The Project Gutenberg EBook of School and Home Cooking, by Carlotta C. Greer Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the header without written permission. Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is important information about your specific rights and restrictions in how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. **Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** **eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** *****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** Title: School and Home Cooking Author: Carlotta C. Greer Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6912] [Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] [This file was first posted on February 10, 2003] Edition: 10 Language: English Character set encoding: ASCII *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING *** Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. [Illustration: _By permission of Harrison H Dodge, Superintendent_ A CORNER OF WASHINGTON'S KITCHEN AT MOUNT VERNON] SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING BY CARLOTTA C. GREER HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT, EAST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL CLEVELAND, OHIO PREFACE _School and Home Cooking_ is a text which can be placed in the hands of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Its use eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus saves much time. The _psychological_ method of education, which treats first of material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind in preparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff may be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of the content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is psychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil. Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving technical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason a classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the text; they are classified after each is considered. At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of lessons called _Related Work_, which includes table service lessons, home projects, and meal cooking. _Table service_ lessons are introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative processes are performed. The _cost_ and _food value_ of meals are considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wise _selection_ and thrifty _buying_ of foods are also treated in these lessons. _Home projects_ which progressive teachers have found effective in making home economics function in the home--one of the goals to be attained in democratic education--contain suggestive material which may be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes. An adaptation of the "meal method," _i.e., meal cooking_, is used both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also for gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same time. _Experiments_ regarding food preparation and composition and processes of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been taken to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow directions, make observations, and draw helpful deductions. The _recipes_ have been adapted from various sources. Where it is possible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensive food materials are used. The more expensive materials are used as sparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foods follow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory in the home kitchen. Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor of Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portions of the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of the Department of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, for valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the preparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking reading of the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrative material: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood and Company, _The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journal of Home Economics_, and the United States Department of Agriculture. CLEVELAND, July, 1920. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF EXPERIMENTS FOREWORD DIVISION ONE INTRODUCTION I. Baked Apples--Dishwashing II. Measurements--Stuffed and Scalloped Tomatoes III. Fuels and Combustion--Sauted and Baked Squash IV. Coal Ranges--Corn Dishes V. Gas Ranges--Scalloped Fruit VI. Stoves and Heating Devices--Stuffed Peppers, Butterscotch Apples DIVISION TWO BODY-REGULATING FOOD--WATER VII. Water and Beverages (A) VIII. Water and Beverages (B) RELATED WORK IX. Home Projects X. Afternoon Tea DIVISION THREE BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS,--RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER) XI. Fresh Vegetables (A) XII. Fresh Vegetables (B) XIII. Fresh Fruits RELATED WORK LESSON XIV. Review: Meal Cooking XV. Home Projects DIVISION FOUR ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES XVI. Sugar: Digestion of Sugar XVII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (A) XVIII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (B) XIX. Cereals: Starch and Cellulose XX. Cereals: Rice (A) XXI. Cereals: Rice (B) XXII. Cereals and the Fireless Cooker XXIII. Cereals for Frying or Baking XXIV. Powdered Cereals Used for Thickening XXV. Toast: Digestion of Starch XXVI. Root Vegetables (A) XXVII. Root Vegetables (B) XXVIII. Root Vegetables (C) XXIX. Starchy Foods Cooked at High Temperature RELATED WORK XXX. Dining Room Service XXXI. Cooking and Serving Breakfast XXXII. Review: Meal Cooking XXXIII. Home Projects DIVISION FIVE ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AN OILS XXXIV. Fat as a Frying Medium XXXV. Fat as a Frying Medium--Food Fats XXXVI. Fat as a Frying Medium--Digestion of Fat XXXVII. Fat Saving RELATED WORK XXXVIII. Dining Room Courtesy XXXIX. Cooking and Serving Breakfast XL. Review: Meal Cooking XLI. Home Projects DIVISION SIX ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN XLII. Eggs XLIII. Eggs: Digestion of Protein XLIV. Eggs: Omelets (A) XLV. Eggs: Omelets (B) XLVI. Milk XLVII. Milk with Cocoa and Chocolate XLVIII. Milk and Cream XLIX. Cream Soups (A) L. Cream Soups (B) LI. Milk Thickened with Egg (A) LII. Milk Thickened with Egg (B) LIII. Milk Thickened with Egg (C) LIV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (A) LV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (B) LVI. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (C) LVII. Cheese (A) LVIII. Cheese (B) LIX. Structure of Beef--Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts LX. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (A) LXI. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (B) LXIL. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (A) LXIII. Beef; Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (B) LXIV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (C) LXV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (D) LXVI. Beef: Uses of Cooked Beef LXVII. Gelatine (A) LXVIIL. Gelatine (B) LXIX. Fish (A) LXX. Fish (B) LXXI. Fish (C) LXXII. Legumes (A) LXXIII. Legumes (B) LXXIV. Legumes (C) RELATED WORK LXXV. Cost of Food LXXVI. Cooking and Serving a Breakfast LXXVII. Review: Meal Cooking LXXVIII. Home Projects DIVISION SEVEN HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES LXXIX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Delicate Flavor LXXX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Strong Flavor LXXXI. Salads (A) LXXXII. Salads (B) LXXXIII. Classification of Foodstuffs RELATED WORK LXXXIV. Selecting Food LXXXV. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper LXXXVL. Review: Meal Cooking LXXXVII. Home Projects DIVISION EIGHT FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS LXXXVIII. Food Adjuncts--Dishes Containing Food Adjuncts RELATED WORK LXXXIX. Spending for Food XC. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper XCI. Review: Meal Cooking XCII. Home Projects DIVISION NINE FOOD COMBINATIONS XCIII. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (A) XCIV. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (B) XCV. Fish Salad and Salad Rolls XCVI. Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws XCVII. Veal and Potatoes XCVIII. Mutton and Lamb Dishes XCIX. Pork, Vegetables, and Apple Sauce C. Chicken and Rice CI. Chicken and Peas CII. Oyster Dishes CIII. Meat-substitute Dishes CIV. Meat Extenders and One-dish Meals RELATED WORK CV. Menu-making CVI. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Luncheon or Supper CVII. Review: Meal Cooking CVIII. Home Projects DIVISION TEN QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS CIX. Leavening with Steam and Air: Popovers CX. Leavening with Baking Soda and Sour Milk: Spider Corn Bread CXI. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Molasses: Gingerbread CXII. Leavening with Baking Powder: Griddle Cakes CXIII. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Baking Powder: Sour Milk Griddle Cakes CXIV. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Cream of Tartar: Steamed Brown Breads CXV. Formulating Recipes--Waffles RELATED WORK CXVI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Foods CXVII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner CXVIII. Review: Meal Cooking CXIX. Home Projects DIVISION ELEVEN QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS CXX. Fine and Coarse Flours--Muffins CXXI. Comparison of Wheat and Other Grains--Muffins CXXII. Baking Powder Loaf Breads CXXIII. Eggs for Quick Breads--Cream Puffs RELATED WORK CXXIV. Food Requirement CXXV. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner CXXVI. Review: Meal Cooking CXXVII. Home Projects DIVISION TWELVE QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS CXXVIII. Method of Mixing Fat in Quick Breads--Drop Biscuit CXXIX. Quantity of Fat in Quick Breads--Short Cake CXXX. "Cut" Biscuit RELATED WORK CXXXI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Food Applied to the Daily Food Requirement. CXXXII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner. CXXXIII. Review: Meal Cooking. CXXXIV. Home Projects. DIVISION THIRTEEN YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS CXXXV. Yeast--Loaf Bread. CXXXVI. Wheat Flour--Bread Sponge. CXXXVII. Modifications of Plain White Bread. CXXXVIII. Rolls and Buns. RELATED WORK CXXXIX. Food for Girls and Boys. CXL. Planning a Day's Diet--Cooking and Serving a Meal. CXLI. Review: Meal Cooking. CXLII. Home Projects. DIVISION FOURTEEN CAKE CXLIII. Cake without Fat--Sponge Cake. CXLIV. Cake Containing Fat--One-egg Cake. CXLV. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (A) CXLVI. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (B) CXLVII. Cake Containing Fat--Cookies CXLVIII. Cakes without Eggs RELATED WORK CXLIX. The Luncheon Box CL. Planning and Preparing Box Luncheons CLI. Review--Meal Cooking CLII. Home Projects DIVISION FIFTEEN PASTRY CLIII. Pies with Under Crust CLIV. Pies with Upper Crust CLV. Two-crust Pies RELATED WORK CLVI. Infant Feeding CLVII. Modifying Milk CLVIII. Review--Meal Cooking CLIX. Home Projects DIVISION SIXTEEN FROZEN DESSERTS CLX. Method of Freezing--Water Ice CLXI. Frozen Creams RELATED WORK CLXII. Diet for Young Children CLXIII. Planning and Preparing Menus for Children CLXIV. Review--Meal Cooking CLXV. Home Projects DIVISION SEVENTEEN FOOD PRESERVATION CLXVI. The Principles of Preserving Food CLXVII. Processing with Little or No Sugar--Canned Fruit CLXVIII. Processing with Much Sugar--Preserves, Jams, and Conserves CLXIX. Processing with Much Sugar--Jellies CLXX. Processing with Vinegar and Spices--Relishes CLXXI. Canned Vegetables CLXXII. Dried Vegetables RELATED WORK CLXXIII. The Sick-room Tray CLXXIV. Preparing Trays for the Sick and Convalescent CLXXV. Review--Meal Cooking CLXXVI. Home Projects DIVISION EIGHTEEN SUPPLEMENTARY I. Thanksgiving Sauce II. Thanksgiving Desserts III. Christmas Sweets IV. Christmas Candy APPENDIX Suggestions for Teaching Books for Reference INDEX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A corner in Washington's kitchen at Mt. Vernon [_Frontispiece_] 1. Skewer and knitting needle for testing foods 2. A sink arranged for efficiency in dish-washing 3. Utensils for dish-washing 4. Dish-drainer 5. Dish-drainer 6. Dish-rack 7. Dish-rack 8. A rack for drying dishes 9. Utensils for measuring and weighing foods 10. Coal range, showing course of direct draft 11. Coal range, showing course of indirect draft 12. Gas burner, showing mixer 13. Gas burners 14. Gas range, showing direction of draft 15. Cross-section of wickless kerosene stove 16. Electric range 17. Pressure cooker 18. Steam cooker, containing various foods 19. Scene on a tea plantation 20. Tea-ball teapot 21. Coffee berries 22. Coffee percolator 23. Grains of starch 24. A cupful of rice before and after boiling 25. Insulated wall of a refrigerator 26. Fireless cooker, having excelsior packing 27. Fireless cooker, with stone disks 28. Electric fireless cooker 29. Gas range, having fireless cooker attachment, insulated oven and hoods 30. Method of folding filter paper 31. Utensil for steaming,--a "steamer" 32. "Steam" without pressure, and "steam" which has been under pressure 33. Table laid for an informal luncheon 34. Wheel tray 35. How to hold the knife and fork 36. Keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth 37. The teaspoon should rest on the saucer 38. How to hold the soup spoon 39. Apparatus to determine the temperature at which eggs coagulate 40. Method of holding pan to turn an omelet on to a platter 41. Cocoa pods 42. Dried bread crumbs 43. Structure of meat 44. Club or Delmonico steak 45. Porterhouse 46. Sirloin,--hip steak 47. Sirloin,--flat bone 48. Sirloin,--round bone 49. First cut prime rib roast 50. Second cut prime rib roast 51. Blade rib roast 52. Chuck rib roast 53. Colonial fireplace, showing a "roasting kitchen" 54. Round 55. Chuck 56. Cuts of beef 57. Rump 58. Cross rib, Boston cut, or English cut 59. Skirt steak; flank steak 60. Fish kettle, showing rack 61. A suggestion for the division of each dollar spent for food 62. The composition of roots and succulent vegetables 63. The composition of butter and other fat-yielding foods 64. The composition of milk and milk products 65. Cuts of veal 66. Cuts of lamb or mutton 67. Lamb chops 68. The composition of fresh and cured meats 69. Cuts of pork 70. The composition of fresh and dried fruits 71. Removing tendons from the leg of a fowl 72. Fowl trussed for roasting,--breast view 73. Fowl trussed for roasting,--back view 74. Composition of fish, fish products, and oysters 75. The composition of eggs and cheese 76. The composition of legumes and corn 77. The composition of bread and other cereal foods 78. Foods containing calcium 79. Foods containing phosphorus 80. Foods containing iron 81. Oven heat regulator 82. Illustrating the amount of heat represented by one Calorie 83. Comparative weights of 100-Calorie portions of food 84. 100-Calorie portions of food 85. Longitudinal section of wheat grain, showing bran, floury part, and germ 86. Growing yeast plants 87. Graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modified milk 88. Some species of molds 89. The four types of bacteria 90. Canning foods 91. Rack for holding jars 92. The composition of fruits and fruit products 93. Drier for vegetables or fruits 94. The composition of sugar and similar foods LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 1. Measurement equivalents. 2. Use of the wooden spoon. 3. Lack of draft. 4. Presence of draft. 5. The regulation and purpose of a gas mixer. 6. The dissolving power of water. 7. Presence of gases in water. 8. Simmering and boiling of water. 9. Tannin in tea. 10. The solubility of granulated sugar in cold water. 11. The solubility of granulated sugar in hot water. 12. The solubility of powdered sugar. 13. The solubility of caramel. 14. The starch test. 15. The effect of cold water on starch. 16. The effect of heat on starch. 17. Stiffening of cooked starch. 18. The structure of starch. 19. Separation of cellulose and starch. 20. The difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cooked over boiling water. 21. Retention of heat. 22. Starch grains and boiling water. 23. Separation of starch grains with cold water. 24. Separation of starch grains with sugar. 25. Separation of starch grains with fat. 26. The change of starch into dextrin. 27. The solubility of dextrin. 28. Starch in cracker. 29. Action of saliva upon starch. 30. The effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water. 31. Temperature at which fats and oils decompose or "burn". 32. Bread fried in "cool" fat. 33. The temperature of fat for frying 34. Saponification of fat 35. Action of oil and water 36. Emulsion of fat 37. The coagulation of egg-white 38. The solubility of albumin 39. Temperature at which eggs coagulate 40. Comparison of cooked and boiled eggs 41. Effect of beating a whole egg 42. Comparison of eggs beaten with a Dover egg beater and with a wire spoon 43. Effect of beating egg yolk and white separately 44. Separation of milk into foodstuffs 45. Scalding milk 46. Comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware 47. Effect of rennet on milk 48. Separation of curd and whey 49. Effect of acid on milk 50. Division of muscle 51. Effect of dry heat on (_a_) connective tissue, (_b_) muscle fiber 52. Effect of moisture and heat on (_a_) connective tissue, (_b_) muscle fiber 53. Comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening 54. Effect of cold water on meat 55. Effect of boiling water on meat 56. Effect of salt on meat 57. Effect of cold water on gelatine 58. Effect of hot water on gelatine 59. Effect of soaking fish in water 60. Effect of boiling fish rapidly 61. Effect of acid on milk 62. Neutralization of acid by means of soda 63. Protein in oyster liquor 64. Leavening with steam and air 65. Comparison of thick and thin quick breads 66. Preparation of flour for quick breads 67. Action of baking soda on sour milk 68. Chemical change 69. Quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk 70. Action of baking soda on molasses. 71. Quantity of baking soda to use with molasses. 72. Effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda. 73. Effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda. 74. Effect of hot water on baking powder. 75. Starch in baking powder. 76. Comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders. 77. Conditions for growth of the yeast plant. 78. Protein in flour. 79. Mixtures for freezing. 80. Effect of air, light, and drying upon the growth of molds. 81. Effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds. 82. Effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds. 83. Effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds. 84. Growth of molds on cut fruit. 85. Growth of molds upon whole fruits. 86. Growth of molds on other foods. 87. Growth of molds upon wood. 88. Growth of molds upon cloth. 89. Contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food. 90. Growth of bacteria. 91. Effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria. 92. Effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria. 93. Use of sugar as a preservative. 94. Pectin in fruit juice. 95. Pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel. [Illustration: BLEST BE THE FEAST WITH SIMPLE PLENTY CROWNED] FOREWORD One of the slogans of the World War,--"Food will win the War,"--showed that food was much more important than many persons had believed. It confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, or relieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor in achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time. The subject of food is a broad one,--one that is growing in interest. Many present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. The most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. If you would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your food carefully. A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foods one should know what foods to _select_ at market, whence they come, how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, and how they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety of foods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; others contain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said that for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is a pity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchased at the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods to choose to meet best the needs of the body. Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter of _combining_ foods that are varied in composition or that supplement one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not only nutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important to combine foods that "taste well." In learning to _prepare_ foods, the experience of those who have cooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told to follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Following a direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result in rapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you would become skilful in food preparation. One class of food or one principle of cooking may be _related_ to another or _associated_ with another. For example, the method of cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general. There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle of cooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupil has learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply the principle to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, the pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledge gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of a cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipes appearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved. The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker and acquires skill in a much shorter time. The _results_ of every process should be observed. Careful observations should be made when work is not successful. There is no such thing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. The cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The same mistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to result from such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result of one's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a great satisfaction, to the home-keeper. A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Graceful _serving_ of food at such a table is an art. The ability to serve food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to acquire. Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as follows: (_a_) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy, nutriment, and flavor. (_b_) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one class of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another. (_c_) Note the results of your work; know why the results are successful or why they are unsuccessful. Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all important factors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realize that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil, broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. All this demands much earnest thought and effort. SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING DIVISION ONE INTRODUCTION LESSON I BAKED APPLES--DISH-WASHING BAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins) 6 apples Seeded raisins 6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 6 tablespoonfuls water Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core from each. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish. Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugar in each core. Pour the water around the apples. Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient baking with a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking, occasionally "baste" the apples, _i.e._ take spoonfuls of the water from around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for baking apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From 20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required. DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.--There is almost invariably a waste of effort in both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to: (_a_) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments. (_b_) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing. (_c_) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too many motions in washing and drying them. Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping, efficiency methods, _i.e._ methods which accomplish satisfactory results with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be applied to it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, may become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study. [Illustration: FIGURE 1.--SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS. Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which serves as a handle.] For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable: A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing dishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a sink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on an inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for this purpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of the sink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans; dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish- mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish- cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap- holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and a large cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size for use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slats for drying brushes (see Figure 2). PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.--If possible, as soon as _serving dishes, i.e._ dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits of food from them. The scraping may be done with: (_a_) a piece of soft paper, (_b_) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (_c_) a knife or spoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping, but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible to wash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can be washed. [Illustration: FIGURE 2.--A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING. Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in the upper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.] _Cooking utensils_ need special care before washing, especially if they have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease from dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the drainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills and great inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting a utensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefully with a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan or kettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil with hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a few minutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectiveness of this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied to aluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark stain on aluminum) [Illustration: FIGURE 3--UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths G plate scraper] Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency if they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, using cold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, or starch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup. ARRANGING DISHES.--Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing utensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind of dishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at the _right_ of the dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at the _left_ of the pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may be no unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washing at the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the left hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed at the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining board at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure 2). WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--Fill the dish-pan about two thirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes in the pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latter is used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan about two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may be placed in the rinsing pan. Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanest dishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups, saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap- dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do not wash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bits of blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or vinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover egg beater should not soak in water. If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth. Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold or greasy. [Illustration: FIGURE 4.--DISH-DRAINER.] Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to scour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to the steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there are any stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Apply the latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible, rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry or bread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold water and scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which is free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, or bread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side to prevent warping. [Illustration: FIGURE 5.--DISH-DRAINER.] RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.--Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (see Figures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the former has been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of the water to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish- racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again. [Illustration: FIGURE 6--DISH-RACK.] DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--If such dishes as plates, platters, and saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, no towel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a soft towel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for this purpose. Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting, dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel on these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the warming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open air. Stand boards on end until dry. [Illustration: FIGURE 7.--DISH-RACK.] CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.--Use dish-towels and cloths for no other purpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importance to keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soak them in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. At least once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them as directed above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until it boils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry. [Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.--A RACK FOR DRYING DISHES.] CARE OF THE SINK.--If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may be cleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wears away the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult to clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used in cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water standing in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth and wash the sink. _Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning the sink._ If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, apply a small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by opening the hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down the drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap. The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. This is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. If this is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much hot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. If the latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop the drain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To use this, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water. Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remain in the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon of water. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away. SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.--For both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen or the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to cover the hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn in the kitchen. The hands should be washed _before_ preparing or cooking food, and _after_ touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirable to have a hand towel conveniently placed. _Clean cooking_ means _clean tasting_. This can be done by taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from the cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon. QUESTIONS Are apples sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck? What is the price per pound or per peck of apples? Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch be rinsed with _cold_ water? Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in _hot_ water? Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed with hot water before washing? Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water? Why not _fill_ the dish-pan with soiled dishes? Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water? Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover egg beater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with a soft towel? Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly? Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment 87.) Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering? Why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain or enamel sink? What is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no water run from the faucet while cleaning a sink? LESSON II MEASUREMENTS--STUFFED AND SCALLOPED TOMATOES EXPERIMENT 1: [Footnote 2: The pupil should record each experiment in a notebook in a methodical way, giving (_a_) the aim of the experiment, (_b_) the process, (_c_) the result, and (_d_) the conclusion or practical application.] MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS.--In measuring solid materials with teaspoon, tablespoon, or standard measuring cup (see Figure 9), fill the measuring utensil with the material and then "level" it with a knife. Use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements: (_a_) Find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful (_b_) Find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup (_c_) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise [Illustration: FIGURE 9--UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS] An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuring fractional teaspoonfuls NEED OF ACCURACY--When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure all ingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredients for certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result is satisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her own standards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives are not _sure_ of success. For certain foods the ingredients should always be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far as possible, the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text. When the quantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merely the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated. When large quantities of materials are to be measured, a quart measure on which the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves more convenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are more conveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipment for cooking (see Figure 9). The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements. She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking utensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity of several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of measurement. Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food to buy at market, and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated number of persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. She might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts concerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of a little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thrifty housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when there were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note the quantity of the materials used, and then observe the quantity of the finished product. EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.--Place a tin and a wooden spoon in a saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5 minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which would be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind of spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, knobs on covers for saucepans, etc., are of wood. STUFFED TOMATOES 6 ripe tomatoes 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper 3/4 teaspoonful mixed herbs 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of the seed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, then add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with the prepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about 20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbs brown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1) rather than with a fork. For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme. _Soft bread crumbs_ are prepared from stale bread, _i.e._ bread that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours. Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of bread crumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and butter with these vegetables. Use a granite, glass, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Recipes for both fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon the season can be made.] 1 can or 1 quart tomatoes 1 tablespoonful salt Dash pepper 3 cupfuls bread crumbs 3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain and peel and cut into pieces. Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking- dish. Cover with buttered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at 400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking to prevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scalloped dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked. Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes. Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1 cupful of the dried crumbs. TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.--Heat slightly the pan or dish to be oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub the heated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory method because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not have to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It is well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen for this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory means of applying melted butter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings to the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful cleaning. Butter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used for oiling pans or baking-dishes. QUESTIONS In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs before they are buttered. Why? Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a fork? What kind of baking-pan--tin, granite, or earthenware--is best to use for Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_, p.65) Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck? What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck? How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs? How many slices in one loaf of bread? LESSON III FUELS AND COMBUSTION--SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH FUEL.--In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn, _i.e._ a fuel. The fuels commonly used in households are,--wood, coal, kerosene, and gas. Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat. HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.--There are fuel substances everywhere,--paper, cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does not burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper is placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood. All fuels must be heated before they will burn. When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn, while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and continue to burn is called the _kindling temperature_ of that substance. DRAFT; OXYGEN.-- EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.--(_a_) Place a short candle on a pan. Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the candle continue to burn? Why? (_b_) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn? Why? EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.--Remove the cover from the top of the chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this experiment. If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded from it. _The act of burning,_ i.e. _combustion, is the union of any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are produced._ We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third requisite for combustion. The necessity for a draft, _i.e._ a continuous supply of fresh air which furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4. SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.] SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.] Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove the skin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fat and heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden brown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over the frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve at once. BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3] Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for serving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (at right angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell. Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (at moderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter, salt, and pepper. QUESTIONS Name the three requisites for combustion. Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain your answer. What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind of squash is required to serve 6 persons? LESSON IV COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The principles of building a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cooking or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the pupils, this lesson may be omitted]--CORN DISHES EXAMINATION OF A COAL RANGE.--Remove the lids from the coal range. Note the location of the fire box. What is its purpose? How is the floor of the fire box constructed? Where is the check damper? What is its purpose? Where is the ash pan? Where is the front damper? What is its purpose? Note the place where the stovepipe joins the range. What is the purpose of the stovepipe? Note the damper in the stovepipe. What is its purpose? Note the location of the oven. By what is the oven surrounded? Find the oven damper. Open it. In what direction do the hot gases pass out when the oven damper is open? What part of the range is heated when the oven damper is open? _An open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range_ (see Figure 10). Close the oven damper. Trace the direction of the hot gases when the damper is closed. What parts of the range are heated when the oven damper is closed? _A closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through the range_ (see Figure 11). How should the front, oven, check, and chimney dampers be arranged when the fire is kindled? PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.--What is found deposited on the inside of the stovepipe of a coal range? To what is the upper end of the stovepipe joined? What does one often see coming from the top of a chimney? [Illustration: FIGURE 10.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF DIRECT DRAFT.] In the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned, it united with oxygen. It is a matter of common observation that when all solid fuels--coal, wood, paper--burn, they decrease in size, and that fuel gas is consumed. Apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels have been burned, and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has been burned. Yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from the chimney. Both solid and gaseous materials, such as ashes, soot, and smoke, are formed when fuels burn. Such materials are called _products of combustion_. FIRE BUILDING IN A COAL RANGE.--It is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire. After cleaning, place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottom of the fire box, then about four layers of kindling wood, placed so that there are air passages between the pieces, and on top of the wood put two shovelfuls of coal. Regulate the dampers for a direct draft, replace the stove-lids, and brush the surface of the stove. [Illustration: FIGURE 11.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF INDIRECT DRAFT.] Before lighting the fuels, polish the range in the following manner: To the nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactory metal cleanser. To the iron of the stove apply oil rather than "blacking." Light paraffin oil may be used for this purpose. Apply the oil with cotton waste, or a soft cloth. (Care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil.) Polish with soft cotton or woolen cloth. One should remember, however, that oil must be used with caution. _It should never be applied to a stove containing burning fuels._ If the stove cloth, saturated with oil, is not destroyed after using, it is well to keep it in a covered tin can or stone jar. After polishing the stove, light the fuels. When the wood is reduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning, add more coal. If this burns well, change the dampers to make an indirect draft. GREEN CORN In selecting corn for cooking, choose those ears that are filled with well-developed kernels, from which milky juice flows when pressed with the thumb. Cook as soon as possible after gathering. _To boil green corn_ remove silk and husk from the corn, place the ears in boiling water. Cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernels when pressed (usually from 12 to 20 minutes). Serve whole on a platter. The platter may be covered with a folded napkin. _To bake green corn_ select 12 ears. Remove the corn from the cob as follows: Cut through the center of each row of grains, slice off the tops of the kernels, and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob. Put in a baking-dish, add: 3/4 cupful milk 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper Bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. Serve hot. Green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top of the range. To the corn cut from 12 ears, add the same ingredients, using less milk. Cook at simmering temperature until tender. SCALLOPED CORN 1 can corn 2/3 cupful milk 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs Mix the corn, milk, and seasonings. Mix the crumbs and fat, and place one fourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, add one half of the corn mixture, then another fourth of the crumbs, the remainder of the corn mixture, and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs. Bake at 400 degrees F., for 45 minutes. QUESTIONS Explain why it is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts of a coal range clean before building a fire. If both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire, which should be placed next to the paper? Explain your answer. What is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning a range? Explain why a stove cloth, saturated with oil, should be kept in a covered tin can or stone jar. Compare the method of mixing the crumbs in Scalloped Tomatoes and in Scalloped Corn. Which contains the more moisture,--corn or tomatoes? From this explain the difference in mixing. What is the price of 12 ears of green corn or of 1 can of corn? LESSON V GAS RANGES--SCALLOPED FRUIT EXAMINATION OF A GAS BURNER.--Inspect a gas burner and find the following parts: (_a_) Supply pipe. (_b_) Stopcock. (_c_) Burner. (_d_) Mixer (see Figure 12). To light a gas burner, observe the following directions, and in the order named: (_a_) Strike the match. (_b_) Turn the stopcock. (_c_) Apply the match to the open burner. (_d_) If necessary, regulate the stopcock and mixer, so that the flame is blue in color. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Clark Stove Co_ FIGURE 12.--GAS BURNER SHOWING MIXER] EXPERIMENT 6: THE REGULATION AND PURPOSE OF A GAS MIXER.--Light a gas burner and then completely close the mixer of the burner. If the mixer is stationary, it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it. What is the color of the flame? Now open the mixer. What is the color of the flame? What substance has been "mixed" with the gas by opening the burner? What is the purpose of the mixer? EXAMINATION OF A GAS RANGE.--Inspect a gas range and find the following parts: (_a_) Top burners--regular, giant and simmering (see Figure 13). (_b_) Stopcocks of top burners. (_c_) Oven burners. (_d_) Stopcocks of oven burners. (_e_) Pilot (if there is one). (_f_) Baking oven. (_g_) Broiling oven. (_h_) Warming oven and its burner (if there is one). (_i_) Supply pipe. (_j_) Stovepipe. The method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges, and for this reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which will apply to all oven burners. There is, however, one important direction that should always be borne in mind. _Always open the oven door before lighting the oven burners._ If such caution is not observed, the gas may escape into the oven and cause an explosion. In case there is a pilot- lighter, open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned off before lighting the pilot. [Illustration: Courtesy of Clark Stove Co FIGURE 13--GAS BURNERS A, giant, B, regular, C, simmering] ADJUSTING A GAS BURNER.--The products of combustion of fuel gas that most interest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is not a poisonous gas, but it does not support animal life. Air containing much carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfect respiration, hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion of a gas stove; good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas range as for a coal range (see Figure 14). When gas burns with a yellow flame, it deposits soot on cooking utensils and does not give as much heat as it should. This is caused by incomplete combustion. Moreover, _carbon monoxide_, which is present in some gas, may escape without burning. This is an exceedingly poisonous gas and when inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects. Hence it is specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner is clean, well regulated, and properly constructed, so that sufficient air can mix with the gas to produce a blue flame. CONSERVING GAS.--According to authoritative information, [Footnote 8: United States Fuel Administration Bulletin, "Use and Conservation of Natural Gas"] "the demands for natural gas are now greater than the available supply. Food and trees can be grown. Water supplies are constantly replenished by nature, but there is no regeneration in natural gas." It is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions of years will be required to make the present concentrated supply. As far as we are concerned, when the present supply is used up, it is gone forever. Since natural gas is a most efficient fuel, every housekeeper and householder should feel obligated to waste none of it. Suggestions for conserving gas follow: (1) See that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is light blue in color. (2) In selecting a gas stove, see that the burner is so located that the cooking surface is the correct distance above the burner. The tip of the flame should touch the bottom of the utensil. If it is necessary to have a long flame in order to bring this about, there is considerable waste of gas. (3) If the flame is long, the gas pressure is greater than necessary. Regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe. A short flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results, provided the cooking surface is the proper distance above the burner. (4) After the contents of a cooking utensil boils, turn the gas cock so that only "gentle" boiling takes place. A food becomes no hotter in rapidly boiling than in gently boiling water. (5) When possible, use the simmering burner rather than the regular or giant burner. (6) Let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil. There is a wastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cooking utensil. (7) Turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed. Matches are cheaper than fuel gas. CARE OF THE GAS RANGE.--_Daily Care_.--If any substance on the stove cannot be removed easily, loosen it with a knife, and then wipe the stove with a newspaper. Clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a little light paraffin oil on it. Polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth. Remove the tray that is beneath the top burners, and wash. _Weekly Care_.--Wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray with water to which washing soda solution has been added. It is well to light the oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens. Polish the nickel, if necessary. Clean the stove with oil as directed for a coal range. (_Since oils ignite most readily, care should be taken not to apply the oil when the stove is lighted!_) Wipe the burner with the oil. Clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle or wire kept for this purpose; or, if the openings in the burners are slots, use a knife to clean them. SCALLOPED APPLES 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 3 cupfuls apples 1/2 cupful sugar 1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon 1/2 teaspoonful nutmeg 1/2 lemon,--juice and grated rind 1/4 cupful water Mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Chop or cut the apples in small pieces, and add the remaining ingredients to the apples. Arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish as directed for Scalloped Corn. Bake 40 to 60 minutes (until the apples are tender and the crumbs brown), in a moderate oven. Cover during first 20 minutes of baking. Serve hot with sugar and cream or Hard Sauce. Care should be taken in grating _lemon rind_. Only the thin yellow portion should be used as flavoring. HARD SAUCE 1 cupful butter 1 cupful powdered sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Chill and serve over hot puddings. SCALLOPED BANANAS In the Scalloped Apple recipe substitute bananas for apples, omit the water, and use 1/2 teaspoonful of cinnamon and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves for the spices. Bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbs browned. (It will take about 15 minutes.) Serve as Scalloped Apples. QUESTIONS Explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while the oven burners are being lighted. If a gas stove has no pipe for waste products, what special caution must be observed in ventilating the kitchen? What are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range? What disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams up the sides of a cooking utensil? What causes pared apples to become discolored? Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Apples so that discoloration of the apples will be avoided. How many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of chopped apples? What is the purpose of covering the Scalloped Apples during the first half of the time for baking? What is the effect of the air on peeled bananas? Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Bananas. Why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the apple mixture? What is the effect of too long baking on bananas? What is the most practical method of cleaning a grater? Why should not the dish-cloth be used in cleaning it? LESSON VI STOVES AND HEATING DEVICES--STUFFED PEPPERS, BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES KEROSENE STOVES. [Footnote 9: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--In case no kerosene, gasoline, or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils, the portion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted.]--Where gas is not available for cooking, kerosene may serve as a fuel. In case a house is equipped with a coal range, a kerosene stove may also be desirable for use in summer time. There are two types of kerosene stoves, viz., wick and wickless stoves. The burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which become saturated with kerosene. When a match is applied to the wick, the kerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns. The burning kerosene vapor vaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Detroit Vapor Stove Co_ FIGURE 15.-- CROSS-SECTION OF WICKLESS KEROSENE STOVE.] In one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so that the kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it (see Figure 15). Such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasoline into it. A lighter is then applied to the burner. When the latter is sufficiently heated, the kerosene is turned on. The kerosene then vaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns. In other types of so-called wickless stoves, the burners are equipped with asbestos or other incombustible material. This material becomes saturated with kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat as does a cloth wick. It is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean. Bits of carbon collect in them and prevent perfect combustion. This results in "smoke" or soot issuing from the burner. It is well to keep the burners and wicks free from charred material, and to renew the latter when they become short. Most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel. These should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning. A wick burner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the container is exhausted. GASOLINE STOVES [Footnote 10: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]-- Since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene, it requires a different type of burner and stove. As a usual thing gasoline cannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves. (In the stove shown in Figure 15, however, either fuel may be burned.) When gasoline is used in a stove, it is necessary to vaporize the gasoline before lighting the burner. This is accomplished in most stoves by letting the gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner, turning off the supply of gasoline, and then applying a match to the cup. By the time the gasoline is burned the burner is heated. Then the stopcock is turned on, a match applied to the burner, and the gasoline vaporizes and burns. Gasoline burners, like those in which kerosene is burned, should be kept clean. When a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated, an explosion may result. It is for this reason that _the tank or gasoline container of a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove are lighted or even hot._ [Illustration: Courtesy of _Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co_ FIGURE 16.--ELECTRIC RANGE.] ELECTRIC STOVES. [Footnote 11: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]--It was mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel. Hence electric stoves are not provided with burners. They have heaters which contain coils of wires through which an electric current passes. Electricity is the cleanest source of heat for cooking. But in order to operate an electric stove economically, it is necessary to utilize the current required for a heating element to its greatest extent. For example, if the current is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should be cooked in the oven (see Figure 16). [Illustration: FIGURE 17.--PRESSURE COOKER.] DEVICES AND UTENSILS FOR SAVING FUEL.--The _pressure cooker_ (see Figure 17) in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water is maintained is a great saver of fuel. A food can be cooked in from one third to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices. Moreover, pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitude cooking, where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level. The _steam cooker_ (see Figure 18) is a fuel saver, when several foods are cooked at one time in it. Sufficient fuel for only one burner is required to operate it. The so-called _clover leaf pans_ or utensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner or heater save much fuel or current (see Figures 16 and 27.). The _fireless cookers_ described in Lesson XXII are practical fuel and heat savers. STUFFED PEPPERS [Footnote 12: A choice of either Stuffed Peppers or Butterscotch Apples may be made for this lesson.] 6 green peppers 1 cupful cooked meat, chopped 1 tablespoonful scraped onion 1 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute [Illustration: Courtesy of _Toledo Cooker Co_ FIGURE 18.--STEAM COOKER CONTAINING VARIOUS FOODS.] Cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwise in halves. Remove the seeds. Mix the chopped meat, onion, and salt. Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed in Stuffed Tomatoes. Combine the ingredients and stuff the peppers with the mixture. Place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan, and pour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 45 minutes or until the peppers are tender. Serve hot in place of meat. If desired, 1/4 cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to the stuffing mixture. Cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs. A mixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce (see p 87) also makes a tasty stuffing for peppers. If a slice is cut from the top of the pepper, it may be used as a lid to cover the pepper after stuffing. BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES [Footnote 13: See footnote 12.] 5 apples 2/3 cupful brown sugar 1/2 cupful water 3/4 cupful milk 1/2 tablespoonful corn-starch 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Wash the apples, and cut them into quarters, pare and core them. Into a saucepan put the sugar and water, and heat. When the sirup boils, add the apples. Cover and boil gently until the apples are tender. Remove the apples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater, placing the fruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving. In another pan, mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then add it to the sirup in which the apples were cooked. Boil for a few minutes. Add the salt, butter, and vanilla. Stir these into the mixture, then pour the sauce over the apples. Serve Butterscotch Apples hot or cold for a dessert. QUESTIONS State at least two reasons why gas, kerosene, and gasoline are more popular fuels in summer time than coal. Mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner. Why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the container is exhausted? Carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filled while the stove is lighted or hot. Why are electric stoves not provided with burners? Why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver? How should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel? Explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans. Note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers Give the reason for this. What is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in which peppers are baked? Did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit? From this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during the cooking. NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the course in food study is begun in the fall, when fruits are in season, the lessons of Division Seventeen--_The Preservation of Food_--may follow this lesson. The plan of canning fruit in the autumn is desirable, especially if the course in foods covers but one year. If more than one year is devoted to food study, the teacher may find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the second year, or at the close of the spring semester of the first year. The pupils at these times will have become more skilful, so that the canning of foods can be accomplished with greater satisfaction. The high cost of fruits and sugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result from food preservation. (Also see the note at the end of lesson XIII.) DIVISION TWO BODY-REGULATING FOOD: WATER LESSON VII WATER AND BEVERAGES (A) EXPERIMENT 6: THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER.--Put 1/2 teaspoonful of salt in a test tube, half fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the test tube with the thumb, then shake the tube. Do the contents become clear? Set the tube aside for a few minutes. Does the salt separate from the water? When a solid substance, by mixing with water, disappears in the water and does not separate on standing, the solid substance is _dissolved_. The salt was therefore dissolved in cold water, or it may be said that salt is _soluble_ in cold water, or that water is a _solvent_ of salt. SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.--The change of foods in the body from insoluble to a soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in the digestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such as salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergo changes before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does not dissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easily dissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an important step in the process of digesting. USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.--A person might live for a number of weeks without eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinking water. Water has many uses in the body. (_a_) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property, water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (See _Solution and Digestion_.) (_b_) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to all parts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body. (_c_) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Because water is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of the body to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat of the body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed of water, also aids in regulating body temperature. It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the body working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in the statement: _Water aids in regulating body processes_. FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.--Since water is such a ready solvent, it contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking purposes unless boiled. EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.--Fill a beaker half full of water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What does water contain which is driven off by heat? EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.--Continue to heat the water of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is indicated by the larger bubbles? HEATING WATER.--When bubbling occurs below the surface, water is _simmering_. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off, water is _boiling_. [Illustration: FIGURE 19--SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.] The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness can be overcome somewhat by _aerating_ the water after boiling, _i.e._ by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air with it. TEA AND ITS SELECTION.--Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan (see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and sold as tea. In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves. Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not. Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance called _tannin_ (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown by the following: EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.--(_a_) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes, then strain the infusion. (_b_) Repeat (_a_) substituting green tea for black. (_c_) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage. To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present. Which kind of beverage,--black or green tea,--shows the greater quantity of tannin? By fermentation, tannin is changed into a _less soluble form_, so the beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in various countries have different flavors. Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not reach this country. MAKING THE BEVERAGE.--Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen, enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never be used. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) The ingredient in tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans. Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves. TEA (proportion for one cupful) 1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves 1 cupful freshly boiled water Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea leaves. Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20) for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other. The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are loosely folded. Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry. In warm weather _Iced Tea_ may be served. "Left over" tea may be utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments 10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea. [Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.--TEA-BALL TEAPOT.] Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons, and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea. TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve. If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface spread with cheese. QUESTIONS By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves? How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea? Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7 and 8.) Which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green? Explain. Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes? From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black teas. From what countries do they come? How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a pound? Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers. LESSON VIII WATER AND BEVERAGES (B) WATER AS A BEVERAGE.--Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage. When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of water. From one to two quarts of water,--either as plain water or in beverages,--should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used. WATER, A FOODSTUFF.--The body is nourished by food and there are many different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which foods are composed are called _nutrients_ or _foodstuffs_ [Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly called _food principles.)_ A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs. [Illustration: Figure 21--Coffee Berries.] Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body. As explained in the previous lesson, water is a _body-regulating foodstuff._ USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.--Water is a cleansing agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling. Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking. COFFEE.--Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans, are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil. Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid is extracted by long boiling. Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma. BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful) 1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee 2 tablespoonfuls cold water Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white 1 cup boiling water (1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls of ground coffee.) Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear. Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee CARE OF COFFEEPOT.--The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary. The spout needs special care in cleaning. FILTERED COFFEE 2/3 cupful finely ground coffee 5 cupfuls freshly boiled water (For the following method of preparing coffee, a _drip coffeepot_ is used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is poured through the ground coffee.) Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot. Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken, however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "_Black_" or _After Dinner Coffee_ may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1 cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Manning, Bowman Co_ FIGURE 22.--COFFEE PERCOLATOR.] Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure 22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee. The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the percolator. Follow the directions that come with it. OATMEAL COOKIES 1 egg 1/2 cupful sugar 3/8 cupful fat _or_ 1/4 cupful vegetable oil 2 tablespoonfuls sour milk 1 cupful rolled oats 1 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 cupful raisins Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the sour milk and rolled oats. Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt, baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color. These cookies may be served with coffee. QUESTIONS How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer? When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee. Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after the coffee is boiled? Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling? In what form,--ground or whole,--should coffee be purchased? Why? In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain. How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee. What is the average price per pound of coffee? RELATED WORK LESSON IX HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--One of the most insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school activities can be measured by the way they function in the home. Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function in the home than by the educative process called the _project_. Stevenson defines a project _as a problematic act carried to completion in its_ natural setting, while Kilpatrick says _a project is a whole- hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment_. In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils' mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in the home. In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which will be performed in a "hearty" manner. Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a project is an act which involves _mental effort_, and that the activity must be _carried_ to _completion_. The fact that the project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory results. The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating: Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X, Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W. Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.] WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.--Each member of a home has certain obligations to fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy home membership." APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.--There is no more effective way of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your achievements will bring to the entire household. Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad to have your cooperation in housekeeping. Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects." To secure successful results, your home work must be done _thoughtfully_, and _earnestly_, and in a _whole-hearted_ way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also instructs you to keep in mind the following aims: (1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table. (2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served. In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a _determination_ to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future. You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought as you worked. You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes, it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their cost. Suggestions for Home Projects: Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in Lessons I to V once a week. Suggested Aims: (1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as possible. (2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency methods strive to lessen the time. (3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the members of your home will find them most palatable. LESSON X AFTERNOON TEA PLANNING THE TEA.--To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit with your teacher and classmates. In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to entertain your guests,--what you will have them do to have a pleasant time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of serving them must also be considered. The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu. Sweets or candies are often served with these foods. The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut Sweetmeats From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream), sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter. COCONUT SWEETMEATS 1/4 cupful powdered sugar l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 egg white Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff. Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly. Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan, place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box. SERVING THE TEA.--For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the presence of the guests. When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take them from the plates with their fingers. Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the materials and dishes needed. DIVISION THREE BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER) LESSON XI FRESH VEGETABLES (A) ASH.--In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not consist of one material, but of several substances. _Ash_ or mineral matter is a common constituent of food. It is a _foodstuff_. The term "ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the same kind of ash. The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The substance that remains after burning, _i.e._ the "ashes," is mineral matter or ash. Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment salt--ordinary table salt--(see _Condiments_) must not be confused with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances besides common salt. USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.--Ash as well as water does not burn in the body. It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps to build the body. Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the regulation of body processes. Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (_a_) _it aids in building the body_; and (_b_) _it aids in regulating body processes_. Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet. FRESH VEGETABLES.--It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips. Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water. In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain _cellulose_. The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much cellulose. Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven). Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do. SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.--If ash is such a valuable constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss of nutriment. Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables. Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking. A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways: 1. Cooking in water with their skins. 2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after cooking for sauces and soups. 3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained away after cooking. 4. Cooking in steam. 5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat. COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.--Water in which vegetables are cooked should be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water should be _boiling_ when the vegetables are added and should be kept boiling _gently_ during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them. The water in which vegetables are cooked is called _vegetable stock_. When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock should be utilized in making vegetable sauces. Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle. BEETS Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see _Cooking Vegetables in Water_). Test only the largest beet for sufficient cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter. A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot. Beets may also be served with a _sauce_. Prepare the sauce like White Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar. Beets may be _pickled_ by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold. SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS 2 cupfuls sliced onions 2 cupfuls tomatoes 1 tablespoonful fat Salt and pepper 1 cupful bread crumbs Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions, however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added. Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400 degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot. BROILED TOMATOES Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them (with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once. QUESTIONS Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11, explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking. State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on beets during cooking. Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with a fork. What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound? Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson. What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after parboiling them? LESSON XII FRESH VEGETABLES (B) FOOD PREJUDICES.--Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food. There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by a thorough knowledge of the subject. Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully, you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing experience. TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.--It is not possible to state just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables, especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long cooking. For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the most reliable test. TABLE Asparagus 15-20 minutes Beets (young) 45-60 minutes Beets (old) 3-4 hours Cabbage 15-30 minutes Carrots 30-60 minutes Cauliflower 20-30 minutes Celery 20-45 minutes Green Corn 12-20 minutes Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes Onions 30-45 minutes Parsnips 30-45 minutes Peas (fresh) 20-30 minutes Potatoes 25-30 minutes Spinach 15-30 minutes Squash (summer) 20-30 minutes String Beans 1-3 hours Sweet Potatoes 15-25 minutes Turnips 30-45 minutes PARING VEGETABLES.--If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin. Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.) MASHED TURNIPS 6 medium turnips Salt and pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or knitting needle. Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough salt and pepper to season. Serve hot. BUTTERED CARROTS 4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot. Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may be cooked in the same way. (Adapted from a _United States Department of Agriculture_ recipe.) QUESTIONS Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible? What is the exception to this rule? How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why? Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is moisture not added to mashed turnips? What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in water? Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large amount? What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of these vegetables in a pound? LESSON XIII FRESH FRUITS FRUIT, A NECESSITY.--An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family" (p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet. Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,-- the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits, especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges, and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,--they are constipating. A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy. Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral matter. KINDS OF FRUITS.--In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as such. Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits contain,--those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value. WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable. The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a less desirable flavor results--the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh flavor"--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to fruit _after cooking_, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup if it is desired to preserve its shape. SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.--Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces, and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking. For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining. We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for paring fruit or certain vegetables. _This black substance is formed by the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal._ It is disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils. The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a _low_ (simmering) _temperature_ in a _covered_ utensil. The _casserole_ used on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits. Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces. FRUIT SAUCES Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked fruit. If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice. STEWED FRUITS Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1 cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook _gently_ until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit. Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened. COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.--Use the same kind of fruit and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor? At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit? Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool? Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.) What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means, other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked fruit? RHUBARB SAUCE Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top of a _double boiler_. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked rhubarb. The _casserole_ may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb. Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add sugar as directed above. QUESTIONS How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a pound? What is the price per pound of fresh peaches? For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season. NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen, _The Preservation of Food_, may follow this lesson. Also see the note at the end of Lesson VI. RELATED WORK LESSON XIV REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal" lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch room.] Scalloped Corn Baked Apple Tea Outside Preparation of Lesson. (_a_) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text. (_b_) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make. (_c_) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class. (_d_) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food. (_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_. Preparation of Lesson in Class. (_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work independently. (_b_) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more persons as the time permits. (_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible. (_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working. (_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary. (_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned. (_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be ready for serving. (_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and serving without a maid. (_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of the failure and its remedy. LESSON XV HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal daily. Cook fruit at least once a week. Suggested Aims: (1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost. (2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as possible. DIVISION FOUR ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES LESSON XVI SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this machine gives it energy or the power to move. The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood are examples of the latter kind. At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel foods. There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the first one to be considered. EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does the sugar separate from the water? EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you have the water? EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar? Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar quickly, how would you prepare it? THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see _Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is slightly more complex. Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty. Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress. SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or _glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or _cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar. The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A discussion of these follows: (_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar. Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials. _Brown sugar_ is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture. (_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods. (_c_) _Molasses and Sorghum_.--Molasses is a by-product of cane sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for children. One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It also differs in flavor. Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under various trade names may be purchased. (_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral matter as is molasses. (_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71 per cent. PEANUT CANDY 2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_ 1 cupful granulated sugar _and_ 1 cupful corn sirup (dark) 3/4 cupful chopped peanuts 1/4 teaspoonful salt Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup. If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water. Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, _unbuttered_ pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife. _Puffed cereals_ or _shredded coconut_ may be used instead of peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted. CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This brown liquid is called _caramel_ The process of making it is called _caramelization_. When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature, hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar. NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of an injurious substance called _furfural_ is formed. (See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated, the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural is expelled. In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water, hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color. EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan in which sugar has been caramelized? QUESTIONS Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure? Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure? What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar? What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure? Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and that made with granulated sugar and sirup. Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts? Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy? What is the advantage of heating the pan? Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after adding the peanuts? Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.) From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion, absorption, and assimilation of foods. LESSON XVII SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A) DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and ash. Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most dried fruit is sugar. Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the _Digestion of Sugar_.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its laxative effect. The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as apricots, apples, and rhubarb. Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver). Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This is an advantageous factor in carrying them. GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender, remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold. PRUNES Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar may be omitted and only the lemon juice added. APRICOTS Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2 cupful of sugar. TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads. Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel. If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are soft, drain and press out the seeds. TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer, shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands. Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or in a "cool" oven. MIXED FRUIT SAUCE 1/2 pound dried apricots 1 pint water 1 cupful raisins 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 lemon,--juice 1 orange,--juice and grated rind 5/8 cupful sugar Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert. QUESTIONS Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight. Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due? What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.) What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking? What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking? Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit. State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce. LESSON XVIII SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B) DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten. PRUNE PUDDING 1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped 1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful chopped nuts 1/2 cupful milk or prune water 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful butter _or_ substitute, melted 3 crackers (rolled fine) _or_ 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful baking powder Salt Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes, or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream. DATE PUDDING 1/2 cupful sugar 1 egg 2 tablespoonfuls milk 1/3 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful baking powder Salt 1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces 1 cupful California walnuts, chopped Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream. QUESTIONS How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked prunes? (See _Questions_, Lesson XVII.) What are the prices per pound of figs and dates? How many will the above recipes serve? What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding surrounded with hot water during baking? LESSON XIX CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs from sugar. EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,-- corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca, potato, meat, and egg. What is the result? If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture of iodine is added to it. From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the starchy foods belong. EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar does this experiment show? EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble, like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch? EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked starch change when cooled? EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook. CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose. EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it. Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese- cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this substance? The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23) contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose: (_a_) in the outside covering; (_b_) in the interior framework; (_c_) in the covering of the starch grains. [Illustration: From _Household Chemistry_, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure 23.--Grains of Starch. _a_, potato starch; _b_, corn-starch. (Much magnified.)] Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food. Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food and separate cellulose fibers. Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes: (_a_) They soften the food; (_b_) they change the starch to a paste or make it semisoluble; (_c_) they improve the flavor. Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract, and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste material. CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are grouped into one class, viz. _carbohydrate_. Sugar, starch, and cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. _Carbohydrate is one of the foodstuffs_. Sugar is a food containing only the carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as carbohydrate-rich foods. CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye, and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and breakfast foods are prepared. Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have an important place in man's diet. At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1) the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration. Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home kitchen than the uncooked grains. All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable, the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the method of preparing the cereal for market. Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2 hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness. GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually _one teaspoonful of salt_ is used for _each cupful of cereal_. The quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is particularly good for cooking cereals. The _fireless cooker_ also is a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and economically. Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done, the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of water is evaporated. Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally. Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp. ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful cereal 1 teaspoonful salt Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler at least 1 1/2 hours. CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA 3 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 cupful cereal 1 teaspoonful salt Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at least 1/2 hour. A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned, stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals. QUESTIONS How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals should be added _slowly_ to the boiling water. Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance and quantity? Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame? What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena? What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above? Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and uncooked cereals. LESSON XX CEREALS: RICE (A) POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.--At market one finds two kinds of rice,--one white and pearly in appearance called _polished_ rice, and the other, gray or brown and lusterless called _unpolished_ rice. In preparing rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking. TO CLEAN RICE.--To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands. RICE (cooked over boiling water) 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful rice Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot water, _i.e._ in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually about 45 minutes). The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called _Steamed Rice_. Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits. ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS [Illustration: FIGURE 24--A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING The large utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in the jar] BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson for the following lesson.] 3 quarts boiling water 1 cupful rice 2 teaspoonfuls salt Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil _rapidly_ for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with salt. Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for preparing Cheese Sauce for class work. When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be covered tightly. EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICE COOKED OVER BOILING WATER--Pour a little of the water from the boiled rice into a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch. Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Which method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product? CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water) 1 pint rice water 1 tablespoonful corn-starch 1 teaspoonful salt 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 1/6 teaspoonful paprika 1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heat the remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice water. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings and cheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the other ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice. One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces) may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, the paprika should be omitted. QUESTIONS How is rice tested for sufficient cooking? Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat foods? (See _Cereals_.) Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for rice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cooking one and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain the reason for the difference in the quantity of water used. Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in the length of time of cooking. Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If one desired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used? Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice cooked over boiling water,--are the grains separated or pasted together? Explain the difference in appearance. What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them (see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,--boiled rice or rice cooked over boiling water? Why? What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to prepare Cheese Sauce? What other use could be made of rice water? LESSON XXI CEREALS: RICE (B) RICE PUDDING Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and water. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2 cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice until the water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water. Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce. RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the rice cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.] 2 cupfuls cooked rice 3/4 - 1 cupful milk 1/2 cupful raisins 1/3 cupful sugar Grated rind 1/2 lemon These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing the flavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing variety may be made from the materials above. The pudding may be _baked_ in the following manner: Mix the ingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow oven until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, or both, may be substituted for the lemon rind. This dessert may be _cooked over water_ by mixing the ingredients in the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Then butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turn out at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce. Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes a tasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, the raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg. CARAMEL SAUCE 1/3 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 cupful milk 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Salt Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture to caramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a double boiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat the mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well to allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (see _Flavoring Extracts_).] Serve hot or cold over puddings. QUESTIONS Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson XX) If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water? (See statement regarding the scorching of milk in _Questions_, Lesson XXIV) Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding--baking or cooking over water-- requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definite quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe. See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed in caramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce? LESSON XXII CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER THE FIRELESS COOKER.--The fact that fuels are expensive and that the supply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat. This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless cooker. It has been said that future historians in summing up the great achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably name as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and fireless cookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking, but its possibilities are many. [Illustration: Courtesy of _McCray Refrigerator Co_ FIGURE 25. --INSULATED WALL OF A REFRIGERATOR.] THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.--In Experiment 2 it was found that wood did not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiar illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in transmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day, because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while a wooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor of heat. Metals are good conductors of heat. Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many other materials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surrounded by any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance is retained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by a poor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpet or newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting, one makes use of the latter principle. [Illustration: FIGURE 26.--FIRELESS COOKER HAVING EXCELSIOR PACKING.] The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of non-conducting materials (see Figure 25). To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try the following: EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.--Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full of boiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and paper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each of the cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotter water? The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are surrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, the heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the fireless cooker. [Illustration: FIGURE 27--FIRELESS COOKER WITH STONE DISKS Note the kettles of various shapes] In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water, _i. e._ simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has a metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks. Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of food. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperature than in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27). There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers are equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the insulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food before placing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and the current turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut off when the desired length of time of heating has passed. [Illustration: Courtesy of the _Standard Electric Stove Co_ FIGURE 28.--ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER. Has a heating element in the bottom of the cooker.] The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and electric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by insulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desired temperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperature is retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have a fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food is first heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, and the gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retained heat (see Figure 29). SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.--One should keep the following in mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker: [Illustration: Courtesy of the _Chambers Manufacturing Co._ FIGURE 29.--GAS RANGE HAVING FIRELESS COOKER ATTACHMENT, INSULATED OVEN AND HOODS.] 1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker. (This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as shown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes' boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as a piece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through. 2. After heating, place the _covered_ kettle containing the food into the cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so as to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker. 3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should not be placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the large kettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim of the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (see Figure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim, such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as to rest on the rim. 4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If the box is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, be reheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to follow this plan, where food requires very long cooking. 5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies with the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes, the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some, for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, they should be removed and reheated as mentioned above. _Food should never be allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker_. 6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide open for 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly. Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As has been mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeating all parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burning and scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. A fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure of effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a fireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are given in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771, "Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books. CORN-MEAL MUSH 4 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful corn-meal 1 teaspoonful salt Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook directly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirring occasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker which contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10 hours. NOTE.--If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler, prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling water for at least 3 hours. CORN-MEAL MUSH FOR "FRYING" 2 cupfuls corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 cupfuls cold water 1 quart boiling water Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place the boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-meal mixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over the flame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling water. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mush from the water and allow the mush to cool. NOTE.--Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double boiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours. RICE AND TOMATOES 1/2 cupful rice 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt l-1/4 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful tomatoes 1 slice onion 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice, onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Add boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add the tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless cooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be served as a border around meat. QUESTIONS In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire." What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn- meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mush for "Frying"? (See _Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.) How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ from the usual method of cooking cereals? How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What is the price per pound of corn-meal and rice? LESSON XXIII CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING "FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice of salt pork fat may be used). The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven. Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture--1 egg beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water--and again dipped into cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the crumbs are brown. Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup. In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked. FRENCH TOAST 1 or 2 eggs 1 cupful milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt 6 or 8 slices of stale bread Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan. Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French Toast. SIRUP 1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark) 1/4 cupful boiling water 2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of butter. QUESTIONS In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale bread in the milk and egg mixture? Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the better for French Toast,--large or small pieces of bread? What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just before turning it? Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to be served hot? What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.) LESSON XXIV POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.--Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame. Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble? EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the use of cold water in this mixture. EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of sugar in the mixture. EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this mixture. To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture can penetrate every grain at the same time. BLANC MANGE 2 cupfuls milk 1/4 cupful corn-starch 1/2 cupful sugar 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla Nutmeg 1/8 teaspoonful salt Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly. Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve with sugar and cream. If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold. NOTE.--While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time after it thickens? (See _Cereals_.) CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4 cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (_i.e._ 1 ounce) of Baker's chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and serve as Blanc Mange. Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to make them tasty. 3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange. QUESTIONS Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered cereals used for thickening. Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc Mange as directed. For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture? Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see _Scalding Milk_). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double boiler, as cereals. Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see _Flavoring Extracts_)? What is the price per package of corn-starch? How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure? Which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for thickening? How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve? LESSON XXV TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.--Place a teaspoonful of flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes _very dark brown_ and _uniform_ in color. Put a little of the browned flour into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present? The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish blue) color when treated with iodine. EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.--Pour the remainder of the browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake. Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper, but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration: Figure 30.--Method of Folding Filter Paper.] From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch into a soluble substance called _dextrin_. Dextrin is found in small amounts in the crust of bread and in toast. DIGESTION OF STARCH.--It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the starch to make it soluble. Such a change _does_ take place; starch is changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested. Substances called _enzymes_ which are in the saliva of the mouth [Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following experiments: EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.--Test a bit of cracker with iodine for starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain starch? EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.--Thoroughly chew a bit of cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor. Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate (see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain? Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication. TOAST.--Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication. Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in a solid mass and is digested with difficulty. Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the desired kind of toast. CREAM TOAST 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls milk or cream 6 to 8 slices of toast Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly. Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast. _Moist toast_ is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot, salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened. The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild flavored fat or oil may be used. QUESTIONS Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see Experiment 25). What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one cupful of liquid? What is the use of flour in White Sauce? Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of comparison for the thickness of other sauces. What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly digested? Give reasons for your answer. LESSON XXVI ROOT VEGETABLES (A) Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose. All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash. Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared potatoes and scraped carrots. Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in _gently boiling_ water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water. When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle), drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame. Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch. Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so, it is mineral matter. Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,-- lose the more starch and ash? Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked in steam,--lose the more starch and ash? As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better for vegetables without the skins? Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice. Prepare about half as much _White Sauce_ as you have of the vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following proportion: 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 cupful liquid For the _liquid_ of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see _Cream Toast_) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six vegetables. Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more pleasing color? Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more pleasing flavor? As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots? As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking is better for both vegetables? Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any length of time before cooking. The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in color when cooked without their skins. The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable materials. [Footnote 30: _Vitamines_, see Division Seven] Satisfactory results may be obtained by _baking_ or _steaming_ vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May, 1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.] however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the steamer. An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should, of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan (see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated vegetable broth is used. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Geo H Bowman Co_ FIGURE 31.--UTENSIL FOR STEAMING--A "STEAMER"] Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker. This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor. If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes starchy vegetables soggy. BOILED POTATOES If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around the sprouts. In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59, Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put through a ricer before serving. CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts of diced vegetables. Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven. WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute _or_ 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt White pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1/2 cupful vegetable stock Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). The thickness of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables. CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful salt White pepper or cayenne 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs. QUESTIONS How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why? Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking? Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or bushel? Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain their nutriment. LESSON XXVII ROOT VEGETABLES (B) EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,--Over several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of vegetables in water before cooking? SWEET POTATOES Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see _Cooking Vegetables in Water_). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve. Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in the oven. SWEET POTATOES (Southern style) 3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 6 sweet potatoes Salt and pepper Boiling water Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes. Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes as a sauce for serving. Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them. MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice) 4 parsnips 2 eggs 1 cupful nuts, chopped 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.] 4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from _Ninety Tested Recipes_, Teachers College.) TOMATO SAUCE 1/2 can tomatoes 1 cupful water 2 cloves 3 allspice berries 3 peppercorns 2 sprays of parsley 3 tablespoonfuls fat 2 slices onion 1/4 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow the method of making White Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Strain and serve. QUESTIONS From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking. Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after cooking? From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with white potatoes? What is the price per pound of parsnips? In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and spices together for 15 or 20 minutes? Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before? LESSON XXVIII ROOT VEGETABLES (C) Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation, tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is prepared for the market in two forms,--pearl tapioca, and minute or granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the quantity is required. APPLE TAPIOCA 3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or 3/4 cupful granulated tapioca 2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 teaspoonful salt 6 apples 1/2 cupful sugar If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,--use less than the given quantity of boiling water. If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of breakfast cereal (see _General Rules for Cooking Cereals_). Cook in the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples; place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft. Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce. Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used, substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is cooked. RHUBARB TAPIOCA Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca, substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft. LEMON SAUCE 3/4 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 lemon,--juice and rind 1 tablespoonful butter Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10 minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve. For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however. SWEET SAUCES.--Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains of the flour or corn-starch. The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the starchy material (see _Blanc Mange_). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in Lemon Sauce. PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES Flour Fat Liquid Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast, sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.) Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.) Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.) Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Croquettes, etc.) (If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be used.) QUESTIONS What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it necessary to cook it in a double boiler? What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a time? What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching? If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it? For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise a method of preparing _smooth_ sauce. LESSON XXIX STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.--Which is hotter,--the "steam" (_i.e._ water vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water. EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.--Pop corn contains water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the covering and the starch swells at once. [Illustration: FIGURE 32.--"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HAS BEEN UNDER PRESSURE.] In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are lost. POP CORN Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn will become tough. BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I 4 quarts freshly popped corn 1/4 cupful butter Salt Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring. BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II 1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oil _or_ 2 tablespoonfuls oil 1/2 cupful shelled pop corn Salt Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time. BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a _hot_ oven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in a _hot_ oven, to prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming potatoes on a folded napkin for serving. STUFFED POTATOES 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 3 tablespoonfuls milk Pepper 6 baked potatoes Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in a _hot_ oven (500 degrees F.) until brown. Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over them. QUESTIONS Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking. Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see Experiment 26 and _Solution and Digestion_). Which contains more nutriment,--baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain (see _Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam_). What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes _at once_ after baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be used to cover them? RELATED WORK LESSON XXX DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.--See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] BASIC PRINCIPLES.--Practically all rules for laying the table and all methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness, convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.--See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general suggestions. THE TABLE TABLE LINEN.--Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth. [Illustration: FIGURE 33.--TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note the position of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers. Also note that a _low_ bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.] Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong. If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon. Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than that of a table-cloth. Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads may be served in a folded napkin. CHINA AND GLASSWARE.--The term "cover" means the space, with its china, silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33). The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated. For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and- butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher, salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the guests are seated. For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers, spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right, and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service. If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table or on the serving table. SILVER.--Convenience and order have determined the customary way of placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses, except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course. While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each cover in the order of its use, _the knives are usually all grouped together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the right of the knives._ It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and knives in the order of their use, _i.e._ place the spoon that is to be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure 33). All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread- and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laid _beside_ not _in_ the dish of food. TABLE ACCESSORIES.--A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged, makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a real source of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite (see Figure 33). Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, they should be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasional dinners, are also placed on the napkin. STYLES OF SERVING There are several styles of serving: ENGLISH (ordinary family service).--The foods are served at the table, the host serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad, and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and the vegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may be passed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may be passed from one person to another. This method is used for family and informal service, and also when serving is done without a maid. RUSSIAN (serving from the side).--This may be observed in one of two ways: (_a_) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates and placed before the guests. (_b_) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or the portions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or fork should be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of serving is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid. COMPROMISE.--Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one course and another style for another course, as the Russian style for the soup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods of one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles of serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served in Russian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise. METHODS OF SERVING WITH A MAID ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.--While each hostess follows her own inclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that are always observed: Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes. Dishes offered to a guest are _passed_ to the left of the guest; other dishes are _placed_ to the right of a guest, except when a plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,--it is then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right when possible. When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan of removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed: The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her right hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plate of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty or served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to the kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or served plate, and proceeds as before. In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first places the dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of the host. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then gets another clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the served plate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She then places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side. Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, and proceeds as before. At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishes as the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belonging to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soiled dishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them in the neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. When the dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are to be removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes) should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removed one at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of each. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course, two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand. USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.--Many dining rooms have both a buffet and serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used for holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such as dessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet is used for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffee service, chafing dish, etc. Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft (_i.e._ unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before the meal is announced. USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.--The serving tray should be used for carrying all silver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves, olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers. In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use a folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray. REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.--For a table with a cloth, the crumb tray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to remove the crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a table without a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may be crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course. USE OF FINGER BOWLS.--Finger bowls are used after the fruit course of breakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placed on plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl. For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. The finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same plates may be used for the fruit course. For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates are brought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. The finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons and nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls may be brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate are exchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to pass finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then the finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served on the same plate. ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.--The host and hostess usually sit opposite each other, _i.e._ at the head and foot of the table. If there is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should be farthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, the hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A woman guest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at the right of the hostess. The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different occasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men. This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few persons are at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usually served in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests are served first, while in others the hostess is always the first to be served. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess should always be served first. METHOD OF SERVING WITHOUT A MAID When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform when serving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Much skill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. The underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess must plan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty. PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.--In planning the menu, a wise selection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but few courses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simple meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should be selected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will not be harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately when taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal. For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the warming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods as possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced. The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a pan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that a tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-water dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops. A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to a woman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostess so that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence of a wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and clearing the table; it saves many steps. [Illustration: FIGURE 34--WHEEL TRAY.] SERVING AT THE TABLE.--The English style of serving should be followed. The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the family in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air of hospitality. As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or for many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned, she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of the indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. She should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving of energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soiled dishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the serving table. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from an overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelf of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes. For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostess use the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it on so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his own cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present and where there is no maid. The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the hostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start an absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room. QUESTIONS Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes? Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a folded napkin? Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and the cups and saucers at the left of her cover? In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why should the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the plates? In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left of a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at the right? Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be followed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes, and finally the crumbs? Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the end of the course? Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table? Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the end of luncheon or dinner? Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the dining and serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method of serving each course, using the English style. Cream of Tomato Soup--Soup Sticks Veal Cutlets Rice Rolls--Butter Cucumber Salad Wafers Snow Pudding, Custard Sauce Cakes--Coffee LESSON XXXI COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST Cook and serve a breakfast. If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to plan only a simple meal. The following menu is suggested: Seasonable Fruit,--fresh or cooked French Toast with Sirup Milk Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will serve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or more food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should become accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes. Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper condition--hot or cold--at the time set for serving the breakfast. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson). LESSON XXXII REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU Seasonable Fruit Sauce Breakfast Cereal Coffee See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. LESSON XXXIII HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at your home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following morning. Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week. SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet flavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that mastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top. (2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served each time. DIVISION FIVE ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AND OILS LESSON XXXIV FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.--_Fat is a foodstuff._ Fat and oil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that is liquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-giving or fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy; in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in one pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. By measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of tapioca. Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and as constituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. The use of fat as a cooking medium follows: EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."-- Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil, corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of the fats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer [Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. It should be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note the temperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fats decompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook. How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking--hot fat or boiling water? Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose? If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for your answer. What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils? Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils? FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.--As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is called _frying_. From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which can be heated to a very high temperature without burning. Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings and lard satisfactory. EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--Put some suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats? EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).-- Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for frying foods? Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for uncooked foods. GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.--Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron. If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence, _foods that are to be fried should be as dry as possible._ Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them. The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over especially when moist foods are placed in it. Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained on paper. When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food. Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed on the following page. If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire. If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before grasping the handle of the kettle. TO TRY OUT FAT.--The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows: Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a "cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out. As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place. TO CLARIFY FAT.--Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand until solid. FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the price of oysters is too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in place of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner as oysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.] Large oysters Dried bread crumbs Salt and pepper Eggs 1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the fingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft cloth or towel (see _Cleaning Oysters_). Season with salt and pepper. Beat the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or strained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried bread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the egg mixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place on paper, and serve. Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsley makes a pleasing garnish. To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.--An alkaline substance such as washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To show the action of washing soda on fats try the following: EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.--Into a test tube put 1/2 teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until the washing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat and add it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a few minutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? What has been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can be drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that have contained fat? Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full of water, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do not use washing soda in aluminum utensils (see _Preparing Dishes for Washing_). QUESTIONS What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor? Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg. Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that are to be fried? LESSON XXXV FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--FOOD FATS FOOD FATS.--Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined so as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal and vegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet, lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed and peanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats. A discussion of various food fats follows: (_a_) _Butter_ is made by churning ripened cream so as to separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It is salted and usually colored before putting it on the market. The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel value is not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as much fat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats. Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and lard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certain growth-producing substances called _vitamines_ (see Division Seven). All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but are not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat. Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use, therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor, for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is to be combined with foods of _pronounced flavor, i.e._ foods whose flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may be substituted with satisfactory results. (_b_) _Oleomargarin_ is a combination of several different fats. It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral (_i.e._ carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butter and cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin is highly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the market. The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the composition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat prepared as a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at market and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin. (_c_) _Nut Margarin_ is also a mixture of various fats. It usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil. (_d_) _Meat Fats_.--The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or "rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from trying out the fat from around the kidneys is called _leaf lard_; ordinary lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former is considered of superior quality. Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also tried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat--cooked or uncooked--as well as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be saved and used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so cannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials (see _Mutton_). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup and drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and other uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out. (_e_) _Vegetable Oils_.--The oil from cottonseed, corn, and peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oil is also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Its food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "olive flavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oils are bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most persons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor is disagreeable. FAT COMBINATIONS.--Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of fats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may be combined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteing and frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such as butter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat. FISH BALLS 1 cupful salt codfish 4 small potatoes 1 egg 1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare the potatoes. Cook the fish and the _whole_ potatoes together in gently boiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain and shake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, and salt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls, mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six balls at one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White or Cheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls. The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, must be soaked or cooked in water. QUESTIONS Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water before cooking? Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are cooked? If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to the water when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave the potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is it especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying? What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on being heated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be fried? What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measure of a package? LESSON XXXVI FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--DIGESTION OF FAT EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.--Pour a little corn or cottonseed oil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube. Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to the top? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from this concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water? EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.--In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2 tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. What familiar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute. Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in an emulsified condition. BREAKING UP OF FATS.--Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found in the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote 41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which acts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic juice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote 42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acid properties.] and glycerin. During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules which do not coalesce. When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat in an emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises to the top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several different substances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify fats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in Experiment 36.) If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soap comes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formed by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty acids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thus formed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat is broken up into fatty acids and glycerin. FRYING AND DIGESTION.--Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats, but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer time in the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances. When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed and irritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances are absorbed by foods which are browned in fats. It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into foods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fat when sauted (_i.e._ browning in a small quantity of fat) than when fried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have the fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as possible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (see Experiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned food drained on paper. Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use of an excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils in sauces, dressings, and pastry. CROQUETTES.--Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fish mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. These food mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes are usually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed into cones. Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be "dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead of frying in deep fat. Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals commonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick White Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably contain a starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, it is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that the starch may be as stiff as possible. POTATO CROQUETTES 1 pint mashed potatoes Celery salt 2 tablespoonfuls butter Onion juice Cayenne 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg-yolk or 1/2 egg Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then into cylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (see _Fried Oysters_). Fry in deep fat until brown. QUESTIONS How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of boiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite for heating fat (see _Caramelized Sugar_)? What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (see Experiment 32)? What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried? How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"? How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing Potato Croquettes? If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, what ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted? LESSON XXXVII FAT SAVING BAKING _VS._ FRYING.--Foods fried under the most ideal conditions and in the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried, especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat. Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked instead of fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the fried food. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before serving. Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes. Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the cleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process of baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying. RICE CUTLETS WITH CHEESE SAUCE 3/4 cupful rice 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 teaspoonful salt Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak for several hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils. Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water). (Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce of the following ingredients: 4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt Dash pepper 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful milk To 2/3 of the White Sauce add: Cooked rice 1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped 1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped (Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of Cheese Sauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets. Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for Fried Oysters. Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of the cutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot with the following sauce: Remainder of the White Sauce 3/4 cupful milk 1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces 1 pimento chopped Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat and stir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hot over the cutlets. FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.--The housekeeper who endeavors to waste no food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food. Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-making is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial days. The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should, however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using in the preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.) Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fat and lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. A commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeper does not. Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the time consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it is a saving to make soap at home. SOAP 1 can Babbit's lye 1 quart cold water 6 pounds clarified fat 2 tablespoonfuls ammonia Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirring with a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting the lye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye, the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool. Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Then remove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it. Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia and continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick cream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a granite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces of suitable size. The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap. NOTE.--If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in the classroom. The following recipe may be used: 1 teaspoonful lye 4 teaspoonfuls cold water 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1/8 teaspoonful ammonia Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cup of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box. QUESTIONS How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the former takes a longer time to cook than the latter (see _Polished and Unpolished Rice_). Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for serving, while fried croquettes do not. State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them. Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at home? RELATED WORK LESSON XXXVIII DINING ROOM COURTESY THE VALUE OF GOOD TABLE MANNERS No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is an absence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to be overlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. The basis of all good manners is tact, _i.e._ a kindly consideration of others. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well as at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the pleasure of one's associates in the dining room. Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend ease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been established by custom and long usage. SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TABLE MANNERS THE CHAIR.--If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just touches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair when taking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair until the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair to assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of the chair. THE KNIFE AND FORK.--There is but one "right" way to hold the knife or fork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of the knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the handle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almost cover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the blade of the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife is held in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreading butter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader, is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, it should be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partly on the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest at the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is talking. [Illustration: FIGURE 35--HOW TO HOLD THE KNIFE AND FORK.] The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. It should be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with the knife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. It used to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in lifting food to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the right hand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method of keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now accepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and used for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle should be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen is held. When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placed together on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. At the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in the center of the plate. [Illustration: Figure 36--Keeping the Fork in the Left Hand to Carry Food to the Mouth] THE FORK AND SPOON--Since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey food, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The fork should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods, such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts served with cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be used for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads, and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it is sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cut lettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into pieces before it is served. For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not for sipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer (see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side--not the tip--of the spoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup, there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from, rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38). [Illustration: FIGURE 37--THE TEASPOON SHOULD REST ON THE SAUCER] THE FINGERS.--Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. The serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork or a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, and wafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread should not be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece of bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. If cake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cut into pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are taken with the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be taken from the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are provided for the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with the knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holding corn served on the cob. [Illustration: FIGURE 38.--HOW TO HOLD THE SOUPSPOON.] Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible the hostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruit may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled, scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, are served whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quarter should be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves and eaten with a spoon. THE NAPKIN.--When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spread entirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to be present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if, however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home for but one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding. QUIET EATING.--Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrain from talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lips are kept closed while chewing. LESSON XXXIX COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST Cook and serve a breakfast. The following is a suggestive menu: Breakfast Cereal with Dried Fruit Baked Fish Balls with White Sauce Toast--Butter Coffee Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see Lesson XXX). LESSON XL REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU Cooked Fruit,--fresh or dried Creamed Toast Coffee See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. LESSON XLI HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats which are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3 or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use, weigh it. Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with Cheese Sauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a substitute for meat. SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the cost of an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you have saved by making soap at your home. (2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute sufficient to serve the family. DIVISION SIX ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN LESSON XLII EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the egg lessons came in the mid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs is reasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerning the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and the cooking of eggs take place later in the year.] PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.--An automobile requires not only fuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuel but building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foods considered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is another great class of foods, or foodstuffs--those included under the term _protein_--that not only give energy to the body but also build up or promote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building and repairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from an automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and repairing. The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth is completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live and maintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing away of some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing the foodstuff, protein. Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, having different properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the body and support life, while others are growth promoting but not life supporting, while still others are only life supporting. The first type of protein is sometimes called _complete_ protein, while the two latter types are called _incomplete_ protein. In food study and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food contains protein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete. The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods containing the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fish contain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certain cereals contain incomplete proteins. A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows: EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.--Put the white of an egg in a dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Then place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat. Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat? When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white called _albumin_ stiffens or _coagulates_. The yolk also contains a kind of protein which coagulates when heated. EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.--Put a small portion of the broken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Then turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch the filtrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear? Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albumin was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the tube? Explain. EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.--Place a teaspoonful of white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube and place the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the water _gradually_. Note and record: (_a_) Temperature at which coagulation first appears. (_b_) Temperature at which the egg white is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point when the egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw from this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked? EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.--Remove _at once_ about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment 39. Examine it and press it between the fingers. Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing the water to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press it between the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling point of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which do you consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning the temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and palatable? DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.--The experiments of this lesson show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those cooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender egg more wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below the boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in boiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digested as the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of little importance. [Illustration: FIGURE 39.--APPARATUS TO DETERMINE THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.] But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, the difference in _palatability_ is worth some attention. If soft-cooked and soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to be much more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm, while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is raw. STRUCTURE OF EGGS.--A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk, and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the young chicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white membrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins to spoil. CARE AND USE OF EGGS.--(_a_) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote 45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents the entrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they are to be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee. (_b_) Keep eggs in a cool place. (_c_) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by covering with cold water. (_d_) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or decompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in the shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains microorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out of them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran, sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass. (_e_) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, break each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest. (_f_) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bit of white clinging to the inside of the shell. TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.--(_a_) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (_b_) Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is stale. SOFT-COOKED EGGS Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover, and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes. The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. The time depends upon: (_a_) Temperature of the eggs. (_b_) Number of eggs cooked. (_c_) Quantity of water used. (_d_) Place on the stove. One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce the desired results. By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table. HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The Hard-cooked Eggs prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggs of the following lesson.]--Place eggs in cold water and heat the water gradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire at once; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20 minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily. Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked, allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer. Eggs may also be hard-cooked in the _double boiler_. Put boiling water in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in the top part and cook 40 minutes. If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to cause distress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well to chop them fine and mix them with some other food (see _Goldenrod Eggs_). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive disturbances to the normal person. QUESTIONS Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point? Explain your answer. Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-_cooked_ rather than hard- or soft-_boiled_? LESSON XLIII EGGS: DIGESTION OF PROTEIN THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.--It was mentioned previously that proteins are made up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins are called _amino acids_. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteins are not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the various proteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity. When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finally separated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finally absorbed and carried to all parts of the body. The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the intestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloric acid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsin of the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change protein into soluble forms. POACHED EGG Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings in the pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it into a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the water will keep hot _but not boil_. Pour a spoonful of the hot water on each yolk occasionally. Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a film covers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast, and serve at once. An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water in the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once into the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separating into pieces. Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather than in water. GOLDENROD EGGS 3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 3/4 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 6 pieces of toast Parsley Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make a White Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whites to the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through a strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the toast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once. If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dip the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted water before adding the sauce (see _Cream Toast_). QUESTIONS Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the yolks of eggs that are being poached? Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be more easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, and _Solution and Digestion_). LESSON XLIV EGGS: OMELETS (A) TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.--An egg is sometimes broken by cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the edge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been found satisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white and yolk. Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbs together at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gently break the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from one part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge into a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg. Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,--the Dover egg beater and the wire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally dropped into a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate. TO BEAT AN EGG.--When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw the spoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and lifting the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke. Egg whites are beaten _stiff_ when the impression made by the beater is retained; and they are beaten _dry_, when the gloss has disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks are beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than before beating. TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.--Pour the beaten egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with a tablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them over the whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly. EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.--Break an egg into a bowl. What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoon beat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What has been beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beaten and an unbeaten egg? (Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.) EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITH A WIRE SPOON.--Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover egg beaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is the difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different utensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs? Which contains the more air? EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.--Separate an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover egg beater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Which becomes lighter when beaten,--a whole or a separated egg? From this explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before beating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible. (Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.) SCRAMBLED EGGS 4 eggs 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1 teaspoonful butter Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs and add the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return the whole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When the mixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the double boiler and serve at once. For economy, the butter may be omitted. FOAMY OMELET 4 eggs 4 tablespoonfuls milk or water 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggs until creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in an omelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cook _slowly_, occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When the omelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot oven for a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately. [Illustration: FIGURE 40--METHOD OF HOLDING PAN TO TURN AN OMELET ON TO A PLATTER] TO FOLD AN OMELET--Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Make a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right angles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself away from the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand, placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from you. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40). QUESTIONS How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning the effect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the method given above for Scrambled Eggs. What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet? Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly. What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"? What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet? How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggs and Foamy Omelet? LESSON XLV EGGS: OMELETS (B) WHITE SAUCE OMELET 3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk Pepper 4 eggs 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate the whites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the White Sauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve as Foamy Omelet. BAKED OMELET Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan, pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and golden brown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked. MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.--Mix and cook a Foamy or White Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it while cooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cook and then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet. Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to the sauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat with either omelet. Foamy Omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk. Tomato sauce may be served with either of these omelets. Sweet Omelet may be made as follows: Add 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar to the Foamy Omelet mixture; after cooking, spread with softened jelly; after folding, sprinkle with powdered sugar. Use 1/2 cupful of jelly for the Foamy Omelet recipe. QUESTIONS Why is the White Sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in White Sauce Omelet? Point out the most important differences between a Foamy and a White Sauce Omelet. What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in omelets? What is the purpose of beating eggs? What are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry? What are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk? LESSON XLVI MILK MILK, AN INVALUABLE FOOD.--It has been said that there is no one food _except milk_ which cannot be eliminated from the diet. Milk is the only food for which there are no easily found substitutes. The housekeeper or one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily, if possible, a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child under ten years. She should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely used either as a beverage or in cooked foods. If one must economize in foods, _less should be spent for meat, and more for milk_. Although more than 4/5 of milk is water, it contains only a little more water than do potatoes and lean meat. The value of milk is due to the fact that it contains: (_a_) _Proteins of "excellent quality_." An authority on diet says [Footnote 48: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," by McCollum, p. 74.]: "There can be no doubt that the proteins of milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetable sources." The most important protein existing in milk is called _casein_. Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has a peculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milk sours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acid causes the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzyme occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach. (_b_) _Valuable ash_. Lime which is so essential to bodybuilding is one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United States Food Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime is calcium oxide.) [Illustration] (_c_) _Vitamines_. These are substances contained only in certain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk is rich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven). Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs in milk is shown by the following: EXPERIMENT 44: SEPARATION OF MILK INTO FOODSTUFFS. (_a_) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle of milk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry. What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper? (_b_) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to blood temperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, see _Junket Custard_). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stir until the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until it is clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filter paper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remains in the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")? (_c_) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare a solution of Rochelle salts,--175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams of sodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solution of copper sulphate,--57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimeters of water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 part of the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4 parts of water. Boil the mixture. This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by using a "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] in a flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from (_b_) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixture change? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this test indicate that milk contains? (_d_) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (_b_) in a custard cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. What foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue? (_e_) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during evaporation? (_f_) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines. LESSON XLVII MILK WITH COCOA AND CHOCOLATE EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.--Fill the lower part of a double boiler one third full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of the double boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutes examine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explain why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold water, and then washed in warm water. Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible to boil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk to make cocoa and chocolate.) The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Less change, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is also apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessary to boil milk to sterilize it. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. The latter grow in pods,--the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure 41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, and roasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans. Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate. In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered chocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the fat is removed. Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. These materials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the beverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. But in addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoa and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentage of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in addition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes no ill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys. Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are very finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas. [Illustration: FIGURE 41.--CACAO PODS.] When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others, but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should be blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory and practical method of accomplishing this is to make a _smooth paste_ of chocolate and boiling water. To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling temperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of the cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolate beverage causes the fat to separate and float. COCOA 1/4 cupful cocoa 3 cupfuls milk 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch 1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1/4 teaspoonful salt Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milk and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt. Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired. Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn- starch may be omitted entirely. CHOCOLATE 2 squares chocolate 3 cupfuls milk 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water. Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth. Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to the chocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Add salt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beat well. Serve hot. Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use of whipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively rich in fat. QUESTIONS What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? How can one determine when milk is scalded? If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually better to scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled? What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest and when lowest? If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolate beverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not be boiled after adding the hot milk. Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (see _Flavoring Extracts_)? What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in an ordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake? How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the price per box? See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounce of chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the difference in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa? LESSON XLVIII MILK AND CREAM WHIPPING CREAM.--A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip it. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold, _i.e._ surrounded with ice water during the beating process. To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the following: EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL AND EARTHENWARE.--Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same size and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in each utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes, take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware utensil. Which is colder? Through which material,--tin or earthenware,--is heat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice water for whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain your answer. Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream "spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is very satisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered with paper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper, insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream and push the paper down to cover. Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it is possible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the other constituents, and form _butter_. For making butter the cream should be "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then be churned. On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not to form butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. To accomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat) from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amount of lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Cream may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by surrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safer not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while whipping. A harmless substance called _viscogen_ may be added to thinner cream (_i.e._ the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latter whip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients: 1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.] Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and add the milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using. Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directed above. COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.--Cream is richer in fat than milk, average cream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. But cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk. Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting to compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for the same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in different places, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk. The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two quantities: _In 1 quart of milk_ [Footnote 52: By permission Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).] As much protein as in 5 eggs 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar _In 1/2 pint of cream_ As much protein as in 1 egg 3 tablespoonfuls of fat 1/2 tablespoonful of sugar Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat than does 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more of sugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparison makes us question the advisability of buying much cream. If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place of cream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milk contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has as much protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole and skim milk is advised. CARE OF MILK.--Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care, and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy farm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth of microscopic vegetable organisms, called _bacteria_ (see _Why Foods Spoil_). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce changes in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease- producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk. Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by: (_a_) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm. (_b_) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and by keeping it cool. (_c_) Placing it in sterilized utensils. (_d_) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust. Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth, bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, and placed in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not be used after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milk in small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle should be washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odors and flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strong odor or flavor. RICE DAINTY 3/4 cupful cooked rice 3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces 3/4 cupful powdered sugar 1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple, shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded and cut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert. CREAM OF RICE PUDDING 1 quart milk _or_ 1 quart milk and water 1/3 cupful rice 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar Grated rind of 1/2 lemon Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding dish. Bake in a _slow_ oven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usually takes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally. If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1 teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon rind. QUESTIONS From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain why Cream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven. What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during long cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during long cooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a little rice forms a solid mixture. What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream? What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream? What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased? Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk (see _Care of Milk_). Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled? LESSON XLIX CREAM SOUPS (A) THICK SOUPS.--Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish is used in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked and mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,--usually milk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulp uniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquid with a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cooked as in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" the vegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply White Sauces to which vegetable pulp is added. GENERAL PROPORTIONS.--_The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree to liquid is:_ One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts of liquid, _i.e._ milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock. _The proportion of flour to liquid is:_ 1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, as celery, is used. Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and to increase the food value. Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas and beans, or corn and beans. POTATO SOUP 3 potatoes 1 tablespoonful flour 1 pint milk _or_ 1 pint milk and potato stock 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 slices of onion Celery salt 3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler, then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through a strainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all other ingredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add more liquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsley just before serving. "Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup. CROUTONS Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bake _slowly_ in the oven until a golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups. Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them. QUESTIONS What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce for Vegetables? How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soup differ from the above proportion? Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainer _after_ rather than _before_ adding the hot milk? Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (see _Toast_)? LESSON L CREAM SOUPS (B) FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.--Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid, their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however, are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of all soups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, to say nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups are more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods. Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid taken into an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, and thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal. CORN SOUP 1 can of corn 1 pint water l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 slice onion 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful white pepper 1 pint milk Add the water to the canned corn and _simmer_ 20 minutes. Melt the fat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dry ingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn and strain. Reheat before serving, if necessary. NOTE.--The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (_i.e._ browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods, especially meats and sauces. SOUP STICKS Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter. Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them. [Illustration: FIGURE 42.--DRIED BREAD CRUMBS. (Note that the jar is covered with a cloth.)] DRIED BREAD CRUMBS Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread. Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling on a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs are desired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs in separate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (The muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber band.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from the crumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried and stored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42). QUESTIONS Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal. Why is it served as the first course of a meal? Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it to the other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavor extracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavor extracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining the soups. If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ from that of canned corn? How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (see _Green Corn_)? What is the price per can of corn? In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread before buttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into strips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread for Soup Sticks with butter? How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why? What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipe for Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used for scalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the dishes which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of crumbs could be used. Explain. LESSON LI MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (A) CUSTARDS.--Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, they are often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickened with eggs is called _custard_. There are two kinds of plain custards: (_a_) steamed or baked custard and (_b_) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is the same, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking differ. That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, all milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of water. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hot water or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not too quickly, the water in the double boiler _should not boil rapidly_. If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. It exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamy appearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomes hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milk mixture. The custard is then said to be _curdled_. A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custard _at once_ with a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plain custards. STEAMED OR BAKED CUSTARD 1 pint milk 2 or 3 eggs 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls caramel sirup _or_ 1/16 teaspoonful nutmeg Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs _slightly_, add the sugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture, flavor, and pour it into a mold. If _steamed custard_ is desired, steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in the steamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking by inserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is done. If _baked custard_ is desired, place the cups of custard in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes or until firm. Test as steamed custard. If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold after steaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing a little Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily be turned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gently on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. The caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirup may be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in making _Peanut Candy_) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Use equal quantities of sugar and water.) SOFT CUSTARD 1 pint milk 1/4 cupful sugar 2 eggs 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Instead of pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook (stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon. Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained and flavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking. In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked with the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff and beaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may be used as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods. _To Decrease the Eggs in Custard _ When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2 _tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg._ For methods of thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV. QUESTIONS What is the purpose of eggs in custard? Why are eggs beaten _slightly_ for custards? How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking? What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each? What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strained and flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking? In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdled custard be made smooth? LESSON LII MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (B) FLOATING ISLAND _Custard_ 1 pint milk 3 egg yolks 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla _Meringue_ 3 egg whites 3 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs. Prepare the custard as Soft Custard. Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding I tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue by spoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits of jelly or colored gelatine. From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider most advisable for preparing Meringue? If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished in several ways: (_a_) place it on the _hot_ custard at once after preparing the custard, (_b_) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on the hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg white cook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken the milk with the egg yolks, (_c_) Drop the uncooked Meringue on the cooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly by placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking oven. QUESTIONS In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, instead of the eggs to the hot milk? How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard? What is Meringue? Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs. How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost? LESSON LIII MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (C) APRICOT DAINTY 1 cupful dried apricots 1/3 cupful powdered sugar 3 egg whites Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or press through a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites of eggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture. Chill and serve with Custard Sauce. Dried _prunes_ may be substituted for apricots, using less sugar and adding a little lemon juice. If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, it should be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful of granulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Add the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir until the gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as directed above. CUSTARD SAUCE Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolks for 2 whole eggs. QUESTIONS Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for this dessert? Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg yolk. What is the difference in thickness and color? How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening? LESSON LIV MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (A) EGG AND STARCH.--How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (see _Blanc Mange_)? How long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used for thickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch and egg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch can be cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling. BUTTERSCOTCH TAPIOCA 1 pint milk 1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca 1/2 cupful dark brown sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water until the tapioca is transparent (see _Apple Tapioca_, above). Mix the sugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg mixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler. Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turn into dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream. The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a very soft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca. Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the serving dishes. For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the greater quantity of tapioca should be used. CREAM OF POTATO SOUP 3 potatoes 2 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/8 teaspoonful celery salt Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning, combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens. _Serve immediately_. QUESTIONS In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca? How much of this ingredient should be used (see _Blanc Mange_, above)? What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup? Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs? How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see above)? What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange? When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of adding the egg. Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard. LESSON LV MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B) CORN CUSTARD 1 can corn _or_ 6 ears green corn 1 teaspoonful salt l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful milk 2 eggs Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs, add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking- dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable. _One egg may be omitted_ and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2 tablespoonfuls respectively. CHEESE PUDDING 1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces 1 egg 1 cupful milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca Cayenne Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method of preparing _Dried Bread Crumbs_). QUESTIONS What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture? What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture? What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two foods bake? Give a reason for your answer. In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the same length of time? Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn. How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve? How many will the Cheese Pudding serve? LESSON LVI MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C) Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk. How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference. BREAD PUDDING 2 cupfuls milk 1 cupful bread crumbs 1 tablespoonful butter 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful spices 3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see below). If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change should be made in the other ingredients (see _Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding_)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and Chocolate Bread Pudding. CHOCOLATE BREAD PUDDING 1 cupful bread crumbs 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1 ounce chocolate 1/4 cupful boiling water 1/3 cupful sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture. Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or whipped cream or Lemon Sauce. VANILLA SAUCE 1/2 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1 teaspoonful vanilla Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10 minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla [Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just before serving. CHOCOLATE SAUCE 1/2 cupful sugar 3 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful water 1 cupful milk 3/8 cupful cocoa _or_ 2 squares (or ounces) chocolate 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water; stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over boiling water for at least 15 minutes. If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over desserts. QUESTIONS What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding? What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk mixture? Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding, and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result, if baked in a very hot oven? What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of baking? Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding. What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water? In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see Experiment 24)? How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast? Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one pint of sauce. What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce? Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures? What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked only over boiling water? LESSON LVII CHEESE (A) THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.--To show the relation of cheese to milk, and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following: EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it. Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see Lesson XLVI)? EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY--Again heat the contents of the test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted milk? Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the cheese firm. There are two general classes of cheese,--hard cheese and soft cheese. A hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in this country. ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.--The rennet or junket used to clot the casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in the stomach. EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Add a few drops of vinegar to warm milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has been curdled by the acid? To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material (see _Care of Milk_)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the clotted condition of sour milk. JUNKET "CUSTARD" 1 quart milk 1/4 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful liquid rennet _or_ 1 junket tablet Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is _lukewarm_ only; do not heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm, _i.e._ body temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like the wrist"--neither warmer nor colder--it is lukewarm in temperature. If a junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve with cream. COTTAGE CHEESE 1 quart thick sour milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cream, top milk, or butter Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve lightly heaped, or molded into balls. QUESTIONS Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see Experiment 12)? In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the digestion of milk in the stomach? Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested. How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk? Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour milk. What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home? What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market? LESSON LVIII CHEESE (B) FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is concentrated food, _i.e._ it contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven). Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese. Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487, _The Digestion of Cheese_, p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should be heated at low or moderate temperature. It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already been eaten, is not advisable. CARE OF CHEESE.--Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (see _Why Foods Spoil_). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it. MACARONI AND CHEESE 1 cupful macaroni 1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs 3/4 cupful grated cheese Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling, salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown. _Rice or noodles_, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for macaroni. QUESTIONS What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce? What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity? What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)? Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water? What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain? What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (see _Cheese Sauce,_)? What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of rice? What is the price per pound of cheese? How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese? How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve? How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food? LESSON LIX STRUCTURE OF BEEF--METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS MEAT.--The flesh of animals is called _meat_. In market this term is applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton (sheep), lamb, and pork (pig). To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try the following experiments with beef: EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.--Scrape a piece of lean beef on both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat. What is the color and texture, _i.e._ toughness, of the two parts into which the muscle is divided? Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (_a_) connective tissue or framework, and (_b_) muscle fiber. Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52. EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.-- Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more tender or tough by dry heat? (_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (_a_). Is the fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber? EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.--Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and heat affect its toughness? (_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook in water at simmering temperature as directed in (_a_). How do heat and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has a more pleasing flavor? From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the length of time--_long or short_--that _connective tissue_ must be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with regard to the kind of heat--_dry or moist_--that must be applied to connective tissue to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more pleasing flavor? [Illustration: FIGURE 43.--STRUCTURE OF MEAT. A. muscle fibers; B. fat cells; C. connective tissue.] THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.--The connective tissue of meat is the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump. This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination, however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes, microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as shown also in Figure 43. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College. FIGURE 44.--CLUB OR DELMONICO STEAK.] The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the following lesson. CARE OF MEAT.--As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking. SEARING MEAT.--Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor, it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are prevented from escaping. _This process is called searing._ [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College FIGURE 45.--PORTERHOUSE] From the results of Experiment 51 (_b_), one can understand why seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat. TENDER CUTS OF BEEF--Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts. [Illustration: FIGURE 46.--SIRLOIN,--HIP STEAK (portion next to the porterhouse) _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College_] [Illustration: FIGURE 47.--SIRLOIN,--FLAT BONE (choice cut in the middle of the sirloin section). _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College._] Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts of the beef would one expect to find most tender? Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts. Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts of meat: (_a_) broiling, (_b_) pan-broiling, and (_c_) roasting (baking). [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College FIGURE 48.--SIRLOIN,--ROUND BONE (next to the rump and round).] The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure 44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin. Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College FIGURE 49.--FIRST CUT PRIME RIB ROAST] [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College FIGURE 50.--SECOND CUT PRIME RIB ROAST] BROILING Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughly _seared_ on both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10 minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serve _at once_. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College FIGURE 51.--BLADE RIB ROAST (7th and 8th ribs).] PAN-BROILING Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying pan _without any fat_. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is the same as for broiling. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.--Pan-broiled steak differs from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (_a_) ease of digestion and (_b_) flavor. As explained previously (_Frying and Digestion_), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested. For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit the fat, and to broil a steak. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_. Teachers College FIGURE 52--CHUCK RIB ROAST (9th and 10th ribs)] Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In "fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the addition of any other flavor. ROASTING (BAKING) Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as follows: [Illustration: FIGURE 53.--COLONIAL FIREPLACE, SHOWING A "ROASTING KITCHEN"--a device for roasting meat--at lower right-hand corner.] Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven (500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400 degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with flour, and continue baking as before. Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one, the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of beef should weigh at least 4 pounds. The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for beef roasts, _15 minutes to each pound_ is allowed. QUESTIONS Explain the purpose of searing meat. If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared? Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or pan-broiled? Why cannot meat be broiled over _blazing_ coals? What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak? What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak? How many persons will each serve? LESSON LX BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A) PROTEIN IN MEAT.--It was mentioned previously that there are several different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins exist in: (_a_) Connective tissue. (_b_) Walls of muscle fibers. (_c_) Muscle juice. Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz., _collagen_ and _elastin._ Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water. Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of muscle fibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,--_myosin or muscle globulin_ and _albumin_. Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meat because it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meat broth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form of albumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold water, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of its nutriment is lost. [Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 54--ROUND.] [Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 55.--CHUCK.] Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists in greater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insoluble in both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. As not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making, _the solid part of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment_. Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat. CHOPPED BEEF.--If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting on its structure? How would this affect its toughness? It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, if the meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder or chuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose. CHOPPED STEAK 1 pound beef steak, chopped 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 onion, grated 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 cupful water or 3/4 cupful tomatoes 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying pan until hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat; _then remove the fat_. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking. Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once. Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meat mixture. The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg is thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef. Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed into one large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan- broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful in turning over the steak. BEEF LOAF Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg. Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato or Brown Sauce. The use of tomatoes instead of water in _Beef Loaf_ makes the meat especially tasty. QUESTIONS Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after searing it? What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder? How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat? How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat? LESSON LXI BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (B) STUFFED MEAT ROAST 2 pounds chopped meat 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put it into a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a large cavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows: 2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful marjoram 1/4 teaspoonful thyme 1/4 teaspoonful savory 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls fat Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stir and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned. Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that the latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot oven and bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,--plain or with Brown Sauce (see below). Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used in _Stuffed Meat Roast_. Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (see _Beef Loaf_). POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food Administration Bulletin.] 2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes 1 egg (beaten) 1 small onion, grated 1 tablespoonful fat 1 stalk celery finely minced _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing. EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.--When flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (see Experiment 26, above)? Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful of flour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the same ingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauce as to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,--starch or dextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order to make it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid. NOTE.--If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasoned and used with the Stuffed Meat Roast. BROWN SAUCE 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 cupful meat stock or hot water 1 teaspoonful scraped onion If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the "Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them. Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook as _White Sauce_. QUESTIONS What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why? Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them successfully. LESSON LXII BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (A) EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.--Place a bit of meat in a test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand for a few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into the water? What practical application as to washing meat can be made from this? Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the water contain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth? Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer be used? Why? EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.--Pour boiling water over a bit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water? Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out. EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.--Sprinkle some salt on a piece of meat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practical application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this? NOTE.--The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved and used for soup-making. TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.--From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found to be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking was used to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughness of meat depends upon (_a_) amount of connective tissue, and (_b_) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin). These conditions depend upon (_a_) the age of the animal, and (_b_) locality of muscle or cut of meat. Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked, tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is necessary to make them palatable. _The long cooking must be accomplished in water or steam_ in order that the meat may not burn or become too dry. Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender than beef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because they are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue. Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence tough cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not always appreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely extracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentioned previously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop flavor in meat. USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.--Bone contains a substance which long cooking changes into a jellylike mass called _gelatine_. In the center of the bone there is a fatty substance called _marrow_. This fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making soup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes the air from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, in soup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the lean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stock before using. BEEF STOCK 2 pounds meat, bone and fat 1/4 teaspoonful celery seed 5 peppercorns 2 cloves 2 quarts cold water 1/2 bay leaf 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brown about 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add the seasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook below boiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour it through a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowed to solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used. 1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in small pieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bones of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut into small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces of meat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel, provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness. CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).--The feeding, care, and age of an animal have much to do with the _quality_ of its meat. It is considered that good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef should be firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be a generous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. In most markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several days at a temperature near freezing. The _cost_ of the different cuts of meat varies greatly. The difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, and upon the demand,--not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in different localities, and in different seasons. The _waste_ of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs to consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containing no waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower. [Illustration: Adapted from diagram in _University of Illinois_ Bulletin, No 158 FIGURE 56.--CUTS OF BEEF.] The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks the division of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of the various cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicated around the outer boundary of the diagram. The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the cut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such as shown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for roasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces into which a cut is usually divided. EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 56. CUTS OF BEEF HIND QUARTER NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting. 1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing. 57). Corning. B. Round (not including Sauteing. rump and shank). Stewing. 2-14. Round steaks (see Braising. Figure 54). Pot-roasting. C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting. 15. Pot roast. Stewing. D. Hind shank. 16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making. 17-19. Soup bones. LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling 1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut into steaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces 5-6. Flat-bone sirloin steaks (see Figure 47). 7. Hip-bone sirloin steak (see Figure 46). F. Porterhouse. Broiling. 8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into (see Figure 45). thick pieces). 16-18. Club or Delmonico steaks (see Figure 44). FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing. Rolling and Braising H-H. Flank stew. Stewing. Corning. FORE QUARTER NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING RIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting. 1-4. Prime-rib roasts (see Figures 49 and 50). CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks 1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising. Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting. 2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling. (see Figure 55). Sauteing. 10-13. Pot roasts. NOTE.--In some localities, a pot roast is cut from the lower portion of the chuck. It is called Cross Rib, Boston Cut, or English Cut (see Figure 58). 14. Clod, no bone (over knuckle soup bone). L. Neck. Stewing. 15. Stew. Soup-making. Corning. PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing. 1, 2. Stews. Soup-making. Corning. N. Navel. Stewing. 3. Stew. Soup-making. Corning. O. Brisket. Stewing. 4. Stew. Soup-making. Corning. FORE P. Shin. SHANK 1. Stew. 2. Knuckle soup bone (underneath Stewing. clod, _J_, 14). Soup-making. 3-6. Soup bones ("3" underneath clod, _J_, 14). Skirt steak,--diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising. ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing. Tail. Soup-making. QUESTIONS Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in using tough cuts of meat for soup? Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making. Give the price per pound of these cuts. In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of cracking the bone? Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (see Experiment 56)? LESSON LXIII BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (B) EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.--Examine the beef stock of the previous lesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fat cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made of the fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock. Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylike consistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solid material is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stock is used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54). VEGETABLE SOUP 2 quarts beef stock 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 onion, sliced 1 carrot 1 turnip 1/2 stalk celery or dried celery leaves Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add a small quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to the water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender. Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate, if necessary, and then serve. The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni, or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with the vegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in the stock. Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas, asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors and utilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making. EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.--Which contains the more nutriment,--beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? What valuable protein material does the solid meat contain (see _Protein in Meat_)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does the flavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meat as a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), what supplies flavor to the meat? BAKED HASH l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat 1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water 1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock Salt and pepper 1 cupful cracker crumbs, _or_ 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful scraped onion Chopped parsley 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water or stock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking- dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixture with the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and the crumbs browned. Serve at once. LESSON LXIV BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (C) ROLLED BEEFSTEAK 1 pound round steak 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful ground cloves Pepper 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 small onion, chopped Hot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat [Illustration: FIGURE 57.--RUMP.] Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make a stuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, with enough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the pieces of steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewer it with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper. Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmer for 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, and serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked. If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a wooden potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin. BEEF STEW 2 pounds beef 1/4 cupful flour 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 onion cut into slices 1 quart hot water 2 carrots, cut in dice 1 turnip, cut in dice 4 potatoes, cut in dice 1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try out the fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then the meat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the frying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boiler and cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, and cook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done. If desired, more flour,--mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,--may be added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchen bouquet, and serve. THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.--When meat is dipped in flour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flour thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however, more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick. Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat stock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some time (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasing flavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour is not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thus the sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the sauce is ready to serve. QUESTIONS If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical way of making it of one half inch thickness? For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water? Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than at boiling temperature. What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour? Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling water is added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables? Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew? Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. What are the prices per pound of these cuts? LESSON LXV BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (D) SWISS STEAK 1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick 1/2 to 1 cupful flour Suet or bacon fat 1/2 onion, sliced 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak. In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Then brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range or in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enough salt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the sauce around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as Brown Sauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot. If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (If tomato is added, what kind of frying pan (_i.e._ of what material) should be used in cooking the meat? See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits._) This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped and sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. The onion may be omitted, if desired. POT ROAST 3 pounds beef Flour Salt pork or suet 1/2 bay leaf 6 peppercorns Salt and pepper 1/4 cupful each,--diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery [Illustration: FIGURE 58.--CROSS RIB, BOSTON CUT, OR ENGLISH CUT] Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously with flour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack in the kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it with salt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmer for 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and the sauce containing vegetables. NOTE--This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding the uses of cooked beef [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_ Teachers College FIGURE 59--SKIRT STEAK, FLANK STEAK.] SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT--There are many recipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a few methods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (see _Tough Cuts of Beef_) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as follows 1 _Soup-making_--Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, and then cook below boiling temperature in the water. 2. "_Boiling" or Stewing_.--Plunge meat into boiling water; boil until well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature. 3. _Pot-roasting and Braising_.--Sear meat by boiling or browning in fat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range, it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is called braising. QUESTIONS What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising? Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods? What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (see _Roasting_)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roasting for tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the price per pound of each. LESSON LXVI BEEF: USES OF COOKED BEEF "LEFT OVERS"--Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; they can be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as to extract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, and this is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from the meat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasoned well with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has been cooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces for cooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, not recooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine in order to heat it quickly. As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materials is required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted for stock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipes here given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportions should be changed to utilize available materials. SCALLOPED MEAT 2 cupfuls chopped meat 2 tablespoonfuls fat 3 tablespoonfuls flour l-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley l-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (See _Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes_.) Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, and milk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about one half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meat mixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in the oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown. _Cold fish_ may be shredded and used in the same way. COTTAGE PIE.--Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substituting mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on the top of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion. QUESTIONS How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive value? How does it differ in taste? Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash. Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes? Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be desirable for hash. How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of fresh meat? Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked? LESSON LXVII GELATINE (A) EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful of cold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes. Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of the gelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as to hardness? EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful boiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hot water. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine? NOTE.--Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of the gelatine dessert of the lesson. GELATINE.--When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled, what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From what substance in the meat and bone was this material formed (see _Protein in Meat_; _Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making_; _Examination of Cold Beef Stock_)? The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle, skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased in several different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized gelatine the most convenient to use. One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly. In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to be molded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine. Gelatine should be first hydrated (_i.e._ combined with water) by means of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water. THE VALUE OF GELATINE.--Gelatine is an incomplete protein, _i.e._ it is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it does not, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body. The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that the question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit, however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value. Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquid diet. LEMON JELLY 1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine _or_ 1/4 ounce shredded gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 3/4 cupful sugar Salt 1 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water is absorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into a mold. Set in a cool place to harden. _Gelatine mixtures should be covered while soaking and cooling_. _To remove jelly from the mold_, apply a cloth wrung out of hot water to the outside of the mold. FRUIT JELLY Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins to stiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices. Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into a mold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with or without cream. Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. If pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapple contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing fresh pineapple fails to stiffen. WHIPPED JELLY When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whipped with a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in appearance and quantity. Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows: Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide into two portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff, pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool. When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Serve with top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce. QUESTIONS What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling? Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely? What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine mixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? From this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice is added. What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures? Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained? Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why? How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the jellies? Explain. When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing the jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit? LESSON LXVIII GELATINE (B) SNOW PUDDING 1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 cupful sugar Salt 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice 2 or 3 egg whites Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside to cool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins to stiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, then add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve with chilled Custard Sauce. For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks (instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful). In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested. The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes a pleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning the mixture into the mold. Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed in the previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of egg whites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more tasty. PINEAPPLE BAVARIAN CREAM 1 tablespoonful gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 small can (8 ounces) shredded pineapple Boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar Salt 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1/2 cupful (or more) whipped cream Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed. Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to make 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point. Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are dissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place until the mixture begins to stiffen. Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the gelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture again begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve cold. QUESTIONS What is the price per package of gelatine? How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in one package? Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the difference in the cost? Which is lighter in weight,--beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? From this, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation of Snow Pudding. Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of Bavarian Cream. LESSON LXIX FISH (A) EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.--Soak a piece of fresh fish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to the boiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practical application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing fish? EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.--Boil a small piece of fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judging from this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish? From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,--boiling or baking,--would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why? COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.--Fish is an animal food containing protein. It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains more water than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In the quantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein is also complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It is lacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning. FAT OF FISH.--The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of fish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat. The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. The ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fish containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested. CLASSES OF FISH.--According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish may be divided into two classes: _(_a_) dry, or_ lean _fish_, and _(_b_) oily fish_. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch, bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel, herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (This latter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.) Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in which they live, fish from the sea being termed _salt-water fish_, and those from rivers and lakes _fresh-water fish_ Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should be generally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found at market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish. SALMON TIMBALE OR LOAF 1 can salmon 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 or 2 eggs 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pour into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan, surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of the range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out, and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (for White Sauce, see _White Sauce for Vegetables_. For the fat of the White Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon). Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale, _Tuna fish_ or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon. CASSEROLE OF FISH Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredients given in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned or cooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf. Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or a mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it in the dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover it with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turn from the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for Salmon Timbale. Any kind of _cooked_ and _chopped meat_ may be used instead of fish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf? Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this fish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or at a high temperature. What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish? Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound of each? LESSON LXX FISH (B) FRESHNESS OF FISH.--Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which is dangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should be able to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish: (_a_) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone. (6) The gills are bright. (_c_) The eyes are bright and bulging. The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an indication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water. Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length of time. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state until used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold water _just before cooking_. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances called _ptomaines_. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may even prove fatal. Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not be placed uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightly covered,--put in a tin pail or glass jar,--and placed in the refrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet cloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fish should be washed in salted water. BAKED FISH Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removed before baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed before serving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained, it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning. [Illustration: FIGURE 60.--FISH KETTLE, SHOWING RACK] Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and then fill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the incision as follows: Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the opening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by _"lacing"_ string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each side across the fish and put strips of salt pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil a baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place the fish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place the sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes for each pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by means of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every 10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on a platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve with _Tomato Sauce_ or _Sauce for Fish_ (see below). In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may be placed across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fish may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin. STUFFING FOR FISH 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Cayenne 1 teaspoonful scraped onion 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute Mix the ingredients in the order given (see _Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes_) SAUCE FOR FISH 3 tablespoons butter or substitute 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Cayenne l 3/4 cupfuls hot water 1/4 cupful vinegar _or_ 1 large lemon,--juice 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (see _White Sauce for Vegetables_. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley. Serve hot over fish. Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the whole eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to the sauce. QUESTIONS Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator? Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placing in a pan of water (see Experiment 59)? What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of muslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)? How is fish tested for sufficient cooking? How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked? LESSON LXXI FISH (C) PLANKED (BROILED) FISH An oak plank,--one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large platter,--is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking or broiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish, should be selected. Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in the broiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes. A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (see _Potato Puff_). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it from the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tube may be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted with water (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven to finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish and potatoes on the plank. FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-meal and flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drain and serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be used for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (see _Fried Oysters_). FISH CHOWDER 1/2 pound salt fish _or_ 2 pounds fresh fish 1 quart potatoes cut in pieces 2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippings _or_ other fat 1 onion, chopped 2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal 1 pint milk Crackers If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes (why?), then shred it. If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it into six or eight pieces. Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hot water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk and continue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a few crackers broken into pieces. QUESTIONS State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish. Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling? What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg? Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish (see _Comparison of Beef with Fish_). LESSON LXXII LEGUMES (A) THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bear pods containing seeds; the seeds--green or ripened--and the pods of some of the plants are commonly used as foods. PROTEIN IN SEEDS.--Many foods rich in protein belong to the animal kingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The common cereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oats contain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds in protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more protein than most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein. Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. They contain about 37 per cent. It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the dried legumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain complete protein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need to be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, and cheese. Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat, they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milk or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of protein food. The protein in legumes is called _legumin_. COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.--The dried legumes should be soaked overnight in water, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetables require long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A little soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes. During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked. Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can be removed as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot water, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful for each cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, then drain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beans require long cooking,--usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking, they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in a _fireless cooker_. The _pressure cooker_ may be used effectively in cooking these dried beans. Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manner as navy beans (see _Boston Baked Beans_). Serve cooked soy-beans with Tomato Sauce. Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cook them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent. In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that is already required for some other purpose. The _fireless cooker_ is most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods. BOSTON BAKED BEANS 2 cupfuls navy beans 2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 ounces salt pork or bacon 1/2 teaspoonful mustard Soak the beans overnight as directed in _Cooking Dried Legumes_. Add a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add the seasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add the pork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes in it nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water to cover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours. Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with liquid. _Lentils_ may be baked in the same way as beans. SALTED PEANUTS 1/2 cupful salt 1 cupful shelled unroasted peanuts 3 cupfuls water 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3 minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heat the salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts. _Cook 8 minutes_. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add the fat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan on paper. QUESTIONS Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking? Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk? What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while baking? Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in the oven but an hour or two. How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing in water (see Experiment 35)? What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon? What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning? What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound? How many cupfuls in a pound of each? LESSON LXXIII LEGUMES (B) BEAN SOUP 2 cupfuls beans 3 quarts water Baking soda 1 piece of celery root _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt _or_ Dried celery leaves l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 slices onion Cayenne 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 2 tablespoonfuls flour Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly until the beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates. Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making a sauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (see _Thick Soups_). Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this soup. SPLIT PEA SOUP 1 cupful split peas 2 1/2 quarts water Baking soda 2 slices onion 1 pint milk 1/8 teaspoonful pepper l 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until the peas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve. Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor. GREEN PEA SOUP 1 pint or can of peas 1/2 teaspoonful sugar 1 pint liquid round peas and water Pepper 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 pint milk 2 tablespoonfuls flour Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cook until very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve. Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of the pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas. CRISP CRACKERS Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and serve with soup. QUESTIONS How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (see _Cooking Vegetables in Water_)? What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick? If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omitted in making the soup? Why? How many persons will these recipes for soup serve? How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound of split peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by soaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? What is the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by using split peas rather than green peas? LESSON LXXIV LEGUMES (C) BEAN ROAST 1 cupful white beans, cooked 1 cupful roasted peanuts 1/2 cupful bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt Speck pepper 1/2 cupful milk Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remaining ingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. PEANUT BUTTER SOUP 1 cupful peanut butter 1/2 cupful chopped celery 1 1/2 cupfuls water 3 cupfuls milk 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 grated potato Mix the peanut butter with I cupful of milk. Heat 2 cupfuls of milk in a double boiler. Cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender. Add the grated potato, cook, and stir until the mixture is thickened. Then add it to the hot milk. Also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning. Heat until it is hot. Beat with a Dover egg beater. Serve hot. Dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery. QUESTIONS Mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of Bean Roast and Peanut Butter Soup. Discuss the value of each nutrient. Calculate the cost of Bean Roast. How many persons will it serve? How many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve? Estimate the difference in cost of one serving of Bean Roast and of Chopped Steak. What is the purpose of grated potato in Peanut Butter Soup? What substance could be substituted for the grated potato? State the method of mixing and cooking if the substitution were made. RELATED WORK LESSON LXXV COST OF FOOD FOODS DIFFER GREATLY IN COST.--One pound of rice costs much less than one pound of beefsteak. One cut of meat may cost less per pound than another. Twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than of beefsteak. Many factors other than difference in cost must, however, be taken into consideration when determining the value of foods. COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO NUTRITIVE VALUE.--Foods differ in nutritive value per pound. One pound of dried split peas contains more than three times as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas. The nutritive value of a pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak. COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO REFUSE.--Although one cut of meat may sell for more than another, the higher priced one may be cheaper because there is less waste. In most localities flank steak costs more per pound than shoulder steak; yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is all edible, while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak. One pays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs. COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO SEASON.--Most foods are higher in price when out of season. Strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart in February and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months. An unseasonable food is invariably expensive. COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO WEIGHT.--Food labels often contain valuable information. The weight of the contents of a package, can, or bottle, and sometimes the composition of food appears on them. Packages, bottles, and cans of equal size do not always contain the same quantity of foods. The shape or thickness of a container also affects the quantity of its contents. By examining labels and noting weight and composition, the price and quality of one brand of foods may be compared with another. Household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods, such as meats, fats, and vegetables. By weighing foods after they have been purchased, a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that for which she pays. LESSENING THE COST OF FOODS.--There are many things, then, that the thrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods. It is one of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for a family to be careful of expense. The following statement concerning thrift is both forceful and true: "It is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditure no matter how generous its income, and the intelligent housekeeper should take as much pride in setting a good table, at a low price, as the manufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in his factory." [Footnote 56: _United States Department of Agriculture_, Farmers' Bulletin 391, "Economical Use of Meat in the Home," p. 43.] CALCULATION OF THE COST OF FOOD.--In counting the cost of foods, it is necessary to know not only the price per pound, quart, dozen, or package, but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight. Most of the data for the list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers and from the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared from the "Questions" of this text. The dashes indicate that data are not required. The cost should be calculated to four decimal places. FOODS COST MEASURE COST PER COST PER COST PER PER IN CUPFUL TABLE- TEA- POUND, CUPFULS SPOONFUL SPOONFUL QUART, OF ETC. POUND, QUART, ETC. Apricots (dried) ----- ----- Baking Powder ----- ----- Beans, dried ----- ----- Butter Butter Substitute Cheese ----- ----- Cocoa ----- ----- Coffee Heaping ----- Table- spoonful Corn-meal ----- ----- Corn-starch ----- Cream of Wheat ----- ----- Cream ----- Currants ----- ----- (dried) Eggs (see ----- One ----- Experiment 41 Flour, white ----- Flour, whole wheat ----- ----- Flour, graham ----- ----- Gelatine ----- Lard ----- Macaroni ----- ----- Meat, chopped ----- ----- Milk ----- ----- Potatoes ----- One ----- ----- potato Prunes (dried) ----- ----- Raisins (dried) ----- ----- Rice ----- ----- Rolled Oats ----- ----- Salt ----- Split Peas ----- ----- Sugar, brown ----- ----- Sugar, granulated ----- ----- Sugar, loaf One ----- ----- lump Sugar, powdered ----- ----- Tapioca ----- ----- Tea ----- Vanilla ----- ----- ----- Vegetable Oil ----- Wheatena ----- ----- LESSON LXXVI COOKING AND SERVING A BREAKFAST Cook and serve a breakfast. The following menu is suggested: Oranges or Baked Apples Goldenrod Eggs Baked Mush with Honey or Marmalade Cocoa Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal. In determining the cost, use the data from the previous lesson for the staple materials. The cost of fresh foods such as oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing or from the grocer's statement. LESSON LXXVII REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU Cereal with Fruit Poached Egg on Toast See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the Lesson. LESSON LXXVIII HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 57: See Lesson IX] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Set the table for the evening meal each day. Cook at least one tough cut of meat each week. Suggested Aims: (1) To lay the cloth smooth and straight. (2) To place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table. (3) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table. (4) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served. (5) To prepare the tough meat so that it is tender, moist, and tasty. (6) To determine the cost of meat. DIVISION SEVEN HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES LESSON LXXIX VITAMINES--VEGETABLES OF DELICATE FLAVOR VITAMINES.--In determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment, scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed a certain quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, and water. They were all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in the foods making up a day's diet. Scientists also found that these foodstuffs must exist in a certain proportion in a day's food,--that there should be enough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body. A diet made up of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the proper proportion was termed a _balanced ration_. Investigations of recent years, however, show that these foodstuffs alone do not afford perfect nourishment. Much valuable scientific work is being done on the question of adequate diet. It is found that _certain substances_ contained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essential in diet. When animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffs mentioned above and none of these other substances, they cease growing, become diseased, and eventually die. These materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal life are termed _Vitamines_ by some authorities. There are three classes of Vitamines, called _Fat-soluble A_, _Water-soluble B_, and _Water-soluble C_. It is now believed that there is at least one more vitamine. Although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it is necessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promote growth and to keep in health. Fat-soluble A, especially with certain minerals, is thought to prevent rickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia. During the war, because of inadequate diet, many cases of these diseases developed in Europe. Water-soluble B is called the _anti-neuritic vitamine_ because it is necessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri (see _Polished and Unpolished Rice_). Water-soluble C is called the _anti-scorbutic vitamine_ because it is necessary to prevent a disease called scurvy. FOODS CONTAINING FAT-SOLUBLE A are _milk_, _eggs_, and _leafy vegetables_. Leafy vegetables include: spinach, lettuce, celery tops, beet tops, Swiss chard, collards, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and onions. Milk products, such as butter and cheese, and cod-liver oil also contain fat-soluble A. It is also thought to be present in certain vegetables such as carrots, which are not leafy vegetables. Not all fat foods contain fat- soluble A. It does not exist in the vegetable oils. It has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble A, especially milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables, are most essential in diet. According to McCollum, dry leaves contain 3 to 5 times as much total ash as do seeds; the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium, sodium, and chlorine, in which the seed is poorest. Hence leafy vegetables not only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essential minerals. Cereals, root vegetables, and meat need to be supplemented with milk and leafy vegetables. Because milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables are so valuable and essential in diet, these foods have been termed _protective foods_. Fresh milk contains fat-soluble A and a small quantity of water-soluble B and water-soluble C. Its value as a food has been previously discussed. Doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generally and as constantly used as they should be. Root vegetables and cereals seem to be a much more popular form of vegetable food. The pupil should realize the importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in her home. Learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutriment and to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting their use. FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE B.--Water-soluble B is more widely distributed in foods than is fat-soluble A. It occurs for the most part, however, in vegetable foods. Plants containing this vitamine include seeds, root, stem, and leafy vegetables. Whole grains, legumes, spinach, cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and tomatoes and all other commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble B. It is thought that the germ of whole grains, rather than the bran, furnishes water-soluble B. Compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine, but none of the other two. FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE C include both animal and vegetable foods, but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity. Orange juice, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach are valuable sources of this vitamine. Milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water- soluble C. SAVING THE NUTRIMENT AND FLAVOR.--It was mentioned in _Suggestions for Cooking Fresh Vegetables_ that a saving of ash in vegetables meant a saving of both nutriment and flavor. If vegetables of delicate flavor are to be made tasty, it is especially necessary to lose none of the ash constituents. Note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables of delicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked in such a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them, or the vegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for the vegetable. By these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained. SPINACH 1 pound or 1/2 peck spinach 1/2 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter If the spinach is at all wilted, place it in cold water until it becomes fresh and crisp. Cut off the roots, break the leaves apart, and drop them in a pan of water. Wash well, and then lift them into a second pan of water; wash again, and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of the pan. Lift from the water, drain, and place in a granite utensil, and add the seasoning. Steam until tender (usually about 30 minutes). Add the butter, cut the leaves with a knife and fork. Turn into a hot dish and serve at once. Spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or a combination of oil and vinegar. If desired, the pepper may be omitted and 1 tablespoonful of sugar added. Spinach may also be garnished with slices of hard-cooked eggs, using 2 eggs to 1/2 peck of spinach. Spinach may be cooked directly over the flame, as follows: wash the spinach as directed above. Then drain, and place in a saucepan or casserole. Do not add water unless the spinach is old. Add the seasoning, cover, and cook for 10 minutes, pressing down and turning over the spinach several times during the cooking. Cut with a knife and fork in the saucepan or casserole. Add the butter, and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve at once. SCALLOPED SPINACH WITH CHEESE 1 pound spinach 1 cupful thick White Sauce 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in pieces 2 to 3 hard-cooked eggs, sliced 2 cupfuls buttered bread crumbs Wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above. Season it with 1/2 tablespoonful of salt. Drain the moisture from the cooked spinach. Use this liquid combined with milk for the liquid of the White Sauce. Season the sauce with 1/2 teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it. Stir the mixture until the cheese is blended with the sauce. Divide the spinach, sauce, and eggs into 2 portions and the bread crumbs into 3 portions, as directed for Scalloped Corn. Place a layer of crumbs in a baking-dish, add a layer of spinach, sauce, and eggs. Add another layer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned. Serve hot. DRIED CELERY LEAVES [Footnote 58: The stems of celery from which the leaves are cut, should be utilized. They may be used in a salad or cooked and served with White Sauce as Creamed Celery. If the vegetable is cooked, it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water. In case the latter method is followed, the celery stock should be combined with milk and used in the preparation of the White Sauce.] Wash celery leaves and remove the stems. Place the leaves on a platter or granite pan, cover with cheese-cloth, and set aside to dry. When perfectly dry, crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar. Use for flavoring soups and stews. QUESTIONS In what kind of soil does spinach grow? What is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach? What is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicate flavor? If green vegetables are cooked in water, what is the advantage in using a small, rather than a large quantity of water? What is the price of spinach per pound or peck? How many persons does one pound or peck serve? What is the price of celery per bunch? What vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems? LESSON LXXX VITAMINES--VEGETABLES OF STRONG FLAVOR THE EFFECT OF COOKING AND DRYING VITAMINE-RICH FOODS.--Since vitamines are so essential in food, the effect of cooking and drying upon the vitamine content of a food needs to be considered. There has been some difference of opinion regarding this matter. Indeed, the question of whether or not vitamines of all vitamine-rich foods are destroyed by cooking and drying has not been determined. It is thought, however, that fat-soluble A may be destroyed in part by cooking at boiling temperature and that prolonged cooking may almost entirely destroy it. Water-soluble B is thought to be little affected by ordinary home cooking processes. But when foods containing it are heated above boiling temperature, as in commercial canning and cooking in the pressure cooker, the vitamine is believed to be partially or completely destroyed. It is thought the water-soluble B vitamine present in foods is destroyed by cooking them in water to which baking soda or any alkali is added. Water-soluble C is decidedly affected by heat. Vegetables cooked for even twenty minutes at boiling temperature lose much of their usefulness in preventing scurvy. It is thought, however, that very young carrots cooked for a short time, and canned tomatoes, contain water-soluble C. Drying also destroys to a great extent the anti-scorbutic effect of foods containing water-soluble C. Most dried vegetables and fruits have been found valueless in checking scurvy. Since there is no question about the vitamine content of uncooked vegetables, the use of salads containing lettuce and raw vegetables such as cabbage and carrots should find favor. Spinach is a valuable food not only because it contains vitamines, but because it is rich in iron. Young beet tops so often discarded contain too much valuable material to be wasted. NUTRIMENT _VERSUS_ FLAVOR.--If vegetables of strong flavor are cooked carefully in a large quantity of boiling water (at least 4 quarts), a mild flavor results, but much of the ash is lost. If vegetables are steamed there is little loss of ash but the strong flavor is retained. In the cooking of cabbage, for example, investigation has shown that almost four times as much ash may be lost by boiling as by steaming. In the cooking of such vegetables as cabbage and onions the question arises: Is it better to steam them and thus lose little nutriment but preserve the strong flavor; or to boil them in much water and thus lose much nutriment but secure delicate flavor? If strong cabbage flavor is not distasteful, steam it or cook it in a small quantity of water by all means. If delicate cabbage flavor is much more pleasing, cook it in much water. Onions have such a strong flavor that most housekeepers prefer to sacrifice nutriment for flavor. CREAMED CABBAGE (Cooked in Much Water) A head of cabbage should be cut into quarters and placed in cold water. If it is wilted, it should remain in the water until freshened. Cook the cabbage uncovered from 15 to 25 minutes in a large quantity of boiling water (1 teaspoonful of salt to I quart of water). The time depends upon the age of the cabbage. Drain well. With the knife and fork cut the cabbage in the saucepan. (Do not discard the core of young cabbage since it contains valuable nutrients.) Mix with White Sauce, using two parts of cabbage to one of White Sauce. Heat and serve (see _Creamed and Scalloped Vegetables_). _Scalloped Cabbage_ may be prepared by placing creamed cabbage in a baking-dish, covering with Buttered Crumbs and baking until the crumbs are brown. Instead of using White Sauce with the cabbage, butter (or substitute), pepper, and more salt (if required) may be added. Use 1 tablespoonful of butter (or substitute) to each pint of cabbage. CABBAGE (COOKED IN LITTLE WATER) Clean cabbage, then cut or chop both the leaves and core. Cook in a _small quantity_ of boiling water from 15 to 25 minutes. The small quantity of stock which remains after cooking should be served with the vegetable to which butter (or substitute) and seasonings are added. The stock may also be drained from the cabbage and used in making White Sauce in which the vegetable is served. CREAMED CABBAGE (STEAMED) Cut and clean cabbage as directed above. Place in a granite utensil and steam until tender (usually about 45 minutes). Cut the leaves and add White Sauce as directed above. ONIONS (COOKED IN MUCH WATER) 1 pound onions 1/2 cupful milk 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper Peel and wash the onions; then cook uncovered in a large quantity of boiling salted water; change the water at the end of 5 minutes and again in 10 minutes; cook until tender. Drain; add milk and seasonings and cook until the milk is hot. NOTE.--It is advisable to save the water drained from onions, boil it down, and use it in soups, stews, or hash for flavor. Onions may also be served with White Sauce, or they may be scalloped, _i.e._ cut into quarters, placed in a baking-dish, covered with White Sauce and Buttered Crumbs, and then browned in the oven. The stain and odor may be kept from the hands if onions are held under water when peeled. If onions are cooked uncovered in a _large quantity of gently boiling water in a well-ventilated kitchen_, not much odor is noticed. The fireless cooker, however, provides satisfactory means of cooking onions without the disagreeable odor (see Lesson XXII). Place the onions in a large quantity of water and boil for 5 minutes. Then cook in the fireless cooker from 2 to 8 hours, according to the size and the age of the onions, and the type of cooker. QUESTIONS Compare the three methods of cooking cabbage given in this lesson. State the advantages and disadvantages of each. Why should the core or thick stem of cabbage be used as food? What is the price per pound of cabbage? What is the weight of one cabbage of average size? Give suggestions for selecting a cabbage. Why should onions be peeled under water? What is the purpose of changing the water twice in cooking onions? Why is it advisable to save the water drained from onions and use it in soups and other foods? What is the price per pound of onions? How many persons will one pound of onions serve? LESSON LXXXI SALADS (A) PREPARATION OF A SALAD.--A well-prepared salad is a good food. It is necessary, however, to prepare it so that it may be pleasing in appearance as well as in taste. The green vegetables used for salads should be crisp, cold, and dry when served. If several food materials are used, the flavors should blend. Have the salad dressing well seasoned, and its ingredients well proportioned. Add the dressing to a salad just before serving. LETTUCE FOR SALAD Either leaf or head lettuce forms a part of almost all salads. It is often used as a bed for a salad, or as a border. For the latter purpose, leaf lettuce should be used and cut into strips with the scissors. Keep lettuce in a cold place; separate the leaves, and place them in cold water until crisp and fresh. Wash and look over carefully to see that no insects cling to them. Shake the water from the leaves or place them in a cloth bag or a wire basket. Then place the bag or basket in the refrigerator to drain. The leaves may also be dried with a towel. Lettuce served with French Dressing makes a plain but pleasing salad. When lettuce is used as a bed or border for a salad, it should be eaten and not left to be turned into the garbage can. FRENCH DRESSING Clove of garlic _or_ Slice of onion 1 teaspoonful salt 6 tablespoonfuls salad oil half teaspoonful paprika 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar or lemon juice Rub a bowl with the clove of garlic or slice of onion. Add the remainder of the ingredients, and stir until well blended. More vinegar or lemon juice may be used, if desired. Chopped parsley or mint may be added. Some find it convenient to put the materials for French Dressing in a bottle or jar and mix the ingredients by shaking the bottle. For Fruit Salads, the addition of 1 tablespoonful of sugar and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice to the French Dressing recipe above makes a pleasing flavor. Celery salt is thought by some to improve the flavor. From a quarter to a half teaspoonful may be added. COLESLAW 3 cupfuls shredded cabbage 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne 1 teaspoonful sugar 1 egg or 2 egg yolks 1/2 cupful milk 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute 1/4 cupful vinegar Heat the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs, add the dry ingredients. Then add the milk to them. Return the mixture to the double boiler and cook as a custard (see _Soft Custard_). Remove from the hot water, add the fat and vinegar, and _at once_ strain over the cabbage. Set aside to cool. Serve cold. CARROT AND CABBAGE SALAD 1 medium-sized carrot 2 cupfuls cabbage 1/2 cupful roasted peanuts French or Cream Salad Dressing Clean and scrape the carrot. Wash the cabbage. Put the carrot (uncooked), cabbage, and peanuts through the food chopper. Mix with French or Cream Salad Dressing. Add more seasoning if necessary. Serve at once. QUESTIONS Explain why it is necessary to dry the salad materials before adding the salad dressing. Give at least three different vegetable mixtures that would be palatable and pleasing if served with French Dressing. How is cabbage cleaned? How should it be cut for salad? When is the dressing usually added to salads? When is the dressing added to the Coleslaw? Give the reason for this exception. What is the purpose of the egg in this salad dressing? What could be substituted for the egg? Give the method of preparation if this substitution were made. What is the price per pound of leaf lettuce? Of head lettuce per pound or per head? What is the average number of leaves in a pound? What materials in Carrot and Cabbage Salad contain vitamines? State the kind of vitamine present in each material. LESSON LXXXII SALADS (B) STUFFED EGGS Cut hard-cooked eggs into halves crosswise. Remove the yolks, mash them, and for each egg add the following ingredients: 1 tablespoonful chopped chicken, ham, or other meat Dash salt 1 teaspoonful vegetable oil or melted butter 6 drops vinegar 1/8 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne Mix the ingredients. Refill the whites with the yolk mixture. Serve the stuffed eggs on lettuce leaves. The chopped chicken or meat may be omitted from the egg mixture, or a little chopped pickle or olive or cheese may be used instead of the meat. Salad dressing may be served with Stuffed Eggs. CREAM SALAD DRESSING 3 tablespoonfuls butter _or_ substitute 4 tablespoonfuls flour 2 tablespoonfuls sugar Pepper 1 to 2 eggs l 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/2 teaspoonful mustard 1 1/2 cupfuls milk (sweet _or_ sour) 1/2 cupful vinegar Make a sauce of the fat, flour, and milk. Beat the eggs, add the seasonings. Add the first mixture gradually to the egg mixture and cook over hot water as a custard (see _Soft Custard_). Add the vinegar, strain. Cool before serving. Less mustard may be used, if desired. BANANA SALAD Peel and scrape bananas. Place them on lettuce leaves or surround with a border of shredded lettuce. Cover with Cream Salad or Mayonnaise Dressing and sprinkle chopped peanuts or California walnuts over them. Serve at once. Banana Salad may be varied by serving it with Cream Salad Dressing to which peanut butter is added,--(1/2 cupful salad dressing and 1/4 cupful peanut butter). Do not use the chopped peanuts with this combination. A mixture of sliced apples and bananas served with the peanut butter dressing makes a pleasing salad. QUESTIONS Name the food materials contained in the above recipes which contain vitamines. What kind of vitamines does each contain? Give two methods of hard-cooking eggs (see _Hard-cooked Eggs_). In Stuffed Eggs what meats could be substituted for chopped chicken or ham? What material could be substituted for one of the eggs in Cream Salad Dressing? If yolks of eggs are used in Cream Salad Dressing, how many should be substituted for two whole eggs? Why should bananas be scraped? Why should they be served at once after preparing? LESSON LXXXIII CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOODSTUFFS Substances that nourish the body may be classified as follows: / (_a_) Starch / Carbohydrates \ (_b_) Sugar Energy Givers | Fats \ Protein [Footnote 59: Carbohydrates also include cellulose. But because cellulose does not yield any appreciable amount of energy, it is not listed with starch and sugar.] / Complete Proteins / Protein Body Builders \ Incomplete Proteins \ Ash / Ash Body Regulators | Water / (_a_) Fat-soluble A \ Vitamines | (_b_) Water-soluble B \ (_c_) Water-soluble C [Footnote 60: "So little is known regarding the chemical composition of vitamines that it is difficult to classify them. Since the three food essentials termed as fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, and water-soluble C are individual substances and very different in character, it may be that they will be classified later as three separate foodstuffs. It could then be said that there are eight foodstuffs."] Make lists of foods rich in: (1) Water. (2) Ash. (3) Carbohydrates. Subdivide foods rich in carbohydrates, into foods rich in (_a_) sugar, (_b_) starch, (_c_) cellulose (_i.e._ bulky foods). (4) Fats. (5) Protein. Indicate those foods that contain _complete_ proteins and those that contain _incomplete_ proteins. (6) Vitamines. Subdivide foods rich in vitamines into foods rich in fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, water-soluble C. Explain why certain foods are contained in two or more lists. RELATED WORK LESSON LXXXIV SELECTING FOOD MARKETING _VERSUS_ TELEPHONING.--Visits to food markets or grocery stores are most essential, especially if one is learning to buy. It is first necessary to find desirable market places or stores,--those that are clean and reliable. Screened windows and doors, and adequate bins, boxes, jars, or other receptacles for storing foods are necessary in keeping foods clean. After one has found desirable places for marketing, it is well to become acquainted with desirable brands of staple canned or package goods. After this knowledge is gained such foods may be ordered by telephone, or by messenger with satisfaction. But no matter how experienced the buyer, it is more satisfactory to select at markets perishable goods such as meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables that wilt readily. In certain cases where the housekeeper has such obligations or so many duties that a personal visit to markets is impossible, food must be purchased by telephone or messenger. Such a procedure, however, is usually followed at the sacrifice of economy and satisfaction in buying. FRESH _VERSUS_ CANNED FOODS.--Fresh foods of good quality are generally more desirable both from the standpoint of flavor and nutriment than canned goods. When, however, fresh foods are unseasonable, their price may greatly exceed that of canned foods. A good rule to follow is to buy fresh foods when they are in season and the canned ones when fresh foods of reasonable price cannot be secured. The practice of buying perishable foods, especially fruits, when they are abundant and canning them for later use is thrifty. To buy factory-canned fruits and vegetables when fresh winter fruits, such as cranberries, oranges, and apples, and root vegetables may be purchased is questionable both from the standpoint of economy and nutriment. It is often more economical to purchase dried rather than canned fruits. The former usually contain more food value per pound. BULK _VERSUS_ PACKAGE GOODS.--Time spent in placing and sealing foods in packages and the cost of the containers make the price of package foods exceed those sold in bulk. Moreover, large packages usually cost more proportionately than small ones. On the other hand, package foods may be cleaner, require less handling, and are often much more inviting because of their attractive wrapping. It does not follow, however, that all foods sold in containers are cleaner than those sold in bulk. Unsanitary conditions sometimes prevail at factories where the foods are packed. It is a safe rule to buy in package form only those foods which cannot be washed or sterilized by cooking. UNCOOKED _VERSUS_ COOKED FOODS.--Not only breads, cakes, certain cereals, and canned goods may be purchased ready cooked, but other foods, such as salads and puddings, may be bought in certain markets and stores. Such foods are much higher in price than those of equal quality prepared at home. The cost of labor, fuel, and "overhead expense" as well as of materials must be paid for by the purchaser. Unless one is engaged in business other than housekeeping or one's housekeeping duties are too arduous it is generally not wise to make a practice of buying cooked foods. LARGE _VERSUS_ SMALL QUANTITIES.--It is usually wasteful to purchase perishable foods in large quantities. Fresh meats, perishable fruits such as berries, and green vegetables should be purchased only in quantities sufficient for immediate use. It is sometimes economical, as far as fuel and time are concerned, to buy enough fresh meat for two days' consumption, provided all of it can be cooked on the first day, and then used cold or merely reheated on the second day. Unless storage space is limited, flour should not be purchased in less than 25 pound sacks. In less quantity than this it usually costs more per pound. It is wise for small families, however, to purchase flour and other grains in smaller quantities in the summer time since weevils may infest such food materials. When a non-perishable food such as sugar, or any of the grains, sells for a fractional sum per pound, it is economical to buy several pounds so as not to add to the cost per pound. It is wiser, for example, to buy 2 pounds of dried beans at 12 1/2 cents per pound than one pound at 13 cents. Semi-perishable foods such as eggs and fats can usually be purchased with satisfaction in quantities sufficient for a week. They should, of course, be stored in a cool place. Many persons find it economical to buy eggs in large quantities in the summer time and pack them in water glass for winter use. Root vegetables and canned goods are cheaper when bought by the bushel and case. There must, however, be cool, dry storage space to make the purchase of the former in large quantities practical. It is impossible to purchase certain foods for small families in small enough quantities for immediate consumption. A can of molasses, for example, is usually more than enough for use at one time. When this is the case, the greatest care should be exercised to store such foods carefully and to utilize them before they spoil. Cooperative buying usually means a saving. Such foods as flour, potatoes, dried vegetables, sugar, apples, and dried fruits may be purchased by the barrel, box, or other measure. If several families jointly purchase such quantities of foods, the expense is reduced. It is also of advantage to buy from the producer. The middle man's profit is thus eliminated. LESSON LXXXV COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested: Cream of Pea Soup--Croutons Macaroni and Cheese Lettuce Salad Bread and Butter Oatmeal Cookies Tea Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person. LESSON LXXXVI REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU Chopped Steak Boiled or Steamed Potato Coleslaw Tea See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. LESSON LXXXVII HOME PROJECTS I [Footnote 61: See Lesson IX] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare salads or other foods containing leafy vegetables at least twice a week. Calculate the quantity of milk used by each member of your household. SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To prepare salads which are both pleasing in appearance and tasty. (Make sure that they are properly seasoned.) (2) To vary either the materials used in salad-making or the method of serving and preparing the same salad materials. (3) If the vegetable is cooked, to prepare it in such a way that no nutriment is lost. (4) To compare the quantity of milk used by each member of the family with the quantities suggested at the top of. DIVISION EIGHT FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS LESSON LXXXVIII FOOD ADJUNCTS--DISHES CONTAINING FOOD ADJUNCTS FOOD ADJUNCTS.--Besides the foodstuffs there are edible substances called _food adjuncts_. These cannot be termed foods, as they do not perform the functions of such, but they give flavor to them and they may excite the secretion of the digestive juices, and thus aid in the digestion of real foods. For the most part, food adjuncts are contained in these classes of materials,--condiments, flavoring extracts, and beverages. Condiments.--Seasoning materials and spices are called _condiments_. They are used with foods to give the latter a pleasing flavor. But condiments should be eaten in moderation. They are often used to cover up the flavor of inferior or poorly prepared foods and they are often used to excess in sauces. Highly seasoned sauces should be served only with foods that are insipid in taste, but valuable for their nutritive properties. Good foods, well cooked, have a flavor which needs little change. We should train ourselves to enjoy the natural flavor of foods, so that there is no craving for condiments. _Salt_ may be classed both as a condiment and as a food (see _Ash_). When used in moderation, it has undoubted value in diet. It is used in many types of foods, especially meats and vegetables. The flavor of sweet foods such as cakes and sweet sauces is invariably improved by the addition of a small quantity of salt. _Vinegar_ is an acid flavoring material prepared by fermenting apple or grape juice or other materials. It contains acetic acid. _Cinnamon_ is a spice obtained from the inner bark of a small tree. Like most spices, it contains a volatile oil, i.e. an oil which evaporates. Cinnamon is sometimes adulterated with _cassia_, a spice prepared from the bark of the cassia tree which grows in China and Dutch West Indies. Cassia is similar to cinnamon in flavor. _Cloves_ are the flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows in Brazil, Ceylon, and West Indies. _Nutmeg_ is the dried kernel of a fruit which grows on a tree native to the Malay Archipelago. _Ginger_ is the root of a tropical plant. It contains starch and oil of ginger. _Mustard_ is prepared from the seed of mustard plants. _Black pepper_ is obtained from the unripe berry of a tropical vine while _white pepper_ is prepared from the ripe berries. The latter is not as pleasing in flavor as black pepper and is more expensive. It is sometimes desired, however, because of its more pleasing appearance. _Cayenne pepper_ is prepared from the dried ripe fruit of the Capsicum plant. _Paprika_ is also prepared from the fruit of the Capsicum plant, but the seeds and stems of the fruit are removed. It is a much milder spice than cayenne pepper. _Marjoram, savory_, and _thyme_ are the leaves of herbs used for flavoring. FLAVORING EXTRACTS.--Alcoholic solutions of volatile oils derived from plants are termed flavoring extracts. By dissolving the vanilla bean and lemon and orange peel in alcohol vanilla, lemon, and orange extracts are prepared. Since volatile oils evaporate readily, especially when heated, flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods. BEVERAGES.--The stimulating materials contained in the common beverages,-- tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate,--are food adjuncts. [Footnote 62: _Caffeine_ is the stimulating material in coffee; _theine_, in tea; and _theobromine_, in cocoa and chocolate.] Except for the value of the water they contain, in carrying on the needs of the body, and for the small quantity of sugar and cream used with them, tea and coffee have no food value. But cocoa and chocolate are rather rich in food value (see _Cocoa and Chocolate_). These beverages contain both foodstuffs and food adjuncts. CURRY OF KIDNEY BEANS 1 pint kidney beans 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 onion 1 teaspoonful curry powder [Footnote 63: Curry powder is a mixture of various spices including turmeric and coriander-seed powders.] 1 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 pint tomatoes Wash and soak the beans overnight. Boil gently until tender. Brown the onion in the fat, then add the curry powder, salt, and flour, and proceed as for Tomato Sauce (see _Tomato Sauce_). Add the cooked beans to the mixture and cook all together for a few minutes. Serve hot. _Chili con carni_ may be prepared by adding 1 pound chopped beef to the ingredients above and substituting chili powder for curry powder. If this change is made, brown the onion in the fat, then add the meat. Stir and cook until the meat loses its red color. Add the cooked beans and seasonings. Mix the flour with a small quantity of cold tomato. Add this and the remainder of the tomatoes to the meat mixture. Stir and cook for a few minutes. Serve hot. SPICED BAKED APPLES 5 apples 5 tablespoonfuls sugar Water 1 lemon Whole cloves Wash and core the apples. They may be pared if desired. Stick 2 or 3 whole cloves in each apple. Place the apples in a baking-dish, put 1 tablespoonful of sugar in the cavity of each apple, and a slice of lemon on the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the baking-dish. Cover, bake at 400 degrees F. until soft. Serve cold. If the apples are very sour, more sugar should be used. SAVORY TOAST 2 cupfuls canned tomatoes 1 cupful water 2 cloves 3 allspice berries 3 peppercorns 2 sprays parsley 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1/2 onion, sliced 3 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful mustard 2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash cayenne 1/4 pound cheese 1 egg 8 slices toast In a covered saucepan, cook the tomatoes, water, cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, and parsley at simmering temperature for at least 15 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat. Mix the flour, mustard, salt, and cayenne. Add these ingredients to the onion and fat. Mix well and add the cooked tomatoes. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then strain. Add the cheese, stir and cook until the cheese is blended with the other ingredients. Beat the egg, add a portion of the hot tomato mixture to it. Mix thoroughly and add it to the remainder of the tomato mixture. Stir and cook on the back of the range or over hot water until the egg is thickened. Pour over toast. Serve at once. Canned tomato soup may be used instead of canned tomatoes. If this substitution is made, the cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, and parsley should be omitted. For economy, the egg may be omitted. If no egg is used, the flour may be increased to 4 tablespoonfuls and the fat to 3 tablespoonfuls. Compare this recipe with that for Tomato Sauce. In what ways are the ingredients and method of preparation similar? In what ways do they differ? QUESTIONS In which ingredients of the Curry of Kidney Beans and Spiced Baked Apples are the food adjuncts found? Beans contain what ingredients that require long cooking? What material can be added during cooking that will soften them (see _Cooking Dried Legumes_)? What is the purpose of covering apples during baking? Why should they be baked in a slow oven (see _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_)? What kind of substance do all spices contain? Why should spices be used in moderation? Explain why flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods. Mention at least two forms in which the following spices may be purchased: Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, mustard, and black pepper. What materials in the recipe for Savory Toast are used merely for flavoring? What materials are removed by straining? How is the flavor extracted from these materials before straining? RELATED WORK LESSON LXXXIX SPENDING FOR FOOD WHAT TO BUY.--Dr. Langworthy of the United States Department of Agriculture has listed foods into five groups and has advised that food from each group be used daily. The five groups follow: " 1. Fruits and Vegetables. 2. Milk, Cheese, Eggs, Fish, Meat, Beans, Peas, Peanuts. 3. Cereals--Corn-meal, Oatmeal, Rice, Rye, Wheat, Flour, Bread. 4. Sugar, Sirups, Jelly, Honey, Candies. 5. Fats--Butter, Margarine, Cottonseed Oil, Olive Oil, Drippings, Suet, Bacon, Chocolate." From studying the previous contents of this textbook the pupil will doubtless recognize in these groups foods to supply all the needs of the body. By following this plan of using some food from each group every day, the needs of the body will be supplied. HOW MUCH TO SPEND FOR FOOD.--Any one no matter how ignorant or thoughtless can get rid of money. But it takes a wise person, one who understands values and quality, to get value received for money spent. Whether one is purchasing food for all the meals of a family or is only selecting a luncheon or one meal, it is desirable to spend money wisely. The five food groups may serve as a basis for the purchase of foods. It has been suggested that each dollar used in buying foods be divided into 5 parts of 20 cents each. "Out of every dollar spent use: [Footnote 64: From _United States Thrift Leaflet #15_.] 20 cents, _more or less_, for vegetables and fruits 20 cents, or _more_, for milk and cheese 20 cents, or _less_, for meat, fish, eggs, etc. 20 cents, or _more_, for bread and cereals 20 cents, or _less_, for sugar, fat, tea, coffee, chocolate, flavoring" NOTE.--Compare these groups of food with those given above. Note that the first division of money should be used for the foods of Group 1; the second and third divisions for the foods of Group 2; the fourth division for the foods of Group 3; and the fifth division for the foods of Groups 4 and 5. [Illustration: FIGURE 61.--A SUGGESTION FOR THE DIVISION OF EACH DOLLAR SPENT FOR FOOD.] According to Lucy H. Gillett of the Dietetic Bureau of Boston, when strictest economy is necessary, _one fourth_ of each dollar spent for food should be used to purchase bread and other grain products. The remainder of the dollar should be spent about equally for the groups of food mentioned above. If 25 instead of 20 cents is spent for cereal products, however, care should be taken to buy sufficient milk to meet the needs of each member of the family (see _Milk, an Invaluable Food_). This is especially necessary where there are young children in the family. COMPARING THE COST OF FOODS.--The pupil should note that the different foods contained in the same groups differ in cost. One can economize by using the cheaper foods in the group or by using the more expensive only occasionally. If you find that fresh vegetables cost less than fruits, use the latter more sparingly than the former. Meats are more expensive than dried peas or beans and cheese, especially Cottage Cheese. Cottage Cheese or peas and beans in combination with milk or eggs may take the place of meat. A small quantity of meat may be combined with the dried legumes or cereals and a saving effected. The third, fourth, and fifth groups contain energy-giving foods (see Divisions IV and V). Of the three groups of foods, cereals are by far the cheapest source of energy. A generous use of cereals is economical. In buying grains one gets much nutriment at little cost (when compared with other foods). If the food bills must be curtailed, use cereals generously and meat sparingly. Do not eat cereals, however, to the exclusion of the foods of the other groups. It is especially necessary to use milk and leafy vegetables with cereals. The latter are lacking in the fat-soluble A vitamine. The fats included in Group 5 differ in cost. It is necessary to select these wisely in order to economize. A wise and economical use of fats is discussed previously. PLANNING BEFORE BUYING.--It is not only an obligation but a necessity to waste no food. The bit of cereal left from breakfast, the crust of bread, and the scrap of meat represent money. They must be utilized. The thrifty housekeeper sees to it that left-over food is properly cared for so that it need not be wasted because of spoilage. She covers food and stores it in a cool place. She uses it before it begins to spoil. In order to buy wisely it is necessary to take account of the foods already in the house or in the garden. It is necessary to decide before going to market just what is needed to supplement the materials already on hand. LESSON XC COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested: Salmon Timbale with White Sauce Stuffed Baked Potatoes Stewed or Scalloped Tomatoes Bread and Butter Prune Pudding with Top Milk Analyze this menu. Is food from each of the groups given in lesson LXXXIX contained in it? Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person. LESSON XCI REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU Cream of Tomato Soup Cheese Pudding Spiced Baked Apples See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. LESSON XCII HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 65: See Lesson IX] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If possible secure lists of foods purchased for use at your home during a week or a month. List each article and price in one of the five groups, viz., ===================================================================== | Vegetables | Milk and | Meat, Fish, | Bread and | Sugar, Fat and | | and Fruits | Cheese | Eggs, Etc | Cereals | Other Groceries | _____________________________________________________________________ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ===================================================================== Add up the cost in each column. Compare the sums. SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine if the money for the various groups of food has been spent according to the plan suggested in lesson LXXXIX. (2) If not, to use the food lists actually purchased as a foundation and change them so as to embody the division of the dollar suggested in lesson LXXXIX. DIVISION NINE FOOD COMBINATIONS LESSON XCIII VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (A) FOOD COMBINATIONS.--From a dietetic standpoint, it is well to combine foods of different compositions. If a food is lacking in one or more of the foodstuffs, it should be combined with a food that supplies the missing nutrient. Bread contains little fat, and butter contains no carbohydrates; hence these two foods make a desirable combination. Vegetable oils, butter, and other fats make desirable additions to vegetables. Macaroni contains little fat, while cheese is rich in this foodstuff. Moreover, macaroni contains a small quantity of incomplete protein, while cheese is rich in complete protein. Hence macaroni and cheese make a good combination. In selecting foods to be used together, careful attention should be given to their composition. EMULSION OF OIL; SALAD DRESSING.--As has been stated (see _Breaking Up of Fats_), to emulsify fat it is necessary to separate it into tiny globules, and to coat each globule with some materials, so that the droplets will remain separate. Various materials serve to emulsify fats. During digestion, fat is emulsified by means of a _soap_ (see Experiment 36). Egg is another material which emulsifies fats. This fact is made use of in making Mayonnaise Dressing from vegetable oil and eggs. If one understands that the oil must be divided into globules, and that each globule must be coated with egg, the preparation of salad dressing becomes interesting and successful. It is evident that the fat should be added to the egg slowly and should be beaten while being added. If the oil and other ingredients are cold, a thicker dressing results. Quick mayonnaise, however, is an exception to this rule. [Illustration: FIGURE 62--THE COMPOSITION OF ROOTS AND SUCCULENT VEGETABLES (Revised edition)] Since emulsion of fat is one of the processes of digestion, it would seem that fat in emulsified form would be most readily digested. This is true of some emulsified fats,--the fat of milk is one of the most readily digested. But when an emulsified fat is mixed with protein as in Mayonnaise Dressing, the digestion of the mixture is slower than if either of the foodstuffs were alone. Hence to some persons, Mayonnaise Dressing proves distressing. MAYONNAISE DRESSING 1 egg yolk 1 tablespoonful vinegar 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 3/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful sugar Cayenne 1 cupful vegetable oil 2 tablespoonfuls boiling water Put the egg yolk into a mixing bowl, add hot vinegar, and mix thoroughly. Then add the lemon juice and dry ingredients. Let the mixture stand until cool. Then beat it with a Dover egg beater and while beating add the oil in small quantities,--about 1/2 tablespoonful at a time. Continue beating and adding the oil. When the mixture begins to thicken, the oil can be added in greater quantities. After all the oil is added, add the boiling water. Beat until the latter is thoroughly blended. It has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg is acidified before mixing it with the oil. [Footnote 66: This is due to the fact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind of salt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture. The more water that can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates, the more easily will an emulsion be formed.] The addition of boiling water to the mixture after the egg and oil have been blended, prevents the oil from separating from the other ingredients. [Illustration: FIGURE 63--THE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER AND OTHER FAT-YIELDING FOODS (Revised edition)] If desired, the _whole egg_ may be used in place of the egg yolks. In case this substitution is made, all the ingredients other than the egg should be doubled in quantity, since 1 whole egg will emulsify 2 cupfuls of oil. The flavor of refined corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil is mild and pleasing. These oils have less flavor than olive oil but are as nutritious. Their use lessens the cost of Mayonnaise Dressing. After opening a bottle of vegetable oil, it should be kept in a cold place. If it is rancid, it should not be used in salad dressing. If Mayonnaise Dressing is made successfully, it is thick and smooth. If the dressing is thin and curdled, the oil has been added too quickly, i.e. it has not been emulsified. _To remedy Mayonnaise that has curdled_, beat the yolk of an egg slightly, then add the dressing to it gradually, beating constantly. _Mayonnaise Dressing may be varied_ by the addition of chili or celery sauce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, chopped parsley, pimentos, and green peppers. QUICK MAYONNAISE DRESSING [Footnote 67: Adding the entire quantity of oil at one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure for making an oil dressing. The fact that the method is successful may be explained as follows: Mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt which hydrates the mixture, and thus aids in making favorable conditions for emulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page. The starch paste also takes up water from the mixture. This makes it possible to emulsify the oil easily, and also to make a stable emulsion.] 2 egg yolks _or_ 1 whole egg 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 1 teaspoonful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne 1 cupful vegetable oil Into a mixing bowl put the eggs and vinegar. Mix well. Add the other ingredients. (It is not necessary to stir them.) Prepare a thick paste as follows: In the top part of a double boiler put 1/3 cupful flour 1 cupful cold water 1 tablespoonful butter Mix thoroughly. Then stir and cook over boiling water at least 10 minutes. At once (while it is hot) turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture. Beat all the ingredients with a Dover egg beater until a thick, uniform dressing results. (Adapted from a recipe by Mrs. Hill.) SEASONABLE VEGETABLE SALADS Use seasonable vegetables in salads. Cucumbers, tomatoes, celery, and cooked cauliflower may be used in the fall. Cooked beets, cabbage, carrots, and olives may be used in the winter, and head lettuce, radishes, and cooked asparagus in the spring. Vegetables should be chilled, cut into desirable shapes, and served on lettuce with salad dressing. Beets are greatly improved by cutting into pieces, after cooking, and soaking for one hour in vinegar to which salt has been added. They may also be soaked in French Dressing. A combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad. Cucumbers and pineapple, celery and apples, olives and cooked cranberries are successful salad mixtures. The use of cheese, nuts, and peanuts with vegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads. Uncooked carrots, cabbage, and peanuts dressed with French Dressing make a tasty salad. Canned vegetables, "left over" cold vegetables, meat, and fish have a better flavor in salads if they are mixed with French Dressing and allowed to stand in a cold place for one hour before serving. This process is called _marinating_. If several meats or vegetables are used in the same salad, they should be marinated separately. Just before serving, Cream Salad Dressing or Mayonnaise Dressing may be added to marinated salad materials. A salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables should not be dressed until it is ready to be served. The acid in salad dressing wilts the leaves. QUESTIONS Explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in small quantities. Explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding it gradually to an egg. What is the price per quart of olive oil? Of peanut oil? Of cottonseed oil? Of corn oil? Find the difference in cost between a Mayonnaise Dressing made with corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil and one made with olive oil. From the standpoint of composition, explain why fresh vegetables and Mayonnaise Dressing make a suitable combination (see Figures 62 and 63). How much Mayonnaise Dressing is generally used for one serving? How many will the above recipe serve? Make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads. LESSON XCIV VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (B) SALAD GARNISHING.--Successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense of good color combination, judgment in blending flavors, and ingenuity in arranging materials. Usually it is well to use only edible materials for garnishing. Certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage, however, in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon. Celery with "fringed ends," stuffed olives cut in slices, lettuce shredded or whole, pimentos, parsley, hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer, and vegetables of pronounced color (as beets or carrots) cut into slices, cubes, or fancy shapes,--all these make pleasing garnishes. PERFECTION SALAD 2 tablespoonfuls granulated gelatine 1/2 cupful cold water 1/2 cupful vinegar 1 lemon,--juice 2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 cupfuls sliced celery 1 1/2 cupfuls shredded cabbage 3 pimentos chopped Prepare all ingredients, except the vegetables, as for a gelatine mixture (see _Lemon Jelly_). When the mixture begins to set, stir in the vegetables, and pour into a mold. Serve on lettuce leaves with Mayonnaise Dressing. Other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celery molded in jelly make tasty salads. QUESTIONS Mention at least four different kinds of salads, with a suitable garnish for each. What should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads? How should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads? From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of tomatoes, cucumbers, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, celery, and onions. Which contains the most water? Which contains the most ash? Aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of Perfection Salad, why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture (see Figure 94)? Explain why Mayonnaise Dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuable food addition to Perfection Salad. FOOD COMBINATIONS LESSON XCV FISH SALAD AND SALAD ROLLS SALMON OR TUNNY SALAD 1 can salmon or tunny (or tuna) fish 1 cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery Drain the oil from the fish; remove the bone and bits of skin. Add the cabbage or celery, and Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing. Arrange on lettuce and garnish as desired. If Cream Dressing is used with salmon, the oil drained from the salmon may be used for the fat of Cream Dressing. The salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients. When this is done, the salad dressing may be omitted. Salmon contains so much fat that it is not well to add more oil after marinating. SALAD ROLLS 2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 4 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute 1/2 cupful milk 1 egg Sift some flour, then measure 2 cupfuls of it. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour. Beat the egg, add the milk and oil or melted fat to it. Through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture. Thoroughly mix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife. Roll out on a floured board, cut into oblong pieces, and with a floured knife make a deep crease through the center of each roll. Brush the top with diluted egg (use 2 tablespoonfuls of water to 1 egg) and sprinkle granulated sugar over it. Bake in a moderate oven. QUESTIONS Why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg? Why should the egg be diluted for such purposes? What reason is there for combining fish, salad dressing, and rolls? How much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain (see _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28)? Compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak (see Figure 68). LESSON XCVI CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP AND CHEESE STRAWS COMBINING MILK WITH ACID.--In the preparation of Cream of Tomato Soup, it is necessary to combine milk with tomatoes,--a food containing acid. If the following experiments are performed, and applications drawn from the results of the experiments, it should be possible to make this soup successfully. EXPERIMENT 61: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube, heat it slightly, and add a few drops of some acid substance,-- tomato juice, lemon juice, or vinegar. What is the result? EXPERIMENT 62: NEUTRALIZATION OF ACID BY MEANS OF SODA.--Put a small quantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda. What happens? Now add a little milk to the mixture. Does the milk curdle? How has the acid been changed so that it does not curdle the milk? What conclusions may be drawn from this as to the use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures? CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP 1 can tomatoes 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 quart milk 1/3 cupful flour 1/4 cupful butter or substitute 1 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Turn the tomatoes into a saucepan, cover them; cook at simmering temperature for about fifteen minutes. Press through a strainer and add the baking soda. Make a White Sauce of the milk, flour, and fat, _remove from the fire_. Add the _hot_ tomatoes slowly to the White Sauce, stirring constantly. Add the seasonings. _Do not heat the mixture after combining the tomatoes and White Sauce. Serve at once._ [Illustration: FIGURE 64--THE COMPOSITION OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS] Cream of Tomato Soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of the tomatoes, flour, and fat, adding the baking soda and pouring the sauce into the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings. Note that in either method of preparation, the tomato is added to the milk and the salt is added just before serving. Only enough baking soda is used to affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acid flavor of the tomatoes still predominates. CHEESE STRAWS 2/3 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cayenne 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 cupful grated cheese 2 tablespoonfuls milk Mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe. (The milk should merely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together. It may be necessary to increase the quantity.) On a slightly floured board roll the mixture to 1/4 inch thickness. Cut in strips 1/4 inch wide and 4 to 6 inches long. Place on an oiled pan. Bake until brown in a moderate oven. QUESTIONS Why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup? Why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature? From the results of your experiments (see Experiments 61 and 62) explain why soda is added to the tomatoes in Cream of Tomato Soup. What is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or Tomato Sauce _slowly_ to the White Sauce or milk? Why should the soup be served _at once_ after combining the tomato and milk mixture? If enough Cream of Tomato Soup were prepared for two meals, how and when should the tomatoes and White Sauce be mixed? What is the price per can of tomatoes? How many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes? With the aid of _United States Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28 and illustrations in this text, tabulate the composition of tomatoes, whole milk (see Figure 64), cheese (see Figure 75), flour, and bread (see Figure 77). Explain why Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws make a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use in the body. LESSON XCVII VEAL AND POTATOES MUSCLE OF YOUNG ANIMALS.--The muscle of an undeveloped animal contains more water than does the muscle of a mature animal. It is also lacking in flavor and usually contains little fat. The meat does not keep so well as that of a mature animal; therefore it should be used at once and not allowed to hang. [Illustration: FIGURE 65.--CUTS OF VEAL.] CUTS OF VEAL (see Figure 65). =================================================================== | NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING | =================================================================== | A. Loin. | Chops. | Sauteing. | | | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | | | | | | B. Leg. | Steaks--veal cutlets | Sauteing. | | | or veal steak. | Stewing. | | | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | | | | | | C. Knuckle. | Whole. | Stewing. | | | | Soup-making. | | | | | | D. Rib or Rack. | Chops. | Sauteing. | | | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | | | | | | E. Shoulder. | Thick Pieces. | Stuffing and Roasting. | | | Whole. | Braising. | | | | | | F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | | | | | | G. G. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | | | Whole. | Stewing. | | | | | | Sweetbreads | Whole--in pairs. | Parboiling and | | (thymus glands) | | Sauteing, Broiling, | | --"Throat" and | | etc. | | "Heart" | | | | Sweetbreads. | | | =================================================================== VEAL.--Veal is the muscle of the calf or young cow. It has the characteristic qualities of undeveloped muscle. Because it is lacking in flavor, it should be seasoned with herbs and spices, or served with a sauce of pronounced flavor. It is also improved by adding some fat, or some meat containing considerable fat such as pork. A calf is usually killed when it is six or eight weeks old. The season for veal is spring; it can usually be purchased, however, throughout the year. The muscle of the veal should be pink in color, and the fat, white. The meat of a calf less than six weeks old is lacking in color. The connective tissue in veal is abundant, but it is easily changed to gelatine by cooking. Veal is generally considered difficult of digestion. VEAL CUTLETS (STEAK) Clean the meat; then remove the bone and tough membranes. Cut the meat into pieces for serving. Cover the bone and the tough pieces of meat with cold water and cook at a low temperature. (This stock is to be used in the sauce.) Small pieces of meat may be put together by using wooden toothpicks for skewers. Season the veal with salt and pepper. Roll in dried bread crumbs, dip in beaten egg, then in crumbs again. Put 2 tablespoonfuls of drippings or other fat in a frying pan. Brown the cutlets in the fat. Remove the veal; in the frying pan prepare the following: SAUCE FOR CUTLETS 3 tablespoonfuls drippings 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 cupfuls stock or water 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful Worcestershire sauce Make a brown sauce, using all ingredients except the Worcestershire sauce (see _Brown Sauce_). Add the cutlets to the sauce, and cook them at simmering temperature for 1 hour or until tender. Just before serving, add the Worcestershire sauce. _Beef_ may be prepared in the same way. VEAL WITH EGG DRESSING 1 pound veal steak, sliced thin 2 eggs 3/4 cupful flour Salt and pepper Cut the meat into pieces of suitable size for serving. Brown each piece in fat. (Use scraps of fat cut from the meat.) Mix the egg, flour, and seasoning. Spread both sides of each piece of meat with the egg mixture. Again brown the pieces of meat in fat. Then add boiling water and let the meat cook at _simmering temperature_ for at least 2 hours. Serve hot. _Beef_ may be substituted for veal. POTATO PUFF 2 cupfuls mashed potatoes 2 tablespoonfuls milk 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 egg Mix all the ingredients except the egg. Separate the egg, and beat the white and the yolk. Beat the yolk into the potato mixture; then add the white by cutting and folding-in. Turn into a buttered baking-dish or drop by spoonfuls on a buttered baking-sheet. Bake until the egg is cooked and the top brown. Serve at once. The egg may also be added unbeaten to the potatoes, and the entire mixture beaten vigorously. QUESTIONS Why is cold water, rather than hot, used for making meat stock? How does veal stock compare in color with beef stock? What is the stock called that is made from veal? Why is this meat cooked at simmering rather than at boiling temperature? Why is it desirable to use parsley and Worcestershire sauce with veal? Is it desirable to use Worcestershire sauce with beef or mutton? Explain your answer. Why is Worcestershire sauce not cooked with the brown sauce? Locate veal cutlets or veal steak (see Figure 65). To what cut of beef does it correspond? What cut of veal corresponds to the tenderloin cuts of beef? How does the cutting and the using of the rib section of veal differ from that of beef? What are the prices per pound of each cut of veal? Arrange in tabulated form and record the date. From _U.S. Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of veal cutlets or veal steak. Compare with the percentage composition of beef steak (see Figure 68). Potato Puff may be prepared from either hot or cold mashed potatoes. Should the temperature of the oven be the same for each? Explain your answer. What is the purpose of the egg in the potato mixture? Which would give the better result when added to the potato mixture, beaten egg or unbeaten egg? Give the reason for your answer. How many persons will the Potato Puff recipe serve? From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh potatoes (see Figure 62) and boiled potatoes. How much nutriment is lost by boiling one pound of potatoes? By what method can potatoes be cooked in order to retain the most nutriment? Give reasons for combining veal and potatoes. LESSON XCVIII MUTTON AND LAMB DISHES MUTTON.--Mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep. The animal is usually about three years of age when killed. Like beef, mutton needs to hang a few days before using. It is considered as nutritious and as easily digested as beef. Its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the "pink skin" and much of the fat. The latter has such a strong flavor, that it cannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion, apple, and dried herbs. Mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termed _savory fat_. It is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials present in the fruit, vegetable, and herbs. The caramelized carbohydrate formed by browning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor. [Footnote 68: See _Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin_, No. 526.] Mutton fat is useful for soap-making. [Illustration: FIGURE 66.--CUTS OF LAMB OR MUTTON] LAMB.--Lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep, killed when from six weeks to one year old. As the animal matures, the blood recedes from its joints; hence the joints of lamb are pink in color, while those of mutton are white. Lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals. It contains more water and a little less fat than mutton, and should not be allowed to hang. It is more delicate in flavor than is mutton. Lamb should be well cooked; mutton is sometimes served rare. FOOD COMBINATIONS CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON (see Figure 66). ================================================================== | Name of Cut | Form Of Cut | Method Of Cooking | ================================================================== | A. Loin. | Chops--Loin chops (see | Broiling. | | | Figure 67). | Roasting. | | | Thick pieces (loin sections | | | | of both hind quarters in | | | | one piece called "Saddle | | | | of Mutton"). | | | | | | | B. Leg. | Slices. | Broiling. | | | Thick pieces. | Roasting. | | | | Stewing. | | | | | | C. Rib. | Chops--rib chops(see Fig- | Broiling. | | | ure 67) (when trimmed | Roasting. | | | called "French" chops. | | | | see Figure 67). | | | | Thick Pieces (rib sections | | | | of both fore quarters in | | | | one piece called "Rack | | | | of Mutton"). | | | | | | | D. Shoulder. | Chops blade shoulder | Broiling. | | | chops (see Figure 67) | Braising. | | | and round shoulder | Roasting. | | | chops (see Figure 67). | Stuffing and | | | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | | | Whole. | | | | | | | E. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | | | | Broth-making. | | | | | | F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | | | | Broth-making. | ================================================================== STUFFED SHOULDER OF LAMB 4 to 5 pounds shoulder of lamb, boned, cleaned, and stuffed with the mixture used in Stuffed Meat Roast. (Double the quantity of ingredients for the shoulder of lamb.) Add the stuffing to the meat; then "lace" (see _Baked Fish_) or skewer into shape. Season, and dredge with flour. Place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan, and brown the surface of the meat. Place the lamb on the rack in a roasting pan, add boiling water; cover; and bake in a moderate oven, allowing _one half hour to the pound_. _Shoulder of veal_ may be prepared and stuffed in the same way. [Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College. FIGURE 67.--LAMB CHOPS. Upper row: Rib chops,--French. Loin chops. Lower row: Rib chops. Blade shoulder chop. Round bone shoulder chop.] MINT SAUCE 1 cupful fresh mint 1/2 cupful vinegar 1/4 cupful sugar Chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint. Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar, and add the mint. Let the sauce stand one hour before using. Heat over hot water before serving. LAMB OR MUTTON IN THE CASSEROLE 2 pounds neck, breast, or shoulder of lamb or mutton Flour Fat for browning Water or stock 4 carrots 2 cupfuls peas 2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/2 bay leaf 3 allspice berries Cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving. Roll in flour, and brown in a frying pan with hot fat. Remove to the casserole, and cover with boiling water or stock. Wash, scrape, and cut the carrots into halves. Add them and the spices to the meat in the casserole. Cover, and cook at simmering temperature for two hours. Then add the peas and the seasoning. Cook until tender. Serve hot from the casserole. One half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots and peas. Tomatoes also make a pleasing addition. THE CASSEROLE.--The casserole is a popular utensil for cooking and serving. It is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a low temperature for a long period of time; hence its adaptability to tough cuts of meat. Because the casserole is tightly covered, foods may be cooked in it with little loss by evaporation. The flavor is retained also, if the cooking is carefully done. The use of the casserole in serving is a distinct advantage, since the foods may be served hot. The casserole may be used in the oven or on top of the range. If a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole, a dinner napkin should be folded neatly around it for serving. QUESTIONS Tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton. Give two reasons for adding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb. Give two reasons for serving Mint Sauce with lamb. What is the purpose of first browning the lamb that is to be roasted? [Illustration: FIGURE 68.--THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND CURED MEATS. (Revised edition)] What is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lamb or mutton in the casserole (see _Thickening the Sauce of Meat Cooked in Water_)? How many persons will this recipe serve? Name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole. Give a dietetic reason for combining carrots, peas, or rice, with lamb or mutton. Distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton. What is a French chop? Obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb. Arrange in tabulated form and record the date. From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the percentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton. Compare it with the composition of beef steak. Tabulate the percentage composition of beets, carrots, parsnips, and turnips. Which contains the most carbohydrates? Which the most ash? LESSON XCIX PORK, VEGETABLES, AND APPLE SAUCE PORK.--Pork is meat obtained from the pig. In all meats, much fat is entangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the muscle fibers. Pork, however, contains more fat than does any other meat. The fat is most intimately mingled with the lean. For this reason it is digested slowly. Fresh pork should be used sparingly. Its use should be confined to the winter months. Pork should be thoroughly cooked. It sometimes contains organisms which may produce serious results, if not destroyed in the cooking. Pork is made more wholesome by curing, salting, and smoking. The fat of bacon is readily digested. [Illustration: FIGURE 69.--CUTS OF PORK.] CUTS OF PORK (see Figure 69). =================================================================== | NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING | =================================================================== | A. Loin. | Chops--rib and loin | Sauteing. | | | chops (freed from fat| Roasting. | | | called "spare ribs") | | | | --cut into chops or | | | | thick pieces. | | | | | | | B. Ham | Slices. | Sauteing. | | (usually smoked). | Whole. | "Boiling." | | | | Roasting. | | | | | | C. Back (all fat). | Strips. | "Tried out" (its | | | Slices. | fat used for | | | | sauteing, frying, | | | | and flavoring), | | | | Larding. | | | | | | D. Shoulder | Slices. | Sauteing. | | (smoked or fresh). | Whole. | "Boiling." | | | | Roasting. | | | | | | E. Bacon (smoked) | Thin or thick slices. | Sauteing. | | or Salt Pork. | | Broiling. | =================================================================== PORK CHOPS WITH SWEET POTATOES Pare sweet potatoes, and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Wipe the pork chops, and place them on top of the potatoes. Place the roasting pan on the top shelf of a hot oven, in order to brown the chops. Brown on one side; turn the chops with a fork, and brown on the other side. Then remove the roasting pan from the oven, sprinkle the chops with salt, pepper, and powdered sage. Add a little boiling water. Return to the oven. [Illustration: FIGURE 70.--THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND DRIED FRUITS. (Revised edition)] Cover and bake 1 hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Baste the potatoes and meat occasionally. Remove the chops to the center of a hot platter, and surround them with the potatoes. Serve at once with Apple Sauce (for preparation of Apple Sauce, see _Fruit Sauces_). TURNIPS WITH FRESH PORK 1 1/2 pounds fresh pork (shoulder) 3 medium sized turnips 1 tablespoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour Pepper Clean the meat, put it in a saucepan, and add enough boiling water to cover. Cook at simmering temperature for 1 1/2 hours. Pare the turnips, cut them into cubes. When the meat has cooked 1/2 hour, add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for 1 hour or until the meat and vegetables are tender. Mix the flour with enough cold water (about 2 tablespoonfuls) to make a thin batter. Add it to the meat and turnips. Stir and cook for at least 10 minutes. Add a dash of pepper. Serve hot. BROILED HAM Parboil in boiling water for 10 minutes a slice of ham about 1/2 inch thick. Place in a broiler and broil, or place in a "frying" pan and pan- broil, turning often. Garnish with parsley and serve at once. BACON Place thin slices of bacon (from which the rind has been removed) in a hot frying-pan. As the fat tries out, drain it from the bacon. Scorching of the fat is thus prevented. Cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp, turning once. _Bacon fat_ should be saved. It can be used in cooking. SCALLOPED POTATOES WITH BACON 4 medium potatoes 1/4 pound sliced bacon Flour Salt, used sparingly Pepper Milk Pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices. Cook the bacon until brown; cut each slice of bacon into several pieces. Oil a baking-dish and place a layer of potatoes in it, then a layer of bacon and some of the tried-out bacon fat. Sprinkle with flour, salt, and pepper. Repeat, until all the ingredients are used; the top layer should be of bacon. Add milk until it reaches the top layer. Bake in a moderate oven for one hour, or until much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender. Serve hot. 1/4 cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon. QUESTIONS Why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer? Why is pork slow in digesting? Explain why vegetables and Apple Sauce are desirable foods to serve with pork (see Figure 62, Figure 68, and Figure 70). For what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly? What is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it? What ingredient, invariably used in Scalloped Potatoes, is omitted in Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon? What is substituted for this material? Why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon? How many persons does the given quantity of Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon and of Turnips with Fresh Pork serve? To what cut of beef does ham correspond? From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and salted ham. Compare it with the composition of beef steak (see Figure 68). Obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork. Arrange in tabulated form and record date. LESSON C CHICKEN AND RICE POULTRY.--Poultry includes chicken (or common fowl), turkey, duck, and goose--domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab are not considered poultry. Chickens that are three or four months old are called _spring chickens_ or broilers. Birds older than one year are sometimes called _fowls_. [Illustration: FIGURE 71.--REMOVING TENDONS FROM THE LEG OF A FOWL.] SELECTION OF CHICKEN AND FOWL.--Chickens and fowls have certain characteristics which make them readily distinguishable. Chickens have soft feet, a soft and flexible breast bone, many pin feathers, and little fat. Fowls have hard and scaly feet, rigid breast bone, long hairs, and much fat surrounding the intestines. DIGESTION OF POULTRY.--The muscle of chicken, fowl, and turkey contains little fat; the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin and around the intestines. The fibers of the muscle are short. For this reason, and also because they have so little fat, these meats are readily digested. The white meat contains less fat than the dark. [Illustration with caption: FIGURE 72--FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. BREAST VIEW] DRESSING AND CLEANING POULTRY.--Singe, by holding the bird over a flame of gas, alcohol, or burning paper. Cut off the head, push back the skin, and cut off the neck close to the body. Cut through the skin around the leg one inch below the leg joint. If it is a fowl, take out the tendons; remove them separately, using a skewer (see Figure 71). Remove the pin feathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller. Cut the oil bag from the tail. [Illustration: FIGURE 73--FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING,--BACK VIEW.] The internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold. If they have not been removed, make an opening under one of the legs or at the vent, leaving a strip of skin above the vent. Remove the organs carefully,--the intestines, gizzard, heart, and liver should all be removed together. Care must be taken that the gall bladder, which lies under the liver, is not broken; it must be cut away carefully from the liver. The lungs and kidneys, lying in the hollow of the backbone, must be carefully removed. Press the heart to extract the blood. Cut off the outer coat of the gizzard. The gizzard, heart, and liver constitute the giblets to be used in making gravy. Wash the giblets. Place them all, with the exception of the liver, in cold water; heat quickly and cook (at simmering temperature) until tender. Add the liver a short time before removing the other giblets from the stove, as it does not require long cooking. Clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth, stuff and truss for roasting, or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew. If the bird is stuffed, the incision in the skin may be fastened together as directed for Baked Fish. TRUSSING FOWL.--Insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs, then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast. With a piece of string, tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail. Then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail, around the ends of the skewer beneath the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and wind them around the ends of the skewer through the wings; tie the strings together at the back. If trussed in this manner, there is no string across the breast of the fowl. A fowl should be served breast side up (see Figures 72 and 73). CUTTING A FOWL.--Cut off the leg, and separate it at the joint into "drumstick" and second joint. Cut off the wing and remove the tip; make an incision at the middle joint. Remove the leg and wing from the other side; separate the wishbone with the meat on it, from the breast, cut through the ribs on each side, and separate the breast from the back. Cut the breast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise. There should be twelve pieces. The neck and the tips of the wings may be cooked with the giblets for making gravy. STEWED CHICKEN [Footnote 69: Stewed Chicken may be utilized for _Chicken Croquettes_) or _Creole Stew_.] Cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water, and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes; then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook at simmering temperature until tender. Arrange the pieces on a platter, placing the neck at one end of the platter and the "drumsticks" at the other, and the remaining pieces in order between. Cover with a sauce. The chicken may be placed on pieces of _toast_ or served in a border of cooked _rice_. SAUCE FOR CHICKEN 3 tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute 1/4 cupful of flour 1 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 pint stock 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Prepare the sauce (see _Cream Toast_), and pour it over the well- beaten eggs, stirring until thoroughly mixed. Cook until the eggs are coagulated. Serve at once over chicken. QUESTIONS Why is chicken more readily digested than other meat? What is the reason for cooking stewed chicken 15 minutes in _boiling_ water? Why is the salt not added at first? Why should the chicken finally be cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling? What use can be made of the fat of a fowl? What is the purpose of the eggs in Sauce for Chicken? Explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to Stewed Chicken. LESSON CI CHICKEN AND PEAS CHICKEN CROQUETTES 2 1/2 cupfuls chopped chicken or fowl Onion juice 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 tablespoonful parsley SAUCE 1 pint cream or milk 1/3 cupful fat 1/2 cupful flour 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful celery salt Chop the chicken very fine; add the seasonings. Make the sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Add the chicken to the sauce. Cool the mixture. Shape into cones. Cover with dried bread crumbs and egg, and cook in deep fat (see _Fried Oysters_). Drain on paper. Serve at once with green peas. An egg may be beaten and added to the sauce, before mixing it with the meat. QUESTIONS What is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it into croquettes (see Experiment 17)? How many croquettes does this recipe make? How many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of average weight? What is the average weight of a chicken one year old? How long does it take to cook it? What is the average weight of a spring chicken? What is the present market price of spring chicken? Of fowl? Compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak, using _U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_. Also record the percentage of refuse in a fowl when it is purchased. Considering the refuse in fowl, what is the price per pound? Tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans, and of dried lentils. Which are richer in protein, the fresh or the dried vegetables (see Figure 76)? LESSON CII OYSTER DISHES EXPERIMENT 63. PROTEIN IN OYSTER LIQUOR.--Pour a small quantity of oyster liquor into a test tube and boil it. What change takes place? From your previous experience with eggs, what foodstuff would you infer that oysters contain? What inference can you draw from this as to the temperature at which oysters should be cooked? OYSTERS.--An oyster is an animal covered with shell. The shell, which consists of mineral matter, protects the animal. [Illustration: FIGURE 74--COMPOSITION OF FISH, FISH PRODUCTS AND OYSTERS (Revised edition)] The oyster has no head, arms, or legs, but it has a mouth, liver, gills, and one strong muscle. The mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell; by means of the hinge, the shell is opened and water and food taken in; by means of the muscle, the shell is closed. (Find the muscle in an oyster; then the dark spot,--this is the liver; also find the fluted portions that partly surround the liver,--these are the gills.) Oysters are in season from September until May. They are sometimes eaten during the summer months, but are not so palatable and are more apt to be contaminated by the bacteria of warm water. The bluish green color of some oysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials. This does not harm the flavor of the oyster. Oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which is less salt than that in which they have grown to "fatten them." The animals take in the fresh water, become plump, and increase in weight. If the water is sewage-polluted, the oysters become contaminated with dangerous bacteria. Methods of cooking usually applied to oysters, such as stewing and boiling, may not destroy all bacteria. Hence, the danger in eating oysters taken from polluted water. When oysters are prepared for market, they are sorted according to size. Blue points, or small oysters originally grown in Blue Point, are prized for serving raw in the half shell. This name, however, no longer indicates the place from which the oysters come, but is applied to small oysters in the shell. Large oysters selected for frying may be purchased. Oysters are found at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed. Since oysters spoil readily, they must be kept cold during transportation. They are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice. Formerly ice was placed in contact with the oysters. Note the percentage composition of oysters (see Figure 74). With such a large quantity of water, the oyster has little food value. Oysters are prized for their flavor, but make an expensive food. Cooking makes oysters somewhat tough, but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use. It is considered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested. They should be eaten when very fresh. They spoil quickly and develop poisonous products. CLEANING OYSTERS.--Drain off the liquor. If the liquor is to be used, strain it through a fine strainer. Place the oysters in a strainer or colander, and wash them. Do not allow oysters to stand in water after washing. Run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shell that may be clinging to it. OYSTER STEW 1 cupful milk 1 pint oysters 1 tablespoonful butter Salt and pepper Heat the milk in a double boiler; add the seasonings and butter. Clean the oysters; cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edges curl. Add the hot milk and serve at once. The milk may be thickened with 1 tablespoonful of flour (see recipe for _Thin White Sauce_). Serve crackers or bread with Oyster Stew. SCALLOPED OYSTERS 1 pint oysters 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/4 cupful oyster juice or milk Cayenne Wash the oysters, strain the juice, and butter the crumbs. Add the seasoning to the oysters. Place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish. Add one half of the oysters, another fourth of the crumbs, then the remainder of the oysters, the liquid, and finally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes. If baked in individual baking-dishes, only 15 minutes will be required for baking. QUESTIONS Count and record the number of oysters in one pint. From Figures 64 and 74, tabulate the percentage composition of oysters and milk. Find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk. How do they compare as to the amount of water, protein, and fat contained in one pint of each? What is the difference in cost of one pint of each? What is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor? Why should not oysters stand in water after washing (see Experiment 38)? Explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time. What is the effect of long cooking upon oysters? In Scalloped Oysters, why is the liquid added before the last layer of crumbs? How many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve? What dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread? From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the percentage composition of the following fish: Fresh and salt cod, fresh and smoked herring, fresh and salt mackerel, fresh and canned salmon, fresh perch, and fresh white fish. Which contains the most fat? How can fish be classified with regard to fat content (see _Classes of Fish_)? Which fish contains the most protein? How do fish, shellfish, and beef compare in protein content? Which is the cheapest source of protein (see Figures 68 and 74)? LESSON CIII MEAT-SUBSTITUTE DISHES MEAT-SUBSTITUTE MATERIALS.--Cottage cheese, eggs, peanuts, and other legumes are valuable substitutes for meat. The legumes with the exception of soy-beans and peanuts, however, do not contain complete protein. Hence, their use with eggs or milk is desirable. [Illustration: FIGURE 75.--The composition of eggs and cheese. (Revised edition.)] Nuts are a form of fruit. They are rich in nutritive materials. If they can be digested readily, they make a valuable food. They need to be ground fine or chewed thoroughly, however, to make them digestible. Nuts contain much fat, protein, and little carbohydrates. Chestnuts, however, contain much of the latter foodstuff. Because they contain protein, nuts may be used as substitutes for meat. But most nuts are expensive. For this reason in many households they are impractical as everyday foods. COTTAGE CHEESE AND NUT LOAF 1 cupful cottage cheese 1 cupful chopped nuts 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls lemon juice 2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion 1 tablespoonful fat Mix the cheese, nuts, bread crumbs, lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Cook the onion and fat together until they are brown. Add a small quantity of water and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients. If necessary, add more water to moisten the mixture. Pour into a baking-dish and bake until brown. (From _United States Food Administration Leaflet_.) SCALLOPED EGGS WITH CHEESE 6 hard-cooked eggs 2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs 3/4 cupful cheese Grate the cheese, or cut it into pieces, and add it to the White Sauce. Cut the eggs in slices. Oil a baking-dish, and place the materials in the dish in layers, having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs are browned. Serve hot in place of meat. PEANUT ROAST 1 1/2 cupfuls dried bread crumbs Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls shelled peanuts 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 egg Salt and pepper [FIGURE 76--THE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMES AND CORN (Revised edition.)] Cover the bread crumbs with milk, and soak them until soft. Chop the peanuts very fine, and mix with the baking powder; beat the egg. Mix thoroughly all the ingredients, and turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake about 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. [Illustration: FIGURE 77.--THE COMPOSITION OF BREAD AND OTHER CEREAL FOODS. (Revised edition.)] Commercial salted peanuts may be used for Peanut Roast. QUESTIONS From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, find the percentage of protein in Cream and Cottage Cheese, eggs (see Figure 75), walnuts, peanuts, dried peas, and beans (see Figure 76), and beef. How many ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain? What is the price per pound of each of these foods? Which food is the cheapest source of protein? Why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to Scalloped Eggs with Cheese (see Figure 77)? Name other meat-substitute foods and dishes. LESSON CIV MEAT EXTENDERS AND ONE-DISH MEALS MEAT EXTENDERS.--The flavor of meat is generally liked. Doubtless the flavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity of meat. By using a small quantity of meat and combining it with various cereals and vegetables, the flavor of meat permeates the mixture although its quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered. Foods containing such a combination of food materials are termed _meat extenders_. Those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sake of health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable. ONE-DISH MEALS.--When many demands other than those of housekeeping are made upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties. It is both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish. A meal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dish meal. It is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical; it saves time, fuel, and food; it is a wise conservation measure. In preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of the following groups of food: (1) Vegetables, (2) Milk, or cheese, or eggs, or fish, or meat, or beans, or nuts, (3) Cereal, such as corn, barley, rice, oats, or buckwheat. To two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil is generally added. The use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes a meal that satisfies the most exacting. It is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would "eat well" together. The one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for a fascinating study of food combinations. If the casserole or fireless cooker is used in their preparation, the possibilities are limitless. An examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will show that most of these foods make one-dish meals. MUTTON WITH BARLEY 1 pound mutton 1 onion 1/2 cupful pearled barley 2 quarts water, boiling 4 potatoes Celery leaves (fresh or dried) 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat and sliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barley and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least 1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoes and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the potatoes are tender. Serve hot. (Adapted from _Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.) TAMALE PIE 3/4 cupful corn-meal 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 onion 1 tablespoonful fat 1 pound chopped meat 2 cupfuls tomatoes Dash Cayenne pepper, _or_ 1 small chopped sweet pepper 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt into boiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red color disappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put in a layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush. Bake 30 minutes. (Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.) CREOLE STEW 1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl 1 tablespoonful fat 1/4 cupful chopped onion 1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers 1 cupful boiling water 1/2 cupful rice 1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces) 2 cupfuls tomatoes 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a frying pan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for a few minutes. Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and add the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmering temperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the fireless cooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it in the fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot. With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South. (Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.) QUESTIONS Make a list of meat-extending dishes. Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals. How many persons will one pound of meat serve? How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one pound of meat) serve? Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food combinations. RELATED WORK LESSON CV MENU-MAKING REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.--All the foodstuffs or nutrients should be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foods composing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of: Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body. Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, but also a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (see _Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement_) its energy-giving power is not considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body. Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body. Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body. Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet. Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, but as mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage. A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the body follows: A. _Food for Energy_.--Although both _starch_ and _sugar_ are carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the body should be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects of excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously. A certain amount of _fat_ is needed for energy-giving. A meal containing fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid of foods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than other foodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the other hand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them greatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use of much fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it is valuable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting. B. _Food for Body-building and Repairing_.--Both _protein_ and _ash_ are needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains the element nitrogen,--one of the necessary elements for the growth and maintenance of the body. Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the question arises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, or vegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the least desirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to the formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons with difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction. Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Others find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable condition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves much benefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatly lessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods, such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes. Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in diet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes and cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented by foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat is eaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits should be used. While all the _mineral materials_ found in the body [Footnote 71: The ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are: Sulphur Chlorine Calcium Iron Sodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus ] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, and iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities (see Figures 78, 79, and 80). [Illustration: FIGURE 78.--FOODS CONTAINING CALCIUM. a, Dried beans, b, dried figs; c, rutabaga, d, celery; e, milk; f, cauliflower, g, almonds; h, egg yolk; i, cheese] Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and bones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth. Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It is especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children. _The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a generous supply of milk._ Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems of plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium. _Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the most satisfactory sources of phosphorus._ A free use of these foods is especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as necessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash. Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat of bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat flour. [Illustration: Foods Containing Phosphorus: _a_ Dried peas; _b_, chocolate; _c_, dried beans; _d_, whole wheat; _e_, peanuts; _f_, cheese; _g_, cocoa; _h_, egg yolk.] In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, iron is needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." If foods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be so likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found in eggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely assimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuable sources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirable foods for children. _The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables, and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized_. _Sulphur_ is one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usually found, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein is supplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity. As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium but _sodium_ and _chlorine_,--two of the needed minerals of the body. If fresh vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, and phosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain all their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet contains _all_ the necessary ash constituents. [Illustration: FIGURE 80.--FOODS CONTAINING IRON. a. Dried peas; b. dried figs; c. whole wheat; d. lentils; e. spinach; f. dried dates; g. eggs; h. rye; i. lean beef; j. dried beans; k. raisins; l. dried lima beans.] C. _Food for Regulating_.--Although ash is needed for body-building, it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously. Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body is also supplied with regulating materials. D. _Food for Promoting Growth_.--A discussion of vitamines,--the materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of health,--was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary that foods rich in vitamines be included in diet. E. _Food for Bulk_.--The use of foods containing cellulose, which adds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineral matter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grains furnish both of these materials. OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.--For successful menu- making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the needs of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows: A. _Appetizing Foods_.--If the appetite needs stimulation, foods which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals. Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and sometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as the appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especially nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing food, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal. B. _Foods of Contrasting Flavor_.--If beef or some other protein-rich food is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), root vegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are good additions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of less pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in another nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor may be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selecting foods that will taste well together. C. _Variation of Foods_.--The same food should not be used twice in the same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would be monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and baked beans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served for both breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as bread and butter may be used with every meal. D. _Moist and Dry Foods_.--A combination of "moist" and "dry" foods is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture. This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids; that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority of persons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain boiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a sauce or gravy. E. _Sweet Foods_.--A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning of a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served with the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously, the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less irritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of serving them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. When the appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat large quantities of sweet foods. A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be served only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit or gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal. Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been eaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered one of the nutritious foods of a meal. F. _Milk and Beverages_.--Since milk is necessary for perfect nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one meal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distasteful to any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be served in its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that the proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes as cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of the family. When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that these beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them, should be taken into consideration. G. _Foods on Hand_.--When menus are made the thrifty housekeeper considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would spoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basis on which to plan one or more meals. A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked. But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible uses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Bread crumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substitute one week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week; a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If several pieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouring over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also be crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding. It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it is wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the other hand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This is especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and other dried foods. MENU PLANS.--Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only where the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living the meals of most families are served only in one or two courses. Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, it is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements of successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats, and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factors involved in the planning of a desirable meal. As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu planning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable, economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze the menu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of the body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful to have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as lists of meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over these when planning meals. The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and more elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals. A breakfast may consist of: Fruit Cereal or Eggs and Toast Beverage _or_ Fruit or Cereal (or both) Meat, Egg, or Vegetable Bread and Butter Beverage A luncheon or supper may consist of: Cream Soup Bread and Butter Salad or fruit Beverage _or_ Fruit or Cream Soup {Fish or Meat Substitutes {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad Dessert Beverage A dinner may consist of: {Meat {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad or Dessert Beverage _or_ Clear Soup Fish {Meat {Vegetables {Bread With or Without Butter Salad Dessert Beverage QUESTIONS Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in moisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor. Give reasons for making the combinations. Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of the week's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent for food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceed the food allowance. LESSON CVI PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period is limited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and serve the meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the meal planning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meat substitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If it exceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes within this amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups contained in it? Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid. LESSON CVII REVIEW: MEAL COOKING MENU Seasonable Vegetable Salad Salad Dressing Salad Rolls See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. LESSON CVIII HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX] SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals containing meat-substitute,--at least one a week. Plan and prepare meals containing meat,--at least one a week. Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to prepare them. SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook a one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes. (2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one containing a meat-substitute. DIVISION TEN QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS LESSON CIX LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor. To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour mixtures, try the following: EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two experiments.]--Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter. Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following questions: What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was made porous. EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS--Repeat Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8 cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64. Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the mixture? Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being moistened and heated. EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.--Measure 1/4 cupful of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread? [NOTE.--Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.] In preparing all quick bread mixtures, _pastry flour_ (see _Wheat Flour_) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but should be stirred. OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.--The ovens of a number of ranges are equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven, the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is provided with a glass door. [Illustration: Courtesy of the _National Stove Co_ FIGURE 81--OVEN HEAT REGULATOR] A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven, but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant, _i.e._ at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens, _i.e._ ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat." A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated. The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of 250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5 minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven; place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F., 450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550 degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper. Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers College, Columbia University.] 1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues. 2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread, plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures. 3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes. 4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot." Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (_a_) note the number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a light brown or to a golden brown; (_b_) note the number of "counts" (one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven. POUR BATTER.--All breads may be divided into two classes: (_a_) Quick Breads and (_b_) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture in the batter. A _pour batter_ is the thinnest quick bread mixture. It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture. Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter. POPOVERS 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk 1 cupful flour 1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted) Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be used instead of iron pans. Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple, peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup. QUESTIONS What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that helps to lighten the Popovers? What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when they are heated quickly? What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many Popovers will the given recipe make? LESSON CX LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas--carbon dioxide--is often introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the following: EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.--Place a teaspoonful of sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture? EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.--Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk. [Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an _acid_ is present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper. When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an _alkaline_ substance is present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction. Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color, carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again. If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue litmus paper changes color a _neutral_ substance is present, i.e. a substance neither acid nor alkaline. When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction. Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A _chemical change_ has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan; another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain food mixtures are cooked and digested. EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.--To the contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction-- acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was the first quantity? Explain. If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour milk is used, some _unneutralized_ soda will remain in the mixture. This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture. Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the _approximate_ proportion of baking soda to sour milk is: _1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of thick sour milk._ The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials: 1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> [Footnote 79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material. 1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda." SPIDER CORN BREAD 3/4 cupful corn-meal 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda 1/4 cupful flour 1 egg 1 tablespoonful sugar 1 cupful sour milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk, then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well blended. Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked, usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot. TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.--Quick Bread is usually sufficiently baked: (_a_) when it is a golden brown in color; (_b_) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (_c_) when the crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or (_d_) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a very thick layer. QUESTIONS Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain their action. Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe. What is the price per half-pound of baking soda? How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve? LESSON CXI LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.--Place a teaspoonful of baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat. What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread. EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.--Carefully measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16 teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor pink lit