch. Defeated in the open field, Croesus shut himself up in Sardis, his capital. The city was soon taken, however, and with its capture the Lydian kingdom came to an end. CAPTURE OF BABYLON, 539 B.C. The downfall of Lydia prepared the way for a Persian attack on Babylonia. The conquest of that country proved unexpectedly easy. In 539 B.C. the great city of Babylon opened its gates to the Persian host. Shortly afterwards Cyrus issued a decree allowing the Jewish exiles there to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple, which Nebuchadnezzar had destroyed. With the surrender of Babylon the last Semitic empire in the East came to an end. The Medes and Persians, an Indo-European people, henceforth ruled over a wider realm than ever before had been formed in Oriental lands. CAMBYSES, 529-522 B.C. Cyrus was followed by his son, Cambyses, a cruel but stronghanded despot. Cambyses determined to add Egypt to the Persian dominions. His land army was supported by a powerful fleet, to which the Phoenicians and the Greeks of Cyprus contributed ships. A single battle sufficed to overthrow the Egyptian power and to bring the long rule of the Pharaohs to a close. [12] DARIUS THE GREAT, 521-485 B.C. The reign of Darius, the successor of Cambyses, was marked by further extensions of the frontiers. An expedition to the distant East added to the empire the region of the Punjab, [13] along the upper waters of the Indus. Another expedition against the wild Scythian tribes along the Danube led to conquests in Europe and brought the Persian dominions close to those of the Greeks. Not without reason could Darius describe himself in an inscription which still survives, as "the great king, king of kings, king of countries, king of all men." [Illustration: DARIUS WITH HIS ATTENDANTS Bas-relief at Persepolis. The monarch's right hand grasps a staff or scepter, his left hand, a bunch of flowers. His head is surmounted by a crown, his body is enveloped in the long Median mantle. Above the king is a representation of the divinity which guarded and guided him. In the rear are two Persian nobles, one carrying the royal fan, the other the royal parasol.] [Illustration: ROCK SEPULCHERS OF THE PERSIAN KINGS The tombs are those of Darius, Xerxes, and two of their successors. They are near Persepolis.] ORGANIZATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE It was the work of Darius to provide for his dominions a stable government which should preserve what the sword had won. The problem was difficult. The empire was a collection of many peoples widely different in race, language, customs, and religion. Darius did not attempt to weld the conquered nations into unity. As long as the subjects of Persia paid tribute and furnished troops for the royal army, they were allowed to conduct their own affairs with little interference from the Great King. THE SATRAPAL SYSTEM The entire empire, excluding Persia proper, was divided into twenty satrapies, or provinces, each one with its civil governor, or satrap. The satraps carried out the laws and collected the heavy tribute annually levied throughout the empire. In most of the provinces there were also military governors who commanded the army and reported directly to the king. This device of intrusting the civil and military functions to separate officials lessened the danger of revolts against the Persian authority. As an additional precaution Darius provided special agents whose business it was to travel from province to province and investigate the conduct of his officials. It became a proverb that "the king has many eyes and many ears." PERSIAN ROADS Darius also established a system of military roads throughout the Persian dominions. The roa