The Project Gutenberg EBook of The People's Common Sense Medical Adviser
in Plain English, by R. V. Pierce

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: The People's Common Sense Medical Adviser in Plain English
       or, Medicine Simplified, 54th ed., One Million, Six Hundred
       and Fifty Thousand

Author: R. V. Pierce

Release Date: May 28, 2006 [EBook #18467]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL ADVISOR ***




Produced by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net





[Illustration]

       *       *       *       *       *

THE PEOPLE'S

COMMON SENSE
MEDICAL ADVISER
IN PLAIN ENGLISH:
OR,
MEDICINE SIMPLIFIED.


BY
R.V. PIERCE, M.D.


ONE OF THE STAFF OF CONSULTING PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS
AT THE INVALIDS' HOTEL AND SURGICAL INSTITUTE, AND
PRESIDENT OF THE WORLD'S DISPENSARY
MEDICAL ASSOCIATION.


FIFTY-FOURTH EDITION.

ONE MILLION, SIX HUNDRED AND FIFTY THOUSAND.

_Carefully Revised by the Author, assisted by his full Staff of
Associate Specialists in Medicine and Surgery, the Faculty of the
Invalids' Hotel and Surgical Institute._

       *       *       *       *       *

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1895, by the WORLD'S
DISPENSARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, In the office of the Librarian of
Congress, at Washington, D.C.

       *       *       *       *       *

TO
MY PATIENTS,
WHO HAVE SOLICITED MY PROFESSIONAL SERVICES,
FROM THEIR HOMES
IN EVERY STATE, CITY, TOWN, AND ALMOST EVERY HAMLET,
WITHIN THE AMERICAN UNION;
ALSO TO THOSE DWELLING IN EUROPE, MEXICO, SOUTH AMERICA,
THE EAST AND WEST INDIES, AND OTHER
FOREIGN LANDS,
I RESPECTFULLY DEDICATE
THIS WORK.

       *       *       *       *       *




TABLE OF CONTENTS

    PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION
    PREFACE_TO_THE_FIRST_EDITION
    INTRODUCTORY WORDS

    PART I

    CHAPTER I. BIOLOGY
    CHAPTER II. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. THE BONES.
    CHAPTER III. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. THE MUSCLES.
    CHAPTER IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
    CHAPTER V. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. ABSORPTION.
    CHAPTER VI. PHYSICAL AND VITAL PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD.
    CHAPTER VII. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
    CHAPTER VIII. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.
    CHAPTER IX. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. THE SKIN.
    CHAPTER X. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. SECRETION.
    CHAPTER XI. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. EXCRETION.
    CHAPTER XII. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
    CHAPTER XIII. THE SPECIAL SENSES. SIGHT.
    CHAPTER XIV. CEREBRAL PHYSIOLOGY.
    CHAPTER XV. THE HUMAN TEMPERAMENTS.
    CHAPTER XVI. MARRIAGE. LOVE.
    CHAPTER XVII. REPRODUCTION.

    PART II. HYGIENE.

    CHAPTER I. HYGIENE DEFINED.--PURE AIR.
    CHAPTER II. FOOD. BEVERAGES. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. CLOTHING.
    CHAPTER III. PHYSICAL EXERCISE. MENTAL CULTURE. SLEEP. CLEANLINESS.
    CHAPTER IV. HYGIENE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
    CHAPTER V. PRACTICAL SUMMARY OF HYGIENE.

    PART III. RATIONAL MEDICINE.

    CHAPTER I. THE PROGRESS OF MEDICINE.
    CHAPTER II. REMEDIES FOR DISEASE.
    CHAPTER III. BATHS AND MOTION AS REMEDIAL AGENTS.
    CHAPTER IV. HYGIENIC TREATMENT OF THE SICK.

    PART IV. DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIAL TREATMENT.

    INDEX

    FOOTNOTES

       *       *       *       *       *




PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION

The popular favor with which former editions of this work have been
received has required the production of such a vast number of copies,
that the original electrotype plates from which it has heretofore been
printed, have been completely worn out.

The book has been re-produced in London, England, where six editions
have already been necessary to supply the demand for it.

In order to continue its publication to meet the demand which is still
active in this country, it has been necessary, inasmuch as the original
electrotype plates have become worn and useless, to re-set the work
throughout. This has afforded the Author an opportunity to carefully
revise the book and re-write many portions, that it may embody the
latest discoveries and improvements in medicine and surgery. In
performing this labor he has been greatly assisted by contributions and
valuable aid kindly supplied by his staff of associate specialists in
medicine and surgery who constitute the Faculty of the Invalids' Hotel
and Surgical Institute.

That part of the book treating of Diseases and Their Remedies will be
found to be thoroughly reliable; the prescriptions recommended therein
having all received the sanction and endorsement of medical gentlemen of
rare professional attainments and mature experience.

THE AUTHOR.

BUFFALO, N.Y., January, 1895.

       *       *       *       *       *




PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Every family needs a COMMON SENSE MEDICAL ADVISER. The frequent
inquiries from his numerous patients throughout the land, suggested to
the Author the importance and popular demand for a reliable work of this
kind. Consequently, he has been induced to prepare and publish an
extensive dissertation on Physiology, Hygiene, Temperaments, Diseases
and Domestic Remedies. It is for the interest and welfare of _every_
person, not only to understand the means for the preservation of health,
but also to know what remedies should be employed for the alleviation of
the common ailments of life.

The frequency of accidents of all kinds, injuries sustained by
machinery, contusions, drowning, poisoning, fainting, etc., and also of
sudden attacks of painful diseases, such as headache, affections of the
heart and nerves, inflammation of the eye, ear and other organs, renders
it necessary that non-professionals should possess sufficient knowledge
to enable them to employ the proper means for speedy relief. To impart
this important information is the aim of the author.

Moreover, this volume treats of Human Temperaments, not only of their
influence upon mental characteristics and bodily susceptibilities, but
also of their vital and non-vital combinations, which transmit to the
offspring either health, hardihood, and longevity, or feebleness,
disease, and death. It clearly points out those temperaments which are
compatible with each other and harmoniously blend, and also those which,
when united in marriage, result in barrenness, or produce in the
offspring imbecility, deformity, and idiocy. These matters are freely
discussed from original investigations and clinical observations, thus
rendering the work a true and scientific guide to marriage.

While instruction is imparted for the care of the body, those diseases
(alas how prevalent!) are investigated which are sure to follow as a
consequence of certain abuses, usually committed through ignorance. That
these ills do exist is evident from the fact that the Author is
consulted by multitudes of unfortunate young men and women, who are
desirous of procuring relief from the weaknesses and derangements
incurred by having unwittingly violated physiological laws.

Although some of these subjects may seem out of place in a work designed
for _every_ member of the family, yet they are presented in a style
which cannot offend the most fastidious, and with a studied avoidance of
all language that can possibly displease the chaste, or disturb the
delicate susceptibilities of persons of either sex.

This book should not be excluded from the young, for it is eminently
adapted to their wants, and imparts information without which millions
will suffer untold misery. It is a _false_ modesty which debars the
youth of our land from obtaining such information.

As its title indicates, the Author aims to make this book a useful and
practical Medical Adviser. He proposes to express himself in plain and
simple language, and, so far as possible, to avoid the employment of
technical words, so that all his readers may readily comprehend the
work, and profit by its perusal. Written as it is amid the many cares
attendant upon a practice embracing the treatment of thousands of cases
annually, and therefore containing the fruits of a rich and varied
experience, some excuse exists for any literary imperfections which the
critical reader may observe.

THE AUTHOR.

BUFFALO, N.Y., July, 1875.

       *       *       *       *       *




INTRODUCTORY WORDS.

Health and disease are physical conditions upon which pleasure and pain,
success and failure, depend. Every _individual_ gain increases public
gain. Upon the health of its people is based the prosperity of a nation;
by it every value is increased, every joy enhanced. Life is incomplete
without the enjoyment of healthy organs and faculties, for these give
rise to the delightful sensations of existence. Health is essential to
the accomplishment of every purpose; while sickness thwarts the best
intentions and loftiest aims. We are continually deciding upon those
conditions which are either the source of joy and happiness or which
occasion pain and disease. Prudence requires that we should meet the
foes and obviate the dangers which threaten us, by turning all our
philosophy, science, and art, into practical _common sense_.

The profession of medicine is no _sinecure_; its labors are constant,
its toils unremitting, its cares unceasing. The physician is expected to
meet the grim monster, "break the jaws of death, and pluck the spoil out
of his teeth." _His_ ear is ever attentive to entreaty, and within his
faithful breast are concealed the disclosures of the suffering. Success
may elate him, as conquest flushes the victor. Honors are lavished upon
the brave soldiers who, in the struggle with the foe, have covered
themselves with glory, and returned victorious from the field of battle;
but how much more brilliant is the achievement of those who overwhelm
disease, that common enemy of mankind, whose victims are numbered by
millions! Is it meritorious in the physician to modestly veil his
discoveries, regardless of their importance? If he have light, why hide
it from the world? Truth should be made as universal and health-giving
as sunlight. We say, give light to all who are in darkness, and a remedy
to the afflicted everywhere.

We, as a people, are becoming idle, living in luxury and ease, and in
the gratification of artificial wants. Some indulge in the use of food
rendered unwholesome by bad cookery, and think more of gratifying a
morbid appetite than of supplying the body with proper nourishment.
Others devote unnecessary attention to the display of dress and a
genteel figure, yielding themselves completely to the sway of fashion.
Such intemperance in diet and dress manifests itself in the general
appearance of the unfortunate transgressor, and exposes his folly to the
world, with little less precision than certain vices signify their
presence by a tobacco-tainted breath, beer-bloated body, rum-emblazoned
nose, and kindred manifestations. They coddle themselves instead of
practicing self-denial, and appear to think that the chief end of life
is gratification, rather than useful endeavor.

I purpose to express myself candidly and earnestly on all topics
relating to health, and appeal to the common sense of the reader for
justification. Although it is my aim to simplify the work, and render it
a practical common-sense guide to the farmer, mechanic, mariner, and
day-laborer, yet I trust that it may not prove less acceptable to the
scholar, in its discussion of the problems of Life. Not only does the
method adopted in this volume of treating of the Functions of the Brain
and Nervous System present many new suggestions, in its application to
hygiene, the management of disease, generation and the development and
improvement of man, but the conclusions correspond with the results of
the latest investigations of the world's most distinguished _savants_.
My object is to inculcate the facts of science rather than the theories
of philosophy.

Unto us are committed important health trusts, which we hold, not merely
in our own behalf, but for the benefit of others. If we discharge the
obligations of our trusteeship, we shall enjoy present strength,
usefulness, and length of days; but if we fail in their performance,
then inefficiency, incapacity, and sickness, will follow, the sequel of
which is pain and death. Let us, then, prove worthy of this generous
commission, that we may enjoy the sweetest of all pleasures, the
delicious fruitage of honest toil and faithful obedience.

       *       *       *       *       *




PART I.

PHYSIOLOGY.




CHAPTER I.

BIOLOGY.


In this chapter we propose to consider Life in its primitive
manifestations. _Biology_ is the science of living bodies, or the
science of life. Every organ of a living body has a function to perform,
and _Physiology_ treats of these functions.

_Function_ means the peculiar action of some particular organ or part.
There can be no vital action without change, and no change without
organs. Every living thing has a structure, and _Anatomy_ treats of the
structures of organized bodies. Several chapters of this work are
devoted to _Physiological Anatomy_, which treats of the human organism
and its functions.

The beginning of life is called _generation_; its perpetuation,
_reproduction_. By the former function, individual life is insured; by
the latter, it is maintained. Since nutrition sustains life, it has been
pertinently termed _perpetual reproduction_.

LATENT LIFE is contained in a small globule, a mere atom of matter, in
the sperm-cell. This element is something which, under certain
conditions, develops into a living organism. The entire realm of nature
teems with these interesting phenomena, thus manifesting that admirable
adjustment of internal to external relations, which claims our profound
attention. We are simply humble scholars, waiting on the threshold of
nature's glorious sanctuary, to receive the interpretation of her divine
mysteries.

Some have conjectured that chemical and physical forces account for all
the phenomena of life, and that organization is not the result of vital
forces. Physical science cannot inform us what the beginning was, or how
vitality is the result of chemical forces; nor can it tell us what
transmutations will occur at the end of organized existence. This
mysterious life-principle eludes the grasp of the profoundest
scientists, and its presence in the world will ever continue to be an
astonishing and indubitable testimony of Divine Power.

The physical act of generation is accomplished by the union of two
cells; and as this conjugation is known to be so generally indispensable
to the organization of life, we may fairly infer that it is a universal
necessity. Investigations with the microscope have destroyed the
hypothesis of "spontaneous generation." These show us that even the
minutest living forms are derived from a parent organization.

GENERATION. So long as the vital principle remains in the sperm-cell, it
lies dormant. That part of the cell which contains this principle is
called the _spermatozoön_, which consists of a flattened body, having a
long appendage tapering to the finest point. If it be remembered that a
line is the one-twelfth part of an inch in length, some idea may be
formed of the extreme minuteness of the body of a human spermatozoön,
when we state that it is from 1/800 to 1/600 part of a line, and the
filiform tail 1/50 of a line, in length. This life-atom, which can be
discerned only with a powerful magnifying glass, is perfectly
transparent, and moves about by executing a vibratile motion with its
long appendage. Within this speck of matter are hidden the multifarious
forces which, under certain favorable conditions, result in
organization. Magnify this infinitesimal atom a thousand times, and no
congeries of formative powers is perceived wherewith to work out the
wonders of its existence. Yet it contains the principle, which is the
contribution on the part of the male toward the generation of a new
being.

The _ovum_ or germ-cell, is the special contribution on the part of the
female for the production of another being. The human ovum, though
larger than the spermatozoön, is also extremely small, measuring not
more than from 1/20 to 1/10 of a line, or from 1/240 to 1/120 of an
inch, in diameter.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.

_A_. Human Spermatozoön magnified about 3,800 diameters.
_B_. Vertical and lateral views of spermatozoa of man.
_C, D, E, F._ Development of spermatozoa within the vesicles of evolution.
_G_. Cell of the sponge resembling a spermatozoön.
_H_. Vesicles of evolution from the seminal fluid of the dog in the parent cell
_I_. Single vesicles of different sizes.
_J_. Human spermatozoön forming in its cell.
_K_. Rupture of the cell and escape of the spermatozoön.
]

The sperm and the germ-cells contain the primary elements of all organic
structures, and both possess the special qualities and conditions by
which they may evolve organic beings. Every cell is composed of minute
grains, within which vital action takes place. The interior of a cell
consists of growing matter; the exterior, of matter which has assumed
its form and is less active.

When the vital principle is communicated to it, the cell undergoes a
rapid transformation. While this alteration takes place within the cell,
deteriorating changes occur in the cell-wall. Although vital operations
build up these structures, yet the animal and nervous functions are
continually disintegrating, or wasting, them.

Throughout the animal kingdom, germ-cells present the same external
aspect when carefully examined with the microscope. No difference can be
observed between the cells of the flowers of the oak and those of the
apple, but the cells of the one always produce oak trees, while those of
the other always produce apple trees. The same is true of the germs of
animals, there being not the slightest apparent difference. We are
unable to perceive how one cell should give origin to a dog, while
another exactly like it becomes a man. For aught we know, the ultimate
atoms of these cells are identical in physical character; at least we
have no means of detecting any difference.

SPECIES. The term species is generally used merely as a convenient name
to designate certain assemblages of individuals having various striking
points of resemblance. Scientific writers, as a rule, no longer hold
that what are usually called _species_ are constantly unvarying and
unchangeable quantities. Recent researches point to the conclusion that
_all species vary more or less_, and, in some instances, that the
variation is so great that the limits of general specific distinctness
are sometimes exceeded.

Our space will not permit us to do more than merely indicate the two
great fundamental ideas upon which the leading theories of the time
respecting the origin of species are based. These are usually termed the
doctrine of _Special Creation_ and the doctrine of _Evolution_.
According to the doctrine of Special Creation, it is thought that
species are practically immutable productions, each species having a
_specific centre_ where it was originally created, and from which it
spread over a certain area until its further progress was obstructed by
unfavorable conditions. The advocates of the doctrine of Evolution hold,
on the contrary, that species are not permanent and immutable, but that
they are subject to modification, and that "the existing forms of life
are descendants by true generation of pre-existing forms."[1] Most
naturalists are now inclined to admit the general truth of the theory of
evolution, but they differ widely respecting the mode in which it
occurred.


THE PROCESS OF GENERATION.


The vital _principle_, represented in the _sperm_-cell by a
spermatozoön, must be imparted to a _germ_-cell in order to effect
impregnation. After touching each other, separate them immediately, and
observe the result. If, with the aid of a powerful lens, we directly
examine the spermatozoön, it will be perceived that, for a short time,
it preserves its dimensions and retains all its material aspects. But it
does not long withstand the siege of decay, and, having fulfilled its
destiny, loses its organic characteristics, and begins to shrink.

If we examine the fertilized germ, we discover unusual activity, the
result of impregnation. Organic processes succeed one another with
wonderful regularity, as if wrought out by inexplicable intelligence.
Here begin the functions which constitute human physiology.

Generation requires that a spermatozoön be brought into actual contact
with a germ that fecundation may follow. If a spermatic cell, or
spermatozoön, together with several unimpregnated ova, no matter how
near to one another, if not actually touching, be placed on the concave
surface of a watch-crystal, and covered with another crystal, keeping
them warm, and even though the vapor of the ova envelops it, no
impregnation will occur. Place the spermatozoön in contact with an ovum,
and impregnation is instantly and perfectly accomplished. Should this
vitalizing power be termed nerve-force, electricity, heat, or motion? It
is known that these forces may be metamorphosed; for instance, nervous
force may be converted into electricity, electricity into heat, and heat
into motion, thus illustrating their affiliation and capability of
transformation. But nothing is explained respecting the real nature of
the vital principle, if we assert its identity with any of these forces;
for who can reveal the true nature of any of these, or even of matter?


ALTERNATE GENERATION.


In several insect families, the species is not wholly represented in the
adult individuals of both sexes, or in their development, but, to
complete this series, supplementary individuals, as it were, of one or
of several preceding generations, are required. The son may not resemble
the father, but the grandfather, and in some instances, the likeness
re-appears only in latter generations. Agassiz states: "Alternate
generation was first observed among the Salpae. These are marine
mollusks, without shells, belonging to the family Tunicata. They are
distinguished by the curious peculiarity of being united together in
considerable numbers so as to form long chains, which float in the sea,
the mouth(_m_) however being free in each.

[Illustration: Fig. 2. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 3. ]

"Fig. 2. The individuals thus joined in floating colonies produce eggs;
but in each animal there is generally but one egg formed, which is
developed in the body of the parent, and from which is hatched a little
mollusk.

"Fig. 3, which remains solitary, and differs in many respects from the
parent. This little animal, on the other hand, does not produce eggs,
but propagates, by a kind of budding, which gives rise to chains already
seen in the body of their parent(a), and these again bring forth
solitary individuals, etc."

It therefore follows that generation in some animals require? two
different bodies with intermediate ones, by means of which and their
different modes of reproduction, a return to the original stock is
effected.

UNIVERSALITY OF ANIMALCULAR LIFE.--Living organisms are universally
diffused over every part of the globe. The gentle zephyr wafts from
flower to flower invisible, fructifying atoms, which quicken beauty and
fragrance, giving the promise of a golden fruitage, to gladden and
nourish a dependent world. Nature's own sweet cunning invests all living
things constraining into her service chemical affinities, arranging the
elements and disposing them for her own benefit, in such numberless ways
that we involuntarily exclaim,

    "The course of Nature is the art of God."

The microscope reveals the fact that matter measuring only 1/120000 of
an inch diameter may be endowed with vitality, and that countless
numbers of animalcules often inhabit a single drop of stagnant water.
These monads do not vary in form, whether in motion or at rest. The life
of one, even, is an inexplicable mystery to the philosopher. Ehrenberg
writes: "Not only in the polar regions is there an uninterrupted
development of active microscopic life, where larger animals cannot
exist, but we find that those minute beings collected in the Antarctic
expedition of Captain James Ross exhibit a remarkable abundance of
unknown, and often most beautiful forms."

Even the interior of animal bodies is inhabited by animalcules. They
have been found in the blood of the frog and the salmon, and in the
optic fluid of fishes. Organic beings are found in the interior of the
earth, into which the industry of the miner has made extensive
excavations, sunk deep shafts, and thus revealed their forms; likewise,
the smallest fossil organisms form subterranean strata many fathoms
deep. Not only do lakes and inland seas abound with life, but also, from
unknown depths, in volcanic districts, arise thermal springs which
contain living insects. Were we endowed with a microscopic eye, we might
see myriads of ethereal voyagers wafted by on every breeze, as we now
behold drifting clouds of aqueous vapor. While the continents of earth
furnishes evidences of the universality of organic beings, recent
observations prove that "animal life predominates amid the eternal night
of the depths of the liquid ocean."


THE ORIGIN OF LIFE.


The ancients, rude in many of their ideas, referred the origin of life
to divine determination. The thought was crudely expressed, but well
represented, in the following verse:

    "Then God smites his hands together,
    And strikes out a soul as a spark,
    Into the organized glory of things.
    From the deeps of the dark."

According to a Greek myth, Prometheus formed a human image from the dust
of the ground, and then, by fire stolen from heaven, animated it with a
living soul. Spontaneous generation once held its sway, and now the idea
of natural evolution is popular. Some believe that the inpenetrable
mystery of life is evolved from the endowments of nature, and build
their imperfect theory on observations of her concrete forms and their
manifestations, to which all our investigations are restricted. But
every function indicates purpose, every organism evinces intelligent
design, and _all_ proclaim a Divine Power. Something cannot come out of
nothing. With reason and philosophy, _chance_ is an impossibility. We,
therefore, accept the display of wisdom in nature as indicative of the
designs of God. Thus "has He written His claims for our profoundest
admiration and homage all over every object that He has made." If you
ask: Is there any advantage in considering the phenomena of nature as
the result of DIVINE VOLITION? we answer, that this belief corresponds
with the universally acknowledged ideas of accountability; for, with a
wise, and efficient Cause, we infer there is an intelligent creation,
and the desire to communicate, guide and bless, is responded to by man,
who loves, obeys, and enjoys. Nothing is gained by attributing to nature
vicegerent forces. Is it not preferable to say that she responds to
intelligent, loving Omnipotence? Our finiteness is illustrated by our
initiation into organized being. Emerging from a rayless atom, too
diminutive for the sight, we gradually develop and advance to the
maturity of those _conscious powers_, the exercise of which furnishes
indubitable evidence of our immortality. We are pervaded with invisible
influences, which, like the needle of the compass trembling on its
pivot, point us to immortality as our ultimate goal, where in the sunny
clime of Love, even in a spiritual realm of joy and happiness, we may
eternally reign with Him who is all in all.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER II.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

THE BONES.


All living bodies are made up of tissues. There is no part, no organ,
however soft and yielding, or hard and resisting, which has not this
peculiarity of structure. The _bones_ of animals, as well as their flesh
and fat, are composed of tissues, and all alike made up of cells. When
viewed under a microscope, each cell is seen to consist of three
distinct parts, a _nucleolus_, or dark spot, in the center of the cell,
around which lies a mass of granules, called the _nucleus;_ and this, in
turn, is surrounded with a delicate, transparent membrane, termed the
_envelope_. Each of the granules composing the nucleus assimilates
nourishment, thereby growing into an independent cell, which possesses a
triple organization similar to that of its parent, and in like manner
reproduces other cells.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.
Nucleated cell.
From Goeber.
1. Periphery of the
cell, or cell-wall.
2. Nucleus. 3. Nucleolus
in the center.]

A variety of tissues enters into the composition of an animal structure,
yet their differences are not always distinctly marked, since the
characteristics of some are not unlike those of others. We shall notice,
however, only the more important of the tissues.

The _Areolar_, or _Connective Tissue_, is a complete network of delicate
fibers, spread over the body, and serves to bind the various organs and
parts together. The fibrous and serous tissues are modifications of the
areolar.

The _Nervous Tissue_ is of two kinds: The gray, which is pulpy and
granulated, and the white fibrous tissue. The _Adipose Tissue_ is an
extremely thin membrane, composed of closed cells which contain fat. It
is found principally just beneath the skin, giving it a smooth, plump
appearance.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.
Arrangement of fibers in the
Areolar Tissue. Magnified 135 diameters.]

The _Cartilaginous Tissue_ consists of nucleated cells, and, with the
exception of bone, is the hardest part of the animal frame. The _Osseous
Tissue_, or bone, is more compact and solid than the cartilaginous, for
it contains a greater quantity of lime. The _Muscular Tissue_ is
composed of bundles of fibers, which are enclosed in a cellular
membrane.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.
Human Adipose Tissue.]

Various opinions have been entertained in regard to the formation, or
growth, of bone. Some anatomists have supposed that all bone is formed
in cartilage. But this is not true, for there is an _intra-membranous_,
as well as an _intra-cartilaginous_, formation of bone, as may be seen
in the development of the cranial bones, where the gradual calcification
takes place upon the inner layers of the fibrous coverings.
Intra-cartilaginous deposit is found in the vicinity of the
blood-vessels, within the cartilaginous canals; also, there are certain
points first observed in the shafts of long bones, called _centers of
ossification_. These points are no sooner formed than the cartilage
corpuscles arrange themselves in concentric zones, and, lying in contact
with one another, become very compact. As ossification proceeds, the
cup-shaped cavities are converted into closed interstices of bone, with
extremely thin lamellæ, or layers. These, however, soon increase in
density, and no blood-vessels can be observed within them.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.
Vertical section of cartilage near the surface of
ossification. _1_. Ordinary appearance of the temporary
cartilage. _1_'. Portion of the same more
highly magnified. _2_. The cells beginning to form
into concentric zones. _2_'. Portion more magnified.
_3_. The ossification is extending in the inter-cellular
spaces, and the rows of cells are seen
resting in the cavities so formed, the nuclei being
more separated than above. _3_'. Portion of the
same more highly magnified.]

[Illustration: Fig. 8.
Thigh-bone,
sawn open
lengthwise.]

[Illustration: Fig. 9.
Lower end of the thigh-bone
sawn across, showing its central
cavity.]

The bony plates form the boundaries of the _Haversian_, or nutritive
canals of the bones. In the _second stage of ossification_, the
cartilage corpuscles are converted into bone. Becoming flattened against
the osseous lamellæ already formed, they crowd upon one another so as to
entirely obliterate the lines that distinguish them; and, simultaneously
with these changes, a calcareous deposit takes place upon their
interior. Bones grow by additions to their ends and surfaces. In the
child, their extremities are separated from the body of the bone by
layer of cartilage, and the cancellated, or cellular structure, which
remains for a time in the interior, represents the early condition of
the ossifying substances.

The bones contain more earthy matter in their composition than any other
part of the human body, being firm, hard, and of a lime color. They
compose the skeleton or frame work, and, when united by natural
ligaments, form what is known as the _natural_ skeleton; when they are
wired together, they are called an _artificial_ skeleton. The number of
bones in the human body is variously estimated; for those regarded as
single by some anatomists are considered by others to consist of several
distinct pieces. There are two hundred distinct bones in the human
skeleton besides the teeth. These may be divided into those of the Head,
Trunk, Upper Extremities, and Lower Extremities.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.
The bones of the skull separated. _1_. Frontal,
only half is seen. _2_. Parietal. _3_. Occipital, only
half is seen. _4_. Temporal. _5_. Nasal. _6_. Malar.
_7_. Superior maxillary (upper jaw). _8_. Lachrymal.
_9_. Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). Between
_4_ and _6_ a part of the sphenoid or wedge-shaped
bone, is seen. Another bone assisting to form
the skull, but not here seen, is called the _ethmoid_
(sieve-like, from being full of holes), and is situated
between the sockets of the eyes, forming the
roof of the nose.]

THE BONES OF THE HEAD are classed as follows: eight belonging to the
Cranium, and fourteen to the Face. The bones of the Cranium are the
_occipital_, two _parietal_, two _temporal, frontal, sphenoid_, and
_ethmoid_. Those composing the face are, the two _nasal_, two _superior
maxillary,_ two _lachrymal_, two _malar_ two _palate_, two _inferior
turbinated, vomer_, and _inferior maxillary_. The cranial bones are
composed of two dense plates, between which there is, in most places a
cancellated or cellular tissue. The external plate is fibrous, the
internal, compact and vitreous. The skull is nearly oval in form, convex
externally, the bone being much thicker at the base than elsewhere, and
it is, in every respect admirably adapted to resist any injury to which
it may be exposed, thus affording ample protection to the brain
substance which it envelops. The internal surface of the cranium
presents eminences and depressions for lodging the convolutions of the
brain, and numerous furrows for the ramifications of the blood-vessels.
The bones of the cranium are united to one another by ragged edges
called _sutures_, which are quite distinct in the child but which in old
age are nearly effaced. Some authorities suppose that by this
arrangement the cranium is less liable to be fractured by blows; others
think that the sutures allow the growth of these bones, which takes
place by a gradual osseous enlargement at the margins. The bones of the
_Face_ are joined at the lower part and in front of the cranium, and
serve for the attachment of powerful muscles which assist in the process
of mastication. Although the soft parts of the face cover the bony
structure, yet they do not conceal its principal features, or materially
change its proportions. The form of the head and face presents some
remarkable dissimilarities in different races.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.
_1_. The first bone of the sternum (breast-bone).
_2_. The second bone of the sternum.
_3_. The cartilage of the sternum. _4_. The
first dorsal vertebra (a bone of the spinal
column). _5_. The last dorsal vertebra. _6_.
The first rib. _7_. Its head. _8_. Its neck. _9_.
Its tubercle. _10_. The seventh or last true
rib. _11_. The cartilage of the third rib. _12._
The floating ribs.]

[Illustration: Fig. 12.
A vertebra of the neck. _1_. The
body of the vertebra. _2_. The spinal
canal. _4_. The spinous process
cleft at its extremity. _5_. The
transverse process. _7_. The interior
articular process. _8_. The
superior articular process.]

THE TRUNK has fifty-four bones, which are as follows: The _Os Hyoides_,
the _Sternum_, twenty-four Ribs, twenty-four _vertebræ_ or bones of the
Spinal Column, the _Sacrum_, the _Coccyx_, and two _Ossa Innominata_.
The _Os Hyoides_, situated at the base of the tongue, is the most
isolated bone of the skeleton, and serves for the attachment of muscles.
The _Sternum_, or breast-bone, in a child is composed of six pieces, in
the adult of three, which in old age are consolidated into one bone. The
_Ribs_ are thin, curved bones, being convex externally. There are twelve
on each side, and all are attached to the spinal column. The seven upper
ribs, which are united in front of the sternum, are termed _true_ ribs;
the next three, which are not attached to the sternum, but to one
another are called _false_ ribs; and the last two, which are joined only
to the vertebræ, are designated as _floating_ ribs. The first rib is the
shortest, and they increase in length as far as the eighth, after which
this order is reversed.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.
_1_. The cartilaginous substance
which connects the bodies of
the vertebræ. _2_. The body of the
vertebra. _3_. The spinous process.
_4,4_. The transverse processes.
_5,5_. The articular processes.
_6,6_. A portion of the bony bridge
which assists in forming the spinal
canal (7).]

[Illustration: Fig. 14.
Backbone, spinal
column, or vertebral
column. All
animals possessing
such a row of bones
are called _vertebrates_.
Above _b_ are
the cervical (neck)
vertebræ; _b_ to _c_,
dorsal (back) or
chest vertebræ; _c_
to _d_, lumbar (loins)
vertebræ; _d_ to _e_, sacrum;
_e_ to _f_, coccyx.]

The _Spinal Column_ or backbone, when viewed from the front presents a
perpendicular appearance, but a side view shows four distinct curves.
The bones composing it are called _vertebræ_. The body part of a
vertebra is light and spongy in texture, having seven projections called
_processes_, four of which are the _articular_ processes, which furnish
surfaces to join the different vertebræ of the spinal column. Two are
called _transverse_, and the remaining one is termed the _spinous_. The
transverse and spinous processes serve for the attachment of the muscles
belonging to the back. All these processes are more compact than the
body of the vertebra, and, when naturally connected, are so arranged as
to form a tube which contains the _medulla spinalis_, or spinal cord.
Between the vertebræ is a highly-elastic, cartilaginous and cushion-like
substance, which freely admits of motion, and allows the spine to bend
as occasion requires. The natural curvatures of the spinal column
diminish the shock produced by falling, running or leaping, which would
otherwise be more directly transmitted to the brain. The ribs at the
sides, the sternum in front, and the twelve dorsal bones of the spinal
column behind, bound the thoracic cavity, which contains the lungs,
heart, and large blood-vessels.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.
A representation of the pelvic bones. _e_. The
lumbo-sacral joint. 2. The sacrum. _3_. Coccyx. _1,1_.
The innominata. _4,4_. Acetabula.]

The _Pelvis_ is an open bony structure, consisting of the Os Innominata,
one on either side, and the Sacrum and Coccyx behind. The _Sacrum_,
during childhood, consists of five bones, which in later years unite to
form one bone. It is light and spongy in texture, and the upper surface
articulates with the lowest vertebra, while it is united at its inferior
margin to the coccyx. The _Coccyx_ is the terminal bone of the spinal
column. In infancy it is cartilaginous and composed of several pieces,
but in the adult these unite and form one bone. The _Innominata_, or
nameless bones, during youth, consist of three separate pieces on each
side; but as age advances they coalesce and form one bone. A deep
socket, called the _acetabulum_, is found near their junction, which
serves for the reception of the head of the thigh-bone.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.
1. Portions of the backbone. 2. Cranial
bones. _4_. Breast-bone. _5_. Ribs. _7_. Collar-bone.
_8_. Arm-bone (humerus). _9_. Shoulder-joint.
_10, 11_. Bones of the fore-arm (ulna and
radius). _12_. Elbow-joint. _13_. Wrist-joint. _14_.
Bones of the hand. _15, 16_. Pelvic bones. _17_.
Hip-joint. _18_. Femur. _19, 20_. Bones of the
knee-joint. _21, 22_. Fibula and tibia. _23_. Ankle
bone. _24_. Bones of the foot.]

THE BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES are sixty-four in number, and are
classified as follows: The Scapula, Clavicle, Humerus, Ulna, Radius,
Carpus, Metacarpus, and Phalanges. The _Scapula_, or shoulder-blade, is
an irregular, thin, triangular bone, situated at the posterior part of
the shoulder, and attached to the upper and back part of the chest. The
_Clavicle_, or collar-bone, is located at the upper part of the chest,
between the sternum and scapula, and connects with both. Its form
resembles that of the italic letter _f_, and it prevents the arms from
sliding forward. The _Humerus_, the first bone of the arm, is long,
cylindrical, and situated between the scapula and fore-arm. The _Ulna_
is nearly parallel with the radius, and situated on the inner side of
the fore-arm. It is the longer and larger of the two bones, and in its
articulation with the humerus, forms a perfect hinge-joint. The
_Radius_, so called from its resemblance to a spoke, is on the outer
side of the fore-arm, and articulates with the bones of the wrist,
forming a joint. The ulna and radius also articulate with each other at
their extremities. The _Carpus_, or wrist, consists of eight bones,
arranged in two rows. The _Metacarpus_, or palm of the hand, is composed
of five bones situated between the carpus and fingers. The _Phalanges_,
fourteen in number, are the bones of the fingers and thumb, the fingers
each having three and the thumb two.

THE BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES, sixty in number, are classed as
follows: The Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsus, Metatarsus, and
Phalanges. The _Femur_, or thigh-bone, is the longest bone in the body.
It has a large round head, which is received into the acetabulum, thus
affording a good illustration of a ball and socket joint. The _Patella,_
or knee-pan, is the most complicated articulation of the body. It is of
a round form, connects with the tibia by means of a strong ligament, and
serves to protect the front of the joint, and to increase the leverage
of the muscles attached to it, by causing them to act at a greater
angle. The _Tibia_, or shin bone, is enlarged at each extremity and
articulates with the femur above and the astragalus, the upper bone of
the tarsus, below. The _Fibula_, the small bone of the leg, is situated
on the outer side of the tibia, and is firmly bound to it at each
extremity. The _Tarsus_, or instep, is composed of seven bones, and
corresponds to the carpus of the upper extremities. The _Metatarsus_,
the middle of the foot, bears a dose resemblance to the metacarpus, and
consists of five bones situated between the tarsus and the phalanges.
The tarsal and the metatarsal bones are so united as to give an arched
appearance to the foot, thus imparting elasticity. The _Phalanges_, the
toes, consist of fourteen bones, arranged in a manner similar to that of
the fingers.

We are not less interested in tracing the formation of bone through its
several stages, than in considering other parts of the human system. The
formation of the Haversian canals for the passage of blood-vessels to
nourish the bones, the earlier construction of bony tissue by a
metamorphosis of cartilaginous substance, and also the commencement of
ossification at distinct points, called _centers of ossification_, are
all important subjects, requiring the student's careful attention. The
bones are protected by an external membranous envelope, which, from its
situation is called the _periosteum_. The bones are divided into four
classes, _long, short, flat_ and _irregular_, being thus adapted to
subserve a variety of purposes.

The Long Bones are found in the limbs, where they act as levers to
sustain the body and aid in locomotion. Each_long_ bone is composed of a
cylinder, known as the _shaft_, and two _extremities_. The shaft is
hollow, its wails being _thickest_ in THE middle and growing thinner
toward the extremities. The _extremities_ are usually considerably
enlarged, for convenience of connection with other bones, and to afford
a broad surface for the attachment of muscles. The clavical, humerus,
radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, the bones of the metacarpus,
metatarsus and the phalanges, are classed as long bones.

Where the principal object to be attained is strength, and the motion of
the skeleton is limited, the individual bones are short and compressed,
as the bones of the carpus and tarsus. The structure of these bones is
spongy, except at the surface, where there is a thin crust of compact
matter.

[Illustration: Fig. 17.
Anatomy of a joint, _1, 1_.
Bones of a joint. _2, 2_. Cartilage.
_3, 3, 3, 3_. Synovial
membrane.]

[Illustration: Fig. 18.
Anatomy of knee joint.
_1._ Lower end of thigh-bone.
_3._ Knee-pan. _2, 4_ Ligaments
of the knee-pan. _5_. Upper
end of the tibia, or shin-bone.
_6, 12_. Cartilages.]

When protection is required for the organs of the body, or a broad flat
surface for the attachment of the muscles, the bones are expanded into
plates, as in the cranium and shoulder-blades.

The _irregular_ or _mixed_ bones are those which, from their peculiar
shape, cannot be classed among any of the foregoing divisions. Their
structure is similar to the others, consisting of cancellar tissue,
surrounded by a crust of compact matter.

The vertebræ, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, malar, two
maxillary, palate, inferior turbinated, and hyoid are known as irregular
bones.

The formation of the joints requires not only bones, but also
cartilages, ligaments, and the synovial membrane, to complete the
articulation. _Cartilage_ is a smooth, elastic substance, softer than
bone, and invested with a thin membrane, called _perichondrium_. When
cartilage is placed upon convex surfaces, the reverse is true. The
_Ligaments_ are white, inelastic, tendinous substances, softer than
cartilage, but harder than membrane. Their function is to bind together
the bones. The _Synovial Membrane_ covers the cartilages, and is then
reflected upon the ligaments, thus forming a thin, closed sac, called
the _synovial capsule._

All the synovial membranes secrete a lubricating fluid, termed
_synovia_, which enables the surfaces of the bones and ligaments to move
freely upon one another. When this fluid is secreted in excessive
quantities, it produces a disease known as "dropsy of the joints." There
are numerous smaller sacs besides the synovial, called _bursæ mucosæ_,
which in structure are analogous to them, and secrete a similar fluid.
Some joints permit motion in every direction, as the shoulders, some in
two directions only, as the elbows, while others do not admit of any
movement. The bones, ligaments, cartilages, and synovial membrane, are
supplied with nerves, arteries, and veins.

When an animal is provided with an internal bony structure, it indicates
a high rank in the scale of organization. An elaborate texture of bone
is found in no class below the vertebrates. Even in the lower order of
this sub-kingdom, which is the highest of animals, bone does not exist,
as is the case in some tribes of fishes, such as sharks, etc., and in
all classes below that of the cartilaginous fishes, the inflexible
substance which sustains the soft parts is either shell or some
modification of bone, and is usually found on the outside of the body.
True bone, on the contrary, is found in the interior, and, therefore, in
higher animals, the skeleton is always internal, while the soft parts
are placed external to the bony frame. While many animals of the lowest
species, being composed of soft gelatinous matter, are buoyant in water,
the highest type of animals requires not only a bony skeleton, but also
a flexible, muscular system, for locomotion in the water or upon the
land. Each species of the animal kingdom is thus organically adapted to
its condition and sphere of life.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER III.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

THE MUSCLES.


[Illustration: Fig. 19.
Muscular fillers highly
magnified.]

The _Muscles_ are those organs of the body by which motion is produced,
and are commonly known as _flesh_. A muscle is composed of _fascieuli_,
or bundles of fibers, parallel to one another. They are soft, varying in
size, of a reddish color, and inclosed in a cellular, membranous sheath.
Each _fasciculus_ contains a number of small fibers, which, when
subjected to a microscopic examination, are found to consist of
_fibrillae_, or little fibers; each of these fibrillae in turn being
invested with a delicate sheath. The fibers terminate in a glistening,
white _tendon_, or hard cord, which is attached to the bone. So firmly
are they united, that the bone will break before the tendon can be
released. When the tendon is spread out, so as to resemble a membrane,
it is called _fascia_. Being of various extent and thickness, it is
distributed over the body, as a covering and protection for the more
delicate parts, and aids also in motion, by firmly uniting the muscular
fibers. The spaces between the muscles are frequently filled with fat,
which gives roundness and beauty to the limbs. The muscles are of
various forms; some are longitudinal, each extremity terminating in a
tendon, which gives them a _fusiform_ or spindle-shaped appearance;
others are either fan-shaped, flat, or cylindrical.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.
1. A spindle-shaped muscle, with tendinous
terminations. 2. Fan-shaped muscle.
3. Penniform muscle. 4. Bipenniform
muscle.]

[Illustration: Fig. 21.
Striped muscular fibre showing cleavage in
opposite directions. 1. Longitudinal cleavage.
2. Transverse cleavage. 3. Transverse section of
disc. 4. Disc nearly detached. 5. Detached disc,
showing the sarcous elements. 6. Fibrillæ. 7,8.
Separated fibrillae highly magnified.]

Every muscle has an _origin_ and an _insertion_. The term _origin_ is
applied to the more fixed or central attachment of a muscle, and the
term _insertion_ to the movable point to which the force of the muscle
is directed; but the origin is not absolutely fixed, except in a small
number of muscles, as those of the face, which are attached at one
extremity to the bone, and at the other to the movable integument, or
skin. In most instances, the muscles may act from either extremity. The
muscles are divided into the Voluntary, or muscles of animal life, and
the Involuntary, or muscles of organic life. There are, however, some
muscles which cannot properly be classified with either, termed
Intermediate. The _Voluntary Muscles_ are chiefly controlled by the
will, relaxing and contracting at its pleasure, as in the motion of the
eyes, mouth, and limbs. The fibers are of a dark red color, and possess
great strength. These fibers are parallel, seldom interlacing, but
presenting a striped or striated appearance; and a microscopic
examination of them shows that even the most minute consist of parallel
filaments marked by longitudinal and transverse _striae_, or minute
channels. The fibers are nearly the same length as the muscles to which
they belong. Each muscular fiber is capable of contraction; it may act
singly, though usually it acts in unison with others. By a close
inspection, it has been found that fibers may be drawn apart
longitudinally, in which case they are termed _fibrillae_, or they may
be separated transversely, forming a series of discs. The _Sarcolemma_,
or investing sheath of the muscles, appears to be formed even before
there are any visible traces of the muscle itself. It is a transparent
and delicate membrane, but very elastic. The _Involuntary Muscles_ are
influenced by the sympathetic nervous system, and their action pertains
to the nutritive functions of the body. They differ from the voluntary
muscles in not being striated, having no tendons, and in the net-work
arrangements of their fibers. The _Intermediate Muscles_ are composed of
striated and unstriated fibers; they are, therefore, both voluntary and
involuntary in their functions. The muscles employed in respiration are
of this class, for we can breathe rapidly or slowly, and, for a short
time, even suspend their action; but soon, however, the organic muscles
assert their instinctive control, and respiration is resumed.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.
Unstriated muscular fiber; at _b_, in its natural
state; at _a_, showing the nuclei after the action of
acetic acid. ]

[Illustration: Fig. 23.
A view of the under side of the diaphragm.]

THE DIAPHRAGM, or midriff, is the muscular division between the thorax
and the abdomen. It has been compared to an inverted basin, the
concavity of which is directed toward the abdomen. The muscles receive
their nourishment from the numerous blood-vessels which penetrate their
tissues. The voluntary muscles are abundantly supplied with nerves,
while the involuntary are not so numerously furnished. The color of the
muscles is chiefly due to the blood which they contain. They vary in
size according to their respective functions. For example, the functions
of the heart require large and powerful muscles, and those of the eye,
small and delicate ones. There are between four hundred and sixty and
five hundred muscles in the human body.

[Illustration: Fig. 24.
A representation of the superficial layer of muscles on the anterior
portion of the body.]

[Illustration: Fig. 25.
A representation of the superficial layer of muscles on the posterior
portion of the body.]

Very rarely is motion produced by the action of a single muscle, but by
the harmonious action of several. There is infinite variety in the
arrangement of the muscles, each being adapted to its purpose, in
strength, tenacity, or elasticity. While some involuntarily respond to
the wants of organic life, others obey, with mechanical precision, the
edicts of the will. The peculiar characteristic of the muscles is their
contractility; for example, when the tip of the finger is placed in the
ear, an incessant vibration, due to the contraction of the muscles of
the ear, can be heard. When the muscles contract, they become shorter;
but what is lost in length is gained in breadth and thickness, so that
their actual volume remains the same. Muscles alternately contract and
relax, and thus act upon the bones. The economy of muscular power thus
displayed is truly remarkable. In easy and graceful walking, the forward
motion of the limbs is not altogether due to the exercise of muscular
power, but partly to the force of gravity, and only a slight assistance
of the muscles is required to elevate the leg sufficiently to allow it
to oscillate.

Motion is a characteristic of living bodies. This is true, not only in
animals, but also in plants. The oyster, although not possessing the
power of locomotion, opens and closes its shell at pleasure. The coral
insect appears at the door of its cell, and retreats at will. All the
varied motions of animals are due to a peculiar property of the muscles,
termed _contractility_. Although plants are influenced by external
agents, as light, heat, electricity, etc., yet it is supposed that they
may move in response to inward impulses. The sensitive stamens of the
barberry, when touched at their base on the inner side, resent the
intrusion, by making a sudden jerk forward. Venus's fly-trap, a plant
found in North Carolina, is remarkable for the sensitiveness of its
leaves; which close suddenly and capture insects which chance to alight
upon them. The muscles of the articulates are situated within the solid
framework, unlike the vertebrates, whose muscles are external to the
bony skeleton. All animals have the power of motion, from the lowest
radiate to the highest vertebrate, from the most repulsive polyp to that
type of organized life made in the very image of God.

The muscles, then, subserve an endless variety of purposes. By their aid
the farmer employs his implements of husbandry, the mechanic deftly
wields his tools, the artist plies his brush, while the fervid orator
gives utterance to thoughts glowing with heavenly emotions. It is by
their agency that the sublimest spiritual conceptions can be brought to
the sphere of the senses, and the noblest, loftiest aims of to-day can
be made glorious realizations of the future.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER IV.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.


_Digestion_ signifies the act of separating or distributing, hence its
application to the process by which food is made available for nutritive
purposes. The organs of digestion are the Mouth, Teeth, Tongue, Salivary
Glands, Pharynx, Esophagus, the Stomach and the Intestines, with their
glands, the Liver, Pancreas, Lacteals, and the Thoracic Duct.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.
A view of the lower jaw. _1_. The body.
_2, 2_. Rami, or branches. _3, 3_. Processes of
the lower jaw. _m_. Molar teeth. _b_. Bicuspids,
_c_. Cuspids. _i_. Incisors.]

The _Mouth_ is an irregular cavity, situated between the upper and the
lower jaw, and contains the organs of mastication. It is bounded by the
lips in front, by the cheeks at the sides, by the roof of the mouth and
teeth of the upper jaw above, and behind and beneath by the teeth of the
lower jaw, soft parts, and palate. The soft palate is a sort of pendulum
attached only at one of its extremities, while the other involuntarily
opens and closes the passage from the mouth to the pharynx. The interior
of the mouth, as well as other portions of the alimentary canal, is
lined with a delicate tissue, called _mucous membrane_.

The _Teeth_ are firmly inserted in the alveoli or sockets, of the upper
and the lower jaw. The first set, twenty in number, are temporary, and
appear during infancy. They are replaced by permanent teeth, of which
there are sixteen in each jaw; four incisors, or front teeth, four
cuspids, or eye teeth, four bicuspids, or grinders, and four molars, or
large grinders. Each tooth is divided into the crown, body, and root.
The _crown_ is the grinding surface; the _body_, the part projecting
from the jaw, is the seat of sensation and nutrition; the _root_ is that
portion of the tooth which is inserted in the alveolus. The teeth are
composed of dentine, or ivory, and enamel. The ivory forms the greater
portion of the body and root, while the enamel covers the exposed
surface. The small white cords communicating with the teeth are the
nerves.

The _Tongue_ is a flat oval organ, the base of which is attached to the
os hyoides, while the apex, the most sensitive part of the body, is
free. Its surface is covered with a membrane, which, at the sides and
lower part, is continuous with the lining of the mouth. On the lower
surface of the tongue, this membrane is thin and smooth, but on the
upper side it is covered with numerous papillae, which, in structure,
are similar to the sensitive papillae of the skin.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.
The salivary glands. The largest one, near the ear, is the
parotid gland. The next below it is the submaxillary gland.
The one under the tongue is the sublingual gland.]

The _Salivary Glands_ are six in number, three on each side of the
mouth. Their function is to secrete a fluid called _saliva_, which aids
in mastication. The largest of these glands, the _Parotid_, is situated
in front and below the ear; its structure, like that of all the salivary
glands, is cellular. The _Submaxillary_ gland is circular in form, and
situated midway between the angle of the lower jaw and the middle of the
chin. The _Sublingual_ is a long flattened gland, and, as its name
indicates, is located below the tongue, which when elevated, discloses
the saliva issuing from its porous openings.

The _Pharynx_ is nearly four inches in length, formed of muscular and
membranous cells, and situated between the base of the cranium and the
esophagus, in front of the spinal column. It is narrow at the upper
part, distended in the middle, contracting again at its junction with
the esophagus. The pharynx communicates with the nose, mouth, larynx,
and esophagus.

The _Esophagus_, a cylindrical organ, is a continuation of the pharynx,
and extends through the diaphragm to the stomach. It has three coats:
first, the muscular, consisting of an exterior layer of fibers running
longitudinally, and an interior layer of transverse fibers; second, the
cellular, which is interposed between the muscular and the mucous coat;
third, the mucous membrane, or internal coat, which is continuous with
the mucous lining of the pharynx.

[Illustration: Fig. 28.
A representation of the interior of the stomach.
_1_. The esophagus. _2_. Cardiac orifice opening into
the stomach. _6_. The middle or muscular coat.
_7_. The interior or mucous coat. _10_. The beginning
of the duodenum. _11_. The pyloric orifice.]

The _Stomach_ is a musculo-membranous, conoidal sac, communicating with
the esophagus by means of the cardiac orifice (see Fig. 28). It is
situated obliquely with reference to the body, its base lying at the
left side, while the apex is directed toward the right side. The stomach
is between the liver and spleen, subjacent to the diaphragm, and
communicates with the intestinal canal by the pyloric orifice. It has
three coats. The peritoneal, or external coat is composed of compact,
cellular tissue, woven into a thin, serous membrane, and assists in
keeping the stomach in place. The middle coat is formed of three layers
of muscular fibers: in the first, the fibres run longitudinally; in the
second, in a circular direction; and in the third, they are placed
obliquely to the others. The interior, or mucous coat, lines this organ.
The stomach has a soft, spongy appearance, and, when not distended, lies
in folds. During life, it is ordinarily of a pinkish color. It is
provided with numerous small glands, which secrete the gastric fluid
necessary for the digestion of food. The lining membrane, when divested
of mucus, has a wrinkled appearance. The arteries, veins, and
lymphatics, of the stomach are numerous.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.
Small and large intestines. _1, 1, 2, 2_.
Small intestine. _3_. Its termination in the
large intestine. _4_. Appendix vermiformis.
_5_. Caecum. _6_. Ascending colon.
_7_. Transverse colon. _8_. Descending colon.
_9_. Sigmoid flexure of colon. _10_. Rectum.]

The _Intestines_ are those convoluted portions of the alimentary canal
into which the food is received after being partially digested, and in
which the separation and absorption of the nutritive materials and the
removal of the residue take place. The coats of the intestines are
analogous to those of the stomach, and are, in fact, only extensions of
them. For convenience of description, the intestines may be divided into
the _small_ and the _large_. The small intestine is from twenty to
twenty-five feet in length, and consists of the Duodenum, Jejunum, and
Ileum. The _Duodenum_, so called because its length is equal to the
breadth of twelve fingers, is the first division of the small intestine.
If the mucous membrane of the duodenum be examined, it will be found
thrown into numerous folds, which are called _valvulæ conniventes_, the
chief function of which appears to be to retard the course of the
alimentary matter, and afford a larger surface for the accommodation of
the absorbent vessels. Numerous _villi_, minute thread-like projections,
will be found scattered over the surface of these folds, set side by
side, like the pile of velvet. Each _villus_ contains a net-work of
blood-vessels, and a lacteal tube, into which the ducts from the liver
and pancreas open, and pour their secretions to assist in the conversion
of the chyme into chyle. The _Jejunum_, so named because it is usually
found empty after death, is a continuation of the duodenum, and is that
portion of the alimentary canal in which the absorption of nutritive
matter is chiefly effected. The _Ileum_, which signifies something
rolled up, is the longest division of the small intestine. Although
somewhat thinner in texture than the jejunum, yet the difference is
scarcely perceptible. The large intestine is about five feet in length,
and is divided into the Caecum, Colon, and Rectum. The _Caecum_ is about
three inches in length. Between the large and the small intestine is a
valve, which prevents the return of excrementitious matter that has
passed into the large intestine. There is attached to the cæcum an
appendage about the size of a goose-quill, and three inches in length,
termed the _appendix vermiformis_. The _Colon_ is that part of the large
intestine which extends from the cæcum to the rectum, and which is
divided into three parts, distinguished as the ascending, the
transverse, and the descending.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.
Villi of the small intestine greatly
magnified.]

[Illustration: Fig. 31.
A section of the Ileum, turned inside out,
so as to show the appearance and arrangement
of the villi on an extended surface.]

The _Rectum_ is the terminus of the large intestine. The intestines are
abundantly supplied with blood-vessels. The arteries of the small
intestine are from fifteen to twenty in number. The large intestine is
furnished with three arteries, called the _colic arteries_. The
_ileo-colic artery_ sends branches to the lower part of the ileum, the
head of the colon, and the appendix vermiformis. The _right colic
artery_ forms arches, from which branches are distributed to the
ascending colon. The _colica media_ separates into two branches, one of
which is sent to the right portion of the transverse colon, the other to
the left. In its course, the _superior hemorrhoidal artery_ divides into
two branches, which enter the intestine from behind, and embrace it on
all sides, almost to the anus.

The _Thoracic Duct_ is the principal trunk of the absorbent system, and
the canal through which much of the chyle and lymph is conveyed to the
blood. It begins by a convergence and union of the lymphatics on the
lumbar vertebræ, in front of the spinal column, then passes upward
through the diaphragm to the lower part of the neck, thence curves
forward and downward, opening into the subclavian vein near its junction
with the left jugular vein, which leads to the heart.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.
_c, c_. Right and left subclavian veins. _b_.
Inferior vena cava. _a_. Intestines. _d_. Entrance
of the thoracic duct into the left
subclavian vein. _4_. Mesenteric glands,
through which the lacteals pass to the
thoracic duct.]

[Illustration: Fig. 33.
The inferior surface of the liver. 1. Right lobe.
2. Left lobe. 3. Gall-bladder.]

The _Liver_, which is the largest gland in the body, weighs about four
pounds in the adult, and is located chiefly on the right side,
immediately below the diaphragm. It is a single organ, of a dark red
color, its upper surface being convex, while the lower is concave. It
has two large lobes, the right being nearly four times as large as the
left. The liver has two coats, the _serous_, which is a complete
investment, with the exception of the diaphragmatic border, and the
depression for the gall-bladder, and which helps to suspend and retain
the organ in position; and the _fibrous_, which is the inner coat of the
liver, and forms sheaths for the blood-vessels and excretory ducts. The
liver is abundantly supplied with arteries, veins, nerves, and
lymphatics. Unlike the other glands of the human body, it receives two
kinds of blood; the arterial for its nourishment, and the venous, from
which it secretes the bile. In the lower surface of the liver is lodged
the gall-bladder, a membranous sac, or reservoir, for the bile. This
fluid is not absolutely necessary to the digestion of food, since this
process is effected by other secretions, nor does bile exert any special
action upon, starchy or oleaginous substances, when mixed with them at a
temperature of 100° F. Experiments also show that in some animals there
is a constant flow of bile, even when no food has been taken, and there
is consequently no digestion to be performed. Since the bile is formed
from the venous blood, and taken from the waste and disintegration of
animal tissue, it would appear that it is chiefly an excrementitious
fluid. It does not seem to have accomplished its function when
discharged from the liver and poured into the intestine, for there it
undergoes various alterations previous to re-absorption, produced by its
contact with the intestinal juices. Thus the bile, after being
transformed in the intestines, re-enters the blood under a new form, and
is carried to some other part of the system to perform its mission.

The _Spleen_ is oval, smooth, convex on its external, and irregularly
concave on its internal, surface. It is situated on the left side, in
contact with the diaphragm and stomach. It is of a dark red color,
slightly tinged with blue at its edges. Some physiologists affirm that
no organ receives a greater quantity of blood, according to its size,
than the spleen. The structure of the spleen and that of the mesenteric
glands are similar, although the former is provided with a scanty supply
of lymphatic vessels, and the chyle does not pass through it, as through
the mesenteric glands. The _Pancreas_ lies behind the stomach, and
extends transversely across the spinal column to the right of the
spleen. It is of a pale, pinkish color, and its secretion is analogous
to that of the salivary glands; hence it has been called the _Abdominal
Salivary Gland_.

[Illustration: Fig. 34.
Digestive organs. _3_. The tongue. _7_. Parotid
gland. _8_. Sublingual gland. _5_. Esophagus. _9_.
Stomach. _10_. Liver. _11_. Gall-bladder, _14_. Pancreas.
_13, 13_. The duodenum. The small and large intestines
are represented below the stomach.]

Digestion is effected in those cavities which we have described as parts
of the alimentary canal. The food is first received into the mouth,
where it is masticated by the teeth, and, after being mixed with mucus
and saliva, is reduced to a mere pulp; it is then collected by the
tongue, which, aided by the voluntary muscles of the throat, carries the
food backward into the pharynx, and, by the action of the involuntary
muscles of the pharynx and esophagus, is conveyed to the stomach. Here
the food is subjected to a peculiar, churning movement, by the alternate
relaxation and contraction of the fibers which compose the muscular wall
of the stomach. As soon as the food comes in contact with the stomach,
its pinkish color changes to a bright red; and from the numerous tubes
upon its inner surface is discharged a colorless fluid, called the
_gastric juice_, which mingles with the food and dissolves it. When the
food is reduced to a liquid condition, it accumulates in the pyloric
portion of the stomach. Some distinguished physiologists believe that
the food is kept in a gentle, unceasing, but peculiar motion, called
_peristaltic_, since the stomach contracts in successive circles. In the
stomach the food is arranged in a methodical manner. The undigested
portion is detained in the upper, or cardiac extremity, near the
entrance of the esophagus, by contraction of the circular fibers of the
muscular coat. Here it is gradually dissolved, and then carried into the
pyloric portion of the stomach. From this, then, it appears, that the
dissolved and undissolved portions of food occupy different parts of the
stomach. After the food has been dissolved by the gastric fluid, it is
converted into a homogeneous, semi-fluid mass, called _chyme_. This
substance passes from the stomach through the pyloric orifice into the
duodenum, in which, by mixing with the bile and pancreatic fluid, its
chemical properties are again modified, and it is then termed _chyle_,
which has been found to be composed of three distinct parts, a
reddish-brown sediment at the bottom, a whey-colored fluid in the
middle, and a creamy film at the top. Chyle is different from chyme in
two respects: First, the alkali of the digestive fluids, poured into the
duodenum, or upper part of the small intestine, neutralizes the acid of
the chyme; secondly, both the bile and the pancreatic fluid seem to
exert an influence over the fatty substances contained in the chyme,
which assists the subdivision of these fats into minute particles. While
the chyle is propelled along the small intestine by the peristaltic
action, the matter which it contains in solution is absorbed in the
usual manner into the vessels of the villi by the process called
_osmosis_. The fatty matters being subdivided into very minute
particles, but not dissolved, and consequently incapable of being thus
absorbed by osmosis, pass bodily through the epithelial lining of the
intestine into the commencement of the lacteal tubes in the villi. The
digested substances, as they are thrust along the small intestines,
gradually lose their albuminoid, fatty, and soluble starchy and
saccharine matters, and pass through the ileo-caecal valve into the
cæcum and large intestine. An acid reaction takes place here, and they
acquire the usual fæcal smell and color, which increases as they
approach the rectum. Some physiologists have supposed that a second
digestion takes place in the upper portion of the large intestine. The
lacteals, filled with chyle, pass into the mesenteric glands with which
they freely unite, and afterward enter the _receptaculum chyli_, which
is the commencement of the thoracic duct, a tube of the size of a
goose-quill, which lies in front of the backbone. The lymphatics, the
function of which is to secrete and elaborate lymph, also terminate in
the _receptaculum chyli_, or receptacle for the chyle. From this
reservoir the chyle and lymph flow into the thoracic duct, through which
they are conveyed to the left subclavian vein, there to be mingled with
venous blood. The blood, chyle, and lymph, are then transmitted directly
to the lungs.

The process of nutrition aids in the development and growth of the body;
hence it has been aptly designated a "perpetual reproduction." It is the
process by which every part of the body assimilates portions of the
blood distributed to it. In return, the tissues yield a portion of the
material which was once a component part of their organization. The body
is constantly undergoing waste as well as repair. One of the most
interesting facts in regard to the process of nutrition in animals and
plants is, that all tissues originate in cells. In the higher types of
animals, the blood is the source from which the cells derive their
constituents. Although the alimentary canal is more or less complicated
in different classes of animals, yet there is no species, however low in
the scale of organization, which does not possess it in some form.[2]
The little polyp has only one digestive cavity, which is a pouch in the
interior of the body. In some animals circulation is not distinct from
digestion, in others respiration and digestion are performed by the same
organs; but as we rise in the scale of animal life, digestion and
circulation are accomplished in separate cavities, and the functions of
nutrition become more complex and distinct.


       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER V.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

ABSORPTION.


[Illustration: Fig. 35.
Villi of the small intestine greatly magnified.]

_Absorption_ is the vital function by which nutritive materials are
selected and imbibed for the sustenance of the body. Absorption, like
all other functional processes, employs agents to effect its purposes,
and the _villi_ of the small intestine, with their numberless projecting
organs, are specially employed to imbibe fluid substances; this they do
with a celerity commensurate to the importance and extent of their
duties. They are little vascular prominences of the mucous membrane,
arising from the interior surface of the small intestine. Each villus
has two sets of vessels. (1.) The blood-vessels, which, by their
frequent blending, form a complete net-work beneath the external
epithelium; they unite at the base of the villus, forming a minute vein,
which is one of the sources of the portal vein. (2.) In the center of
the villus is another vessel, with thinner and more transparent walls,
which is the commencement of a lacteal.

The _Lacteals_ originate in the walls of the alimentary canal, are very
numerous in the small intestine, and, passing between the laminae of the
mesentery, they terminate in the _receptaculum chyli_, or reservoir for
the chyle. The mesentery consists of a double layer of cellular and
adipose tissue. It incloses the blood-vessels, lacteals, and nerves of
the small intestine, together with its accessory glands. It is joined to
the posterior abdominal wall by a narrow _root_; anteriorly, it is
attached to the whole length of the small intestine. The lacteals are
known as the absorbents of the intestinal walls, and after digestion is
accomplished, are found to contain a white, milky fluid, called _chyle_.
The chyle does not represent the entire product of digestion, but only
the fatty substances suspended in a serous fluid.

Formerly, it was supposed that the lacteals were the only agents
employed in absorption, but more recent investigations have shown that
the blood-vessels participate equally in the process, and are frequently
the more active and important of the two. Experiments upon living
animals have proved that absorption of poisonous substances occurs, even
when all communication by way of the lacteals and lymphatics is
obstructed, the passage by the blood-vessels alone remaining. The
absorbent power which the blood-vessels of the alimentary canal possess,
is not limited to alimentary substances, but through them, soluble
matters of almost every description are received into the circulation.

The _Lymphatics_ are not less important organs in the process of
absorption. Nearly every part of the body is permeated by a second
series of capillaries, closely interlaced with the blood-vessels,
collectively termed the _Lymphatic System_. Their origin is not known,
but they appear to form a _plexus_ in the tissues, from which their
converging trunks arise. They are composed of minute tubes of delicate
membrane, and from their net-work arrangement they successively unite
and finally terminate in two main trunks, called the _great lymphatic
veins_. The lymphatics, instead of commencing on the intestinal walls,
as do the lacteals, are distributed through most of the vascular tissues
as well as the skin. The lymphatic circulation is not unlike that of the
blood; its circulatory apparatus is, however, more delicate, and its
functions are not so well understood.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.
A general view of the Lymphatic System.]

The _lymph_ which circulates through the lymphatic vessels is an
alkaline fluid composed of a plasma and corpuscles. It may be considered
as blood deprived of its red corpuscles and, diluted with water. Nothing
very definite is known respecting the functions of this fluid. A large
proportion of its constituents is derived from the blood, and the exact
connection of these substances to nutrition is not properly understood.
Some excrementitious matters are supposed to be taken from the tissues
by the lymph and discharged into the blood, to be ultimately removed
from the system. The lymph accordingly exerts an important function by
removing a portion of the decayed tissues from the body.

[Illustration: Fig. 37.
1. A representation of a lymphatic
vessel highly magnified. 2. Lymphatic
valves. 3. A lymphatic gland and its vessels.]

In all animals which possess a lacteal system there is also a lymphatic
system, the one being the complement of the other. The fact that lymph
and chyle are both conveyed into the general current of circulation,
leads to the inference that the lymph, as well as the chyle, aids in the
process of nutrition. The body is continually undergoing change, and
vital action implies waste of tissues, as well as their growth. Those
organs which are the instruments of motion, as the muscles, cannot be
employed without wear and waste of their component parts. Renovated
tissues must replace those which are worn out, and it is a part of the
function of the absorbents to convey nutritive material into the general
circulation. Researches in microscopical anatomy have shown that the
skin contains multitudes of lymphatic vessels and that it is a powerful
absorbent.

Absorption is one of the earliest and most essential functions of animal
and vegetables tissues. The simpler plants consist of only a few cells,
all of which are employed in absorption; but in the flowering plants
this function is performed by the roots. It is accomplished on the same
general principles in animals, yet it presents more modifications and a
greater number of organs than in vegetables. While animals receive their
food into a sac, or bag called the _stomach_, and are provided with
absorbent vessels such as nowhere exist in vegetables, plants plunge
their absorbent organs into the earth, whence they derive nourishing
substances. In the lower order of animals, as in sponges, this function
is performed by contiguous cells, in a manner almost as elementary as in
plants. In none of the invertebrate animals is there any _special_
absorbent system. Internal absorption is classified by some authors as
follows: _interstitial_, _recrementitial_, and _excrementitial_; by
others as _accidental_, _venous_, and _cutaneous_. The general cutaneous
and mucous surfaces exhale, as well as absorb; thus the skin, by means
of its sudoriferous glands, exhales moisture, and is at the same time as
before stated, a powerful absorbent. The mucous surface of the lungs is
continually throwing off carbonic acid and absorbing oxygen; and through
their surface poisons are sometimes taken into the blood. The continual
wear and waste to which living tissues are subject, makes necessary the
provision of such a system of vessels for conveying away the worn-out
materials and supplying the body with new.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER VI.

PHYSICAL AND VITAL PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD.


[Illustration: Fig. 38.
Red corpuscles of human blood, represented
at _a_, as they are seen when
rather _beyond_ the focus of the microscope;
and at _b_ as they appear when,
_within_ the focus. Magnified 400 diameters.]

[Illustration: Fig. 39.
Development of human lymph and chyle-corpuscles
into red corpuscles of blood. _A_. A lymph, or white
blood-corpuscle. _B_. The same in process of conversion
into a red corpuscle. _C_. A lymph-corpuscle with the
cell-wall raised up around it by the action of water. _D_.
A lymph-corpuscle, from which the granules have
almost disappeared. _E_. A lymph-corpuscle, acquiring
color; a single granule, like a nucleus, remains. _F_. A
red corpuscle fully developed.]

_Blood_ is the animal fluid by which the tissues of the body are
nourished. This pre-eminently vital fluid permeates every organ,
distributes nutritive material to every texture, is essentially modified
by respiration, and, finally, is the source of every secretion and
excretion. Blood has four constituents: Fibrin, Albumen, Salts (which
elements, in solution, form the _liquor sanguinis_), and the Corpuscles.
Microscopical examination shows that the corpuscles are of two kinds,
known as the _red_ and the _white_, the former being by far the more
abundant. They are circular in form and have a smooth exterior, and are
on an average 1/3200 part of an inch in diameter, and are about
one-fourth of that in thickness. Hence more than ten millions of them
may lie on a space an inch square. If spread out in thin layers and
subjected to transmitted light, they present a slightly yellowish color,
but when crowded together and viewed by refracted light, exhibit a deep
red color. These blood-corpuscles have been termed _discs_, and are not,
as some have supposed, solid material, but are very nearly fluid. The
red corpuscles although subjected to continual movement, have a tendency
to approach one another, and when their flattened surfaces come in
contact, so firmly do they adhere that they change their shape rather
than submit to a separation. If separated, however, they return to their
usual form. The colorless corpuscles are larger than the red and differ
from them in being extremely irregular in their shape, and in their
tendency to adhere to a smooth surface, while the red corpuscles float
about and tumble over one another. They are chiefly remarkable for their
continual variation in form. The shape of the red corpuscles is only
altered by external influences, but the white are constantly undergoing
alterations, the result of changes taking place within their own
substance. When diluted with water and placed under the microscope they
are found to consist of a spheroidal sac, containing a clear or granular
fluid and a spheroidal vesicle, which is termed the _nucleus_. They have
been regarded by some physiologists as identical with those of the lymph
and chyle. Dr. Carpenter believes that the function of these cells is to
convert albumen into fibrin, by the simple process of cell-growth. It is
generally believed that the red corpuscles are derived in some way from
the colorless. It is supposed that the red corpuscle is merely the
nucleus of a colorless corpuscle enlarged, flattened, colored and
liberated by the bursting of the wall of its cell. When blood is taken
from an artery and allowed to remain at rest, it separates into two
parts: a solid mass, called the clot, largely composed of fibrin; and a
fluid known as the _serum_, in which the clot is suspended. This process
is termed _coagulation_. The serum, mostly composed of _albumen_, is a
transparent, straw-colored fluid, having the odor and taste of blood.
The whole quantity of blood in the body is estimated on an average to be
about one-ninth of its entire weight. The distinctions between the
arterial and the venous blood are marked, since in the arterial system
the blood is uniformly bright red, and in the venous of a very dark red
color The blood-corpuscles contain both oxygen and carbonic acid in
solution. When carbonic acid predominates, the blood is dark red; when
oxygen, scarlet. In the lungs, the corpuscles give up carbonic acid, and
absorb a fresh supply of oxygen, while in the general circulation the
oxygen disappears in the process of tissue transformation, and is
replaced, in the venous blood, by carbonic acid. The nutritive portions
of food are converted into a homogeneous fluid, which pervades every
part of the body, is the basis of every tissue, and which is termed the
_blood_. This varies in color and composition in different animals. In
the polyp the nutritive fluid is known as _chyme_, in many mollusks, as
well as articulates, it is called _chyle_, but in vertebrates, it is
more highly organized and is called blood. In all the higher animal
types it is of a red color, although redness is not one of its essential
qualities. Some tribes of animals possess true blood, which is not red;
thus the blood of the insect is colorless and transparent; that of the
reptile yellowish; in the fish the principle part is without color, but
the blood of the bird is deep red. The blood of the mammalia is of a
bright scarlet hue. The temperature of the blood varies in different
species, as well as in animals of the same species under different
physiological conditions; for this reason, some animals are called
_cold-blooded._ Disease also modifies the temperature of the blood; thus
in fevers it is generally increased, but in cholera greatly diminished.
THE blood has been aptly termed the "vital fluid," since there is a
constant flow from the heart to the tissues and organs of the body, and
a continual return after it has circulated through these parts. Its
presence in every part of the body is one of the essential conditions of
animal life, and is effected by a special set of organs, called the
_circulatory organs_.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER VII.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

CIRCULATORY ORGANS.


Having considered the formation of chyle, traced it through the
digestive process, seen its transmission into the _vena cava_, and,
finally, its conversion into blood, we shall now describe how it is
distributed to every part of the system. This is accomplished   through
organs which, from the round of duties they perform, are called
_circulatory_. These are the Heart, Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries,
which constitute the _vascular system_.

Within the thorax or chest of the human body, and enclosed within a
membranous sac, called the _pericardium_, is the great force-pump of the
system, the heart. This organ, to which all the arteries and veins of
the body may be either directly or indirectly traced, is roughly
estimated to be equal in size to the closed fist of the individual to
whom it belongs.

It has a broad end turned upwards, and a little to the right side,
termed its _base_; and a pointed end called its _apex_, turned
downwards, forwards, and to the left side, and lying beneath a point
about an inch to the right of, and below, the left nipple, or just below
the fifth rib. Attached to the rest of the body only by the great
blood-vessels which issue from and enter it at its base, the heart is
the most mobile organ in the economy, being free to move in different
directions.

The heart is divided into two great cavities by a fixed partition, which
extends from the base to the apex of the organ, and which prevents any
direct communication between them. Each of these great cavities is
further subdivided transversely by a movable partition, the cavity above
each transverse partition being called the _auricle_, and the cavity
below, the _ventricle_, right or left, as the case may be.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.
General view of the heart and lungs, _t_. Trachea, or
windpipe, _a_. Aorta, _p_. Pulmonary artery, 1, 2.
Branches of the pulmonary artery, one going to the
right, the other to the left lung. _h._ The heart.]

The walls of the auricles are much thinner than those of the ventricles,
and the wall of the right ventricle is much thinner than that of the
left, from the fact that the ventricles have more work to perform than
the auricles, and the left ventricle more than the right.

In structure, the heart is composed almost entirely of muscular fibers,
which are arranged in a very complex and wonderful manner. The outer
surface of the heart is covered with the pericardium, which closely
adheres to the muscular substance. Inside, the cavities are lined with a
thin membrane, called the _endocardium_. At the junction between the
auricles and ventricles, the apertures of communication between their
cavities are strengthened by _fibrous rings_. Attached to these fibrous
rings are the movable partitions or valves, between the auricles and the
ventricles, the one on the right side of the heart being called the
_tricuspid valve_, and the one on the left side the _mitral valve._ A
number of fine, but strong, tendinous chords, called _chordæ
tendineæ_, connect the edges and apices of these valves with
column-like elevations of the fleshy substance of the walls of the
ventricles, called _columnæ carneæ_.

[Illustration: Fig. 41.
1. The descending vena cava. 2.
The ascending vena cava. 3. The
right auricle. 4. The opening between
the right auricle and the right
ventricle. 5. The right ventricle. 6.
The tricuspid valves. 7. The pulmonary
artery. 8, 8. The branches
of the pulmonary artery which pass
to the right and the left lung. 9. The
semilunar valves of the pulmonary
artery. 10. The septum between the
two ventricles of the heart. 11, 11.
The pulmonary veins. 12. The left
auricle. 13. The opening between
the left auricle and ventricle. 14.
The left ventricle. 15. The mitral
valves. 16, 16. The aorta. 17. The
semilunar valves of the aorta.]

The valves are so arranged that they present no obstacle to the free
flow of blood from the auricles into the ventricles, but if any is
forced the other way, it gets between the valve and the wall of the
heart, and drives the valve backwards and upwards, thus forming a
transverse partition between the auricle and ventricle, through which no
fluid can pass.

At the base of the heart are given off two large arteries, one on the
right side, which conveys the blood to the lungs, called the _pulmonary
artery_, and one on the left side, which conveys the blood to the system
in general, called the _aorta_. At the junction of each of these great
vessels with its corresponding ventricle, is another valvular apparatus,
consisting of three pouch-like valves, called the _semilunar valves_,
from their resemblance, in shape, to a half-moon. Being placed on a
level and meeting in the middle line, they entirely prevent the passage
of any fluid which may be forced along the artery towards the heart,
but, flapping back, they offer no obstruction to the free flow of blood
from the ventricles into the arteries.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.
A representation of the venous and arterial
circulation of the blood.]

The _Arteries_, being always found empty after death, were supposed by
the ancients, who were ignorant of the circulation of the blood, to be
tubes containing air; hence their name, which is derived from a Greek
word and signifies an _air-tube._ Arteries are the cylindrical tubes
which carry blood to every part of the system. All the arteries, except
the coronary which supply the substance of the heart, arise from the two
main trunks, the pulmonary artery and the aorta. They are of a
yellowish-white color, and their inner surface is smooth. The arteries
have three coats. (1.) The external coat, which is destitute of fat, and
composed chiefly of cellular tissue, is very firm and elastic, and can
readily be dissected from the middle coat. (2.) The middle, or fibrous
coat, is thicker than the external, and composed of yellowish fibers,
its chief property is contractility. (3.) The internal coat consists of
a colorless, thin, transparent membrane, yet so strong that it can, it
is thought, better resist a powerful pressure than either of the others.
Arteries are very elastic as well as extensible, and their chief
extensibility is in length. If an artery of a dead body be divided,
although empty, its cylindrical form will be preserved.

The _Veins_ are the vessels through which the venous blood returns to
the auricles of the heart. They are more numerous than the arteries, and
originate from numerous capillary tubes, while the arteries are given
off from main trunks. In some parts of the body, the veins correspond in
number to the arteries; while in others, there are two veins to every
artery. The veins commence by minute roots in the capillaries, which are
everywhere distributed through the body, and gradually increase in size,
until they unite and become large trunks, conveying the dark blood to
the heart. The veins, like the arteries, have three coats. The external,
or cellular coat, resembles that of the arteries; the middle is fibrous,
but thinner than the corresponding one of the arteries; and the internal
coat is serous, and analogous to that of those vessels. The veins belong
to the three following classes: (1.) The systemic veins, which bring the
blood from different parts of the body and discharge it into the vena
cava, by means of which it is conveyed to the heart; (2), the pulmonary
veins, which bring the arterial, or bright red blood from the lungs and
carry it to the left auricle; (3), the veins of the portal system, which
originate in the capillaries of the abdominal organs, then converge into
trunks and enter the liver, to branch off again into divisions and
subdivisions of the minutest character.

The _Capillaries_ form an extremely fine net-work, and are distributed
to every part of the body. They vary in diameter from 1/3500 to 1/2000
of an inch. They are so universally prevalent throughout the skin, that
the puncture of a needle would wound a large number of them. These
vessels receive the blood and bring it into intimate contact with the
tissues, which take from it the principal part of its oxygen and other
elements, and give up to it carbonic acid and the other waste products
resulting from the transformation of the tissues, which are transmitted
through the veins to the heart, and thence by the arteries to the lungs
and various excretory organs.

The blood from the system in general, except the lungs, is poured into
the right auricle by two large veins, called the superior and the
inferior _vena cava_,' and that returning from the lungs is poured into
the left auricle by the _pulmonary veins._

During life the heart contracts rhythmically, the contractions
commencing at the base, in each auricle, and extending towards the apex.

Now it follows, from the anatomical arrangement of this organ, that when
the auricles contract, the blood contained in them is forced through the
auriculo-ventricular openings into the ventricles; the contractions then
extending to the ventricles, in a wave-like manner, the great proportion
of the blood, being prevented from re-entering the auricles by the
tricuspid and mitral valves, is forced onward into the pulmonary artery
from the right ventricle, and into the aorta from the left ventricle.

When the contents of the ventricles are suddenly forced into these great
blood-vessels, a shock is given to the entire mass of fluid which they
contain, and this shock is speedily propagated along their branches,
being known at the wrist as the _pulse_.

On inspection, between the fifth and sixth ribs on the left side of the
chest, a movement is perceptible, and, if the hand be applied, the
impulse may be felt. This is known as the throbbing, or beating of the
heart.

If the ear is placed over the region of the heart, certain sounds are
heard, which recur with great regularity. First is heard a comparatively
long, dull sound, then a short, sharp sound, then a pause, and then the
long, dull sound again. The first sound is caused mainly by the
tricuspid and mitral valves, and the second is the result of sudden
closure of the semilunar valves.

No language can adequately describe the beauty of the circulatory
system. The constant vital flow through the larger vessels, and the
incessant activity of those so minute that they are almost
imperceptible, fully illustrate the perfectness of the mechanism of the
human body, and the wisdom and goodness of Him who is its author.

Experiments have shown that the small arteries may be directly
influenced through the nervous system, which regulates their caliber by
controlling the state of contraction of their muscular walls. The effect
of this influence of the nervous system enables it to control the
circulation over certain areas; and, notwithstanding the force of the
heart and the state of the blood-vessels in general, to materially
modify the circulation in different spots. Blushing, which is simply a
local modification of the circulation, is effected in this way. Some
emotion takes possession of the mind, and the action of the nerves,
which ordinarily keep up a moderate contraction of the muscular coats of
the arteries, is lost, and the vessels relax and become distended with
arterial blood, which is a warm and bright red fluid; thereupon a
burning sensation is felt, and the skin grows red, the degree of the
blush depending upon the intensity of the emotion.

The pallor produced by fright and by extreme anxiety, is purely the
result of a local modification of the circulation, brought about by an
over-stimulation of the nerves which supply the small arteries, causing
them to contract, and to thus cut off more or less completely the supply
of blood.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER VIII.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.


THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION are the Trachea, or windpipe, the Bronchia,
formed by the subdivision of the trachea, and the Lungs, with their
air-cells. The _Trachea_ is a vertical tube situated between the lungs
below, and a short quadrangular cavity above, called the _larynx_, which
is part of the windpipe, and used for the purpose of modulating the
voice in speaking or singing. In the adult, the trachea, in its
unextended state, is from four and one-half to five inches in length,
about one inch in diameter, and, like the larynx, is more fully
developed in the male than in the female. It is a fibro-cartilaginous
structure, and is composed of flattened rings, or segments of circles.
It permits the free passage of air to and from the lungs.

The _Bronchia_ are two tubes, or branches, one proceeding from the
windpipe to each lung. Upon entering the lungs, they divide and
subdivide until, finally, they terminate in small cells, called the
_bronchial or air-cells,_ which are of a membranous character.

[Illustration: Fig. 43.
An ideal representation of the respiratory organs. _3._ The
larynx. _4._ The trachea. _5, 6._ The bronchia. _9, 9, 9, 9._ Air-cells.
_1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2._ Outlines of the lungs.]

The _Lungs_ are irregular conical organs rounded at the apex, situated
within the chest, and filling the greater part of it, since the heart is
the only other organ which occupies much space in the thoracic cavity.
The lungs are convex externally, and conform to the cavity of the chest,
while the internal surface is concave for the accommodation of the
heart. The size of the lungs depends upon the capacity of the chest.
Their color varies, being of a pinkish hue in childhood but of a gray,
mottled appearance in the adult. They are termed the _right_ and _left_
lung. Each lung resembles a cone with its base resting upon the
diaphragm, and its apex behind the collar-bone. The right lung is larger
though shorter, than the left, not extending so low, and has three
_lobes_, formed by deep fissures, or longitudinal divisions, while the
left has but two lobes. Each lobe is also made up of numerous _lobules_,
or small lobes, connected by cellular tissue, and these contain great
numbers of cells. The lungs are abundantly supplied with blood-vessels,
lymphatics, and nerves. The density of a lung depends upon the amount of
air which it contains. Thus, experiment has shown that in a _foetus_
which has never breathed, the lungs are compact and will sink in water;
but as soon as they become inflated with air, they spread over a larger
surface, and are therefore more buoyant. Each lung is invested, as far
as its root, with a membrane, called the _pleura_, which is then
continuously extended to the cavity of the chest, thus performing the
double office of lining it, and constituting a partition between the
lungs. The part of the membrane which forms this partition is termed the
_mediastinum_. Inflammation of this membrane is called _pleurisy_. The
lungs are held in position by the root, which is formed by the pulmonary
arteries, veins, nerves, and the bronchial tubes. Respiration is the
function by which the venous blood, conveyed to the lungs by the
pulmonary artery, is converted into arterial blood. This is effected by
the elimination of carbonic acid, which is expired or exhaled from the
lungs, and by the absorption of oxygen from the air which is taken into
the lungs, by the act of inspiration or inhalation. The act of
expiration is performed chiefly by the elevation of the diaphragm and
the descent of the ribs, and inspiration is principally effected by the
descent of the diaphragm and the elevation of the ribs.

[Illustration: Fig. 44.
A representation of the heart and lungs. 4. The
heart. 5. The pulmonary artery. 8. Aorta. 9, 11.
Upper lobes of the lungs. 10, 13. Lower lobes. 12.
Middle lobe of the right lung. 2. Superior vena
cava. 3. Inferior vena cava.]

When the muscles of some portions of the air-passages are relaxed, a
peculiar vibration follows, known as snoring. Coughing and sneezing are
sudden and spasmodic expiratory efforts, and generally involuntary.
Sighing is a prolonged deep inspiration, followed by a rapid, and
generally audible expiration. It is remarkable that laughing and
sobbing, although indicating opposite states of the mind, are produced
in very nearly the same manner. In hiccough, the contraction is more
sudden and spasmodic than in laughing or sobbing. The quantity of oxygen
consumed during sleep is estimated to be considerably less than that
consumed during wakefulness.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.
View of the pulmonary circulation.]

It is difficult to estimate the amount of air taken into the lungs at
each inspiration, as the quantity varies according to the condition,
size, and expansibility of the chest, but in ordinary breathing it is
supposed to be from twenty to thirty cubic inches. The consumption of
oxygen is greater when the temperature is low, and during digestion. All
the respiratory movements, so far as they are independent of the will of
the individual, are controlled by that part of the brain called the
_medulla oblongata_. The respiratory, or breathing process, is not
instituted for the benefit of man alone, for we find it both in the
lower order of animals and in plant life. Nature is very economical in
the arrangement of her plans, since the carbonic acid, which is useless
to man, is indispensable to the existence of plants, and the oxygen,
rejected by them, is appropriated to his use. In the lower order of
animals, the respiratory act is similar to that of the higher types,
though not so complex; for there are no organs of respiration, as the
lungs and gills are called. Thus, the higher the animal type, the more
complex its organism. The effect of air upon the color of the blood is
very noticeable. If a quantity be drawn from the body, thus being
brought into contact with the air, its color gradually changes to a
brighter hue. There is a marked difference between the properties of the
venous and the arterial blood.

The venous blood is carried, as we have previously described, to the
right side of the heart and to the lungs, where it is converted into
arterial blood. It is now of uniform quality, ready to be distributed
throughout the body, and capable of sustaining life and nourishing the
tissues. Man breathes by means of lungs; but who can understand their
wonderful mechanism, so perfect in all its parts? Though every organ is
subservient to another, yet each has its own office to perform. The
minute air-cells are for the aeration of the blood; the larger bronchial
tubes ramify the lungs, and suffuse them with air; the trachea serves as
a passage for the air to and from the lungs, while at its upper
extremity is the larynx, which has been fitly called the organ of the
human voice. At its extremity we find a sort of shield, called the
_epiglottis_, the office of which is supposed to be to prevent the
intrusion of foreign bodies.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER IX.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY

THE SKIN.


Through digestion and respiration, the blood is continually supplied
with material for its renewal; and, while the nutritive constituents of
the food are retained to promote the growth of the body, those which are
useless or injurious are in various ways expelled. There are, perhaps,
few parts of the body more actively concerned in this removal than the
skin.

[Illustration: Fig. 46: An ideal
view of the papillae. 1, 1. Cutis vera.
2.2. Papillary layer. 3, 3. Arteries of the papillae.
4, 4. Nerves of the papillae. 5, 5. Veins of the papillae.]

The skin is a membranous envelope covering the entire body. It consists
of two layers, termed the Cutis Vera, or true skin, and the Epidermis,
or cuticle. The _Cutis Vera_ is composed of fibers similar to those of
the cellular tissue. It consists of white and yellow fibers, which are
more densely woven near the surface than deeper in the structure; the
white give strength, the yellow strength and elasticity combined. The
true skin may be divided into two layers, differing in their
characteristics, and termed respectively the superficial or papillary
layer, and the deep or fibrous layer. Upon the external surface, are
little conical prominences, known as _papillae_. The papillae are
irregularly distributed over the body, in some parts being smaller and
more numerous than in others, as on the finger-ends, where their summits
are so intimately connected as to form a tolerably smooth surface. It is
owing to their perfect development, that the finger-tips are adapted to
receive the most delicate impressions of touch. Although every part of
the skin is sensitive, yet the papillae are extremely so, for they are
the principal means through which the impressions of objects are
communicated. Each papilla not only contains a minute vein and artery,
but it also incloses a loop of sensitive nerves. When the body is
exposed to cold, these papillae can be more distinctly seen in the form
of prominences, commonly known as "goose-pimples."

[Illustration: Fig. 47.
A section of the skin, showing its arteries and
veins. A, A. Arterial branches. B, B. Capillaries
in which the branches terminate. C. The venous
trunk into which the blood from the capillaries
flows.]

The internal, or fibrous layer of the skin, contains numerous
depressions, each of which furnishes a receptacle for fat. While the
skin is supplied with a complete net-work of arteries, veins, and
nerves, which make it sensitive to the slightest touch, it also contains
numerous lymphatic vessels, so minute that they are invisible to the
naked eye.

Among the agents adapted for expelling the excretions from the system,
few surpass the _Sudoriferous Glands_. These are minute organs which
wind in and out over the whole extent of the true skin, and secrete the
perspiration. Though much of it passes off as insensible transpiration,
yet it often accumulates in drops of sweat, during long-continued
exercise or exposure to a high temperature. The office of the
perspiration is two-fold. It removes noxious matter from the system, and
diminishes animal heat, and thereby equalizes the temperature of the
body. It also renders the skin soft and pliable, thus better adapting it
to the movements of the muscles. The _Sebaceous Glands_, which are
placed in the true skin, are less abundant where the sudoriferous glands
are most numerous, and _vice versa_. Here, as elsewhere, nature acts
with systematic and intelligent design. The perspiratory glands are
distributed where they are most needed,--in the eyelids, serving as
lubricators; in the ear passages, to produce the _cerumen_, or wax,
which prevents the intrusion of small insects; and in the scalp, to
supply the hair with its natural pomatum.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.
A perspiratory gland, highly
magnified. 1, 1. The gland. 2, 2.
Excretory ducts uniting to form
a tube which tortuously perforates
the cuticle at 3, and opens
obliquely on its surface at 4.]

[Illustration: Fig. 49.
A representation of oil-tubes from the scalp
and nose.]

[Illustration: Fig. 50.
Anatomy of the skin. 5, 5. Cutis vera (true skin).
4, 4. Nervous tissue. 3, 3. Sensitive layer in which are
seen the nerves. 2, 2. The layer containing pigment
cells. 1, 1. Epidermis (cuticle).]

The _Epidermis_, or _Cuticle_, so called because it is _placed upon the
skin,_ is the outer layer of the skin. Since it is entirely destitute of
nerves and blood-vessels, it is not sensitive. Like the cutis vera, it
has two surfaces composed of layers. The internal, or _Rete Mucosum,_
which is made up chiefly of pigment cells, is adapted to the
irregularities of the cutis vera, and sends prolongations into all its
glandular follicles. The external surface, or epidermis proper, is
elastic, destitute of coloring matter, and consists of mere horny
scales. As soon as dry, they are removed in the form of scurf, and
replaced by new ones from the cutis vera. These scales may be removed by
a wet-sheet pack, or by friction. The cuticle is constantly undergoing
renewal. This layer serves to cover and protect the nervous tissue of
the true skin beneath. We may here observe that the cuticle contains the
pigment for coloring the skin. In dark races, as the negro, the cuticle
is very thick and filled with black pigment. The radiation of animal
heat is dependent upon the thickness and color of this cuticle. Thus, in
the dark races, the pigment cells are most numerous, and in proportion
as the skin is dark or fair do we find these cells in greater or lesser
abundance. The skin of the Albino is of pearly whiteness, devoid even of
the pink or brown tint which that of the European always possesses. This
peculiarity must be attributed to the absence of pigment cells which,
when present, always present a more or less dark color. The theory that
_climate_ alone is capable of producing all these diversities is simply
absurd. The Esquimaux, who live in Greenland and the arctic regions of
America, are remarkable for the darkness of their complexion. Humboldt
remarks that the American tribes of the tropical regions have no darker
skin than the mountaineers of the temperate zone. Climate may _modify_
the complexion, but it cannot _make_ it.

[Illustration: Fig. 51.
Structure of the human hair. _A_. External surface of the shaft, showing the
transverse striae and jagged boundary, caused by the imbrications of the scaly
cortex. _B_. Longitudinal section of the shaft, showing the fibrous character of
the medullary substance, and the arrangement of the pigmentary matter. _C_.
Transverse sections, showing the distinction between the cortical and medullary
substances, and the central collection of pigmentary matter, sometimes found in
the latter. Magnified 310 diameters.]

_Hairs_ are horny appendages of the skin, and, with the exception of the
hands, the soles of the feet, the backs of the fingers and toes, between
the last joint and the nail, and the upper eyelids, are distributed more
or less abundantly over every part of the surface of the body. Over the
greater part of the surface the hairs are very minute, and in some
places are not actually apparent above the level of the skin; but the
hair of the head, when permitted to reach its full growth, attains a
length of from twenty inches to a yard, and, in rare instances, even six
feet. A hair may be divided into a middle portion, or _shaft_, and two
extremities; a peripheral extremity, called the _point;_ and a central
extremity, inclosed within the hair sac, or follicle, termed the _root_.
The root is somewhat greater in diameter than the shaft, and cylindrical
in form, while its lower part expands into an oval mass, called the
_bulb_. The shaft of the hair is not often perfectly cylindrical, but is
more or less flattened, which circumstance gives rise to waving and
curling hair; and, when the flattening is spiral in direction, the
curling will be very great. A hair is composed of three different layers
of cell-tissues: a loose, cellulated substance, which occupies its
center, and constitutes the _medulla_, or pith; the fibrous tissue,
which incloses the medulla, and forms the chief bulk of the hair; and a
thin layer, which envelops this fibrous structure, and forms the smooth
surface of the hair. The medulla is absent in the downy hairs, but in
the coarser class it is always present, especially in white hair. The
color of hair is due partly to the granules and partly to an
inter-granular substance, which occupies the interstices of the granules
and the fibers. The quantity of hair varies according to the proximity
and condition of the follicles. The average number of hairs of the head
may be stated at 1,000 in a superficial square inch; and, as the surface
of the scalp has an area of about one hundred and twenty superficial
square inches, the average number of hairs on the entire head is
120,000. The hair possesses great durability, as is evinced by its
endurance of chemical processes, and by its discovery, in the tombs of
mummies more than two thousand years old. The hair is remarkable for its
elasticity and strength. Hair is found to differ materially from horn in
its chemical composition. According to Vauquelin, its constituents are
animal matter, a greenish-black oil, a white, concrete oil, phosphate of
lime, a trace of carbonate of lime, oxide of manganese, iron, sulphur,
and silex. Red hair contains a reddish oil, a large proportion of
sulphur, and a small quantity of iron. White hair contains a white oil,
and phosphate of magnesia. It has been supposed that hair grows after
death, but this theory was probably due to the lengthening of the hair
by the absorption of moisture from the body or atmosphere.

The _nails_ constitute another class of appendages of the skin. They
consist of thin plates of horny tissue, having a root, a body, and a
free extremity. The root, as well as the lateral portion, is implanted
in the skin, and has a thin margin which is received into a groove of
the true skin. The under surface is furrowed, while the upper is
comparatively smooth. The nails grow in the same manner as the cuticle.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER X.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

SECRETION.


The term _Secretion_, in its broadest sense, is applied to that process
by which substances are separated from the blood, either for the
reparation of the tissues or for excretion. In the animal kingdom this
process is less complicated than in vegetables. In the former it is
really a _separation_ of nutritive material from the blood. The process,
when effected for the removal of effete matter, is, in a measure,
chemical, and accordingly the change is greater.

Three elementary constituents are observed in secretory organs: the
cells, a basement membrane, and the blood-vessels. Obviously, the most
_essential_ part is the _cell_.

The physical condition necessary for the healthy action of the secretory
organs is a copious supply of blood, in which the nutritive materials
are abundant. The nervous system also influences the process of
secretion to a great extent. Intense emotion will produce tears, and the
sight of some favorite fruit will generally increase the flow of saliva.

The process of secretion depends upon the anatomical and chemical
constitution of the cell-tissues. The principal secretions are (1),
Perspiration; (2), Tears; (3), Sebaceous matter; (4), Mucus; (5),
Saliva; (6), Gastric juice; (7), Intestinal juice; (8), Pancreatic
juice; (9), Bile; (10), Milk.

PERSPIRATION is a watery fluid secreted in minute glands, which are
situated in every part of the skin, but are more numerous on the
anterior surfaces of the body. Long thread-like tubes, only 1/100th of
an inch in diameter, lined with epithelium, penetrate the skin, and
terminate in rounded coils, enveloped by a net-work of capillaries,
which supply the secretory glands with blood. It is estimated by Krause
that the entire number of perspiratory glands is two million three
hundred and eighty-one thousand two hundred and forty-eight, and the
length of each glandular coil being 1/16 of an inch, we may estimate the
length of tubing to be not less than two miles and a third. This
secretion has a specific gravity of 1003.5, and, according to Dr.
Dalton, is composed of

    Water,                                           995.50
    Chloride of Sodium,                                2.23
    Chloride of Potassium,                             0.24
    Sulphate of Soda and Potassa,                      0.01
    Salts of organic acids, with Soda and Potassa,     2.02
                                                    -------
                                                    1000.00

Traces of organic matter, mingled with a free volatile acid, are also
found in the perspiration. It is the acid which imparts to this
secretion its peculiar odor, and acid reaction. The process of its
secretion is continuous, but, like all bodily functions, it is subject
to influences which augment or retard its activity. If, as is usually
the case when the body is in a state of repose, evaporation prevents its
appearance in the _liquid_ form, it is called _invisible_ or _insensible
perspiration_. When there is unusual muscular activity, it collects upon
the skin, and is known as _sensible perspiration_. This secretion
performs an important office in the animal economy, by maintaining the
internal temperature at about 100° Fahr. Even in the Arctic regions,
where the explorer has to adapt himself to a temperature of 40° to 80°
below zero, the generation of heat in the body prevents the internal
temperature from falling below this standard. On the contrary, if the
circulation is quickened by muscular exertion, the warmer blood flowing
from the internal organs into the capillaries, raises the temperature of
the skin, secretion is augmented, the moisture exudes from the pores,
and perceptible evaporation begins. A large portion of the animal heat
is thrown off in this process, and the temperature of the skin is
reduced. A very warm, dry atmosphere can be borne with impunity but if
moisture is introduced, evaporation ceases, and the life of the animal
is endangered. Persons have been known to remain in a temperature of
about 300° Fahr. for some minutes without unpleasant effects. Three
conditions may be assigned as effective causes in retarding or
augmenting this cutaneous secretion, variations in the temperature of
the atmosphere, muscular activity, and influences which affect the
nerves. The emotions exert a remarkable influence upon the action of the
perspiratory glands. Intense fear causes great drops of perspiration to
accumulate on the skin, while the salivary glands remain inactive.

TEARS. The lachrymal glands are small lobular organs, situated at the
outer and upper orbit of the eye, and have from six to eight ducts,
which open upon the conjunctiva, between the eyelid and its inner fold.
This secretion is an alkaline, watery fluid. According to Dr. Dalton,
its composition is as follows:

    Water,                    882.0
    Albuminous matter,          5.0
    Chloride of Sodium,        13.0
    Mineral Salts, a trace,
                             ------
                             1000.0

The function of this secretion is to preserve the brilliancy of the eye.
The tears are spread over this organ by the reflex movement of the
eyelid, called winking, and then collected in the _puncta lachrymalia_
and discharged into the nasal passage. This process is constant during
life. The effect of its repression is seen in the dim appearance of the
eye after death. Grief or excessive laughter usually excite these glands
until there is an overflow.

SEBACEOUS MATTER. Three varieties of this secretion are found in the
body. A product of the sebaceous glands of the skin is found in those
parts of the body which are covered with hairs; also, on the face and
the external surface of the organs of generation. The _sebaceous glands_
consist of a group of flask-shaped cavities, opening into a common
excretory duct. Their secretion serves to lubricate the hair and soften
the skin. The _ceruminous glands_ of the _external auditory meatus_, or
outer opening of the ear, are long tubes terminating in a glandular
coil, within which is secreted the glutinous matter of the ear. This
secretion serves the double purpose of moistening the outer surface of
the membrana tympani, or ear-drum, and, by its strong odor, of
preventing the intrusion of insects. The _Meibomian glands_ are arranged
in the form of clusters along the excretory duct, which opens just
behind the roots of the eyelashes. The oily nature of this secretion
prevents the tears, when not stimulated by emotion, from overflowing the
lachrymal canal.

MUCUS. The mucous membranes are provided with minute glands which
secrete a viscid, gelatinous matter, called _mucus_. The peculiar animal
matter which it contains is termed _mucosin_. These glands are most
numerous in the Pharynx, Esophagus, Trachea, Bronchia, Vagina and
Urethra. They consist of a group of secreting sacs, terminating at one
extremity in a closed tube, while the other opens into a common duct.
The mucus varies in composition in different parts of the body; but in
all, it contains a small portion of insoluble animal matter. Its
functions are threefold. It lubricates the membranes, prevents their
injury, and facilitates the passage of food through the alimentary
canal.

SALIVA. This term is given to the first of the digestive fluids, which
is secreted in the glands of the mouth. It is a viscid, alkaline liquid,
with a specific gravity of about 1005. If allowed to stand, a whitish
precipitate is formed. Examinations with the microscope show it to be
composed of minute, granular cells and oil globules, mingled with
numerous scales of epithelium. According to Bidder and Schmidt, the
composition of saliva is as follows:

    Water,                                        995.16
    Organic matter,                                 1.34
    Sulpho-cyanide of Potassium,                    0.06
    Phosphates of Sodium, Calcium and Magnesium,     .98
    Chlorides of Sodium and Potassium,               .84
    Mixture of Epithelium,                          1.62
                                                 -------
                                                 1000.00

Two kinds of organic matter are present in the saliva; one, termed
_ptyalin_, imparts to the saliva its viscidity, and it obtained from the
secretions of the parotid, submaxillary and sublingual glands; another,
which is not glutinous, is distinguished by the property of coagulating
when subjected to heat. The saliva is composed of four elementary
secretions, derived respectively, from the mucous follicles of the
mouth, and the parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual glands. The
process of its secretion is constant, but is greatly augmented by the
contact of food with the lining membrane. The saliva serves to moisten
the triturated food, facilitate its passage, and has the property of
converting starch into sugar; but the latter quality is counteracted by
the action of the gastric juice of the stomach.

GASTRIC JUICE. The minute tubes, or follicles, situated in the mucous
membrane of the stomach, secrete a colorless, acid liquid, termed the
gastric juice. This fluid appears to consist of little more than water,
containing a few saline matters in solution, and a small quantity of
free hydrochloric acid, which gives it an acid reaction. In addition to
these, however, it contains a small quantity of a peculiar organic
substance, termed _pepsin_, which in chemical composition, is very
similar to ptyalin, although it is very different in its effects. When
food is introduced into the stomach, the peristaltic contractions of
that organ roll it about, and mingle it with the gastric juice, which
disintegrates the connective tissue, and converts the albuminous
portions into the substance called chyme, which is about the consistency
of pea-soup, and which is readily absorbed through the animal membranes
into the blood of the delicate and numerous vessels of the stomach,
whence it is conveyed to the portal vein and to the liver. The secretion
of the gastric juice is influenced by nervous conditions. Excess of joy
or grief effectually retard or even arrest its flow.

INTESTINAL JUICE. In the small intestine, a secretion is found which is
termed the _intestinal juice_. It is the product of two classes of
glands situated in the mucous membrane, and termed respectively, the
_follicles of Lieberkuhn_ and the _glands of Brunner_. The former
consist of numerous small tubes, lined with epithelium, which secrete by
far the greater portion of this fluid. The latter are clusters of round
follicles opening into a common excretory duct. These sacs are composed
of delicate, membranous tissue, having numerous nuclei on their walls.
The difficulty of obtaining this juice for experiment is obvious, and
therefore its chemical composition and physical properties are not
known. The intestinal juice resembles the secretion of the mucous
follicles of the mouth, being colorless, vitreous in appearance, and
having an alkaline reaction.

PANCREATIC JUICE. This is a colorless fluid, secreted in a lobular gland
which is situated behind the stomach, and runs transversely from the
spleen across the vertebral column to the duodenum. The most important
constituent of the pancreatic juice is an organic substance, termed
_pancreatin_.

THE BILE. The blood which is collected by the veins of the stomach,
pancreas, spleen, and intestines, is discharged into a large trunk
called the portal vein, which enters the liver. This organ also receives
arterial blood from a vessel called the _hepatic artery_, which is given
off from the aorta below the diaphragm. If the branches of the portal
vein and hepatic artery be traced into the substance of the liver, they
will be found to accompany one another, and to subdivide, becoming
smaller and smaller. Finally, the portal vein and hepatic artery will be
found to terminate in capillaries which permeate the smallest
perceptible subdivisions of the liver substance, which are polygonal
masses of not more than one-tenth of an inch in diameter, called the
_lobules_. Every lobule rests upon one of the ramifications of a great
vessel termed the _hepatic vein_, which empties into the inferior vena
cava. There is also a vessel termed the _hepatic duct_ leading from the
liver, the minute subdivisions of which penetrate every portion of the
substance of that organ. Connected with the hepatic duct, is the duct of
a large oval sac, called the _gall-bladder_.

Each lobule of the liver is composed of minute cellular bodies known as
the _hepatic cells_. It is supposed that in these cells the blood is
deprived of certain materials which are converted into bile. This
secretion is a glutinous fluid, varying in color from a dark golden
brown to a bright yellow, has a specific gravity ranging from 1018 to
1036, and a slightly alkaline reaction. When agitated, it has a frothy
appearance. Physiologists have experienced much difficulty in studying
the character of this secretion from the instability of its constituents
when subjected to chemical examination.

[Illustration: Fig. 52.
Section of the Liver, showing the
ramifications of the portal vein. 1. Twig
of portal vein. 2, 2', 2", 2"'. Interlobular
vein. 3, 3', 3", Lobules.]

_Biliverdin_ is an organic substance peculiar to the bile, which imparts
to that secretion its color. When this constituent is re-absorbed by the
blood and circulates through the tissues, the skin assumes a bright
yellow hue, causing what is known as the jaundice. _Cholesterin_ is an
inflammable crystallizable substance soluble in alcohol or ether. It is
found in the spleen and all the nervous tissues. It is highly probable
that it exists in the blood, in some state or combination, and assumes a
crystalline form only when acted upon by other substances or elements.
Two other constituents, more important than either of the above, are
collectively termed _biliary salts_. These elements were discovered in
1848, by Strecker, who termed them _glycocholate_ and _taurocholate of
soda_. Both are crystalline, resinous substances, and, although
resembling each other in many respects, the chemist may distinguish them
by their reaction, for both yield a precipitate if treated with
subacetate of lead, but only the glycocholate will give a precipitate
with acetate of lead. In testing for biliary substances, the most
satisfactory method is the one proposed by Pettenkoffer. A solution of
cane-sugar, one part of sugar to four parts of water, is mixed with the
suspected substance. Dilute sulphuric acid is then added until a white
precipitate falls, which is re-dissolved in an excess of the acid. On
the addition of more sulphuric acid, it becomes opalescent, and passes
through the successive hues of scarlet, lake, and a rich purple. Careful
experiments have proved that it is a _constant_ secretion; but its flow
is mere abundant during digestion. During the passage through the
intestines it disappears. It is not eliminated, and Pettenkoffer's test
has failed to detect its existence in the portal vein. These facts lead
physiologists to the conclusion, that it undergoes some transformation
in the intestines and is re-absorbed.

After digestion has been going on in the stomach for some time, the
semi-digested food, in the form of chyme, begins to pass through the
_pyloric orifice_ of the stomach into the duodenum, or upper portion of
the small intestine. Here it encounters the intestinal juice, pancreatic
juice, and the bile, the secretion of all of which is stimulated by the
presence of food in the alimentary tract. These fluids, mingling with
the chyme, give it an alkaline reaction, and convert it into chyle. The
transformation of starch into sugar, which is almost, if not entirely,
suspended while the food remains in the stomach, owing to the acidity of
the chyme, is resumed in the duodenum, the acid of the chyme, being
neutralized by the alkaline secretions there encountered.

Late researches have demonstrated that the pancreatic juice exerts a
powerful effect on albuminous matters, not unlike that of the gastric
juice.

Thus, it seems that while in the mouth only starchy, and while in the
stomach only albuminous substances are digested, in the small intestine
all kinds of food materials, starchy, albuminoid, fatty and mineral, are
either completely dissolved, or minutely subdivided, and so prepared
that they may be readily absorbed through the animal membranes into the
vessels.

MILK. The milk is a white, opaque fluid, secreted in the lacteal glands
of the female, in the mammalia. These glands consist of numerous
follicles, grouped around an excretory duct, which unites with similar
ducts coming from other lobules. By successive unions, they form large
branches, termed the _lactiferous ducts_, which open by ten to fourteen
minute orifices on the extremity of the nipple. The most important
constituent of milk is _casein_; it also contains oily and saccharine
substances. This secretion, more than any other, as influenced by
nervous conditions. A mother's bosom will fill with milk at the thought
of her infant child. Milk is sometimes poisoned by a fit of ill-temper,
and the infant made sick and occasionally thrown into convulsions, which
in some instances prove fatal. Sir Astley Cooper mentions two cases in
which terror instantaneously and permanently arrested this secretion. It
is also affected by the food and drink. Malt liquors and other mild
alcoholic beverages temporarily increase the amount of the secretion,
and may, in rare instances, have a beneficial effect upon the mother.
They sometimes affect the child, however, and their use is not to be
recommended unless the mother is extremely debilitated, and there is a
deficiency of milk.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XI.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

EXCRETION.


The products resulting from the waste of the tissues are constantly
being poured into the blood, and, as we have seen, the blood being
everywhere full of corpuscles, which, like all living things, die and
decay, the products of their decomposition accumulate in every part of
the circulatory system. Hence, if the blood is to be kept pure, the
waste materials incessantly poured into this fluid, or generated in it,
must be as continually removed, or excreted. The principal sets of
organs concerned in effecting the separation of excrementitious
substances from the blood are the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys.

The elimination of carbonic acid through the lungs has already been
described on page 66, and the excretory function of the skin on page 70.

[Illustration: Fig. 53.
View of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. ]

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, placed at the back of the
abdominal cavity, in the region of the loins, one on each side of the
spine. The convex side of each kidney is directed outwards, and the
concave side is turned inwards towards the spine. From the middle of the
concave side, which is termed the _hilus_, a long tube of small caliber,
called the _ureter_, proceeds to the bladder. The latter organ is an
oval bag, situated in the pelvic cavity. It is composed principally of
elastic muscular fibers, and is lined internally with mucous membrane,
and coated externally with a layer of the _peritoneum_, the serous
membrane which lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities. The ureters
enter the bladder through its posterior and lower wall, at some little
distance from each other. The openings through which the ureters enter
the bladder are oblique, hence it is much easier for the secretion of
the kidneys to pass from the ureters into the bladder than for it to get
the other way. Leading from the bladder to the exterior of the body is a
tube, called the _urethra_, through which the urine is voided.

The excretion of the kidneys, termed the _urine_, is an amber-colored or
straw-colored fluid, naturally having a slightly acid reaction, and a
specific gravity ranging from 1,015 to 1,025. Its principal constituents
are _urea_ and _uric acid_, together with various other animal matters
of less importance, and saline substances, held in solution in a
proportionately large amount of water. The composition of the urine and
the quantity excreted vary considerably, being influenced by the
moisture and temperature of the atmosphere, by the character of the food
consumed, and by the empty or replete condition of the alimentary tract.
On an average a healthy man secretes about fifty ounces of urine in the
twenty-four hours. This quantity usually holds in solution about one
ounce of urea, and ten or twelve grains of uric acid. In the amount of
other animal matters, and saline substances, there is great variation,
the quantity of these ranging from a quarter of an ounce to an ounce.
The principal saline substances are common salt, the sulphates and
phosphates of potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. In addition to
the animal and the saline matters, the urine also contains a small
quantity of carbonic acid, oxygen and nitrogen.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XII.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.


Hitherto, we have only considered the anatomy and functions of the
organs employed in Digestion, Absorption, Circulation, Respiration,
Secretion and Excretion. We have found the vital process of nutrition to
be, in all its essential features, a result of physical and chemical
forces; in each instance we have presupposed the existence and activity
of the nerves. There is not an inch of bodily tissue into which their
delicate filaments do not penetrate, and form a multitude of conductors,
over which are sent the impulses of motion and sensation.

[Illustration: Fig. 54.
The Nervous System.]

Two elements, _nerve-fibers_ and _ganglionic corpuscles_, enter into the
composition of nervous tissue. Ordinary nerve-fibers in the living
subject, or when fresh, are cylindrical-shaped filaments of a clear, but
somewhat oily appearance. But soon after death the matter contained in
the fiber coagulates, and then the fiber is seen to consist of an
extremely delicate, structureless, outer membrane, which forms a tube
through the center of which runs the _axis-cylinder_. Interposed between
the axis-cylinder and this tube, there is a fluid, containing a
considerable quantity of fatty matter, from which is deposited a highly
refracting substance which lines the tube. There are two sets of
nerve-fibers, those which transmit sensory impulses, called _afferent_
or _sensory_ nerves, and those which transmit motor impulses, called
_efferent_ or _motor_ nerves. The fibers when collected in bundles are
termed nerve trunks. All the larger nerve-fibers lie side by side in the
nerve-trunks, and are bound together by delicate connective tissue,
enclosed in a sheath of the same material, termed the _neurilemma_. The
nerve-fibers in the trunks of the nerves remain perfectly distinct and
disconnected from one another, and seldom, or never, divide throughout
their entire length. However, where the nerves enter the nerve-centers,
and near their outer terminations, the nerve-fibres often divide into
branches, or at least gradually diminish in size, until, finally, the
axis-cylinder, and the sheath with its fluid contents, are no longer
distinguishable. The investing membrane is continuous from the origin to
the termination of the nerve-trunk.

[Illustration: Fig. 55.
Division of a
nerve, showing a
portion of a nervous
trunk (_a_)
and separation of
its filaments (_b, c, d, e_.)]

In the brain and spinal cord the nerve-fibers often terminate in minute
masses of a gray or ash-colored granular substance, termed _ganglia_, or
_ganglionic corpuscles_.

The ganglia are cellular corpuscles of irregular form, and possess
fibrous appendages, which serve to connect them with one another. These
ganglia form the cortical covering of the brain, and are also found in
the interior of the spinal cord. According to Kölliker, the larger of
these nerve-cells measure only 1/200 of an inch in diameter. The brain
is chiefly composed of nervous ganglia.

Nerves are classified with reference to their origin, as
_cerebral_--those originating in the brain, and _spinal_--those
originating in the spinal cord.

There are two sets of nerves and nerve-centers, which are intimately
connected, but which can be more conveniently studied apart. These are
the _cerebro-spinal_ system, consisting of the cerebro-spinal axis, and
the cerebral and spinal nerves; and the _sympathetic_ system, consisting
of the chain of sympathetic ganglia, the nerves which they give off, and
the nervous trunks which connect them with one another and with the
cerebro-spinal nerves.


THE CEREBRO-SPINAL SYSTEM.


THE CEREBRO-SPINAL AXIS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It lies
in the cavities of the cranium and the spinal column. These cavities are
lined with a very tough fibrous membrane, termed the _dura mater_, which
serves as the periosteum of the bones which enter into the formation of
these parts. The surface of the brain and spinal cord is closely
invested with an extremely vascular, areolar tissue, called the _pia
mater_. The numerous blood-vessels which supply these organs traverse
the pia mater for some distance, and, where they pass into the substance
of the brain or spinal cord, the fibrous tissue of this membrane
accompanies them to a greater or less depth. The inner surface of the
dura mater and the outer surface of the pia mater are covered with an
extremely thin, serous membrane, which is termed the _arachnoid_
membrane. Thus, one layer of the arachnoid envelopes the brain and
spinal cord, and the other lines the dura mater. As the layers become
continuous with each other at different points, the arachnoid, like the
pericardium, forms a shut sac, and, like other serous membranes, it
secretes a fluid, known as the _arachnoid fluid_. The space between the
internal and the external layers of the arachnoid membrane of the brain
is much smaller than that enclosed by the corresponding layers of the
arachnoid membrane of the spinal column.

[Illustration: Fig. 56.
Cross-section of spinal cord.]

THE SPINAL CORD is a column of soft, grayish-white substance, extending
from the top of the spinal canal, where it is continuous with the brain,
to about an inch below the small of the back, where it tapers off into a
filament. From this nerve are distributed fibers and filaments to the
muscles and integument of at least nine-tenths of the body.

The spinal cord is divided in front through the middle nearly as far as
its center, by a deep fissure, called the _anterior fissure_, and
behind, in a similar manner, by the posterior _fissure_. Each of these
fissures is lined with the pia mater, which also supports the
blood-vessels which supply the spinal cord with blood. Consequently, the
substance of the two halves of the cord is only connected by a narrow
isthmus, or bridge, perforated by a minute tube, which is termed the
_central canal_ of the spinal cord.

Each half of the spinal cord is divided lengthwise into three nearly
equal parts, which are termed the anterior, lateral, and posterior
columns, by the lines which join together two parallel series of bundles
of nervous filaments, which compose the roots of the spinal nerves. The
roots of those nerves, which are found along that line nearest the
posterior surface of the cord, are termed the posterior roots; those
which spring from the other line are known as the anterior roots.

Several of these anterior and posterior roots, situated at about the
same height on opposite sides of the spinal cord, converge and combine
into what are called the _anterior_ and _posterior bundles_; then two
bundles, anterior and posterior, unite and form the trunk of a spinal
nerve.

The nerve trunks make their way out of the spinal canal through
apertures between the vertebra, called the _inter-vertebral foramina_
and then divide into numerous branches, their ramifications extending
principally to the muscles and the skin. There are thirty-one pairs of
spinal nerves, eight of which are termed cervical, twelve dorsal, five
lumbar, and six sacral, with reference to that part of the cord from
which they originate.

When the cord is divided into transverse sections, it is found that each
half is composed of two kinds of matter, a white substance on the
outside, and a grayish substance in the interior. The _gray matter_, as
it is termed, lies in the form of an irregular crescent, with one end
considerably larger than the other, and having the concave side turned
outwards. The ends of the crescent are termed the _horns_, or _cornua_,
the one pointing forward being called the _anterior cornu_, the other
one the _posterior cornu_. The convex sides of these cornua approach
each other and are united by the bridge, which contains the central
canal.

There is a marked difference in the structure of the gray and the white
matter. The white matter is composed entirely of nerve fibers, held
together by a framework of connective tissue. The gray matter contains a
great number of ganglionic corpuscles, or nerve-cells, in addition to
the nerve-fibers.

When the nerve-trunks are irritated in any manner, whether by pinching,
burning, or the application of electricity, all the muscles which are
supplied with branches from this nerve-trunk immediately contract, and
pain is experienced, the severity of which depends upon the degree of
the irritation; and the pain is attributed to that portion of the body
to which the filaments of the nerve-trunk are distributed. Thus, persons
who have lost limbs often complain in cold weather of an uneasiness or
pain, which they locate in the fingers or toes of the limb which has
been amputated, and which is caused by the cold producing an irritation
of the nerve-trunk, the filaments, or fibers of which, supplied the
fingers or toes of the lost member.

On the other hand, if the anterior bundle of nerve-fibers given off from
the spinal cord is irritated in precisely the same way, only half of
these effects is produced. All the muscles which are supplied with
fibers from that trunk contract, but no pain is experienced. Conversely,
if the posterior bundle of nerve-fibers is irritated, none of the
muscles to which the filaments of the nerve are distributed contract,
but pain is felt throughout the entire region to which these filaments
are extended. It is evident, from these facts, that the fibers composing
the posterior bundles of nerve-roots only transmit sensory impulses, and
the filaments composing the anterior nerve-roots only transmit motor
impulses; accordingly, they are termed respectively the _sensory_ and
the _motor_ nerve-roots. This is illustrated by the fact that when the
posterior root of a spinal nerve is divided, all sensation in the parts
to which the filaments of that nerve are distributed is lost, but the
power of voluntary movement of the muscles remains. On the other hand,
if the anterior roots are severed, the power of voluntary motion of the
muscles is lost, but sensation remains.

It appears from these experiments, that, when a nerve is irritated, a
change in the arrangement of its molecules takes place, which is
transmitted along the nerve-fibers. But, if the nerve-trunks are
divided, or compressed tightly at any point between the portion
irritated, and the muscle or nerve-centre, the effect ceases
immediately, in a manner similar to that in which a message is stopped
by the cutting of a telegraph wire. When the nerves distributed to a
limb are subjected to a pressure sufficient to destroy the molecular
continuity of their filaments, it "goes to sleep," as we term it. The
power of transmitting sensory and motor impulses is lost, and only
returns gradually, as the molecular continuity is restored.

From what has been said, it is plain that a sensory nerve is one which
conveys a sensory impulse from the peripheral or outer part of a nerve
to the spinal cord or brain, and which is, therefore, termed _afferent_;
and that a motor nerve is one which transmits an impulse from the nerve
centre, or is _efferent_. So difference in structure, or in chemical or
physical composition, can be discerned between the afferent and the
_efferent_ nerves. A certain period of time is required for the
transmission of all impulses. The speed with which an impulse travels
has been found to be comparatively slow, being even less than that of
sound, which is 1,120 feet per second.

The experiments heretofore related have been confined solely to the
nerves. We may now proceed to the consideration of what takes place when
the spinal cord is operated upon in a similar way. If the cord be
divided with a knife or other instrument, all parts of the body supplied
with nerves given off below the division will become paralyzed and
insensible, while all parts of the body supplied with nerves from the
spinal cord _above_ the division will retain their sensibility and power
of motion. If, however, only the posterior half of the spinal cord is
divided, or destroyed, there is loss of sensation alone; and, if the
anterior portion is cut in two, and the continuity of the posterior part
is left undisturbed, there is loss of voluntary motion of the lower
limbs, but sensation remains.

REFLEX ACTION OF THE SPINAL CORD. In relation to the brain, the spinal
cord is a great mixed motor and sensory nerve, but, in addition to this,
it is also a distinct nervous centre, in which originate and terminate
all those involuntary impulses which exert so potent an influence in the
preservation and economy of the body. That peculiar power of the cord by
which it is enabled to convert sensory into motor impulse is that which
distinguishes it, as a central organ, from a nerve, and is called
_reflex action_.

The gray matter, and not the white, is the part of the cord which
possesses this power. This reflex action is a special function of the
spinal cord, and serves as a monitor to, and regulator of the organs of
nutrition and circulation, by placing them, ordinarily, beyond the
control of conscious volition.

[Illustration: Fig. 57.]

If the foot of a decapitated frog is irritated, there is an instant
contraction of the corresponding limb; if the irritation is intense the
other limb also contracts. These motions indicate the existence, in some
part of the spinal cord, of a distinct nerve-centre, capable of
converting and reflecting impulses. It has been found by experiment,
that the same movements will take place if the irritation be applied to
any portion of the body to which the spinal nerves are distributed, thus
giving undoubted evidence that the spinal cord in its entirety is
capable of causing these reflections. Fig. 57 represents the course of
the nervous impulses. The sensory impulse passes upward along the
posterior root, _a_, until it reaches the imbedded gray matter, _b_, of
the cord, by which it is reflected, as a motor impulse, downward along
the anterior root, _c_, to the muscles whence the sensation was
received. This is the reflex action of the spinal cord. There is no
consciousness or sensation connected with this action, and the removal
of the brain and the sympathetic system does not diminish its activity.
Even after death it continues for some time, longer in cold-blooded than
in warm-blooded animals, on account of the difference in temperature,
thus showing this property of the spinal cord. By disease, or the use of
certain poisons, this activity may be greatly augmented, as is
frequently observed in the human subject. A sudden contact with a
different atmosphere may induce these movements. The contraction of the
muscles, or cramp, often experienced by all persons, in stepping into a
cold bath, or emerging from the cozy sitting-room into a chilly December
temperature, are familiar illustrations of reflex movements. It has been
demonstrated that the irritability of the nerves may be impaired or
destroyed, while that of the muscles to which they are distributed
remains unchanged; and that the motor and sensory classes of filaments
may be paralyzed independently of each other.

The reflex actions of the spinal cord have been admirably summed up by
Dr. Dalton, as exerting a general, protective influence over the body,
presiding over the involuntary action of the limbs and trunk, regulating
the action of the sphincters, rectum, and bladder, and, at the same
time, exercising an indirect influence upon the nutritive changes in all
parts of the body to which the spinal filaments are distributed.

THE BRAIN. The brain is a complex organ, which is divided into the
_medulla oblongata_, the _cerebellum_, and the _cerebrum_.

The _medulla oblongata_ is situated just above the spinal cord, and is
continuous with it below, and the brain above. It has distinct functions
which are employed in the preservation and continuance of life. It has
been termed the "vital knot," owing to the fact that the brain may be
removed and the cord injured and still the heart and lungs will continue
to perform their functions, until the medulla oblongata is destroyed.

The arrangement of the white and gray matter of the medulla oblongata is
similar to that of the spinal cord; that is to say, the white matter is
external and the gray internal; whereas in the cerebellum and cerebrum
this order is reversed. The fibres of the spinal cord, before entering
this portion of the brain, decussate, those from the right side crossing
to the left, and those from the left crossing to the right side. By some
authors this crossing of the sensory and motor filaments has been
supposed to take place near the medulla oblongata. Dr. Brown-Sequard
shows, however, that it takes place at every part of the spinal cord.
The medulla oblongata is traversed by a longitudinal fissure, continuous
with that of the spinal cord. Each of the lateral columns thus formed
are subdivided into sections, termed respectively the _Corpora
Pyramidalia_, the _Corpora Olivaria_, the _Corpora Restiformia_ and the
_Posterior Pyramids_.

The _Corpora Pyramidalia_ (see 1, 1, Fig. 58) are two small medullary
eminences or cords, situated at the posterior surface of the medulla
oblongata; approaching the Pons Varolii these become larger and rounded.

The _Corpora Olivaria_ (3, 3, Fig. 58) are two elliptical prominences,
placed exterior to the corpora pyramidalia. By some physiologists these
bodies are considered as the nuclei, or vital points, of the medulla
oblongata. Being closely connected with the nerves of special sensation,
Dr. Solly supposed that they presided over the movements of the larynx.

[Illustration: Fig. 58.]

[Illustration: Fig. 59.]

The _Corpora Restiformia_ (5, 5, Fig. 59) are lateral and posterior
rounded projections of whitish medulla, which pass upward to the
cerebellum and form the _crura cerebelli_, so called because they
resemble a leg. The filaments of the pneumogastric nerve originate in
the ganglia of these parts.

The _Posterior Pyramids_ are much smaller than the other columns of the
medulla oblongata. They are situated (4, 4, Fig. 59) upon the margin of
the posterior fissures in contact with each other.

The functions of the medulla oblongata, which begin with the earliest
manifestations of life, are of an instinctive character. If the
cerebellum and cerebrum of a dove be removed, the bird will make no
effort to procure food, but if a crumb of bread be placed in its bill,
it is swallowed naturally and without any special effort. So also in
respiration the lungs continue to act after the intercostal muscles are
paralyzed; if the diaphragm loses its power, suffocation is the result,
but there is still a convulsive movement of the lungs for sometime,
indicating the continued action of the medulla oblongata.

The _Cerebellum_, or little brain, is situated in the posterior chamber
of the skull, beneath the _tentorium_, a tent-like process of the dura
mater which separates it from the cerebrum. It is convex, with a
transverse diameter of between three and one-half and four inches, and
is little more than two inches in thickness. It is divided on its upper
and lower surfaces into two lateral hemispheres, by the superior and
inferior vermiform processes, and behind by deep notches. The cerebellum
is composed of gray and white matter, the former being darker than that
of the cerebrum. From the beautiful arrangement of tissue, this organ
has been termed the _arbor vitae_.

The _peduncles of the cerebellum_, the means by which it communicates
with the other portions of the brain, are divided into three pairs,
designated as the _superior_, _middle_ and _inferior_. The first pass
upward and forward until they are blended with the tubercles of the
_corpora quadrigemina_. The second are the _crura cerebelli_, which
unite in two large _fasciculi_, or pyramids, and are finally lost in the
_pons varolii_. The inferior peduncles are the corpora restiformia,
previously described, and consist of both sensory and motor filaments.
Some physiologists suppose that the cerebellum is the source of that
harmony or associative power which co-ordinates all voluntary movements,
and effects that delicate adjustment of cause to effect, displayed in
muscular action. This fact may be proved by removing the cerebellum of a
bird and observing the results, which are an uncertainty in all its
movements, and difficulty in standing, walking, or flying, the bird
being unable to direct its course. In the animal kingdom we find an
apparent correspondence between the size of the cerebellum and the
variety and extent of the movements of the animal. Instances are cited,
however, in which no such proportion exists, and so the matter is open
to controversy. The general function of the cerebellum, therefore,
cannot be explained, but the latest experiments in physiological and
anatomical science seem to favor the theory that it is in some way
connected with the harmony of the movements. This co-ordination, by
which the adjustment of voluntary motion is supposed to be effected, is
not in reality a _faculty_ having its seat in the brain substance, but
is the harmonious action of many forces through the cerebellum.

The _Cerebrum_ occupies five times the space of all the other portions
of the brain together. It is of an ovoid form, and becomes larger as it
approaches the posterior region of the skull. A longitudinal fissure
covered by the dura mater separates the cerebrum into two hemispheres,
which are connected at the base of the fissure, by a broad medullary
band, termed the _corpus callosum_. Each hemisphere is subdivided into
three lobes. The anterior gives form to the forehead, the middle rests
in the cavity at the base of the skull, and the posterior lobe is
supported by the tentorium, by which it is separated from the cerebellum
beneath. One of the most prominent characteristics of the cerebrum is
its many and varied _convolutions_ These do not correspond in all
brains, nor even on the opposite sides of the same brain, yet there are
certain features of similarity in all; accordingly, anatomists enumerate
four _orders of convolutions_. The first order begins at the _substantia
perforata_ and passes upward and around the corpus callosum toward the
posterior margin of that body, thence descends to the base of the brain,
and terminates near its origin. The second order originates from the
first, and subdivides into two convolutions, one of which composes the
exterior margin and superior part of the corresponding hemisphere, while
the other forms the circumference of the _fissure of Sylvius_. The third
order, from six to eight in number, is found in the interior portion of
the brain, and inosculates between the first and second orders. The
fourth is found on the outer surface of the hemisphere, in the space
between the sub-orders of the second clasp. A peculiar fact relating to
these convolutions is observed by all anatomists: mental development is
always accompanied by an increasing dissimilarity between their
proportional size.

The cerebral hemispheres may be injured or lacerated without any pain to
the patient. The effect seems to be one of stupefaction without
sensation or volition. A well-developed brain is a very good indication
of intelligence and mental activity. That the cerebrum is the seat of
the reasoning powers, and all the higher intellectual functions, is
proved by three facts. (1.) If this portion of the brain is removed, it
is followed by the loss of intelligence. (2.) If the human cerebrum is
injured, there is an impairment of the intellectual powers. (3.) In the
animal kingdom, as a rule, intelligence corresponds to the size of the
cerebrum. This general law of development is modified by differences in
the cerebral texture. Men possessing comparatively small brains may have
a vast range of thought and acute reasoning powers. Anatomists have
found these peculiarities to depend upon the quantity of gray matter
which enters into the composition of the brain.

In the cerebro-spinal system there are three different kinds of reflex
actions. (1.) Those of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata are
performed without any consciousness or sensation on the part of the
subject. (2.) The second class embraces those of the tuber annulare,
where the perception gives rise to motion without the interference of
the intellectual faculties. These are denominated purely _instinctive_
reflex actions, and include all those operations of animals which seem
to display intelligent forethought; thus, the beaver builds his
habitation over the water, but not a single apartment is different from
the beaver homestead of a thousand years ago; there is no improvement,
no retrogression. Trains of thought have been termed a third class of
reflex actions. It is evident that the power of reasoning is, in a
degree, possessed by some of the lower-animals: for instance, a tribe of
monkeys on a foraging expedition will station guards at different parts
of the field, to warn the plunderers of the approach of danger. A cry
from the sentinel, and general confusion is followed by retreat. Reason
only attains its highest development in man, in whom it passes the
bounds of ordinary existence, and, with the magic wand of love, reaches
outward into the vast unknown, lifting him above corporeal being, into
an atmosphere of spiritual and divine Truth.

[Illustration: Fig. 60.
Section of the brain and an ideal
view of the pneumogastric nerve
on one side, with its branches, _a_.
Vertical section of the cerebrum.
_b_. Section of the cerebellum, _c_.
Corpus callosum. _d_. Lower section
of medulla oblongata. Above
_d_, origin of the pneumogastric
nerve. 1. Pharyngeal branch. 2.
Superior laryngeal. 5. Branches
to the lungs. 4. Branches to the
liver. 6. Branches to the stomach.]

THE CRANIAL NERVES. From the brain, nerves are given off in pairs, which
succeed one another from in front backwards to the number of twelve. The
_first_ pair, the _olfactory_ nerves, are the nerves of the sense of
smell. The _second_ pair are the _optic_, or the nerves of the sense of
sight. The _third_ pair are called the _motores oculi_, the movers of
the eye, from the fact that they are distributed to all the muscles of
the eye with the exception of two. The _fourth_ pair and the _sixth_
pair each supply one of the muscles of the eye, on each side, the fourth
extending to the superior oblique muscle, and the sixth to the external
rectus muscle. The nerves of the _fifth_ pair are very large; they are
each composed of two bundles of filaments, one motor and the other
sensory, and have, besides, an additional resemblance to a spinal nerve
by having a ganglion on each of their sensory roots, and, from the fact
that they have three chief divisions, are often called the _trigeminal_,
or _trifacial_, nerves. They are nerves of special sense, of sensation,
and of motion. They are the sensitive nerves which supply the cranium
and face, the motor nerves of the muscles of mastication, the
_buccinator_ and the _masseter_, and their third branches, often called
the _gustatory_, are distributed to the front portion of the tongue, and
are two of the nerves of the special sense of taste. The _seventh_ pair,
called also the _facial_ nerves, are the motor nerves of the muscles of
the face, and are also distributed to a few other muscles; the _eighth_
pair, termed the auditory nerves, are the nerves of the special sense of
hearing. As the _seventh_ and _eighth_ pairs of nerves emerge from the
cavity of the skull together, they are frequently classed by anatomists
as one, divided into the _facial_, or _portio dura_, as it is sometimes
called, and the _auditory_, or _portio mollis_. The _ninth_ pair, called
the _glosso-pharyngeal,_ are mixed nerves, supplying motor filaments to
the _pharyngeal muscles_ and filaments of the special sense of taste to
the back portion of the tongue. The _tenth_ pair, called the
_pneumogastric_, or _par vagum_, are very important nerves, and are
distributed to the larynx, the lungs, the heart, the stomach, and the
liver, as shown in Fig. 60. This pair and the next are the only cerebral
nerves which are distributed to parts of the body distant from the head.
The _eleventh_ pair, also called _spinal accessory_, arise from the
sides of the spinal marrow, between the anterior and posterior roots of
the dorsal nerves, and run up to the medulla oblongata, and leave the
cranium by the same aperture as the pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal
nerves. They supply certain muscles of the neck, and are purely motor.
As the glosso-pharyngeal, pneumogastric, and spinal accessory nerves
leave the cranium together, they are by some anatomists counted as the
_eighth_ pair. The _twelfth_ pair, known as the _hypoglossal,_ are
distributed to the tongue, and are the motor nerves of that organ.


THE GREAT SYMPATHETIC.


A double chain of nervous ganglia extends from the superior to the
inferior parts of the body, at the sides and in front of the spinal
column, and is termed, collectively, the system of the _great
sympathetic_. These ganglia are intimately connected by nervous
filaments, and communicate with the cerebro-spinal system by means of
the motor and sensory filaments which penetrate the sympathetic. The
nerves of this system are distributed to those organs over which
conscious volition has no direct control.

[Illustration: Fig. 61.
Course and distribution of the great Sympathetic Nerve]

Four of the sympathetic centers, situated in the front and lower
portions of the head, are designated as the _ophthalmic,
spheno-palatine, submaxillary_ and _otic ganglia_. The first of these,
as its name indicates, is distributed to the eye, penetrates the
_sclerotic membrane_ (the white, opaque portion of the eyeball, with its
transparent covering), and influences the contraction and dilation of
the iris. The second division is situated in the angle formed by the
sphenoid and maxillary bone, or just below the ear. It sends motor and
sensory filaments to the palate, and _velum palati_. Its filaments
penetrate the carotid plexus, are joined by others from the motor roots
of the facial nerve and the sensory fibres of the superior maxillary.
The third division is located on the submaxillary gland. Its filaments
are distributed to the sides of the tongue, the sublingual, and
submaxillary glands. The otic ganglion is placed below the base of the
skull, and also connects with the _carotid plexus_. Its filaments of
distribution supply the internal muscles of the _malleus_, the largest
bones of the _tympanum_, the membranous linings of the tympanum and the
_eustachian tube._ Three ganglia, usually designated as the _superior,
middle_, and _inferior_, connect with the cervical and spinal nerves.
Their interlacing filaments are distributed to the muscular walls of the
larynx, pharynx, trachea, and esophagus, and also penetrate the _thyroid
gland_. The use of this gland is not accurately known. It is composed of
a soft, brown tissue, and consists of lobules contained in lobes of
larger size. It forms a spongy covering for the greater portion of the
larynx, and the first section of the trachea. That it is an important
organ, is evident from the fact that it receives four large arteries,
and filaments from two pairs of nerves.

The sympathetic ganglia of the chest correspond in number with the
terminations of the ribs, over which they are situated. Each ganglion
receives two filaments from the intercostal nerve, situated above it,
thus forming a double connection. The thoracic ganglia supply with motor
fibres that portion of the aorta which is above the diaphragm, the
esophagus, and the lungs.

In the abdomen the sympathetic centers are situated upon the _coeliac_
artery, and are termed, collectively, the _semilunar coeliac ganglion_.
Numerous inosculating branches radiate from this center and are called,
from the method of their distribution, the _solar plexus_. From this,
also, originate other plexi which are distributed to the stomach, liver,
kidneys, intestines, spleen, pancreas, supra-renal glands, and to the
organs of generation. Four other pairs of abdominal ganglia connected
with, the lumbar branches are united by filaments to form the semilunar
ganglion.

The sympathetic ganglia of the pelvis consist of five pairs, which are
situated upon the surface of the sacrum. At the extremity of the spinal
column this system terminates in a single knot, designated as the
_ganglion impar_.

Owing to the position of the sympathetic ganglia, deeply imbedded in the
tissues of the chest and abdomen, it is exceedingly difficult to subject
them to any satisfactory experiments. A few isolated facts form the
basis of all our knowledge concerning their functions. They give off
both motor and sensory filaments. The contraction of the _iris_ is one
of the most familiar examples of the action of the sympathetic system.

In the reflex actions of the nerves of special sense, the sensation is
transmitted through the cerebro-spinal system, and the motor impulse is
sent to the deep-seated muscles by the sympathetic system. Physiologists
enumerate three kinds of reflex actions, which are either purely
sympathetic, or partially influenced by the cerebro-spinal system. Dr.
Dalton describes them as follows:

_First_.--"Reflex actions taking place from the internal organs, through
the sympathetic and cerebro-spinal systems, to the voluntary muscles and
sensitive surfaces.--The convulsions of young children are often owing
to the irritation of undigested food in the intestinal canal. Attacks of
indigestion are also known to produce temporary amaurosis [blindness],
double vision, strabismus, and even hemiplegia. Nausea, and a diminished
or capricious appetite, are often prominent symptoms of early pregnancy,
induced by the peculiar condition of the uterine mucous membrane."

_Second_.--"Reflex actions taking place from the sensitive surfaces,
through the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems to the involuntary
muscles and secreting organs.--Imprudent exposure of the integument to
cold and wet, will often bring on a diarrhea. Mental and moral
impressions, conveyed through the special senses, will affect the
motions of the heart, and disturb the processes of digestion and
secretion. Terror, or an absorbing interest of any kind, will produce a
dilatation of the pupil, and communicate in this way a peculiarly wild
and unusual expression to the eye. Disagreeable sights or odors, or even
unpleasant occurrences, are capable of hastening or arresting the
menstrual discharge, or of inducing premature delivery."

_Third_.--"Reflex actions taking place through the sympathetic system
from one part of the body to another.--The contact of food with the
mucous membrane of the small intestine excites a peristaltic movement in
the muscular coat. The mutual action of the digestive, urinary, and
internal generative organs upon each other takes place entirely through
the medium of the sympathetic ganglia and their nerves. The variation of
the capillary circulation in different abdominal viscera, corresponding
with the state of activity or repose of their associated organs, are to
be referred to a similar nervous influence. These phenomena are not
accompanied by any consciousness on the part of the individual, nor by
any apparent intervention of the cerebro-spinal system."

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XIII.

THE SPECIAL SENSES.

SIGHT.


The eye is the organ through which we perceive, by the agency of light,
all the varied dimensions relations, positions, and visible qualities of
external objects.

The number, position, and perfection of the eyes, vary remarkably in
different orders, in many instances corresponding to the mode of life,
habitation, and food of the animal. A skillful anatomist may ascertain
by the peculiar formation of the eye, without reference to the general
physical structure, in what element the animal lives. Sight is one of
the most perfect of the senses, and reveals to man the beauties of
creation. The aesthetic sentiment is acknowledged to be the most
refining element of civilized life. Painting, sculpture, architecture,
and all the scenes of nature, from a tiny way-side flower to a Niagara,
are subjects in which the poet's eye sees rare beauties to mirror forth
in the rhythm of immortal verse.

In the vertebrates, the organs of vision are supplied with filaments
from the second pair of cranial nerves. In mammalia, the eyes are
limited to two in number, which in man are placed in circular cavities
of the skull, beneath the anterior lobes of the cerebrum. Three
membranes form the lining of this inner sphere of the eye, called
respectively the Sclerotic, Choroid, and Retina.

The _Sclerotic_, or outer covering, is the white, firm membrane, which
forms the larger visible portion of the eyeball. It is covered in front
by a colorless, transparent segment, termed the _cornea_, which gives
the eye its lustrous appearance. Within the sclerotic, and lining it
throughout, is a thin, dark membrane termed the _Choroid_. Behind the
cornea it forms a curtain, called the _iris_, which gives to the eye its
color. The muscles of the iris contract or relax according to the amount
of light received, thus enlarging or diminishing the size of the
circular opening called the _pupil_. The _Retina_ is formed by the optic
nerve, which penetrates the sclerotic and choroid and spreads out into a
delicate, grayish, semi-transparent membrane. The retina is one of the
most _essential_ organs of vision, and consists of two layers. A
spheroidal, transparent body, termed the _crystalline lens_, is situated
directly behind the pupil. It varies in density, increasing from without
inward, and forms a perfect refractor of the light received. The space
in front of the crystalline lens is separated by the iris into two
compartments called respectively the _anterior_ and _posterior
chambers_. The fluid contained within them, termed the _aqueous humor_,
is secreted by the cornea, iris, and ciliary processes. The space behind
the crystalline lens is occupied by a fluid, called the _vitreous
humor_. This humor is denser than the other fluids and has the
consistency of jelly, being perfectly transparent. "The function of the
crystalline lens is to produce distinct perception of form and
outline."[3] The transparent humors of the eye also contribute to the
same effect, but only act as auxiliaries to the lens.

[Illustration: Fig. 62.]

The figure on the next page represents the course of the rays of light
proceeding from an object _a b_, refracted by the lens, and forming the
inverted image _x y_ on the screen. All rays of light proceeding from
_b_ are concentrated at _y_, and those proceeding from _a_ converge at
_x_. Rays of light emanating from the center of the object _a b_ pursue
a parallel course, and form the center of the image. Rays of light
passing through a double convex lens converge at a point called the
_focus_. In the organ of vision, if perfect, the focus is on the retina,
which serves as a screen to receive the image or impression. We have a
distinct perception of the outline of a distant hill, and also of a book
lying before us. The rays of light we receive from these objects cannot
have the same focus. How, then, can we account for the evident
accommodation of the eye to the varying distances? Various theories have
been advanced to explain this adjustment; such as changes in the
curvature of the cornea and lens; a movement of the lens, or a general
change in the form of the eyeball, by which the axis may be lengthened
or shortened.

[Illustration: Fig. 63.]

Two facts comprise all the positive knowledge which we possess on this
subject. Every person is conscious of a muscular effort in directing the
eye to a near object" as a book, and of fatigue, if the attention is
prolonged. If, now, the eyes be directed to a distant object, there will
result a sense of rest, or passiveness. By various experiments it has
been proved that the accommodation or adjustment of the eye for near
objects requires a muscular effort, but for distant objects the muscles
are in an essentially passive condition. An increase in the convexity of
the crystalline lens is now admitted to be necessary for a distinct
perception of near objects. We may give two simple illustrations, cited
by Dr. Dalton in his recent edition of Human Physiology. If a candle be
held near the front of an eye which is directed to a distant object,
three reflected images of the flame will be seen in the eye, one on each
of the anterior surfaces of the cornea and lens, and a third on the
posterior surface of the latter. If the eye is directed to a near
object, the reflection on the cornea remains unchanged, while that on
the anterior surface of the lens gradually diminishes and approximates
in size the reflection on the cornea, thus giving conclusive evidence
that, in viewing a near object, the anterior surface of the crystalline
lens become _more convex_, and at the same time approaches the cornea.
Five or six inches is the minimum limit of the muscular adjustment of
the eye. From that point to all the boundless regions of space, to every
star and nebulae which send their rays to our planet, human vision can
reach. It is the sense by which we receive knowledge of the myriads of
worlds and suns which circle with unfailing precision through infinite
space.


HEARING.


[Illustration: Fig. 64.
Internal and external ear. 1. External ear. 2. Internal
auditory meatus. 3. Tympanum. 4. Labyrinth.
5. Eustachian tube.]

Hearing depends upon the sonorous vibrations of the atmosphere. The
waves of sound strike the sensitive portions of the ear, and their
impressions upon the auditory nerves are termed the sensations of
hearing. The ear is divided into three parts, called respectively the
External, Middle, and Internal ear.

The external organs of hearing are two in number, and placed on opposite
sides of the head. In most of the higher order of vertebrates, they are
so situated as to give expression and proportion to the facial organs,
and, at the same time, to suit the requirements of actual life.

The _External ear_ is connected with the interior part by a prolongation
of its orifice, termed the _external auditory meatus_. In man, this
gristly portion of the auditory apparatus is about one inch in length,
lined by a continuation of the integument of the ear, and has numerous
hairs on its surface, to prevent the intrusion of foreign substances.
Between the external MEATUS and the cavity of the middle ear is the
_membrana tympani_, which is stretched across the opening like the head
of a drum. The _tympanum_, or ear-drum, communicates with the pharynx by
the _eustachian tube_, which is a narrow passage lined with delicate,
ciliated epithelium. On the posterior portion it is connected with the
_mastoid cells_. Three small bones are stretched across the cavity of
the tympanum, and called, from their form, the _malleus, incus_ and
_stapes_, or the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. Agassiz mentions a fourth,
which he terms the _os orbiculare_. Each wave of sound falling upon the
membrana tympani, throws its molecules into vibrations which are
communicated to the chain of bones, which, in turn, transmits them to
the membrane of the _foramen ovale_. The three muscles which regulate
the tension of these membranes are termed the _tensor tympani, laxator
tympani_, and _stapedium tympani._

The _Labyrinth_, or _Internal_ ear, is a complicated cavity, consisting
of three portions termed the _vestibule, cochlea_, and _semi-circular
canals_. The vestibule is the central portion and communicates with the
other divisions. The labyrinth is filled with a transparent fluid,
termed _perilymph_, in which are suspended, in the vestibules and
canals, small membranous sacs, containing a fluid substance, termed
_endolymph_ (sometimes called _vitrine auditive_ from its resemblance to
the vitreous humor of the eye). The filaments of the auditory nerve
penetrate the membranous tissues of these sacs, and also of those
suspended at the commencement of the semi-circular canals. These little
sacs are supposed to be the seat of hearing, and to determine, in some
mysterious way, the quality, intensity and pitch of sounds.

The determination of the _direction_ of sound is a problem of acoustics.
Some have contended that the arrangement of the semi-circular canals is
in some way connected with this sensation. But this supposition,
together with the theory of the transmission of sound through the
various portions of the cranial bones, has been exploded.

From the foregoing description, it will be seen that the labyrinth and
tympanum are the most essential parts of the organs of hearing. In
delicacy and refinement this sense ranks next to sight. The emotions of
beauty and sublimity, excited by the warbling of birds and the roll of
thunder, are scarcely distinguishable from the intense emotions arising
from sight. It is a remarkable fact, that the refinement or cultivation
of these senses is always found associated. Those nations which furnish
the best artists, or have the highest appreciation of painting and
sculpture, produce the most skillful musicians, those who reduce music
to a science.


SMELL.


[Illustration: Fig. 65.
1. Frontal sinus. 2. Nasal bone. 3. Olfactory
ganglion and nerves. 4. Nasal branch
of the fifth pair. 5. Spheno-palatine ganglion.
6. Soft palate. 7. Hard palate, _a_.
Cerebrum, _b_. Anterior lobes, _c_. Corpus
callosum. _d_. Septum lucidum. _f_. Fornix.
_g_. Thalami optici. _h_. Corpora striata.]

Next in order of delicacy, and more closely allied with the physical
functions, is the sense of smell. Delicate perfumes, or the fragrance of
a flower, impart an exhilarating sensation of delight, while numerous
odors excite a feeling of disgust. The organ of smell is far less
complicated in its structure than the eye or the ear. It consists of two
cavities having cartilaginous walls, and lined with a thick mucous coat,
termed the _pituitary membrane_, over which are reflected the olfactory
nerves. Particles of matter, too minute to be visible even through the
microscope, are detached from the odorous body and come in contact with
the nerves of smell, which transmit the impressions or impulses thus
received to the brain. Fig. 65 shows the distribution of the olfactory
nerves in the nasal passages. The nose is supplied with two kinds of
filaments which are termed respectively nerves of _special_ and nerves
of _general sensation_. Compared with the lower animals, especially with
those belonging to the carnivorous species, the sense of smell in man is
feeble. The sensation of smell is especially connected with the
pleasures and necessities of animal life.


TASTE.


The sense of taste is directly connected with the preservation and
nutrition of the body. A delicious flavor produces a desire to eat a
savory substance. Some writers on hygiene have given this sense an
instinctive character, by assuming that all articles having an agreeable
taste are suitable for diet. The nerves of taste are distributed over
the surface of the tongue and palate, and their minute extremities
terminate in well developed _papillae_. These _papillae_ are divided
into three classes, termed, from their microscopic appearance,
_filiform_, _fungiform_ and _circumvallate_. The organ of taste is the
mucous membrane which covers the back part of the tongue and the palate.
The papillae of the tongue are large and distinct, and covered with
separate coats of epithelium. The filiform papillae are generally long
and pointed and are found over the entire surface of the tongue. The
fungiform are longer, small at the base and broad at the end. The
circumvallate are shaped like an inverted V and are found only near the
root of the tongue; the largest of this class of papillae have other
very small papillae upon their surfaces. It is now pretty satisfactorily
established that the circumvallate, or fungiform papillae are the only
ones concerned in the special sense of taste.

The conditions necessary to taste are, that the substance be in solution
either by artificial means, or by the action of the saliva; and that it
be brought in contact with the sensitive filaments imbedded in the
mucous membrane. The nerves of taste are both _general_ and _special_ in
their functions. If the general sensibility of the nerves of taste is
unduly excited, the function of sensibility is lost for some time. If a
peppermint lozenge is taken into the mouth, it strongly excites the
general sensibilities of taste, and the power of distinguishing between
special flavors is lost for a few moments. A nauseous drug may then be
swallowed without experiencing any disagreeable taste.

Paralysis of the facial nerve often produces a marked effect in the
sensibility of the tongue. Where this influence lies has not been fully
explained; probably it is indirect, being produced by some alteration in
the vascularity of the parts or a diminution of the salivary secretions.


TOUCH.


By the sense of touch, we mean the _general sensibility of the skin_.
Sensations of heat and cold are familiar illustrations of this faculty.
By the sense of touch, we obtain a knowledge of certain qualities of a
body, such as form consistency, roughness, or smoothness of surface,
etc. The tip of the tongue possesses the most acute sensibility of any
portion of the body, and next in order are the tips of the fingers. The
hands are the principal organs of tactile sensation. The nerves of
general sensibility are distributed to every part of the cutaneous
tissue. The contact of a foreign body with the back, will produce a
similar _tactile_ sensation, as with the tips of the fingers. The
sensation, however, will differ in _degree_ because the back is supplied
with a much smaller number of sensitive filaments; in _quality_ it is
the same.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XIV.

CEREBRAL PHYSIOLOGY.


By means of the nervous system, an intimate relation is maintained
between mind and body, for nervous energy superintends the functions of
both. The fibres of nervous matter are universally present in the
organization, uniting the physical and spiritual elements of man's
being. Even the minutest nerve-rootlets convey impressions to the dome
of thought and influence the intellectual faculties. We recognize
_muscular_ force, the strength of the body, _molecular_ force, molecules
in motion, as heat, light, chemical force, electricity, and _nervous_
force, a certain influence which reacts between the animal functions and
the cerebrum, thus connecting the conditions of the body with those of
the mind. We cannot speak of the effects of mind or body separately, but
we must consider their action and reaction upon each other, for they are
always associated. There are many difficulties in understanding this
relationship, some of which may be obviated by a study of the
development of nervous matter, and its functions in the lower orders of
organization.

Within the plant-cells is found a vital, vegetable substance termed
bioplasm, or protoplasm; which furnishes the same nutritive power as the
tissues of the polyp and jelly fish. Many families of animals have pulpy
bodies, and slight instinctive motion and sensibility, and in proportion
as the nervous system is developed, both of these powers are unfolded.
Plants have a low degree of sensibility, limited motion, respiratory and
circulatory organs. Animals possess quicker perceptions and
sensibilities, the power of voluntary motion, and, likewise a rudimental
nervous system. Some articulates have no bony skeleton, their muscles
being attached to the skin which constitutes a soft contracting
envelope. One of the simplest forms of animal life in which a nervous
system is found, is the five-rayed star-fish. In each ray there are
filaments which connect with similar nerve-filaments from other rays,
and form a circle around the digestive cavity. It probably has no
conscious perception, and its movements do not necessarily indicate
sensation or volition. In some worms a rudimentary nervous system is
sparingly distributed to the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and, as
in the star-fish, the largest nerve-filament is found around the
esophagus, presiding over nutrition.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.]

A higher grade of organization requires a more complete arrangement of
nervous substance. Stimulus applied to one organ is readily communicated
to, and excites activity in another.

[Illustration: Fig. 67.
A. Nervous system of a Crab, showing its
ganglia. B. The nervous system of a Caterpillar.]

The nervous system of some insects consists of two long, white cords,
which run longitudinally through the abdomen, and are dilated at
intervals into knots, consisting of collections of nerve-cells, called
ganglia. They are really nerve-centers, which receive and transmit
impulses, originate and impart nervous influence according to the nature
of their organic surroundings. The ganglia situated over the esophagus
of insects correspond to the medulla oblongata in man, in which
originate the spinal accessory, glosso-pharyngeal, and pneumogastric
nerves. The latter possess double endowments, and not only participate
in the operations of deglutition, digestion, circulation, and
respiration, but are also nerves of sensation and instinctive motion.
The suspension of respiration produces suffocation. In insects, these
ganglia are scarcely any larger than those distributed within the
abdomen, with which they connect by means of minute, nervous filaments.
Insects are nimble in their movements, and manifest instinct,
corresponding to the perfection of their muscular and nervous systems.
When we ascend to vertebrates, those animals having a backbone, the
amount of the nervous substance is greater, the organic functions are
more complex, and the actions begin to display intelligence.

Man possesses not only a complete sympathetic system, the rudiments of
which are found in worms and insects, and a complete spinal system, less
perfectly displayed in fishes, birds, and quadrupeds, but, superadded to
all these is a magnificent cerebrum, and, as we have seen, all parts of
the body are connected by the nervous system. The subtle play of sensory
and motor impulses, of sentient and spiritual forces, indicates a
perfection of nervous endowments nowhere paralleled, and barely
approached by inferior animals. This meager reference to brainless
animals, whoso knots of ganglia throughout their bodies act
automatically as little brains, shows that instinct arises
simultaneously with the development of the functions over which it
presides. Here begins rudimentary, unreasoning intelligence. It
originates within the body as an inward, vital impulse, is manifested in
an undeviating manner, and therefore displays no intention or
discretion. While Dr. Carpenter likens the human organism "to a keyed
instrument, from which any music it is capable of producing can be
called forth at the will of the performer," he compares "a bee or any
other insect to a barrel organ, which plays with the greatest exactness
a certain number of tunes that are set upon it, but can do nothing
else." Instinct cannot learn from experience, or improve by practice;
but it seems to be the prophetic germ of a higher intelligence. It is
nearly as difficult to draw the dividing line between instinct and a low
grade of intelligence, as it is to distinguish between the psychical and
psychological[4] functions of the brain.

The intimate relation of instinct to intelligence is admirably
illustrated in the working honey-bee. With forethought it selects a
habitation, constructs comb, collects honey, provides a cell for the
ova, covers the chrysalis, for which it deposits special nourishment,
and is disposed to defend its possessions. It is a social insect, lives
in colonies, chastises trespassers, fights its enemies, and defends its
home. It manifests a degree of intelligence, but its sagacity is
instinctive. Reason, though not so acute as instinct, becomes, by
education, discerning and keenly penetrative, and reveals the very
secrets of profound thought. We recall the aptness of Prof. Agassiz's
remark: _"There is even a certain antagonism between instinct and
intelligence, so that instinct loses its force and peculiar
characteristics, whenever intelligence becomes developed."_ Animals
having larger reasoning powers manifest less instinct, and some, as the
leopard, exercise both in a limited degree. This double endowment with
instinct and low reasoning intelligence, is indicated by his lying in
ambush awaiting his prey, the hiding-place being selected near the haunt
of other animals, where nature offers some allurement to gratify the
appetite.

Simple reflex action is an instinctive expression, manifesting an
intuitive perception, almost intelligent, as shown by the contraction of
the stomach upon the food, simply because it impinges upon the inner
coats, and thus excites them to action. A better illustration, because
it displays sympathy, is when the skin, disabled by cold, cannot act,
and its duties are largely performed by the kidneys. Though reflex
action is easily traced in the lower organic processes, some writers
have placed it on a level with rational deliberation. Undoubtedly, all
animals having perception have also what perception
implies--consciousness--and this indicates the possession, in some
degree, of reason. _Compound_ reflex action extends into the domain of
thought. _Simple_ reflex action, or instinct, answers to the animal
faculties, such as acquisitiveness, secretiveness, selfishness,
reproductiveness, etc., and accomplishes two important purposes;
self-preservation and the reproduction of the specie. With many persons,
these appear to be the chief ends of life!

The psychical functions connect, not only with animal propensities, but
also with the highest psychological faculties. Instinct is the
representative of animal conditions, just as the highest spiritual
faculties are indicative of qualities and principles. The consistent
mean of conduct is an equilibrium between these ultimate tendencies of
our being. The psychological functions render the animal nature
subservient to the rule of purity and holiness, and deeply influence it
by the essential elements of spiritual existence. The psychical organs
sustain an intermediate relation, receiving the impressions of the
bodily propensities, and, likewise, of the highest emotions. Obviously,
these extreme influences, the one growing out of animal conditions, the
other, the result of spiritual relations, pass into the psychical medium
and are refracted by it, or made equivalent to one force. The body
requires the qualifying influences of mind. The tendencies of the animal
faculties are selfish and limiting, those of the emotive, general,
universal. The propensities, like gravity, expend their force upon
matter; the emotions pour forth torrents of feeling, and produce
rhapsodies of sentiment. The propensities naturally restrict their
expression to a specific object of sense; the emotions respond to
immaterial being. The tendencies of the former are acquisitive, selfish,
gratifying; of the latter, bestowing, expanding, diffusing. The one
class is restricted to the orbits of time and matter, the other flows on
through the limitless cycles of infinity and immortality. The former is
satiated in animal gratification, the latter in spiritual beatification.
The one culminates in animal enjoyment, the other expands to its
ultimate conceptions in the perfections of Divine Love.

In the present life, mind and body are intimately connected by nervous
matter. In this dual constitution, the spiritual mental, and animal
functions are made inseparable, and modify one another. The ultimate
tendencies of each extreme exist, not absolutely for themselves, but for
qualifying purposes, to establish a basis for the deeper economy of
life. By the employment of reason, animal and spiritual experiences are
mutually benefited, and the consciousness rendered accountable. The
bodily and mental workings are in many senses one, and help to interpret
each other.

Every fact of mind has many aspects. A brain force, which results in
thought, is simultaneously a physiological force, if it influences the
bodily functions. Likewise, spiritual conceptions take their rise in the
same blood that feeds the grosser tissues. This vital fluid is
momentarily imparting and receiving elements from all the bodily organs,
and these, in turn, must influence the process of thought, and, in a
degree, determine its quality. The delicate outline, yea, even the
substance of an idea, may depend upon the condition of the animal
organs. Thought is subject to the laws of biology, and, therefore, is a
symbol of health. Morbid conditions of the system hang out their signs
in words and utterances. Words which express fear are as true symptoms
of functional difficulty as is excessive palpitation. The organ
representing fear sustains a special relation to the functions of the
heart both in health and disease. Bright hopes characterize pulmonary
complaints as certainly as cough. Exquisite susceptibility of mind
indicates equally extreme sensibility of body, and those persons capable
of fully expressing the highest emotions are especially susceptible to
bodily sensations. Tears are physical emblems of grief, and
fellow-feeling calls forth sympathetic tears. Excessive anxiety of mind
produces general excitability of body, which soon results in chronic
disease. Pleasurable emotions stimulate the processes of nutrition, and
are restorative. This concomitance of mental and bodily states is very
remarkable. Joy and Love, as well as jealousy and anger, flash in the
eye and mould the features to their expression. Grief excites the
lachrymal, and rage the salivary glands. Shame reddens the ears, drops
the eyelids, and flushes the face; but profligacy destroys these
expressions. The blush which suffuses the forehead of the bashful maiden
betrays her love, and _maternal_ love, stirred by the appeals of an
idolized infant, excites the mammary gland to the secretion of milk. The
sigh of melancholia indicates hepatic torpor, thus showing a special
relation between the liver and respiratory organs. These conditions of
mind and body react upon one another. Even the thought of a luscious
peach may cause the mouth to water. The thought of tasting a lemon fills
the mouth with secretions, and a story with unsavory associations may
completely turn the stomach.

The relationship of mental and physical functions may be illustrated by
entirely removing the spleen of an animal, as that of a dog. An
invariable result of its extirpation is an unusual increase of the
appetite, for at times the animal will eat voraciously any kind of food.
The dog will devour, with avidity, the warm entrails of recently killed
animals, and thrive in consequence of such an appetite. Another symptom,
which usually follows the removal of the spleen, is an unnatural
ferocity of disposition. Without any apparent provocation, the animal
will attack others of its own, or of a different species. In some
instances, these outbursts of irritability and violence are only
occasional, but the experiments show quite conclusively that the spleen
moderates combativeness, restrains the appetite, and co-operates with
the will and judgment in controlling them.

We shall briefly consider the practical question whether the elements of
mind can be ideally arranged and presented, so as to more completely
reveal their relations to, and disclose their effects upon the bodily
functions. Modern philosophers conceive that mind consists of a triad of
essentials; _Intellect, Emotion,_ and _Volition_. Physiologists assign
to the cerebrum its functions, and neurological, as well as
phrenological writers, have located them as represented in Fig. 68.
True, there is no structural division between the parts of the cerebrum
to indicate this diversity of function, nor is there any perceptible
limit between the sensory and motor filaments of the game nerve. As no
one has any reason for denying that separate portions of the brain may
manifest distinct functions of the mind, we shall assume it as a
conceded proposition. The regions of the cerebrum, thus ideally
represented, occupy but little more than half of the arc of a circle,
whereas it is evident that the base of the nervous mass is not idle, and
is equally entitled to our consideration. In the posterior chamber of
the skull is the cerebellum, anterior to, and below which, is the
medulla oblongata, connecting with the spinal cord and sympathetic
system. These various parts are essential to the harmonious blending of
mind and body. To this end, two conditions are necessary. (1.) All the
nervous forces must be so related that action and reaction may be fully
established. (2.) A complete nervous circuit is requisite for the
reciprocal influence of mind and body.

[Illustration: Fig. 68.]

[Illustration: Fig. 69. ]

Nature answers to mind in physical correspondences. The planetary system
is fashioned after a circle. Life itself springs from a spherule of
forces. The perfection of an idea, or the completeness of a conception
may be expressed by a circle. The elements of Science, Astronomy,
Geology, and Natural History, are pictorially represented in this
manner. How appropriately and logically can a fragment of natural
history, this epitome of all nature and science--_the mind_--be
illustrated by a simple circle! Every element must act and react, and be
equal and opposite. Thus may the existence of the opposing energies and
functions of each faculty be equally represented. The contrast aids us
in understanding their ultimate tendencies, and enables us to correctly
value and define their nature. Faculties of kindred qualities may be
grouped together, and their antagonisms represented in the opposite arc
of the circle. Let us employ a circle to represent mind. The conception
of the abstract quality of _good_, requires contrast with one of a
converse nature, _bad_, (see Fig. 69). Opposite faculties may be
portrayed in the same manner. The functions of the cerebrum and spinal
system may be symbolically represented as those of the highest and
lowest organs, thus giving rise to the positive and negative extremes of
feeling. The writer conceives of no other way in which the widely
contrasted facts of human experience can be so perfectly symbolized.
_Good_ (Fig. 69) may represent moral faculties, and _bad_, their
opposites. Undoubtedly, nature is not so arbitrary in her arrangements
as we are in shadowing forth our imperfect conceptions, yet is not this
a decided improvement in determining cerebral faculties and their
relations? We observe how scholars and philosophers confound the noblest
and most exalted emotions with the animal propensities instead of
distinguishing between them. "_The emotions are a department of the
feelings, formed by the intervention of intellectual processes. Several
of them are so characteristic that they can be known only by individual
experiences; as Wonder, Fear, Love, Anger_." See Logic: Deductive and
Inductive, by Alexander Bain, LL. D., page 508, (1874).

This is not an exceptional, but a common example of classifying Love,
the highest and purest of the emotions, with Anger, an animal
propensity. Is it not more practical and philosophical to group the
emotional faculties together, and upon an opposite arc represent their
antagonistic energies, the ultimate tendencies of which are criminal?
Both groups are mutually modifying and restraining; the one relates
instinctively to the bodily wants, the other to the requirements of
mind, and each is essential to a consistent life. Accordingly, we deem
it philosophical to consider words as symbols of mental faculties, and
to classify together such spiritual unities as joy, hope, faith, and
love, the tendencies of which are to quicken and transform the ultimates
of carnal life into the rudiments of an immortal one, the beginning of
heaven on earth. These restrain those opposites, which lead to crime and
death. Love and Hate are as antagonistic as heat and cold, and the
usefulness of both depends upon their _proper_ temperament. Fig. 70
represents the antagonism of the Intellectual faculties to the Animal,
the Emotional to the Criminal, the Volitive to the Enfeebling. It is not
essential to discover in the nerve-substance the precise power from
which an impulse originates. We may reasonably interpret the functions
of the brain, and yet be unable to disclose the duties of any ganglionic
corpuscle composing it. We may foretell what each season of the year
will bring forth, when we cannot forecast the history of a blade of
grass or a single grain of any kind. We may predict the amount of rain
for a month, and be unable to prognosticate correctly, the character of
any storm, or give the history of a special drop of water. Although we
cannot follow the movements of individuals in a battle, yet we may
predict the result of the combat; and thus, we judge of the functions of
the brain without the ability to reveal the actions of one of the
organic molecules of which it is composed. We aim to give a general,
reasonable, and popular description of cerebral functions and their
bearing upon health and disease.

[Illustration: Fig. 70.]


REGIONAL DIVISIONS.


[Illustration: Fig. 71.]

The anterior portion of the cerebrum is devoted to intellectual
processes, which freely expend the vital energies. The Intellectual
faculties are classified as represented in Fig. 71. The lower portion of
the brain, bounded exteriorly by the superciliary ridge, corresponds to
the Perceptive, the middle region to the Recollective, and the upper to
the Reflective faculties. (See also Fig. 65, _b_.) If we divide the
forehead by vertical lines, as shown in Fig. 71, the divisions thus
formed represent respectively, the Active, Deliberative, and
Contemplative departments of the intellect, all the processes of which
are sustained by vital changes, the transformation of organized
materials. No mental effort can be made without waste of nervous matter.
The gardener's hoe wears by use, and so does every part of the animal
organism. Otherwise, nutrition would be unnecessary for the adult. The
production of thought wears away the cerebral substance. In ordinary
use, the brain requires one-fifth of the blood to support its growth and
repair. Great mental efforts are attended by a corresponding expenditure
of vital treasures, which are abstracted from the total forces available
for the necessities of the system. To repair the losses thus occasioned,
materials are appropriated from the blood, which furnishes supplies in
proportion to the demands made by the mental activities. The production
of thought wears away the gray matter of the cerebrum as surely as the
digging of a canal wears away the iron particles of the spade. The brain
would soon wear out did not the nutritive functions constantly make good
the waste. The intellect, whether engaged in observation,
generalization, or profound study consumes the brain and blood, hence
intellectual activity implies VITAL EXPENDITURE. _Expenditure_ is an
emphatic word because all functions are essential to the production of
this nerve-energy, which returns to the system no equivalent. Physical
exercise, although attended by structural waste, is advantageous to the
circulation of the blood, nutrition, secretion, and, in fact, beneficial
to all the organic processes. This is not true of vigorous and prolonged
mental labor, which is not attended by any of these incidental
advantages. If a child attends a school in which mental development
supersedes physical culture, an inordinate ambition sways the youthful
mind, and its baneful effects upon the health soon become manifest.
Rigorous application of the intellectual faculties consumes the blood,
exhausts the vital forces, weakens the organic functions, while pallor
covers the face, and the eyes sparkle with a hectic radiance. The family
physician pronounces the condition _Anæmia_ (a deficiency of red
corpuscles in the blood), and this change in the quality of the blood is
owing to the undue appropriation by the brain. Conversely, if the blood
be destroyed, or its vitality reduced, in the same proportion will the
mental energies be weakened and all the functional powers of the
physical system enfeebled. In brief, if the intellect be unduly
exercised, the red corpuscles of the sanguine fluid will be gradually
destroyed, and the serum allowed to predominate. The blood becomes weak
and watery, the subject is nervous, dropsical, consumptive and
derangement of the important functions follows almost invariably.
Excessive intellectual activity often produces weak state of the system,
and the person thus affected becomes languid, spiritless, and an easy
prey to disease. This mental cause and its bodily results may be
classified in the following order. Mental Cause: EXCESSIVE MENTAL
EXERTION, which produces _waste of the brain substance and blood_.

                     / VITAL EXPENDITURE,
    Bodily results:  { ANÆMIA,
                     \ A WEAK CONDITION.

This kind of waste is best summed up in the words, VITAL EXPENDITURE.
Upon the forehead, as represented in Fig. 72, we will therefore inscribe
INTELLECT, ACTIVITY, and VITAL EXPENDITURE. Intellectual employment is
usually accompanied by sedentary habits, neglect of healthful exercise,
and a deprivation of pure air, to all of which ill health may be
attributed. Were the intellectual expenditure arrested, and the forces
turned into recuperative channels, many a person would become beautiful
with the ruddy glow of health. Without health there is no use for
thought; cultivation of the mind is just as natural and essential as the
culture of the body, and the trained development of both is needed for
mutual improvement.


EMOTIVE FACULTIES.


[Illustration: Fig. 72.]

What results follow the _natural_ and the _excessive_ exercise of the
EMOTIVE FACULTIES? AS distinct organs of the body have diverse
functions, so, in like manner, different parts of the brain perform the
separate operations of the mind. It is easier to discriminate between
the products of these dissimilar endowments than to determine the
location of the faculties. The intellect deals with concrete subjects,
and the emotions with abstractions; the intellect is exercised with
material things, the emotions dwell upon attributes; the intellect
considers the forces of matter, the emotions, the powers of the soul;
the former deliberates upon the truths of science, the latter is
concerned with duties, obligations, or moral responsibilities; the first
is satisfied only with new truths, original ideas, and rational changes,
the last rest securely on fundamental principles, moral certainties, and
the absolute constancy of perfect love. The intellectual faculties are
wakeful, questioning, mistrustful; the emotions are blind, hopeful,
confiding; the one reasoning, exacting, demonstrating; the other,
believing, inspiring, devout. The intellect sees, the emotions feel;
and, though these functions may blend, the one can never supersede the
other.

The quality of the emotional faculties is represented by Benevolence,
Sympathy, Joy, Hope, Confidence, Gratitude, Love, and Devotion, all of
which are the very antitheses of the attributes of animal feeling,
described as Melancholy, Fear, Anger, Hate, Malevolence, and Despair. To
the emotions we refer the highest qualities of character, while their
opposites represent the animal or baser impulses. True, the emotions
modify the propensities, as sympathy softens grief. They may subdue and
refine the animal feelings, and thus veil them with a delicacy
characteristic of their own purity; but the unrestrained influences of
grief find vent in loud lamentations, and the bitter disappointments of
the selfish faculties are passionate and violent.

The _Emotive Faculties_--the organs of spiritual perceptions--are
impersonal, outflowing, bestowing. The function represented by
Benevolence, is willing, giving. Devotion expresses dedication,
consecration; Gratitude manifests a warm and friendly feeling toward a
benefactor.

    "The depth immense of endless gratitude."--MILTON.

Love flames toward its object, is out-pouring, blessing; indeed, all the
emotions are gushing, effusive, impetuous, and profusely flowing; grand,
torrent-like, overwhelming; employing ideal, immaterial, spiritual
expressions, developing principles and perfections while aspiring to
happiness and immortality. Though beginning with humanity, they embody
the Divine. They expand to their ultimate conceptions in the sublime
attributes: the perfections of the God of Love; associating with
mortality a divine destiny commencing on earth, extending through time,
pausing not at the portals of death, the gateway to eternity, but
flowing onward into the realms of eternal day.

We may consider their counteracting influences, for, without doubt, by
checking the selfish tendencies and restraining the animal propensities,
they assist in controlling the sensual passions, and thus balance the
mind and body. Such an equilibrium we call _happiness_. If the emotions
be acute and vehement, they will absorb all other impressions and revel
in their culminating and delightful experiences. They exhaust all the
bodily energies, and a functional suspension, termed _ecstasy_, follows.
It is a swooning, or fainting, a temporary loss of sensation and
volition, accompanied by involuntary movements of the arms, smiting of
the hands, sighing, and short ejaculatory expressions of rapture. This
condition, occasioned by excessive emotion, as in praying, singing,
exhortations, and sympathetic appeals, is contagious, often spreading
with mysterious rapidity. Its culmination, ecstasy, is popularly termed
"_the power_." When gradually induced, it is called _trance_, and each
state is regarded by many as supernatural, caused by the immediate
influence of the Holy Spirit. The explanation is this: when the emotive
faculties are suddenly and powerfully excited, they quickly expend the
organic forces, so that the individual swoons from sheer exhaustion.
Undue expenditure of this class of brain functions not only consumes the
bodily powers, but exhausts and prevents other mental operations. The
sudden collapse of all voluntary functions resembles the fainting
produced by blood-letting. We may sum up this rapid expenditure of
energy in one expressive word, EXHAUSTION, which results in _Ecstasy_,
or trance, and which, if carried a degree further, terminates in death.
Beginning with the natural exercise of the emotions, we may state the
order of sequences thus:

    Ordinary exercise leads to   CALMNESS.
    Proper exercise     "   "    HAPPINESS.
    Increased exercise  "   "    ECSTASY.
    Excessive exercise  "   "    SYNCOPE.
    Prolonged exercise  "   "    TRANCE.
    Fatal exercise      "   "    MORTALITY.
    Their tendencies are         EXHAUSTIVE.


VOLITIVE FACULTIES.


What are the physiological and morbid results attending the ordinary and
the immoderate exercise of the VOLITIVE FACULTIES?

The generic term _will_, comprehends those faculties, the action of
which is termed _volition_. The faculties of the will are Determination,
Firmness, Decision, Ambition, Authority, and Vigilance, all of which
indicate strength and continuity of purpose. Bordering upon the emotions
are Patience and Perseverance, while adjoining the animal faculties are
Power, Coarseness, and Love of Display. The former exhibit moral, the
latter animal heroism. A sense of power urges forward, whether it be
higher or lower, just as the sense of greatness makes a man _great_ by
inspiring him with confidence to put forth exertion. Nature is truthful
in her aspirations. We know that courage, assurance, and conscious power
are necessary for the fulfillment of purpose, because intention precedes
action. Will-power is an indication of HEALTH, and the constant exercise
of these mental faculties exerts a steady, regular, and strengthening
influence over the bodily functions. We translate mental energies into
physiological industry. These faculties impart tone to the system,
sustain the processes of nutrition, circulation, assimilation, secretion
and excretion, and their distinguishing characteristics are vigor,
tension, and elasticity. They temper each element of character, as well
as every vital act. They infuse the organism with a resisting power
which renders it proof against the influence of miasma and malaria, and
overcomes that passivity and impressionability so favorable to disease.
Firmness expresses a physiological cohesiveness which strongly binds
together the fibers of the tissues, and renders the organization compact
and powerful. He, who can skillfully employ these energies, is already
master of half of the diseases incident to mankind, and wields an
indispensable adjunct to medicine, in the practice of the healing art.
It is the key to success, for it unlocks difficulties and opens wide the
door which leads to favorable results.

Surplus energy sustains the circulation, increases capillary action, as
if the excess of nerve-power were discharged from the distant extremity
of each nerve and pervaded every tissue. The voluntary muscles indicate
their participation in this energy, and, indeed, the whole organism is
exalted by the influence of the mental faculties. They oppose the
tendencies of Feebleness, Relaxation, and Derangement, and modify their
proclivities to Disease. The will is the servant of the intellect,
emotions, and propensities, and the executive agent of all the
faculties. When the volitive faculties are in excess, they may overdo
the other functions, prematurely break down the bodily organs, and, by
overtaxing the system, subject it to pain and disorder.

_VOLITIVE FACULTIES._

The natural effect of FIRMNESS is physiological stability. The exercise
of the volitive faculties displays both mental and bodily ENERGY.

                            / TEMPERANCE,
    Their tendencies are to { SANITY,
                            \ HEALTH.


ANIMAL FACULTIES.


[Illustration: Fig. 73. is a representation of the cranial conformation
of Alexander VI., exhibiting a full development of the conservative
faculties. His character, according to history, brought reproach upon
the papal chair.]

[Illustration: Fig. 74. represents Zeno, a profound thinker and moral
philosopher. The contrast in their cranial developments was no greater
than that of their lives.]

Under this generic term we will group those cerebral powers which are
common to the inferior animals, and closely allied to bodily conditions
and necessities. As denoting a group of animal faculties they relate not
only to the organic functions and self-preservation, but combat the
action of the intellect, oppose the evolution of new ideas, resist
investigation, and discredit the value of truth. Adhesiveness, being
blindly conservative, clings to old ideas and traditionary opinions. The
animal faculties tend to stifle investigation, and put authority above
truth and science. Having a fixity of nature, a stationary attachment,
they treat all intellectual developments as absurd. When these faculties
predominate, thought is obscured, intolerance of disposition is
manifested, and mental progress is arrested. Thus they evince their
conservative nature, and, since they relate to individual interests,
they represent the elements of instinct. Such are the functions of
Acquisitiveness, Secretiveness, Selfishness, and Combativeness, as well
as the Generative powers. If these faculties predominate, all
intellectual advancements are treated as experiments or theoretical
novelties, and rejected as evanescent and worthless. If the promptings
of these be followed, there will be no innovation, and the orthodoxy of
the dark ages will remain the standard for all time. The animal
faculties coincide with Lethargy, Sleep, and Nutrition, thus favoring
organic restoration. The intellectual faculties are wakeful, active,
irrepressible, while the animal powers tend to repose, sleep, and
renovation, and thus suspend the activities of thought, sense, and
motion. The intellect expends the energy of the sensorial centers,
induces fatigue and suffering, whereas the animal faculties overcome the
vigils of thought, and produce refreshing slumber. Dr. Young styles
sleep "tired nature's sweet restorer." Swedenborg declared that, "in
sleep the brain folded itself up, and the soul journeyed through the
body, repairing the wastes of the previous day." When sleep is natural,
the insane are in a fair way to recovery, the sick become convalescent,
ulcers granulate, and lesions are made whole.

The animal faculties are skeptical, stubborn, and dogmatic, readily
combining with those of the violent class, the ultimate tendencies of
which are criminal. They are likewise conceited, assuming, and clannish.
Any person distinguished by them, will cling to old associations,
perpetuate the status of existing parties, be a stickler for creed,
ceremonies, and stale opinions, and adhere to ancient orthodoxy in
medicine and religion. The animal faculties, since they are staid and
regular, are naturally antagonistic to genius, sensibility, and
originality. Their mental tendencies have been fairly described and
their physiological results may be represented as follows:

                                 / RESTRAINT,
                                 / SLEEP,
    The animal faculties produce { NUTRITION,
                                 \ RESTORATION,
                                 \ CONSERVATION.


BASILAR FACULTIES.


The ultimate tendencies of the faculties, represented by the posterior
base of the cerebrum, are violent and criminal. Being contiguous to the
junction of the cerebrum and spinal system, they are subject to the
influence of animal experiences. A large development of these faculties
is indicated by an unusual breadth and depth of the back part of the
base of the brain, and a full, thick neck, both of which denote good
alimentary and digestive powers. Active nutrition, plethora of the
circulation, vigorous secretion, a well developed muscular system, a
large heart and lungs, are accessory conditions. We do not associate
corpulence or surplus of vitality with a long, slender neck. The
character of cerebral manifestations is represented by the baser
faculties of mind, such as Combativeness, Destructiveness, Desperation,
Turbulence, Hatred, and Revenge. If unrestrained, these culminate in
violent and criminal acts; if _regulated_, they are employed in personal
defense. When _unduly excited_, they lead to dissipation, obscenity,
swearing, rowdyism, and licentiousness; when _perverted_, they are the
source of recklessness, quarrels, frauds, falsehoods, robberies, and
homicides. They are unlike instinct, inasmuch as they are not
self-limiting. The intimate relation which they sustain to the stomach
and nutritive functions is strikingly displayed in the habit of
alcoholic intoxication. Spirituous drinks deprave the appetite, derange
and destroy the stomach, poison the blood, and pervert all the functions
of mind and body; and their injurious influence upon the nerves and
basilar faculties is equally remarkable. They excite combativeness,
selfishness, irritability, and exaggerate the influence of the animal
organs. Intemperance results in disputes, fights, brawls, and
murders--the legitimate consequences of which are misunderstandings,
suits at law, criminal proceedings, imprisonment, and the gallows. It
is, therefore, evident that the ultimate tendencies of these faculties
are tyrannical, cruel, violent, and atrocious. They are opposed to the
noble, moral faculties--Faith, Love, and Devotion--and, whenever
temptation inordinately allures, the course of life is likely to be
characterized by dishonorable, deceptive, and treacherous conduct.

The pangs of hunger cause soldiers to act more like ravenous beasts,
than rational beings. It is animal instinct which impels the soldier to
seek first for the gratification of his appetite. Some persons,
instigated by carnivorous desires, yearn for raw meat, and will not be
satisfied unless their food is flavored with the flesh of animals. Their
bodies increase and thrive, even to repletion. Contrast these
individuals with pale, lean, anæmic people, who crave innutritious
articles of diet, and eat soft stones, slate, chalk, blue clay, and soft
coal. Such perversions of the appetite are manifested only when there is
either a diminution in the volume of blood, deficient alimentation,
defective assimilation, or a general depravity of the nutritive
functions. Morbid conditions generate vitiating tendencies and destroy
the natural appetite.

While alcoholic stimulants affect the medulla oblongata principally,
opium acts chiefly on the cerebrum, and excites reverie, dreamy
ideality, optical delusions, and the creative powers of the imagination;
some of these hallucinations are said to be grotesquely beautiful and
enjoyable. The effects of this agent differ from those of alcoholic
intoxication by not deadening the moral sensibilities, or arousing the
animal propensities. Opium smokers are dreamy and abstracted, not
quarrelsome or violent. Those who use ardent spirits lose their moral
delicacy, their intellect becomes dull, the reason cloudy, and the
judgment is overruled by appetite. It is conceded that the _trophic
center_ is principally in the medulla oblongata; the cerebellum and
lower cerebral ganglia, however, favorably influence the nutritive
functions, and, when these organs are large and active, a plethoric
condition is the natural consequence. Redundancy of blood in the body
indicates preponderance of the basilar organs. These faculties being
vehement in character, an excess of animal characteristics produces
those conditions which result in acute and inflammatory diseases. We may
express these conditions of the system as follows:

The _Animal Faculties_ correspond to the lower instinctive
manifestations.

                                  / ACQUISITIVENESS,
    The elements of character are { SELFISHNESS,
                                  \ COMBATIVENESS

    They tend to                  / TURBULENCE,
                                  \ CRIME.

                                  / ALIMENTATION,
    They relate especially to the { SECRETION,
      functions of                \ NUTRITION,
                                  \ REPRODUCTION.

                                  / VITALITY,
    A large development of them   { PLETHORA,
      indicates                   \ HYPERAEMIA (congestion).

These naturally give rise to the following diseases: Inflammation,
Rheumatism, Gout, Convulsions, etc., which, in these conditions, pursue
a violent course.


REGION OF FEEBLENESS.


Although the middle lobe of the cerebrum, at the base of the brain, does
not denote decided force of character, or energy of constitution, yet it
has a certain sphere of normal action which is essential to the harmony
of mind and body. If this region is largely developed, the constitution
is languid, inefficient, sensitive, and abnormally disposed. But if it
be deficient, the volitive energies preponderate, and there is a lack of
those susceptibilities of constitution, which prevent excessive waste.
The cerebral faculties are Fear, Anxiety, Sensibility, Servility,
Relaxation, and Melancholy, and their excessive predominance indicates a
weak, vacillating, irresolute character, and the existence of those
bodily conditions which produce _general excitability_ and chronic
derangement. A full development of this portion of the brain indicates
that the person is naturally dependent, inferior, and subservient to
stronger characters. Such a one is fearful, fretful, complaining,
irritable, dejected, morose, and, sooner or later, becomes a fit subject
for chronic disease.[5] The ultimate result of excessive fear,
excitability, and irritability, is functional or organic
derangement,--the morbid conditions represented by the word Disease. The
medulla oblongata and portions of the middle lobe of the brain, the
functions of which represent Excitability, Anxiety, Fear, and
Irritability (symbols of physical profligacy), are located just between
the ears (see Fig. 60). Inferior animals distinguished for breadth
between the ears are not only cunning and treacherous, but very
excitable and irritable. The head of the Fox is remarkable for its
extreme width at the region of Fear. He is proverbially crafty and
treacherous, always excitable, and so variable in temper that he can
never be trusted. He is a very timid thief, exceedingly suspicious,
irregular in habits, and frequently driven by hunger into mischievous
depredations.

[Illustration: Fig. 75.
Sly Reynard]

The organ of alimentiveness, located directly in front of the ear,
indicates the functional conditions of the stomach, which, when aroused
by excessive hunger, exerts a debasing influence upon this and all of
the adjacent organs, and is demoralizing to both body and mind. In
obedience to the instinct of hunger, children will slyly plunder gardens
and orchards, displaying profligate, if not reckless tendencies in the
gratification of the appetite. In this regional division we include the
medulla, the posterior and middle portions of which give rise to the
pneumogastric nerve. This nerve receives branches from the spinal
accessory, facial, hypoglossal, and the anterior trunks of the first and
second cervical, and its filaments are distributed to the lungs,
stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, and gall bladder (see Fig. 60, with
explanation) Its agency is necessary to maintain the circulation, and
the respiration, since, as the medium of communication, it conveys from
the brain large supplies of nervous force to sustain these vital
functions. It likewise instantly reports the impressions of these
physiological processes to the brain, and especially to those parts
which, by analogy of functions. It likewise instantly reports the
impressions of these physiological processes of the brain, and
especially to those parts which, by analogy of functions, are intimately
related to the stomach. Hence, we observe that the conditions of the
stomach give rise to reflex impulses, which involuntarily excite the
animal faculties to the gratification of the appetite. That the stomach
has an intimate connection with the rest of the organism is evident from
the fact that when it is inflamed the body is completely prostrated.

We have already alluded to the perverting tendencies of alcoholic
stimulants. Their peculiar influence upon the cerebellum causes the
subject to reel and stagger, as though a portion of that organ were
removed; the group of energetic faculties is stupefied, and mental as
well as corporeal lethargy is the result. The reaction, which inevitably
follows, is almost unbearable, and relief is sought by repeating and
increasing the poisonous draughts, the primary influence of which is
stimulating, the ulterior, depressing. Alcoholic stimulants unduly
excite the nervous centers, the heart, and the arteries, and,
consequently, the blood is carried to the surface of the body, where it
counteracts the influence of cold and exposure, the frequent attendants
upon drunkenness. The use of alcoholic beverages perverts the appetite,
interrupts habits of industry and destroys all force of character.
Pecuniary, physical, and mental ruin, therefore, are sure to follow as
the consequences of habitual, alcoholic intoxication.

That ordinary alimentation, which includes the process of digestion, the
subsequent vital changes involved in the conversion of food into blood,
and its final transformation into tissue, causes mental languor and
dullness, as well as bodily exhaustion, is attested by universal
experience. A torpid condition of the liver, one of the most inveterate
of chronic derangements, is indicated by sullenness, melancholy,
despondency, loss of interest in the affairs of life, sluggishness,
etc., and the ultimate tendency of this morbid state is towards
_suicide_. A broad and deep development of the middle lobe of the brain,
shown by a fullness under the chin, and of the adjacent portion of the
neck, denotes tendencies to somnambulism, delirium, and insanity. If
such characteristics of the organization do not culminate in mental
derangement, they exhibit childishness, helplessness, and great
dependence. Age abates the vigor of the executive faculties, and old
people manifest not only bodily infirmities, but the relaxing and
enfeebling influences proceeding from the lower portions of the brain.
They totter about in their second childhood, mentally and physically
enervated. Those who become dissipated by the use of intoxicating
beverages are not only weak, trifling, and foolish, but walk with an
unsteadiness which betrays their condition. These illustrations show
that this part of the brain is destitute of energy. Diseases of the
digestive organs also indicate it. Cholera, whether induced by invisible
animalcules in the air, or in water, takes the route of the alimentary
canal, opens the vital gates, and myriads of victims are swept down to
death. It proves remarkably fatal to those having this cerebral
conformation. Perhaps enough has been said to indicate the relaxing and
enfeebling tendencies of this region of the brain. They may be
classified as follows:

    _REGION OF FEEBLENESS._

                             / SERVILITY,
                             / CAUTIOUSNESS,
                             / FEAR,
    Cerebral Functions:      { ANXIETY,
                             \ SENSIBILITY,
                             \ CUNNING,
                             \ PROFLIGACY.

                             / ATONIC,
    Physiological conditions / EXCITABILITY,
    and tendencies:          { RELAXATION,
                             \ FEEBLENESS,
                             \ DISEASE.

This classification shows their tendencies to chronic disease,
functional derangement, insanity, and suicide.


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.


Before the structure of the brain was understood, Buffon spoke of it as
a "mucous substance of no great importance." Its functional significance
was so slightly appreciated that some people hardly suspected they had
any brains, until an _accident_ revealed their existence. Latterly,
however, it is generally understood that the perfection of an animal
depends upon the number and the development of the organs controlled by
the nervous system, the sovereign power of which is symbolized by a
grand cerebrum, the throne of Reason. That animal which is so low in the
scale of organization as to resemble a vegetable, belongs to an
ascending series ending in man. The lowest species have no conscious
perception, and their movements do not necessarily indicate sensation or
volition. Instinct culminates in the _Articulates_, especially in
Insects; while created intelligence reaches its acme in man, the highest
representative of the _Vertebrates_.

    "All things by regular degrees arise--
    From mere existence unto life, from life
    To intellectual power; and each degree
    Has its peculiar necessary stamp,
    Cognizable in forms distinct and lines."--LAVATER.

[Illustration: Fig. 76.
Outline of Skulls. 1. European. 2. Negro. 3.
Tiger. 4. Hedge Hog. 5. Sloth.]

Man, in the faculties of mind, possesses more than a complement for
instinct; some of the lower animals, however, seem to share his rational
nature, and to a certain degree become responsible to him. Finally, the
manifestations of mind bear a relation to the development of cerebral
substance, and to the bodily organization which supplies the brain with
blood. Fig. 76 shows the relative amount of brain matter in the lower
animals, compared with that of man; the peculiarities of each agreeing
with its cerebral conformation. It is easier to measure the capacity of
skulls in different races than to procure and weigh their brains. The
following table has been published.

    CRANIAL CAPACITY OF HUMAN RACES.

    Race.             CUBIC INCHES.

    Swedes,................. 100.00
    Anglo-Saxons,............ 96.60
    Finns,................... 95.00
    Anglo-Americans,......... 94.30
    Esquimaux,............... 86.32
    North America Indians,... 84.00
    Native Africans,......... 83.70
    Mexicans,................ 81.70
    American Negros,......... 80.80
    Peruvians and Hottentots, 75.30
    Australians,............. 75.00
    Gorilla, adult,.......... 34.50
    Idiot,................... 22.57

Mr. Davis, of England, having a collection of about eighteen hundred
cranial specimens obtained from different quarters of the globe,
ascertained the relative volume of brain in different races, by filling
the skulls with dry sand. He found that the European averaged 92 cubic
inches, the Oceanic 89, the Asiatic 88, the African 86, the Australian
81. Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, had a collection of over one thousand
skulls, and his conclusions were that the Caucasian brain is the
largest, the Mongolian next in size, the Malay and American Indian
smaller, and the Ethiopian smallest of all. The average weight of brain,
in 278 Europeans, was 49.50 oz., in 24 White American soldiers, 52.06
oz., indicating a greater _average_ for the American brain.

                                                             OUNCES
    The brain of Cuvier, the celebrated naturalist, weighed   64.33
    Ruloff, the murderer and linguist,                        59.00
    Dr. Spurzheim--phrenologist,                              55.06
    Celebrated philologist,                                   47.90
    Celebrated mineralogist,                                  43.24
    Upholsterer,                                              40.91

The weight of the human brain varies from 40 to 70 oz.; that of idiots
from 12 to 36 40 oz. The average of 273 male European brains was 49½
oz., while that of 191 females was 44 oz. If we compare the weight of
the female brain with that of the body, the ratio is found to be as
1:36.46, while that of the male is as 1:36.50; showing that, relatively,
the female brain is the larger. It appears that neither the absolute nor
relative size of the cerebrum, but the amount of gray matter which it
contains, is the criterion of mental power. Although a large cerebrum is
generally indicative of more gray matter than a small one, yet it is
ascertained that the grey substance depends upon the number, and depth
of the convolutions of the brain, and the deeper its fissures, the more
abundant is this tissue. It is this substance which is the source of
thought, while the white portion only transmits impressions.

We do not wish to underrate any attempt heretofore made to classify the
functions of mind and assign to them an appropriate nomenclature. It is
not unusual for scientists to give advice to phrenologists and point out
the fallacies of their system; but it is hardly worth while to indulge
in destructive criticism, unless something better is offered, as the day
has passed for ridiculing endeavors to understand and interpret the
physiology of the brain. The all important question is, not whether
phrenologists have properly located and rightly earned all the faculties
of mind, but have their expositions been useful in the development of
truth. While endeavoring to connect each mental power with a local
habitation in the brain, the system of phrenology may be chargeable with
some incongruous classification of the faculties, and yet it has
furnished an analysis of the mind which has been of incalculable service
to writers upon mental philosophy. Phrenology, in popularizing its
views, has interested thousands in their own organizations and powers,
who would otherwise have remained indifferent. It has called attention
to mental and bodily unities, has served as a guide to explain the
physical and psychical characteristics of individuals, and has been
instrumental in applying physiological and hygienic principles to the
habits of life, thus rendering a service for which the world is greatly
indebted. Samuel George Morton, M.D., whose eminent abilities and
scholarship are unquestionable, employs the following language:

"The importance of the brain as the seat of the faculties of the mind,
is pre-eminent in the animal economy. Hence, the avidity with which its
structure and functions have been studied in our time; for, although
much remains to be explained, much has certainly been accomplished. We
have reason to believe, not only that the brain is the center of the
whole series of mental manifestations, but that its several parts are so
many organs, each one of which performs its peculiar and distinctive
office. But the number, locality, and functions of these several organs
are far from being determined; nor should this uncertainty surprise us,
when we reflect on the slow and devious process by which mankind has
arrived at some of the simplest physiological truths, and the
difficulties that environ all inquiries into the nature of the organic
functions."

[Illustration: Fig. 77.
Side view of the brain of a Cat. A. Crucial sulcus
dividing anterior convolutions. B. Fissure of
Sylvius. C. Olfactory bulb.]

We may here allude to the recent experimental researches with reference
to the functions of various portions of the brain, prosecuted by Dr.
Ferrier, of England. He applied the electric current to different parts
of the cortical substance of the cerebrum in lower animals which had
been rendered insensible by chloroform, and by it could call forth
muscular actions expressive of ideas and emotions. Thus, in a cat, the
application of the electrodes at point 2, Fig. 77, caused elevation of
the shoulder and adduction of the limb, exactly as when a cat strikes a
ball with its paw; at point 4, corrugation of the left eye-brow, and the
drawing inward and downward of the left ear; when applied at point 5,
the animal exhibited signs of pain, screamed, and kicked with both hind
legs, especially the left, at the same time turned its head around and
looked behind in an astonished manner; at point 6, clutching movement of
the left paw, with protrusion of the claws; at point 13, twitching
backward of the left ear, and rotation of the head to the left and
slightly upward, as if the animal were listening; at point 17,
restlessness, opening of the mouth, and long-continued cries as if of
rage or pain; at a point on the under side of the hemisphere, not shown
in this figure, the animal started up, threw back its head, opened its
eyes widely, lashed its tail, panted, screamed and spit as if in furious
rage; and at point 20, sudden contraction of the muscles of the front of
the chest and neck, and of the depressors (muscles) of the lower jaw,
with panting movements. The movements of the paws were drawn inward by
stimulating the region between points 1, 2, and 6; those of the eyelids
and face were excited between 7 and 8; the side movements of the head
and ear in the region between points 9 and 14; and the movements of the
mouth, tongue and jaws, with certain associated movements of the neck,
being localized in the convolutions bordering on the fissure of Sylvius
(B), which marks the division between the anterior and middle lobes of
the cerebrum. Dr. Ferrier made similar experiments on dogs, rabbits, and
monkeys. The series of experiments made on the brain of the monkey is
said to be the most remarkable and interesting, not only because of the
variety of movements and distinctly expressive character of this animal,
but on account of the close conformity which the simple arrangement of
the convolutions of its brain bears to their more complex disposition in
the human cerebrum. It is premature to say what import we shall attach
to these experiments, but they have established the correctness of the
doctrine, advanced on page 105, that thought, the product of cerebral
functions, is a class of _reflex actions_. The cerebrum is not only the
source of ideas but also of those co-ordinate movements which correspond
to and accompany these ideas. Certain cerebral changes call forth mental
states and muscular movements which are mutually responsive. They
indicate that various functions are automatic, or dependent upon the
will, and, as we have seen, experiments indicate that the electric
current, when applied to the cerebrum, excites involuntary reflex
action. We cannot say how far these experimental results justify the
phrenological classification of the faculties of mind, by establishing a
_causative_ relation between the physical and psychical states. This
short and unsatisfactory account furnishes one fact which seems to
support the claim of such a relation: the apparent similarity between
the motor center of the lips and tongue in lower animals, and that
portion of the human cerebrum in which disease is so often found to be
associated with _Aphasia_, or loss of voice. While these experiments are
by no means conclusive in establishing a theory, yet they favor it.

It is wonderful that nervous matter can be so arranged as not only to
connect the various organs of the body, but at the same time to be the
agent of sensation, thought, and emotion. It is amazing, that a ray of
light, after traversing a distance of 91,000,000 miles, can, by falling
upon the retina, and acting as a stimulus, not only produce a
contraction of the pupil, but excite thoughts which analyze that ray,
instantly spanning the infinitude of trackless space! The same
penetrative faculties, with equal facility, can quickly and surely
discern the morbid symptoms of body and mind, become familiar with the
indications of disease, and classify them scientifically among the
phenomena of nature. The symptoms of disease which follow certain
conditions as regularly as do the signs of development, and mind itself
is no exception to this uniformity of nature. Thoughts result from
conditions, and manifest them as evidently as the falling of rain
illustrates the effect of gravity. The perceptive and highest emotive
faculties of man depend upon this simple, but marvelously endowed
nervous substance, which blends the higher spiritual with the lower
physical functions. The functions of the body are performed by separate
organs, distinguished by peculiar characteristics. To elucidate the
distinctions between dissimilar, mental faculties, we have assigned
their functions, with characteristic names, to different regions of the
head. As they unquestionably influence the bodily organs, we are
sustained by physical analogy, in our classification. Our knowledge of
the structure and functions of the nervous system is yet elementary, and
we are patiently waiting for scientists to develop its facts, and verify
them by experimental investigations and such researches as time alone
can bring to perfection. While real progress moves with slow and
measured foot-steps, the inspirations of consciousness and the
inferences of logic prepare the popular mind for cerebral analysis. No
true system can contradict the facts of our inner experience; it can
only furnish a more complete explanation of their relation to the bodily
organs. It should be expected that such careful and pains-taking
experiments, as are necessary to establish a science, will be preceded
by intuitive judgments and accredited observations, which may be, for a
time, the substitutes of those more abstruse in detail.

We have, in accordance with popular usage, treated the organs of thought
as having anatomical relations. The views which we have presented in
this chapter may seem speculative, but the facts suggesting the theory
demand attention, and we have attempted to gather a few of the scattered
fragments and arrange them in some order, rather than leave them to
uncertainty and greater mystery. It is by method and classification that
we are enabled to apply our knowledge to practical purposes. Possibly,
to some, especially the non-professional, an allusion to the fact that
cerebral physiology contributes to successful results in the practice of
medicine, may seem to be an exaggerated pretension. None, however, who
are conversant with the facts connected with the author's experience,
will so regard this practical reference, for the statement might be
greatly amplified without exceeding the bounds of truth. Physicians
generally undervalue the nervous functions, and overlook the importance
of the brain as an indicator of the conditions of the physical system,
because they are not sufficiently familiar with its influence over the
bodily functions. Pathological conditions are faithfully represented by
the thoughts, and words, when used to describe symptoms, become the
symbols of feelings which arise from disease. How few physicians there
are who can interpret the thoughts, and glean, from the expressions and
sentences of a letter, a correct idea of the morbid conditions which the
writer wishes to portray! Each malady, as well as every temperament, has
its characteristics, _and both require careful and critical analysis_
before subjecting the patient to the influence of remedial agents.

In a treatise by Dr. J.R. Buchanan, entitled "Outlines of Lectures on
the Neurological System of Anthropology," are presented original ideas
pre-eminently useful to the physician. His researches, and those of
later writers, together with our own investigations, have greatly
increased our professional knowledge. It is by such studies and
investigations that we have been prepared to interpret, with greater
facility, the indications of disease, and diagnose accurately from
symptoms, which have acquired a deeper significance by the light of
cerebral physiology. We are enabled to adapt remedies to constitutions
and their varying conditions, with a fidelity and scientific precision
which has rendered our success in treatment widely known and generally
acknowledged. We annually treat thousands of invalids whom we have never
beheld, and relieve them of their ailments. This has been accomplished
chiefly through correspondence. When patients have failed to delineate
their symptoms currently, or have given an obscure account of their
ailments, we have been materially assisted in ascertaining the character
of the disease by photographs of the subjects. The cerebral conformation
indicates the predisposition of the patient, and enables us to estimate
the strength of his recuperative energies. Thus we have a valuable guide
in the selection of remedies particularly suited to different
constitutions. In the treatment of chronic diseases, the success
attending our efforts has been widely appreciated, not only in this, but
in other countries where civilization, refinement, luxurious habits, and
effeminating customs, prevail. This fact is mentioned, not only as an
illustration of the personal benefits actually derived from a thorough
knowledge of the nervous system, but to show how generally and
extensively these advantages have been shared by others.

A careful study of cerebral physiology leads us deeper into the
mysteries of the human constitution, and to the philosophical
contemplation of the relations of mind and body. Self-culture implies
not only a knowledge of the powers of the mind, but also how to direct
and use them for its own improvement, and he who has the key to
self-knowledge, can unlock the mysteries of human nature and be
eminently serviceable to the worlds For centuries the mind has been
spreading out its treasury of revelations, to be turned to practical
account, in ascertaining the constitution, and determining better
methods of treating disease. Since comparative anatomists and
physiologists have revealed the structure of animals and the functions
of their organs, from the lowest protozoan to the highest vertebrate,
the physician may avail himself of this knowledge, and thus gain a
deeper insight into the structure and physiology of man. An intimate
acquaintance with the physical, is a necessary preparation for the study
of the psychical life, for it leads to the understanding of their mutual
relations and reactions, both in health and disease.

Consciousness, or the knowledge of sensations and mental operations, has
been variously defined. It is employed as a collective term to express
all the psychical states, and is the power by which the soul knows its
own existence. It is the immediate knowledge of any object whatever, and
seems to comprise, in its broadest signification, both matter and mind,
for all objects are inseparable from the cognizance of them. Hence, the
significance of the terms, subjective-consciousness and
objective-consciousness. People are better satisfied with their
knowledge of matter than with their conceptions of the nature of mind.


THE NATURE OF MIND.


Since this subject is being discussed by our most distinguished
scientists, we will conclude this chapter with an extract from a lecture
delivered by Prof. Burt G. Wilder, at the American Institute:

"There now remains to be disposed of, in some way, the question as to
the nature and reality of mind, which was rather evaded at the
commencement of the lecture. The reason was, that I am forced to differ
widely from the two great physiologists whom I have so often quoted this
evening. Most people, following in part early instruction, in part
revelation, in part spiritual manifestations, and in part trusting to
their own consciousness, hold that the human mind is a spiritual
substance which is associated with the body during the life of the
latter in this world, and which remains in existence after the death of
the body, and forms the spiritual clothing or embodiment of the immortal
soul; and that the individual, therefore, lives after death as a spirit
in the human form; that of this spiritual man, the soul is the essential
being, of which may be predicted a good or evil nature, while the mind,
which clothes it as a body, consists of the spiritual substances,
affections, and thoughts, which were cherished and formed during the
natural life.

Together with the above convictions respecting themselves, most people,
when thinking independently of theological sublimations, feel willing to
admit that animals have, in common with man, fewer or more natural
affections and thoughts which make up their minds, but that the inner
and immortal soul, which would retain them as part of an individual
after death of the body, is not possessed by the beasts that perish. In
short, the vast majority of mankind, when thinking quietly, and
especially in seasons of bereavement, feel well assured of the real and
substantial existence of the human mind, independently of its temporary
association with the perishable body.

But in antagonism to this simple and comforting faith, stand theological
incomprehensibilities on the one hand, and scientific skepticism on the
other. The former would have us believe that the soul is a mere vapor, a
cloud of something ethereal, of which can be expected nothing more
useful than 'loafing around the Throne,' while the latter asks us to
recognize the existence of nothing which the eyes cannot see and fingers
touch; to cease imagining that there is a soul, and to regard the mind
as merely the product of the brain; secreted thereby as the liver
secretes bile. Let us hear what the two leading nervous physiologists,
of this country, have to say upon this point:

'The brain is not, strictly speaking, the organ of the mind, for this
statement would imply that the mind exists as a force, independent of
the brain; but the mind is produced by the brain substance; and
intellectual force, if we may term the intellect a force, can be
produced only by the transmutation of a certain amount of matter; there
can be no intelligence without brain substance.'--FLINT.

'The mind may be regarded as a force, the result of nervous action, and
characterized by the ability to perceive sensations, to be conscious, to
understand, to experience emotions, and to will in accordance therewith.
Of these qualities, consciousness resides exclusively in the brain, but
the others, as is clearly shown by observation and experiment, cannot be
restricted to that organ, but are developed with more or less intensity,
in other parts of the nervous system.'--HAMMOND.

Thus do the two extremes of theology and science meet upon a common
ground of dreamy emptiness, and we who confess our comparative ignorance
are comforted by the thought that some other things have been 'hid from
the wise and prudent and revealed unto babes.' Yet, while feeling thus,
it must be admitted that the existence of spirit and of a Creator do not
yet seem capable of logical demonstration. The denial of their existence
is not incompatible with a profound acquaintance with material forms and
their operations; and, on the other hand, the belief in their existence
and substantial nature, and in their powers as first causes, have never
interfered with the recognition of the so-called material forces, and of
the organisms through which they are manifested. At present, at least,
these are purely matters of faith; but although the Spiritualist (using
the term in its broadest sense as indicating a belief in spirits), may
feel that his faith discloses a beauty and perfection in the union,
otherwise imperceptible by him, there is no reason why this difference
in faith should make him despise or quarrel with his materialist
co-worker, for the latter may do as good service to science, may be as
true a man, and live as holy a life, although from other motives.

The differences between religious sects are mainly of faith, not of
works, and the wise of all denominations are gradually coming to the
conviction that they will all do God more service by toleration and
co-operation than by animosity and disunion. And so I hold that, until
the spiritualist feels himself able to demonstrate to the unbeliever the
existence of spirit and of God, as convincingly as a mathematical
proposition, there should be no hard words or feelings upon these
points. For the present they are immaterial in every sense of the word;
and so long as he bows to the facts and the laws of Nature, and deals
with his fellow men as he would be done by, so long will I work with
him, side by side, knowing, even though I cannot tell him so, that
whether or not he joins me in this world, we shall meet in the other
world to come, where his eyes will be opened, and where his lips will at
least acquit me of bigotry and intolerance."

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XV.

THE HUMAN TEMPERAMENTS.


Organization implies vital energy, since there can be no organization
without it. The sperm cell, as we have previously seen, exists before
the initiation of the life of every individual organism. The early
history of this fertilizing cell, which is composed of infinitesimal
molecules which contain the embryo powers of life, is only partially
written. It is a fact, authenticated by Faraday, that one drop of water
contains, and may be made to evolve, as much electricity as, under a
different mode of display, would suffice to produce a lightning-flash.
Chemical force is of a higher order than physical, and vital force is of
a still higher order. Within the microscopic compass of the sperm cell
are a great number of forces acting simultaneously, which require the
answering conditions of a germ cell, and are so blended as to occupy a
minimum of space. The union of these subtle elements through the agency
of their physical, chemical, and vital forces, constitutes the
initiation of life. Elementary matter is transformed into chemical and
organic compounds, by natural forces, upon the cessation of which, it is
liberated by nature's great destroyer, and re-appears in the world of
elements. Thus, man is formed out of the very dust by means of energies
which reconstruct the crude, inert matter, and to dust he returns when
those energies cease.

When we enter upon the consideration of the temperaments, we should bear
in mind one peculiarity of life: that it combines, in a small space,
many complex powers. In the process of reproduction, there is a complex
combination of organic elements. Structures differ as greatly as their
functions. So likewise do animals vary in their nature and organization,
and individuals of the same species are, in some respects, dissimilar.
Yet the characteristics which have distinguished the races of mankind,
are fundamental and faithfully maintained. Time does not obliterate
them. Within race-limits are found enduring peculiarities, and, although
each individual is weaving out some definite pattern of organization, it
follows the type of the race, as well as the more immediate, antecedent
condition.

What then is a _Temperament_ but a _mixing together_ of these
determining forces, a certain blending manifested in the constitution by
signs, or traits, which we denominate _character_. The different races
of mankind must have their several standards of temperament, for the
peculiarities of one are not fully descriptive of, and applicable to the
other.

The term temperament is defined by Dunglison, as being "a name given to
the remarkable differences that exist between individuals, in
consequence of the variety of relations and proportions between the
constituent parts of the body.

For its simplicity and scope, we prefer the following definition,
suggested by our friend, Orin Davis, M.D.: A TEMPERAMENT IS A
COMBINATION OF ORGANIC ELEMENTS SO ARRANGED AS TO CHARACTERIZE THE
CONSTITUTION.

This leads us to consider some of the elements, conditions and forces
which give character to the organization. External circumstances supply
necessary conditions to inward activity, for without air, food, or
sunlight all living animals would perish. Everywhere, life is dependent
upon conditions and circumstances; it is _not_ self-generating. But the
conditions of reproduction are very complex. External forces are
transformed, and, in turn, become vital or formative powers. Development
is a transmutation of physical and chemical forces into vital energy.
Although unable to compute the ultimate factors of life, yet we may
illustrate their reproductive possibilities and results by comparing
them with those of a lower order.

Animal structures are mainly composed of four elements: oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon. Other constituents, such as phosphorus,
sulphur, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, enter into
their composition, but are found in much smaller quantities. From these
elements is fabricated an organism which manifests peculiar properties
and marvelous functions. If the proportion of these chemical elements be
varied, the organic compound will be changed, or, the proportions
remaining the same, if the _grouping_ of the elements be altered,
different compounds will be produced, showing that the properties of
organized substances depend upon the _molecular_ constitution of matter.

Rising in the scale of organization, we observe that every variation of
the physical and chemical processes implies a corresponding modification
of the vital. This is verified by the peculiarities of the several races
of mankind. Individual differences are likewise modifications of these
processes. Dynamical or vital differentiation depends upon these
modifications for the display of vital energy, and is always associated
with molecular changes. But it should be borne in mind that an effect
may not resemble its cause in _properties_, and the _qualities_ of a
chemical compound may be quite different from those of its individual
constituents. Organic matter, although more complex, may exhibit
properties, both like and unlike its constituent elements. Within
certain boundaries, the elements seek to satisfy their affinities. We
discover that there are limits between the genera of animals, as well as
the races of mankind. Not less really, though perhaps not as absolutely,
are there individual precincts within the sphere of the human
temperaments, which cannot be passed.

If we cannot satisfactorily explain, we can at least discover a reason
for temperamental limitation. It is not designed to circumscribe
healthful reproduction, but to serve as an effectual hindrance to
abnormal deviations. We may state our belief in more positive terms:
that the temperamental variations are essential to _genesis_ and
_fertility_, and indispensable to _health_ and _normal development_.

Every individual is susceptible to impressions which dispose to action.
Impressions which excite or increase this disposition, are called
_stimuli_. Vital change implies the existence of _stimuli_ and
_susceptibility_ to stimulation. The stimulus may not be furnished
because the conditions on which it depends are wanting; again,
susceptibility may exist at one time and not at another. Stimuli and
susceptibility may be present in different degrees, but for the purpose
of healthful reproduction they must not be impaired. No single class of
foods, albuminous, starchy, saccharine, or mineral, is sufficient for
the nutrition of the body, but the food must contain substances
belonging to each of the different classes. If an animal be fed
exclusively upon albumen, though this substance constitutes the largest
part of the bodily mass, exhaustion will rapidly follow, since the food
does not contain all the essential, nutritive elements. Again, when the
solids of the body have been wasted, they lose their susceptibility to
stimuli, and the food does no good. Thus patients become emaciated
during acute attacks of disease, upon the cessation of which they are
too feeble to recover, simply because they have lost the power to digest
and assimilate their food.

In inanimate bodies, as in crystals, forces come to rest, but the very
idea of life implies action and continual change. Hence diversity of
constitutions and different temperaments are essential in order that
marriage may result in the reproduction of vigorous beings.


VITAL AND NON-VITAL TEMPERAMENTS.


[Illustration: Fig. 78.]

In the preceding chapter, we attempted to illustrate the unique blending
of mind and body by means of the nervous system, and we now propose to
exemplify the physical conditions of the organism by certain
correspondences, observed in the development and conditions of that
system. If nature answer to mind in physical correspondences, she will
observe the same regularity in physical development. The simplest
classification of the temperaments is represented in Fig. 78. Not only
is mental activity dependent upon a vital activity in the brain, but the
development of the cerebrum is dependent upon the supply of blood. The
growth of the intellect requires the same conditions that aided in the
development of Vulcan's right arm: waste and supply; disintegration and
reparation of tissue. Our modern iron forges produce many an artisan
whose great right arm proclaims him to be a son of power as well as of
fire. Thus the fervid intellect, while forging out its thoughts,
increases in size and strength. The difference between the development
of the two is this; that the exercise of the blacksmith's right arm
quickens the activities of all the bodily functions, whereas the
employment of the intellect does not offer any healthy equivalent.
Physical exercise is a hygienic demand, but intellectual employment
exerts no salutary influence on the body, while it is constantly
expending the nutritive energies of the blood. The emotions, likewise,
make exhaustive draughts upon nutrition to supply the waste of brain
substance, just as certainly as physical labor causes muscular change,
and demands reparation. One expends cerebral, the other, muscular
substance. The one is healthful in its general tendencies, the other,
comparatively wasteful and destructive.

                                   / DISINTEGRATING,
    The intellectual faculties are { EXPENDING,
                                   \ DERIVING.

                                   / ENGROSSING,
    The emotive faculties are      { EXHAUSTING,
                                   \ DEVITALIZING.

These nervous forces are transformed into spiritual products.

The base of the anterior lobes of the brain belong to the atonic
region--the source of those languid, deranging influences which coincide
with morbidity and disease. A disturbance of the corporeal organs, which
especially influence this portion of the brain, naturally tends to the
development of insanity or imbecility. Morel has traced, through four
generations, the family history of a youth who was admitted to the
asylum at Rouen while in a state of stupidity and semi-idiocy. The
following summary of his investigations illustrates the natural course
of degeneracy as it extends through successive generations: immorality,
depravity, alcoholic excess, and moral degradation, in the
great-grandfather, who was killed in a tavern brawl; hereditary
drunkenness, maniacal attacks, ending in general paralysis, in the
grandfather; sobriety, but hypochondriacal tendencies, delusions of
persecutions, and homicidal tendencies in the father; defective
intelligence in the son. His first attack of mania occurred at sixteen,
and was followed by stupidity, and finally ended in complete idiocy.
Furthermore, there was probably an extinction of the family, for the
son's reproductive organs were as little developed as those of a child
of twelve years of age. He had two sisters who were both defective
physically and morally, and were classed as imbeciles. To complete the
proof of heredity in this case, Morel adds that the mother had a child
while the father was confined in the asylum, and that this child
exhibited no signs of degeneracy. Statistics show that multitudes of
human beings are born with a destiny against which they have neither the
will nor the power to contend; they groan under the worst of all
tyrannies, the tyranny of a bad organization, which is theirs by
inheritance. We may represent the tendencies of the anterior portion of
the brain by Fig. 79. The functional exercise of the anterior and
superior portions of the cerebrum is _disintegrating_ and
_devitalizing_, while the anterior and inferior portions coincide with
mental and physical derangement, unless counteracted by opposing forces.
It is therefore evident that in any organization, upon which is entailed
a perverted or excessive action of this portion of the cerebrum, the
tendencies are NON-VITAL, _i.e._, unfavorable to fertility and physical
health.

If the antagonizing regions are well developed, the tendencies are
favorable to life.

                                    / SANITY,
    The volitive organs promote     { TEMPERANCE,
                                    \ HARDIHOOD.

                                    / NUTRITION,
    The animal organs tend to       { RESTORATION,
                                    \ CONSERVATION.

                                    / SECRETION,
    The basilar faculties instigate { CIRCULATION,
                                    \ VITALITY.

                                    / ENERGY,
    The combined action of these    { HEALTH,
    faculties express               \ REPRODUCTION.

[Illustration: Fig. 79]

If this portion of the brain indicates a full development, we say of
such a temperament that it is VITAL, because the functions of its
nerve-centers are favorable to evolution. As degeneration observes
conditions, so endurance and development conform to certain laws, and it
is the duty of all truthful inquirers, who believe not only in the
progress of human intelligence, but in physical improvement from
generation to generation, to ascertain and comply with these essential
conditions. When the anterior and middle lobes of the brain are fully
developed at their inferior surfaces, it is regarded as an insane
temperament, _i.e._ containing the germs of mental and bodily
derangement.

How shall we distinguish the combination of organic elements, if not by
the manner in which they characterize the constitution? Every human
being is distinguished by natural peculiarities, both mental and
physical. These are indicated not only by the color of the eyes, hair,
and skin, and the mental expressions, but in the conformation and
capabilities of the corporeal system. The color, form, size, and texture
of a leaf indicate to the expert pomologist the nature of the fruit
which the tree will bear, but how much more important is it to
understand the harmonies of human development. If Prof. Agassiz could
determine the form and size of a fish by seeing its scales, and Prof.
Owen outline the skeleton of an unknown animal by viewing a portion of
its fossil, why should not the physician understand the language of
temperaments, since it opens to him the revelations of human
development? The sculptor blends character with form, the artist endows
the face with natural expression, the anatomist accurately traces the
nerves and arteries, the physiognomist reads character, which the
novelist delineates and the actor personates, because there are facts
behind all these, the materials wherewith to construct a science. In
organization there are permanent forces which operate uniformly, thus
revealing the order of nature.


THE TEMPERAMENTS CLASSIFIED.


[Illustration: Fig. 80]

We propose to speak of four constitutional variations entitled to
separate consideration; the lymphatic, the sanguine, the volitive, and
the encephalic. The brain controls all the voluntary, and modifies the
involuntary functions of the body. A particular cerebral development
modifies the functions of all the bodily organs, and thus tempers the
constitution. We shall, therefore, base our classification of
temperaments upon the mental and physiological characteristics, which
are portrayed by cerebral development. Such an arrangement is
illustrated by Fig. 80.


THE LYMPHATIC TEMPERAMENT.


The lymphatic temperament predominates when the anterior base of the
brain and the middle lobe are developed so as to exert a preponderating
influence over the bodily functions. The character of this influence we
have described in cerebral physiology. It is difficult to state
precisely the normal influences and nerve-forces which arise from these
faculties, but it is evident that they are specially related to
nutritive attraction, in opposition to volitive repulsion. It is only
their excessive influence which produces worthless, miserable, morbid
characters. A constitution marked by this development is indolent,
relaxative, and an easy prey to epidemics. This treatment is also
characterized by a low grade of vitality or resistance. When life is
sustained by the volitive powers, it is distinguished by a softness of
the bodily tissues, and the prevalence of lymph. The fact that all the
organic functions are performed indolently, indicates lack of vital
power. An excellent illustration of this temperament is found in Fig.
81, which represents a Chinese gentleman of distinction. In the lower
order of animals, as in sponges, absorption is performed by contiguous
cells, which are quite as effortless as in plants. Because of their
organic indolence, sponges are often classed as vegetables. A body
having an atonic or a lymphatic temperament is abundantly supplied with
absorbent organs, which are very sluggish in their operations. In the
lymphatic temperament, there seems to be less constructive energy,
slower elaboration, and greater frugality. Lymph is a colorless or
yellow fluid containing a large proportion of water. It is not so highly
organized as the blood, but resembles it, when that fluid is deprived of
its red corpuscles. In the sanguine temperament, circulation in the
blood-vessels is the most active, in the lacteals next, and in the
lymphatics the least so, but in the lymphatic temperament, this order is
reversed.

[Illustration: Fig. 81.]

Dr. W.B. Powell has observed that a lymphatic man has a large head,
while a fat man has a small one, and also that fat and lymph, are
convertible, one following the other, _i.e.,_ "a repletion consisting of
fat may be removed, and one of lymph may replace it, and _vice versa_."
He could not account for these alternations. The bear goes into his
winter quarters sleek and fat, and comes forth in the spring just as
plump with lymph, but he loses this fat appearance soon after obtaining
food. This simply indicates that, during lymphatic activity, the
digestive organs are comparatively quiescent. But when these are
functionally employed again, lymphatic economy is not required. It is
the duty of the lymphatics to slowly convert the fat by such
transformation, that when it reaches the general circulation, it may
there unite with other organic compounds, the process being aided by
atmospheric nitrogen, introduced during the act of respiration. In this
way it may become changed into those chemically indefinite, artificial
products, called proteid compounds. This view is supported by the
disappearance of fat as an organized product in the lymph of the
lymphatic vessels, indicating that such transformation has occurred. In
this way, by uniting with other organic compounds, it appears that lymph
may serve as a weak basis for blood; that atmospheric nitrogen is also
employed in forming these artificial compounds, is indicated by the fact
that there is sometimes less detected in arterial than in venous blood.

[Illustration: Fig. 82.
Judge Green, of the United States Court. ]

This temperament is indicated by lymphatic repletion, soft flesh, pale
complexion, watery blood, slow and soft pulse, oval head, and broad
skull, showing breadth at its base. Fig. 82 illustrates this temperament
combined with sanguine elements. In all good illustrations of this
temperament, there is a breadth of the anterior base of the skull
extending forward to the cheek bones. There is likewise a corresponding
fullness of the face under the chin, and in the neck, denoting a large
development of the anterior base of the cerebrum. The cerebral
conformation of the Hon. Judge Green indicates mental activity, and we
have no reason to suppose that lymph was particularly abundant in his
brain.

[Illustration: Fig. 83.]

While this description of the lymphatic temperament is correct, when
illustrated by the civilized races of men who are accustomed to luxury,
ease, and an abundance of food, it does not apply with equal accuracy to
the cerebral organization of the American Indian. His skull, though
broad at its anterior base, and high and wide at the cheek bones,
differs from the European in being broader and longer behind the ears.
Fig. 83 is an excellent representation of a noted North American Indian.
While a great breadth of the base of the brain indicates morbid
susceptibilities, yet these, in the Indian, are opposed by a superior
height of the posterior part of the skull. Consequently, he is restless,
impulsive, excitable, passionate, a wanderer upon the earth. The basilar
faculties, however, are large, and he is noted for instinctive
intelligence. His habits alternate from laziness to heroic effort, from
idleness and quiet to the fierce excitement of the chase, from
vagabondism to war, sometimes indolent and at other times turbulent, but
under all circumstances, irregular and unreliable. In this case, lacteal
activity is greater than lymphatic, as his nomadic life indicates.
Nevertheless, he manifests a morbid sensibility to epidemic diseases,
especially those which engender nutritive disorders and corrupt the
blood. Figs. 84 and 85 represent the brain of an American Indian, and
that of a European, and show the remarkable difference in their
anatomical configuration. Evidently it is a race-distinction. Observe
the greater breadth of the brain of the Indian, which according to
cerebral physiology indicates great alimentiveness, indolence, morbid
sensibility, irritability, profligacy, but also note that it _differs
materially in the proportion of all its parts_, from the European brain.
Judging the character of the Indian from the aforesaid representation,
we should say that he was cunning, excitable, treacherous, fitful,
taciturn, or violently demonstrative. His constitution is very
susceptible to diseases of the bowels and blood. His appetite is
ungovernable, and his love of stimulants is strong. Syphilitic poison,
small-pox, and strong drink will annihilate all these tribes sooner than
gunpowder. Their physical traits of constitution are no less
contradictory than their extremes of habit and character, for while
there is evidence of _lymphatic elements_, yet it is contradicted by the
color of the hair, eyes, and skin. This peculiar organization will not
blend in healthful harmony with that of the European, and this
demonstrates that the race-temperaments require separate and careful
analytical consideration.

[Illustration: Fig. 84.
               American Indian.
               Fig 85.
               European.

(FROM MORTON'S CRANIA AMERICANA.)

In the American Indian, the anterior lobe, lying between _AA_, and
_BB_, is small, and in the European it is large, in proportion to the
middle, lying between _BB_ and _CC_. In the American Indian, the
posterior lobe, lying between _C_ and _D_ Is much smaller than in the
European. In the Indian, the cerebral convolutions on the anterior
lobe and upper surface of the brain, are smaller than the European. If
the anterior lobe manifests the intellectual faculties--the middle
lobe the propensities common to man with the lower animals--and the
posterior lobe, the conservative energies, the result seems to be,
that the intellect of the American Indian is comparatively feeble--the
European, strong; the animal propensities of the Indian will be
great--in the European, more moderate; while reproduction, vital
energy, and conservation of the species in the Indian is not as great
as with the European. The relative proportions of the different parts
of the brain differ very materially.]

By physical culture and regulation of the habits, the excessive
tendencies of this temperament may be restrained. Solid food should be
substituted for a watery diet. If it be limited in quantity, this change
will not only diminish the size, but increase the strength of the body.
The body should be disciplined by daily percussion until the imperfectly
constructed cells, which are too feeble to resist this treatment, are
broken and replaced by those more hardy and enduring. Add to this
treatment brisk, dry rubbing, calisthenic exercises, and daily walks,
which should be gradually extended. Continue this treatment for three
months, and its favorable effects upon the temperament will surprise the
most skeptical; if continued for a year, a radical alteration will be
effected, and the hardihood, health, and vigor of the constitution will
be greatly increased.

This temperament may be improved physiologically, by being blended with
the sanguine and volitive. The offspring will be stronger, the
structures firmer, the organization more dense. Nutrition, assimilation,
and all the constructive functions will be more energetic in weaving
together the cellular fabric of the body. The sanguine temperament will
add a stimulus to the organic activities, while the volitive will
communicate manly, brave, and enduring qualities. When this temperament
is united with the encephalic, if such a union does not result in
barrenness, it adds _expending_ and _exhaustive_ tendencies to the
_enfeebling_'ones already existing, and, consequently, the offspring
lacks both physical power and intellectual activity.

The peculiarities of this temperament are observed in the diseases which
characterize it. It is specially liable to derangements of digestion,
nutrition, and blood-making. The blood is easily poisoned by morbid
products formed within the body, as well as by those derived from the
body of another. This is seen in pyæmia, produced by the introduction of
decomposing pus, or "matter," into the blood. This condition is most
likely to occur when the vital powers are low and the energies weak, for
then the fibrin decreases, the red corpuscles diminish in number, the
circulation becomes languid, the pulse grows fluttering and weak, and
this increases until death ensues. An individual of this temperament is
more easily destroyed than any other "by the poison of syphilis,
small-pox, and other contagious diseases. If the blood has received any
hereditary taint, the lymphatic glands not only reproduce it but often
increase the virulency of the original disease. This temperament
indicates a necessity for the employment of stimulating, alterative, and
antiseptic medicines. The torpid functions need arousing, the blood
needs depuration, i.e., the elimination of corrupting matter, and the
system requires alteratives to produce these salutary changes. The
secretions need the correcting influence of cleansing remedies for the
purification of the blood.

Persons of this temperament are more liable to absorption of morbid
products within the body, which are in a state of decomposition,
producing an infection of the blood, technically termed _septicæmia_.
The fatal results which so suddenly follow child-bed fever are thus
produced. This kind of poisoning sometimes takes place from the
absorption of decomposed exudation in diphtheria, and, though rarely,
from decomposing organic products collected in the lungs. Whenever the
absorption of poison does take place, fatal consequences usually follow.

This passive temperament is more likely to sink under acute attacks of
disease, especially alimentary disorders, such as diarrhea, dysentery,
and cholera. It quickly succumbs to their prostrating effects, such as
depression, congestion, and fatal collapse which rapidly succeed one
another. Venesection and harsh purgatives are contra-indicated, and the
physician who persists in their employment kills his patient. How
grateful are warmth and stimulating medicines! The most powerful,
diffusible, and nervous stimulants are required in cholera, when the
system is devastated by the disease, as the plain is laid waste by the
fierce tornado.


THE SANGUINE TEMPERAMENT.


Lymph is the characteristic of the lymphatic temperament, and its
specific gravity, temperature, and standard of vitality are all lower
than that of red blood. In the sanguine temperament all the vital
functions are more active, the blood itself has a deeper hue, its
corpuscles carry more oxygen, the complexion is quite florid, and the
arterial currents impart to every faculty a more hopeful vigor. The
blood-vessels are the most active absorbents, eagerly appropriating
nutritive materials for the general circulation, while the respiration
adds to it oxygen, that agent which makes vital manifestation possible.
This temperament exhibits greater sensibility, the conceptions are
quicker, the imagination more vivid, the appetite stronger, the passions
more violent, and there is found every display of animal life and
enjoyment.

A full development of the basilar faculties, indicated by an unusual
breadth and depth of the base of the brain, accompanies this
temperament. Its cerebral area includes the posterior and inferior
portions of the cerebrum, the entire cerebellum, and that part of the
medulla which connects with the spinal cord, all of which sustain
intimate relations to vital conditions. Accordingly, such a development
indicates good digestion, active nutrition, vigorous secretion, large
heart and lungs, powerful muscles, and surplus vitality. The violent
faculties, such as Combativeness, Destructiveness, and Hatred, are
natural adjuncts, and their excess tends to sensuality and crime. They
are not only secretive, appropriative, selfish, and self-defensive, but
when redundant are aggressive and tend to destructiveness, the
gratification of animal indulgence, intemperance, and debauchery. The
correspondence between the cerebral conformation and the physical
development is very obvious. Lower orders of animals possess these
faculties, and their spontaneous exhibition is called instinct. They
possess the acquisitive, destructive, and propagative propensities,
which lead them to provide for their wants and secure to themselves a
posterity. The exercise of their bodies causes a continual waste which
demands incessant reparation, and they are governed measurably by these
animal impulses.

All of these lower psychical faculties have a physiological
significance. Acquisitiveness functionally expresses assimilation,
accretion, animal growth, and tends to bodily repletion. Secretiveness
expresses concealing, separating, withdrawing, and functionally
signifies secretive action. Secretion is the separating and withdrawing
from the blood some of its constituents, as mucus, bile, saliva, etc.
This latter process indicates complex conditions of organization, so
that the higher and more complex the tissue, the greater the number of
secretory organs. Unrestrained selfishness, while it naturally conserves
the individual interests, in its ultimate tendencies, is the very
essence of human depravity. Without qualification, clearly, it is crime,
for blind devotion to the individual must be in utter disregard for the
good of others. The ultimate tendencies of these faculties are,
therefore, criminal.

Exaggerate the faculty of acquisitiveness, and it becomes
avariciousness. Develop secretiveness and selfishness, and they become
cunning and profligacy, desperation and crime. Their functional
development tends to produce physical disorder and violent disease. All
of these faculties are vehement, contentious, thriving by opposition.
Life itself has been called a forced state, because it wars with the
elements it appropriates, and transmutes their powers into vitality.

[Illustration: Fig. 86.]

We find men and women of this temperament, who are models of character
and organization. George Washington is an excellent illustration. The
impression that his presence made upon the Marquis de Chastellux, is
given in the following words: "I wish only to express the impression
General Washington has left on my mind; the idea of a perfect whole,
brave without temerity, laborious without ambition, generous without
prodigality, noble without pride, virtuous without severity." Gen.
Scott, Lord Cornwallis, Dr. Wistar, Bishop Soule John Bright, Jenny Lind
Goldsmidt, and Dr. Gall are good representatives of this temperament.
Fig. 86 is an excellent illustration of it, finely blended and well
balanced, in the person of Madame de Stael. This temperament requires
fewer tonics and stimulants than the lymphatic. This constitution is
best able to restore vital losses. It is a vital temperament, in other
words, it combines favorably with all the others, and better adapts
itself to their various conditions. Some regard it as the best adjusted
one in all its organs and tissues, and as the most satisfactory and
serviceable.

[Illustration: Fig. 87.]

Excess of nutrition tends to plethora, to animal indulgence, and gross
sensuality. Not only do the propensities rouse desire, but they excite
the basilar faculties, and portray their wants in the outlines of the
face, mould the features to their expression, and flash their
significance from the eye. Who can mistake the picture of sensuality
represented by Fig. 87? It is enough to shock the sensibility of a dumb
animal, and to say that such a face has a beastly look, is an unkind
reflection upon the brute creation. A large neck and corresponding
development of the occipital half of the brain indicate nervous energy,
yet nutrition is not absolutely dependent upon it, for the nutritive
processes are active before a nervous system is formed. The lower
faculties of the mind exert a remarkable influence over nutrition,
secretion, and the molecular changes incident to life. Anger or fear may
transmute the mother's nourishing milk into a virulent poison. The
following incident, taken from Dr. Carpenter's Physiology, illustrates
this statement: "A carpenter fell into a quarrel with a soldier billeted
in his house, and was set-upon by the latter with his drawn sword. The
wife of the carpenter at first trembled from fear and terror, and then
suddenly threw herself between the combatants, wrested the sword from
the soldier's hand, broke it in pieces, and threw it away. During the
tumult, some neighbors came-in and separated the men. While in this
state of strong excitement, the mother took up her child from the
cradle, where it lay playing, and in the most perfect health, never
having had a moment's illness; she gave it the breast, and in so doing
sealed its fate. In a few minutes the infant left-off sucking, became
restless, panted, and sank dead upon the mother's bosom. The physician
who was instantly called-in, found the child lying in the cradle, as if
asleep, and with its features undisturbed; but all resources were
fruitless. It was irrecoverably gone. In this interesting case, the milk
must have undergone a change, which gave it a powerful sedative action
upon the susceptible nervous system of the infant."

Anxiety, irritation, hatred, all tend to the vitiation of the
disposition and bodily functions, perverting the character and
constitution at the same time. Depravity of thought and secretion go
together. Degradation of mind and corruption of the body are
concomitants. There is a very close affinity between mental and moral
perversion and physical prostitution, of which fact too many are
unconscious. Nervous influence preserves the fluidity of the blood and
facilitates its circulation, for it appears that simple _arrestment_ of
this influence favors the coagulation of the blood in the vessels; clots
being found in their trunks within a few minutes after the brain and
spinal marrow are broken down. Habitual constipation is the source of
many ills. Perversion of the functions of the stomach, and of the
circulation of the blood, produce general disaster.

Diseases which characterize this temperament are acute, violent, or
inflammatory, indicating repletion and active congestion; intense
inflammation, burning fevers, severe rheumatism, a quick, full pulse,
great bodily heat, and functional excitement are its morbid
accompaniments. These diseases will bear thorough depletion of the
alimentary canal, active, hydragogue cathartics being indicated.
Sedatives and anodynes are also essential to modify the circulatory
forces, and to relieve pain. Violent disturbance must be quelled, and
among the remedial agents required for this duty we may include
Veratrum, Ipecac, Digitalis, Opium, Conium, and Asclepias. While
equalizing the circulatory fluids, restoring the secretions, and
thoroughly evacuating the system, and thus endeavoring to remove
disturbing causes, we find that the conditions of this temperament are
exceedingly favorable for restoration to health. True, many chronic
diseases are obstinate, yet a course of restorative medication
persistently followed, promises a fortunate issue in this tractile
temperament.

Hygienic management of the lymphatic and sanguine temperaments consists
in the vigorous toning of the former, while restraint of the latter will
greatly exempt it from the anxieties, contentions, and vexations which
excite the mind, disturb the bodily functions, and end in chronic
disease. People of the latter organization love mental and physical
stimulants, are easily inflamed by passion, and their excitability
degenerates into irritability, succeeded by serious functional
derangements, which prematurely break down the individual with
inveterate, deep-seated disorder. Serenity, hope, faith, as well as
firmness, are natural hygienic elements. It is a duty we owe ourselves
to promptly relinquish a business which corrodes with its cares, and
depresses with its increasing troubles. Constant solicitude, and the
apprehension of financial disaster, frustrate the bodily functions,
disconcert the organic processes, and lead to mental aberration as well
as physical degeneracy. Melancholy is chronic, while despair is acute
mania, whose impulses drive the victim desperately toward
self-destruction. The chronic derangement of these organs exerts with
less force the same morbid tendency. Hence the necessity for exercising
those hygienic and countervailing influences born of resolution,
assurance, and confident trust, and the belief which strengthens all of
the vital operations.

Doubtless, this temperament is the source of the reproductive powers. It
is the corner-stone essential to the foundation of all other
temperaments. It has been supposed by some that the cerebellum is the
seat of sexual instinct. The fact appears that an ample development of
the posterior base of the cerebrum and the cerebellum indicates
nutritive activity, which is certainly a condition most favorable to the
display of amativeness. In a double sense, then, this temperament is a
vital one; both by nutritive repletion, and by reproduction. It is the
blood-manufacturing, tissue-generating, and body-constructing
temperament, causing growth to exceed waste, and promptly repairing the
wear which follows continual labor.

While the sleazy structures of the lymphatic temperament are favorable
to the functions of transudation, exhalation, and mutual diffusion of
liquids, the sanguine, as its name indicates, is adapted to promote the
circulation of the blood, to favor nutrition and reproduction. The
former temperament does not move the world by its energies, or impress
it vividly with its wisdom, and the latter is more enthusiastic,
enjoyable, and quickening. Each temperament, however, possesses salient
qualities and advantages.


THE LIFE LINE.


Dr. W.B. Powell, in his work on "The Human Temperaments," announces the
discovery of a measurement which indicates the tenacity of life, and the
vital possessions of the individual. He has observed that some persons
of very feeble appearance possess remarkable powers of resistance to
disease, and continue to live until the machinery of life literally
wears out. Others, apparently stronger and more robust, die before the
usual term of life is half completed. He also noticed that some families
were remarkable for their longevity, while others reached only a certain
age, less than the average term of life, and then died. He remarked also
that some patients sank under attacks of disease, when, to all
appearances, they should recover, and that others recovered, when,
according to all reasonable calculations, they ought to die. He,
therefore, not only believed that the duration of human life was more
definitely fixed by the organization than is supposed, but he set
himself to work to discover the line of life, and the measure of its
duration. He made a distinction between vital vigor, and vital tenacity.
_Vital vigor_ he believed to be equivalent to the condition of vitality,
which is indicated by the breadth of the brain found in the sanguine
temperament; and _vital tenacity_ to be measured by the _depth_ of the
base of the brain. Dr. Powell was an indefatigable student of nature,
and followed his theory through years of observation, and measured
hundreds of heads of living persons, in order to verify the correctness
of the hypothesis. His method of measuring the head may be stated as
follows: He drew a line from the occipital protuberance on the back of
the head to the junction of the frontal and malar bones, extending it to
a point above the center of the external orbit of the eye, near the
termination of the brow. Then he measured the distance between this line
and the orifice of the ear and thus obtained the measure indicating the
vital tenacity or duration of, life. Fig. 88 is a representation of the
skull of Loper, who was executed for murder in Mississippi. He might
have attained a great age, had not his violent and selfish faculties led
him into the commission of crime. In this illustration, B represents the
occipital protuberance, and A the junction of the frontal and malar
bones at the external angle of the eye. The distance between this line
(A B) and the external orifice of the ear, is the measure of the
life-force of Loper at the time of his: execution.

[Illustration: Fig. 88.]

[Illustration: Fig. 89.]

The tenacity of an individual's life, Dr. Powell determined by the
following scale of measurements: three-fourths of an inch from the
orifice of the ear to the life-line, is the average length in the adult,
and indicates _ordinary_ tenacity of life. As the distance decreases to
five-eighths, one-half, or three-eighths of an inch, vital tenacity
diminishes. If the distance is more than three-quarters of an inch, it
denotes great vital endurance, excellent recuperative powers, and is
indicative of longevity. If it measures less than half an inch, it shows
that the constitution has a feeble, uncertain hold upon life, and an
acute disease is very likely to sunder the vital relations. Dr. Powell
contended that "life force and vital force are not equivalent terms,
because much more vital force is expended upon our relations, than upon
our organization in the preservation of life. Every muscular
contraction, every thought, and every emotion requires an expenditure of
vital force." He asserted that we _inherit_ our life force or
constitutional power, and that we can determine by this _life-line,_ the
amount which we so receive. And he believed that it could be increased
by _intellectual_ effort, just as we can increase vital force by
_physical_ exercise. Fig. 89 represents the skull of a man who died, at
nearly the same age as Loper, of consumption, in the Charity Hospital,
at New Orleans. The measurement of the skull in this case gives a space
between the life-line and the orifice of the ear of one-sixteenth of an
inch, showing that the consumptive had lived the full term of his life.
Dr. Powell contended that the depth of a man's brain may be increased
after maturity; muscular effort, mental activity, and a sense of
responsibility being favorable to longevity, while idleness and
dissipation are adverse to it. In justice to the Doctor, we have stated
fully his theory and his method of determining the hardihood and
endurance of the constitution, and we bespeak for it a candid
examination. Without doubt it embodies a great deal of truth. Hereafter
we shall endeavor to indicate by cerebral configuration, a better system
of judging of the vital tenacity, hardihood, and constitutional
energies, both inherited and acquired.


THE VOLITIVE TEMPERAMENT.


By reference to Figs. 72 and 80, the reader will be able to locate the
region of the volitive faculties, previously described under the generic
term _will_. This temperament is characterized by ambition, energy,
industry, perseverance, decision, vigilance, self-control, arrogance,
love of power, firmness, and hardihood. These faculties express
concentration of purpose and their functional equivalents are power of
elaboration, constructiveness, condensation, firmness of fiber,
compactness of frame, and endurance of organization. The pulse is full,
firm, and regular, the muscles are strong and well marked, the hair and
skin dark, the temporal region is not broadly developed, the face is
angular, its lines denoting both power of purpose and strength of
constitution, with resolution and hardihood blended in the expression.
The volitive temperament is distinguished by height of the posterior,
superior occipital region, called the crown of the back head, and by
corresponding breadth from side to side. The rule given by Dr. J.R.
Buchanan applies not only to the convolutions, but to the general
development of the brain; _length gives power, or range of action_, and
_breadth gives copiousness, or activity of manifestation_. Thus a high,
_narrow_ back head indicates firmness and decision, but it is not as
constant and copious in its manifestation as when it is associated with
breadth. An individual having a narrow, high head, may determine readily
enough upon a course of action, but he requires a longer period for its
completion than one whose head is both high and broad. Such a cerebral
conformation cannot accomplish its objects without enjoying regular
rest, and maintaining the best of habits. Breadth of this region of the
brain indicates ample resources of energy, both psychical and physical.
It denotes greater vigor of constitution, one that continually generates
volitive forces, and its persistency of purpose may be interpreted as
functional tenacity. Inflexibility of will and purpose impart their
tenacious qualities to every bodily function. The _will_ to recover is
often far more potent than medicine. We have often witnessed its power
in restraining the ravages of disease. The energetic faculties, located
at the upper and posterior part of the head, are the invigorating, or
_tonic_ elements of the constitution, imparting hardy, firm, steady, and
efficient influences, checking excess of secretion, repressing
dissipation, and tending to maintain self-possession, as well as healthy
conditions of life. Fig. 90 is a portrait of U.S. Grant, which shows a
well-balanced organization, with sufficient volitive elements to
characterize the constitution.

[Illustration: Fig. 90.]

The old term _bilious temperament_ might possibly be retained in
deference to long usage, did it not inculcate a radical error. _Bilious_
is strictly a medical term, relating to bile, or to derangements
produced by it, and it was used originally to distinguish a temperament
supposed to be characterized by a predominance of the biliary secretion.
In the volitive temperament, the firm, tenacious, toning, and
restraining faculties _repress_, rather than _encourage_ biliary
secretion, and hence the necessity for administering large doses of
cholagogues, remedies which stimulate the secretion of bile. When the
system is surcharged with bile, from a congested condition of the liver,
we use these agents in order to obtain necessary relief. In this
temperament there is moderate hepatic development, lack of biliary
activity, deficiency in the secretion of bile, and a sluggish portal
circulation. Therefore, to apply the term bilious to this temperament is
not only unreasonable, but it is calculated to mislead. The condition of
the bowels is generally constipated, the skin dark and sometimes sallow.
For these and other obvious reasons, we dismiss the word _bilious_, and
substitute one which is more characteristic.

We will not dwell upon the volitive as _psychical_ organs, except to
show that, when their influence is transmitted to the body, they act as
_physiological_ organs, and thus demonstrate that all parts of the brain
have their physiological, as well as mental functions. When Andrew
Jackson uttered with great emphasis the memorable words, "BY THE
ETERNAL," the effect was like a shock from a galvanic battery, thrilling
the cells in his own body, and paralyzing with fear every one in
Calhoun's organization. This is an illustration of the power or range of
action of these faculties. Breadth or copiousness is illustrated in Gen.
Grant's reply, "I PROPOSE TO FIGHT IT OUT ON THIS LINE, IF IT TAKES ALL
SUMMER." Such a temperament has a profusion of constitutional power,
great durability of the life-force, and, in our opinion, the combined
height and breadth of this region correctly indicate the natural
hardihood of the body and its _retentiveness of life_. No one need doubt
its influence upon the sympathetic system, and, through that system, its
power over absorption, circulation, assimilation, and secretion, as well
as the voluntary processes. Mental hardihood seems wrought into concrete
organization. It checks excess of glandular absorption, restrains the
impulses of tumultuous passion, tones and regulates the action of the
heart, and helps to weave the strands of organization into a more
compact fabric. The toning energies of the volitive faculties are better
than quinine to fortify the system against _miasma_ or _malaria_, and
they co-operate with all tonic remedies in sustaining organic action.
Fig. 91 is a portrait of Prof. Tyndall, the eminent chemist, whose
likeness indicates volitive innervation, showing great strength of
character and of constitution; he is an earnest, thorough, and intense
mental toiler; ambitious, but modest; brilliant, because persevering;
diligent in scientific inquiry, and who follows the star of truth,
whithersoever it may lead him. The expression of his countenance
indicates his honest intentions, and displays strength of conscientious
purpose; his physical constitution may be correctly interpreted in all
of its general characteristics by the analysis of his energetic
temperament, the great secret of his strength and success.

[Illustration: Fig. 91.]

[Illustration: Fig. 92.]

We desire to offer one more illustration of a marvelous blending of this
temperament with large mental and emotional faculties. Fig. 92 is a
representation of the martyred President Abraham Lincoln. During an
eventful career, his temperament and constitution experienced marked
changes, and while always distinguished for strength of purpose and
corresponding physical endurance, he was governed by noble, moral
faculties, manifesting the deepest sympathy for the down-trodden and
oppressed, blending tenderness and stateliness without weakness,
exhibiting a human kindness, and displaying a genuine compassion, which
endeared him to all hearts. He was hopeful, patriotic, _magnanimous_
even, while upholding the majesty of the law and administering the
complicated affairs of government. The balances of his temperament
operated with wonderful delicacy, through all the perturbating
influences of the rebellion, showing by their persistence that he was
never for a moment turned aside from the great end he had in view; the
protection and perpetuation of republican liberty. His life exhibited a
sublime, moral heroism, elements of character which hallow his name, and
keep it in everlasting remembrance.

We have treated the brain, not as a mass of organs radiating from the
medulla oblongata as their real center, but as two cerebral masses, each
of which is developed around the great ventricle. We have freely applied
an easy psychical and physiological nomenclature to the functions of its
organs, knowing that there is no arbitrary division of them by specific
number, for the cerebrum, in an anatomical sense, is a single organ. The
doctrine of cerebral unity is true, and the doctrine of its plurality of
function is true also. Whatever effect an organ produces when acting in
entire predominance, is regarded as the function of that organ and is
expressed by that name. Although our names and divisions are arbitrary
and designed for convenience, yet they facilitate our consideration of
the psychical, and their corresponding physiological functions. Every
cerebral manifestation denotes a _psychical_ organ, and in proportion as
these acts are transmitted to the body it becomes a _physiological_
organ. We have ventured to repeat this proposition for the sake of the
non-professional reader, that he may be able to distinguish between' the
two results of the manifestation of one organ. The transmission of the
influence of the brain into the body enables the former to act
physiologically, whereas, if its action were confined within the
cranium, it would only be psychical. In the language of Prof. J.R.
Buchanan, "every organ, therefore, has its mental and corporeal, its
psychological and physiological functions--both usually manifested
together--_either capable of assuming the predominance_." We have
already seen to what degree the _Will_ operates upon the organism, or
how "the soul imparts special energy to single organs, so that they
perform their functions with more than usual efficiency," and thus
resist the solicitations of morbific agents. Doubtless our best thoughts
are deeply tinged by the healthful or diseased conditions of such organs
as the stomach, the lungs, the heart, or even the muscular or
circulatory systems, and these impressions, when carried to the
sensorium, are reflected by the thoughts, for reflex action is the third
class of functions, assigned to the cerebrum. These reflex actions are
either hygienic and remedial, or morbid and pernicious. Hence, it is
philosophical not only to interpret the thoughts as physiological and
pathological indications, but to consider the cerebrum as exerting real
hygienic and remedial forces, capable of producing salutary reparative,
and restorative effects. When a boiler carries more steam than can be
advantageously employed, it is subjected to unnecessary and injurious
strain, and is weakened thereby; so, when the body is overtasked by
excessive pressure of the volitive faculties, it is prematurely
enfeebled and broken down. There are many individuals who need to make
use of some sort of safety valve to let off the surplus of their
inordinate ambition; they need some kind of patent brake to slacken
their speed of living; they should relieve the friction of their
functional powers by a more frequent lubrication of the vital movements,
and by stopping, for needed refreshment and rest, at some of the many
way-stations of life.


THE ENCEPHALIC TEMPERAMENT.


The encephalic temperament is distinguished by prominence and breadth of
the forehead, or by a full forehead associated with height and breadth
at its coronal junction with the parietal bones, and extending toward
the volitive region. (See Fig. 10, the space between 1 and 2 represents
the coronal region, 1 indicating the frontal bone, and 2 the parietal).
Prominence and great breadth of the forehead display _analytical, i.e._,
scientific powers applicable to concretes, whereas a fair intellect,
associated with a preponderating development of the coronal region,
indicates _analogical_ powers, _i.e._, faculties to perceive the
relation and the agreement of principles. The former classifies and
arranges facts, the latter invests them with moral and spiritual import.
The one treats of matter, its physical properties, and chemical
composition, the other of thoughts and intentions which involve right
and wrong, relating to spiritual accountability. The intellect is
employed upon an observable order of things, while the emotive faculties
arrange the general laws of being into abstract science.

Fig. 93, a portrait of Prof. Tholuck, is a remarkable example of an
encephalic organization. Figs. 72 and 79 fairly indicate the effects of
undue mental activity, the intellect causing vital expenditure resulting
in the devitalization of the blood. While the intellect displays keen
penetration, subtle discrimination, and profound discernment, the
emotions exhibit intense sensitiveness, acute susceptibility, and
inspirational impressibility. The encephalic temperament is
characterized by mental activity, great delicacy of organization, a high
and broad forehead, expressive eyes, fine but not very abundant hair,
great sensitiveness, refined feelings, vividness of conception, and
intensity of emotion. If the brain is developed on the sides, there is
manifested Ideality, Modesty, Hope, Sublimity, Imagination, and
Spirituality. If the brain and forehead project, the Perceptive,
Intuitive, and Reasoning faculties predominate. If it rises high, and
nearly perpendicularly, Liberality, Sympathy, Truthfulness, and
Sociability are manifested. When the emotive faculties are large, Faith,
Hope, Love, Philanthropy, Religion, and Devotion characterize the
individual. It is an artistic, creative, and aesthetic temperament,
beautiful in conception and grand in expression, yet its sensitiveness
is enfeebling, and its crowning excellence, when betrayed by the
propensities, trails in defilement. Its purity is God-like, its
debauchment, Perdition!

[Illustration: Fig. 93.]

Fig. 94 is the likeness of Prof. George Bush. His forehead is amply
developed in the region of Foresight, Liberality, Sympathy,
Truthfulness, and Benevolence; his mouth expresses Amiability and
Cheerfulness, and the whole face beams with Kindness and Generosity.
This philanthropist, who is both a preacher and an author, has published
several works upon theology, which distinguish him for great research
and originality.

[Illustration: Fig. 94.]

Fig. 95 represents the sanguine-encephalic temperament, the two elements
being most happily blended. The portrait is that of Emmanuel Swedenborg,
the great scholar and spiritual divine. The reader will observe how high
and symmetrical is the forehead, and how well balanced appears the
entire organization. He was remarkable for vivid imagination, great
scientific acquirements, and all his writings characterize him as a
subtle reasoner.

When the encephalic predominates, and the sanguine is deficient in its
elements, we find conditions favorable to _waste_ and _expenditure_, and
adverse to a generous _supply_ and _reformation_ of the tissues. A child
inheriting this cerebral development is already top-heavy, and supports,
at an immense disadvantage, this disproportionate organization. The
nutritive functions are overbalanced; consequently there is a
predisposition to scrofulous diseases and disorders of the blood,
various degenerating changes taking place in its composition; loss of
red corpuscles, signified by shortness of breath; morbid changes,
manifested by cutaneous eruptions; exhaustion from lack of nourishment,
etc., until, finally, consumption finishes the subject.

[Illustration: Fig. 95.]

Harmony is the support of all institutions, and applies with special
cogency to the maintenance of health. When the mind dwells on one
subject to the exclusion of all others, we call such a condition
monomania. If we have an excessive development of mind, and deficient
support of body, the result is corporeal derangement. It is unfortunate
for any child to inherit unusually large brain endowments, unless he is
possessed of a vigorous, robust constitution. Such training should be
directed to that body as will encourage it to grow strong, hearty, and
thrifty, and enable it to support the cerebral functions. The mental
proclivities should be checked and the physical organization cultivated,
to insure to such a child good health. Cut off all unnecessary
brain-wastes, attend to muscular training and such invigorating games
and exercises as encourage the circulation of the blood; keep the skin
clean and its functions active, the body warm and well protected, the
lungs supplied with pure air, the stomach furnished, with wholesome
food, besides have the child take plenty of sleep to invigorate the
system, and thus, by regular habits, maintain that equilibrium which
tends to wholesome efficiency and healthful endurance.


TRANSMISSION OF LIFE.


As has been already stated in the chapter on Biology, reproduction of
the species depends upon the union of a sperm-cell with a germ-cell, the
male furnishing the former and the female the latter. It is a well-known
fact that the marriage of persons having dissimilar temperaments is more
likely to be fertile than the union of persons of the same temperaments;
consanguineous marriages, or the union of persons nearly related by
blood, diminish fertility and the vigor of the offspring. Upon this
subject Francis Galton has given some very interesting historical
illustrations in his well-known work, entitled "Hereditary Genius." The
half-brother of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy I, King of Egypt, had
twelve descendants, who successively became kings of that country, and
who were also called Ptolemy. They were matched in and in, but in nearly
every case these near marriages were unprolific and the inheritance
generally passed through other wives. Ptolemy II married his niece, and
afterwards his sister; Ptolemy IV married his sister. Ptolemy VI and VII
were brothers, and they both consecutively married the same sister;
Ptolemy VII also subsequently married his niece; Ptolemy VIII married
two of his sisters in succession. Ptolemy XII and XIII were brothers,
and both consecutively married their sister, Cleopatra. Mr. Galton and
Sir Jas. Y. Simpson have shown that many peerages have become extinct
through the evil results of inter-marriage. Heiresses are usually only
children, the feeble product of a run-out stock, and statistics have
shown that one-fifth of them bear no children, and fully one-third never
bear more than one child. Sir J.Y. Simpson ascertained that out of 495
marriages in the British Peerage, 81 were unfruitful, or nearly one in
every six; while out of 675 marriages among an agricultural and
seafaring population, only 65 were sterile or barren, or a little less
than one in ten.

While the marriages of persons closely related, or of similar
temperaments are frequently unfruitful, we would not have the reader
understand that sterility, or barrenness, is usually the result of such
unions. It is most frequently due to some deformity or diseased
condition of the generative organs of the female. In the latter part of
this work may be found a minute description of the conditions which
cause barrenness, together with the methods of treatment, which have
proved most effectual in the extensive practice at the Invalids' Hotel
and Surgical Institute.

The temperaments may be compared to a magnet, _the like poles of which
repel, and the unlike poles of which attract each other._ Thus
similarity of temperament results in barrenness while dissimilarity
makes the vital magnetism all the more powerful. Marriageable persons
moved by some unknown influence, have been drawn instinctively toward
each other, have taken upon themselves the vows and obligations of
wedlock, and have been fruitful and happy in this relation. Alliances
founded upon position, money, or purely arbitrary considerations, mere
contracts of convenience, are very apt to prove unhappy and
unproductive.

Men may unconsciously obey strong instinctive impulses without being
conscious of their existence, and by doing so, avoid those ills, which
otherwise might destroy their connubial happiness. The _philosophy_ of
marriage receives no consideration, because the mind is pre-occupied
with newly awakened thoughts and feelings. Lovers are charmed by certain
harmonies, feel interior persuasions, respond to a new magnetic
influence and are lost in an excess of rapture.

If the parties to a marriage are evenly balanced in organic elements,
although both of them are vigorous, yet it is physiologically more
suitable for them to form a nuptial alliance with an unlike combination.
The cause of the wretchedness attending many marriages may be traced to
a too great similarity of organization, ideas, taste, education,
pursuits, and association, which similarity almost invariably terminates
in domestic unhappiness. The husband and wife should be as different as
the positive and negative poles of a magnet. When life is begotten under
these circumstances we may expect a development bright with
intelligence.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XVI

MARRIAGE.

LOVE.

    "Love is the root of creation; God's essence; worlds without number
    Lie in his bosom like children; he made them for this purpose only.
    Only to love and to be loved again, he breathed forth his spirit
    Into the slumbering dust, and upright standing, it laid its
    Hand on its heart, and felt it was warm with a flame out of heaven."

        --LONGFELLOW.


Love, that tender, inexplicable feeling which is the germinal essence of
the human spirit, is the rudimental element of the human soul. It is,
therefore, a Divine gift, a blessing which the Creator did not withdraw
from his erring children, when they were driven from a paradise of
innocence and loveliness into a world of desolation and strife. He left
it as an invisible cord by which to draw the human heart ever upward, to
a brighter home--the heavenly Eden. Love is the very essence of Divine
law, the source of inspiration, even the fountain of life itself. It is
spontaneous, generous, infinite. To its presence we are indebted for all
that is good, true, and beautiful in Art and Nature. It endows humanity
with countless virtues, and throws a mystic veil over our many faults.
It is this feeling, this immutable law, which controls the destiny of
the race. From its influence empires have fallen, scepters have been
lost. Literature owes to Love its choicest gems. The poet's lay is
sweeter when Cupid tunes the lyre. The artist's brush is truer when
guided by Love. Greece was the cradle of letters and art. Her daughters
were queens of beauty, fitted to inspire the Love of her noblest sons.

[Illustration: Fig. 96.]

The materialism of the nineteenth century has sought to degrade Love; to
define it as purely physical. The result has been a corresponding
degradation of art, and even literature has lost much of its lofty
idealism. Nudity has become a synonym of vulgarity; Love, of lust. "Evil
be to him who evil thinks." True Love never seeks to degrade its object;
on the contrary, it magnifies every virtue, endows it with divinest
attributes, and guards its chastity, or honor, at the sacrifice of its
own life. It increases benevolence by opening the lover's heart to the
wants of suffering humanity. Ideality is the canvas, and imagination the
brush with which Love delineates the beauties of the adored. Love
heightens spirituality, awakens hope, strengthens faith, and enhances
devotion. It quickens the perceptions, intensifies the sensibilities,
and redoubles the memory. It augments muscular activity, and imparts
grace to every movement. The desire to love and to be loved is innate,
and forms as much a part of our being as bone or reason. In fact, Love
may be considered as the very foundation of our spiritual existence, as
bone and reason are the essential bases of our physical and intellectual
being. Every man or woman feels the influence of this emotion, sooner or
later. It is the Kadesh-barnea of human existence; obedience to its
intuitions insures the richest blessings of life, while neglect or
perversion enkindles God's wrath, even as did the disobedience of the
wandering Israelites.

The one great fact which pervades the universe is _action_. The very
existence of Love demands its activity, and, hence, the highest
happiness is attained by a normal and legitimate development of this
element of our being. The heart demands an object upon which to lavish
the largess of its affection. In the absence of all others, a star, a
flower, or even a bird, will receive this homage. The bird warbles a gay
answer to the well-known voice, the flower repays the careful cultivator
by displaying its richest tints, the star twinkles a bright "good
evening" to the lonely watcher, and yet withal there is an unsatisfied
longing in the lover's heart, to which neither can respond; the desire
to be loved! Hence, the perfect peace of reciprocated love. If its laws
are violated, nature seeks revenge in the utter depression or
prostration of the vital energies. Thus has the Divine Law-giver
engraven His command on our very being. To love is, therefore, a duty,
the fulfillment of which should engage our noblest powers.

This emotion manifests itself in several phases, prominent among which
is filial affection, the natural harmonizer of society. Paternal love
includes a new element--protection. Greater than either, and second only
in fortitude to maternal affection, is


CONJUGAL LOVE.

    "He is blest in Love alone
    Who loves for years and loves but one."--HUNT.


With Swedenborg, we may assert, "_that there is given love truly
conjugal, which at this day is so rare, that it is not known what it is,
and scarce that it is_." The same author has defined this relation to be
a union of Love and Wisdom. The fundamental law of conjugal love is
_fidelity to one love_. God created but one Eve, and the essential
elements of paternal and maternal love pre-suppose and necessitate, for
their normal development, the Love of _one_ only. Again, Love is the sun
of woman's existence. Only under its influence does she unfold the
noblest powers of her being. Woman's intuitions should therefore be
taken as the true love-gauge. If she desire a plurality of loves, it
must be a law of her nature; but is communism the desire of our wives
and daughters? No! Every act which renders woman dear to us, denounces
such an idea and reveals the exclusive sacredness of her Love. As
condemning promiscuity in this relation, we may cite the lovers' pledges
and oaths of fidelity, the self-perpetuity of Love itself, the common
instincts of mankind, as embodied in public sentiment, and the inherent
consciousness that first love should he kept inviolable forever. Again,
Love is conservative. It clings tenaciously to all the memories
connected with its first object. The scenes consecrated to "Love's young
dream" are sacred to every heart. The woodland with its winding paths
and arbors, the streamlet bordered with drooping violets and dreamy
pimpernel, the clouds, and even "the very tones in which we spoke," are
indelibly imprinted on the memory. There is also the "mine and thine"
intuition of love. This sentiment is displayed in every thought and act
of the lover. Every pleasure is insipid unless shared by the beloved;
selfish and exacting to all others, yet always generous and forgiving to
the adored. "Mine and thine, dearest," is the language of Conjugal Love.

The consummation desired by all who experience this affection, is the
union of souls in a true marriage. Whatever of beauty or romance there
may be in the lover's dream, is enhanced and spiritualized in the
intimate communion of married life. The crown of wifehood and maternity
is purer, more divine, than that of the maiden. Passion is lost; the
emotions predominate.

The connubial relation is not an institution; it was born of the
necessities and desires of our nature. "It is not good for man to be
alone," was the Divine judgment, and so God created for him "an
helpmate." Again, "Male and female created He them;" therefore, sex is
as divine as the soul. It is often perverted, but so is reason, aye, so
is devotion.

The consummation of marriage involves the mightiest issues of life. It
may be the source of infinite happiness or the seal of a living death.
"Love is blind" is an old saying, verified by thousands of ill-assorted
unions. Many unhappy marriages are traceable to one or both of two
sources, Physical Weaknesses and Masquerading. Many are the candidates
for marriage who are rendered unfit therefor from weaknesses of their
sexual systems, induced by the violation of well-established physical
laws.

We cannot too strongly urge upon parents and guardians the imperative
duty of teaching those youths who look to them for instruction, in all
matters which pertain to their future well-being such lessons as are
embraced in the chapter of this book entitled, "Hygiene of the
Reproductive Organs." By attending to such lessons as will give the
child a knowledge of the physiology and hygiene of his whole system, the
errors into which so many of the young fall, and much of the misery
which is so often the dregs of the hymeneal cup, will be avoided.

Masquerading is a modern accomplishment. Girls wear tight shoes,
burdensome skirts, and corsets, all of which prove very injurious to
their health. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, our young ladies are
sorry specimens of womankind, and "palpitators," cosmetics, and all the
modern paraphernalia of fashion are required to make them appear fresh
and blooming. Man is equally to blame. A devotee to all the absurd
devices of fashion, he practically asserts that "dress makes the man."
But physical deformities are of far less importance than moral
imperfections. Frankness is indispensable in love. Each should know the
other's faults and virtues. Marriage will certainly disclose them; the
idol falls and the deceived lover is transformed into a cold, unloving
husband or wife. By far the greater number of unhappy marriages are
attributable to this cause. In love especially, honesty is policy and
truth will triumph.


HISTORY OF MARRIAGE.


POLYGAMY AND MONOGAMY. We propose to give only a brief dissertation on
the principles and arguments of these systems, with special reference to
their representatives in the nineteenth century. Polygamy has existed in
all ages. It is, and always has been, the result of moral degradation or
wantonness. The Garden of Eden was no harem. Primeval nature knew no
community of love. There was only the union of two "and the twain were
made one flesh." Time passed; "the sons of God saw the daughters of men
that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose."
The propensities of men were in the ascendant, and "God repented Him
that He had created man." He directed Noah to take into the ark, two of
every sort, male and female. But "the imagination of man's heart is evil
from his youth," and tradition points to Polygamy as the generally
recognized form of marriage among the ancients. The father of the Hebrew
nation was unquestionably a polygamist, and the general history of
patriarchal life shows that a plurality of wives and concubines were
national customs. In the earlier part of Egyptian history, Menes is said
to have founded a system of marriage, ostensibly monogamous, but in
reality it was polygamous, because it allowed concubinage. As
civilization advanced, the latter became unpopular, and "although
lawful, was uncommon," while polygamy was expressly forbidden. Solomon,
according to polygamous principles, with his thousand women, should have
enjoyed a most felicitous condition. Strange that he exclaimed "A woman
among all these have I not found." According to the distinguished Rabbi,
Maimonides, polygamy was a Jewish custom as late as the thirteenth
century. When Cecrops the Egyptian King, came to Athens (1550, B.C.) he
introduced a new system, which proved to be another step toward the
recognition of Monogamy. Under this code a man was permitted to have one
wife and a concubine. Here dawned the era of Grecian civilization, the
glory of which was reflected in the social and political principles of
Western Europe. During the fourth and fifth centuries B.C., concubinage
disappeared, but, under the new regime, the condition of the wife was
degraded. She was regarded as simply an instrument of procreation and a
mistress of the household, while a class of foreign women, who devoted
themselves to learning and the fine arts, were the admired, and often
the beloved companions of the husbands. These were the courtesans who
played the same role in Athenian history, as did the chaste matron, in
the annals of Rome. When Greece became subject to Rome and the national
characteristics of these nations were blended, marriage became a loose
form of monogamy. In Persia, during the reign of Cyrus, about 560 B.C.,
polygamy was sustained by custom, law, and religion. The Chinese
marriage system was, and is, practically polygamous, for, from their
earliest traditions, we learn that although a man could have but one
wife, he was permitted to have as many concubines as he desired.

In the Christian era the first religious system which incorporated
polygamy as a principle was Mohammedanism. This system, which is so
admirably adapted to the voluptuous character of the Orientals, has
penetrated Western Europe, Asia, and Africa. Hayward estimated the
number of its adherents to be one hundred and forty millions. The heaven
of the Mohammedan is replete with all the luxuries which appeal to the
animal propensities. Ravishing Houris attend the faithful, who recline
on downy couches, in pavilions of pearl. On the Western Continent a
system of promiscuity was practiced by the Mexicans, Peruvians,
Brazilians, and the barbarous tribes of North America.

The Mormon Church was founded by Joseph Smith, and professes to be in
harmony with the Bible and a special revelation to its leading Saint.
According to the Mormon code, "Love is a yearning for a higher state of
existence, and the passions, properly understood, are feeders of the
spiritual life;" and again, "nature is dual; to complete his
organization a man must marry." The leading error of Mormonism is that
it mistakes a legal permission for a Divine command. The Mormon logic
may be premised as follows: the Mosaic law allowed polygamy; the Bible
records it; therefore, the Bible _teaches_ polygamy.

A Mormon Saint can have not less than three wives but as many more as he
can conveniently support. The eight fundamental doctrines of the Mormon
Church are stated as follows: 1. God is a person with the flesh and form
of a man. 2. Man is a part of the substance of God and will himself
become a god. 3. Man is not created by God but existed from all
eternity. 4. Man is not born in sin, and is not accountable for offenses
other than his own. 5. The earth is a colony of embodied spirits, one of
many such settlements in space. 6. God is president of the immortals,
having under Him four orders of beings: (1.) Gods--_i.e._, immortal
beings, possessed of a perfect organization of soul and body, being the
final state of men who have lived on earth in perfect obedience to the
law. (2.) Angels, immortal beings who have lived on earth in imperfect
obedience to the law. (3.) Men, immortal beings in whom a living soul is
united with a human body. (4.) Spirits, immortal beings, still waiting
to receive their tabernacle of flesh. 7. Man, being one of the race of
gods, became eligible, by means of marriage, for a celestial throne, and
his household of wives and children are his kingdom, not only on earth
but in heaven. 8. The kingdom of God has been again founded on earth,
and the time has now come for the saints to take possession of their
own; but by virtue, not by violence; by industry, not by force. This
sect has met with stern and bitter opposition. It was successively
located in New York, Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, from the last of
which it was expelled by force of arms, and in 1848 established in Utah.
Its adherents number, at the present time, more than two hundred
thousand.

Another organization, differing from the Mormons, in many of its radical
principles, is that of the "Communists," popularly termed "Free Lovers."
It is located at Lennox, Madison Co., N.Y. Its members advocate a system
of "complex marriage" which they claim is instituted with a
conscientious regard for the welfare of posterity. They disclaim
"promiscuity," and assert that the tie which binds them together is as
permanent and as sacred as that of marriage. Community of property is
commensurate with freedom of Love. They define love to be "social
appreciation," and this element in their code of civilization, which
they deem superior to all others, is secondary to "bodily support." The
principles upon which their social status is founded may be briefly
summarized as follows: "Man offers woman support and love
(unconditional). Woman enjoying freedom, self-respect, health, personal
and mental competency, gives herself to man in the boundless sincerity
of an unselfish union. State--, Communism." In this, as in all forms of
polygamous marriages, love is made synonymous with sexuality, and its
purely spiritual element is lost. In every instance this spiritual
element should constitute the basis of marriage, which, without it, is
nothing more than legal prostitution. Without it, the selfish,
degrading, animal propensities run rampant, while the emotions with all
their boundless sweetness lie dormant. Woman is regarded as only a
plaything to gratify the animal caprice.

That Monogamy is a law of nature is evident from the fact that it
fulfills the three essential conditions which form the basis of true
marriage: (1.) The development of the individual (2.) The welfare of
society. (3.) The reproduction of the species.


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL.


PHYSICALLY. Reciprocated love produces a general exhilaration of the
system. The elasticity of the muscles is increased, the circulation is
quickened, and every bodily function is stimulated. The duties of life
are performed with a zest and alacrity never before experienced. "It is
not possible for human beings to attain their full stature of humanity,
except by loving long and perfectly. Behold that venerable man! He is
mature in judgment, perfect in every action and expression, and saintly
in goodness. You almost worship as you behold. What rendered him thus
perfect? What rounded off his natural asperities, and moulded up his
virtues? Love mainly. It permeated every pore, so to speak, and seasoned
every fiber of his being, as could nothing else. Mark that matronly
woman. In the bosom of her family, she is more than a queen and goddess
combined. All her looks and actions express the outflowing of some or
all of the human virtues. To know her is to love her. She became thus
perfect, not in a day or a year, but by a long series of appropriate
efforts. Then by what? Chiefly in and by love, which is specifically
adapted thus to develope this maturity." But all this occurs only when
there is a normal exercise of the sexual propensities. Excessive
indulgence in marital pleasures deadens all the higher faculties, love
included, and results in an utter prostration of the bodily powers. The
Creator has endowed man and woman with passions, the suppression of
which leads to pain, their gratification to pleasure, their satiety to
disgust. Excessive marital indulgence produces abnormal conditions of
the generative organs and not unfrequently leads to incurable disease.
Many cases of uterine disease are traceable to this cause.

MORALLY AND INTELLECTUALLY. In no country where the polygamous system
prevails do we find a code of political and social ethics which
recognizes the rights and claims of the individual. The condition of
woman is that of the basest slave, a slave to the caprice and tyranny of
her master. Communism raises her from the slough of slavery, but
subjects her to the level of prostitution. An inevitable sequence of
polygamy is a decline of literature and science. The natural tendency of
each system is to _sensualism._, The blood is diverted from its normal
channels and the result is a condition which may be appropriately termed
_mental starvation_. Sensualism is in its very nature directly opposed
to literary attainments or advancement. Happily there is a golden mean,
an equalization of those elements which constitutes the acme of
individual enjoyment.


THE WELFARE OF SOCIETY.


The general law of ethics, that "whatever is beneficial to the
individual, contributed to the highest good of society and _vice
versa_," applies with equal force to the hygienic conditions of
marriage. Each family, like the ancient Roman household, is the
prototype of the natural government under which it lives. Wherever the
marriage relation is regarded as sacred, there you will find men of pure
hearts and noble lives. Of all foreign nations the Germans are
celebrated for their sacred regard of woman, and the duties of marriage,
and all scholars from the age of Tacitus to the present day, have
concurred in attributing the elevation of woman to the pure-minded
Teutons. In America, the law recognizes only Monogamy; but domestic
unhappiness is a prominent feature of our national life; therefore,
argues the would-be free-lover, monogamy does not accord with the best
interests of mankind. The fallacy lies in the first premise. Legally,
our marriage system is monogamous but _socially_ and _practically_ it is
_not!_ Prostitution is the source of this domestic infelicity. The
"mistress" sips the sweet nectar that is denied to the deceived wife.
Legislators have battled with intemperance, but have done comparatively
little to banish from our midst this necessary (?) evil. They recoil
with disgust from this abyss of iniquity and disease. Within it is
coiled a hydra-headed monster, which invades our hearthstones,
contaminates our social atmosphere, and whose very breath is laden with
poisonous vapors, the inexhaustible source of all evil.

The perverted appetites of mankind are mistaken for the natural desires
and necessities of our being; and, accordingly, various arguments have
been advanced to prove that monogamy is not conducive to social
developement. It is curious that no one of these arguments refers to the
health and well-being of the _individual_, thus overlooking, perhaps
willfully, the great law of social economy. Even a few medical writers
sometimes advocate the principles of this so-called liberalism. In a
recently published work, there are enumerated only _two_ demerits of
polygamy and _six_ of monogamy. These six demerits which the author is
pleased to term a "bombshell," he introduces on account of his moral
convictions no less than humanitarian considerations. The same author
terms monogamy a "worm-eaten and rotten-rooted tree." The worm that is
devastating the fairest tree of Eden and draining its richest juices is
what our contemporary thinks, may be "_plausibly termed, a necessary
evil_." It is claimed that monogamy begets narrow sympathies and leads
to selfish idolatry. The fallacy of this argument lies in the
misapprehension of the term _selfishness_. Self-preservation is
literally selfishness, yet who will deny that it is a paramount duty of
man. If perverted, it may be vicious, even criminal; but selfishness, in
so far as it is generated by monogamy, is one of the chief elements of
social economy; furthermore, it favors the observance of the laws of
sexual hygiene. As we have said elsewhere, true love _increases
benevolence_, and correspondingly expands and develops the sympathies.
Selfish idolatry is preferable to social neglect. This argument will not
bear a critical examination; for it is asserted that in a happy union,
"love is so exclusive that there is hardly a liking for good neighbors,
and scarcely any love at all for God." If the "good neighbors" were
equally blessed, they would not suffer from this exclusiveness, and it
is practically true that there is no higher incentive to love and obey
our Maker than the blessing of a happy marriage.


THE PERPETUATION OF THE SPECIES.


The third essential object of marriage is the perpetuation of the
species. The desire for offspring is innate in the heart of every true
man or woman. It is thus a law of our nature, and, as such, must have
its legitimate sphere. The essential features of reproduction proclaim
monogamy to be the true method of procreation. Promiscuity would render
the mother unable to designate the father of her children. Among lower
animals, pairing is an instinctive law whenever the female is incapable
of protecting and nourishing her offspring alone. During at least
fifteen years, the child is dependent for food and clothing upon its
parents, to say nothing of the requisite moral training and loving
sympathy, which, in a great measure, mould its character. Fidelity to
one promotes multiplication. It has been argued by the advocates of
polygamy that such a system interferes with woman's natural right to
maternity. Of the many marriages celebrated yearly, comparatively few
are sterile. The statement that many single women are desirous of having
children, would apply only to a very limited number, as it is seldom
that they would be able to support children without the aid and
assistance of a father. Promiscuity diminishes the number and
_vitiates_, the quality of the human products. "Women of pleasure never
give to the world sons of genius, or daughters of moral purity."

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER XVII.

REPRODUCTION.


Every individual derives existence from a _parent_, which word literally
means one who brings forth. We restrict the meaning of the term
_reproduction_, ordinarily, to that function by which living bodies
produce other living bodies similar to themselves. _Production_ means to
bring forth; _reproduction_, the producing again, or renewing. To
protract individual existence, nutrition is necessary, because all vital
changes are attended by _wear_ and _waste_. Nutrition is always engaged
in the work of reparation. Every organism that starts out upon its
career of development depends upon nourishing materials for its growth,
and upon this renewing process for its development. Nutrition is all the
while necessary to prolong the life of the individual, but at length its
vigor wanes, its functions languish, and, finally, the light of earthly
life goes out. Although the single organization decays and passes away,
nevertheless the species is uninterruptedly continued; the tidal wave of
life surges higher on the shores of time, for reproduction is as
constant and stable as the attractive forces of the planetary system.

It is a fact, that many species of the lower order of animals which once
existed are now extinct. It has been asserted and denied, that fossil
remains of man have been found, indicating that races which once existed
have disappeared from the face of the earth. The pyramids are unfolding
a wonderful history, embracing a period of forty-five hundred years,
which the world of science receives as literally authentic, and admits,
also, that fifty-four hundred years are _probably_ as correctly
accounted for. The extinction of races is not at all improbable. At the
present time, the aboriginal inhabitants of this continent seem to be
surely undergoing gradual extinguishment! It, therefore, seems to be
possible for a weaker race to deteriorate, and finally become extinct,
unless the causes of their decadence can be discovered and remedied. All
people are admonished to earnestly investigate the essential conditions
necessary for their continuance, for the rise and fall of nations is in
obedience to natural principles and operations. Viewed from this
standpoint, it is possible that a careful study of the human
temperaments and their relations to reproduction may be of greater
moment than has hitherto been supposed, and a proper understanding of
them may tend to avert that individual deterioration, which, if suffered
to become general, would end in national disaster and the extinction of
the race.

Until recently, even naturalists believed that descendants were strictly
like their parents in form and structure. Now it is known that the
progeny may differ in both form and structure from the parent, and that
these may produce others still more unlike their ancestry. But all these
peculiar and incidental deviations finally return to the original form,
showing that these changes have definite limits, and that the
alterations observe a specific variableness, which is finally completed
by its assuming again the original form. (See page 16, Figs. 2 and 3).

_Reproduction_ may be _sexual_ or _non-sexual._ In some plants and
animals it is non-sexual. The propagation of species is accomplished by
buds. Thus the gardener grafts a new variety of fruit upon an old stock.
The florist understands how to produce new varieties of flowers, and
make them radiantly beautiful in their bright and glowing colors. The
bud personates the species and produces after its kind. Some of the
_annelides_, a division of articulate animals, characterized by an
elongated body, formed of numerous rings or annular segments, multiply
by spontaneous division. A new head is formed at intervals in certain
segments of the body. (See Fig. 97).

Something similar to this process of budding, we find taking place in a
low order of animal organization. Divide the fresh water polyp into
several pieces, and each one will grow into an entire animal. Each piece
represents a polyp, and so each parent polyp is really a compound
animal, an organized community of beings. Just as the buds of a tree,
when separated and engrafted upon another tree, grow again, each
preserving its original identity, so do the several parts of this
animal, when divided, become individual polyps, capable of similar
reproduction.

[Illustration: Fig. 97.
An annelid dividing spontaneously, a new head having been formed toward the
hinder part of the body of the parent.]

The revolving volvox likewise increases by growth until it becomes a
society of animals, a multiple system of individuals. There are
apertures from the parent, by which water gains a free access to the
interior of the whole miniature series. This monad was once supposed to
be a single animal, but the microscope shows it to be a group of animals
connected by means of six processes, and each little growing volvox
exhibits his red-eye speck and two long spines, or horns. These animals
also multiply by dividing, and thus liberate another series, which, in
their turn, reproduce other groups.

Generation requires the concurrence of _stimuli_ and _susceptibility_,
and, to perfect the process, two conditions are also necessary. The
first is the sperm, which communicates the principle of action; the
other is the germ, which receives the latent life and provides the
conditions necessary to organic evolution. The vivifying function
belongs to the male, that of nourishing and cherishing is possessed by
the female; and these conditions are sexual distinctions. The former
represents _will_ and _understanding_; the latter, _vitality_ and
_emotion_. The father directs and controls, the mother fosters and
encourages; the former counsels and admonishes, the latter persuades and
caresses; and their union in holy matrimony represents one; that is, the
blending of vitality and energy, of love and wisdom,--the elements
indispensable to the initiation of life under the dual conditions of
male and female,--_one in the functions of reproduction_.

Let us consider the modes of Sexual Reproduction, which are
_hermaphroditic_ and _dioecious_.


HERMAPHRODITIC REPRODUCTION.


We have said that two kinds of cells represent reproduction, namely,
sperm and germ-cells. These may be furnished by different individuals,
or both may be found in one. When both are found in the same individual,
the parent is said to be a _natural hermaphrodite_. A perfect
hermaphrodite possesses the attributes of both male and female--uniting
both sexes in one individual. Natural hermaphroditic reproduction occurs
only among inferior classes of animals, and naturalists inform us that
there are a greater number of these than of the more perfect varieties.
These are found low in the scale of animal organization, and one
individual is able to propagate the species. In the oyster and ascidians
no organs can be detected in the male, but in the female they are
developed. Polyps, sponges, and cystic entozoa, may also be included
among hermaphrodites.

It is only very low organisms indeed in which it is a matter of
indifference whether the united sperm-cells and germ-cells are those of
the same individual, or those of different individuals. In more
elaborate structures and highly organized beings, the essential thing in
fertilization is the union of these cells specially endowed by
_different_ bodies, the unlikeness of derivation in these united
reproductive centers being the desideratum for perpetuating life and
power.

In other classes, as _entozoa_, there appear to be special provisions
whereby the sperm-cells and germ-cells may be united; _i.e._, the male
organs are developed and so disposed as to fecundate the ova of the same
individual. Sexual and non-sexual modes of reproduction are illustrated
by that well-defined group of marine invertebrate animals, called
_cirripedia_ Fig. 98 represents one of this genus.

[Illustration: Fig. 98.
Pollicipes Mitella.]

Some of these are not only capable of self-impregnation, but likewise
have what are called _complemental males_ attache to some of the
hermaphrodites. In the whole animal kingdom, it may be doubted if there
exists another such class of rudimentary creatures as the parasitic
males, who possess neither mouth, stomach, thorax, nor abdomen. After
exerting a peculiar sexual influence, they soon die and drop off; so
that in this class of animals may be found the sexual distinctions of
male, female, and perfect hermaphrodites.

[Illustration: Fig. 99.
Rotiferia; Brachionus Urceolaris;
largely magnified. ]

There is a class of wheel-animalcules termed _rotifera_, of which the
revolving volvox is one example. They have acquired this name on account
of the apparent rotation of the disc-like organs which surround their
mouths and are covered with _cilia_, or little hairs. They are minute
creatures, and can best be viewed with a microscope, although the larger
forms may be seen without such assistance. They are widely diffused on
the surface of the earth, inhabit lakes as well as the ocean, and are
found in cold, temperate, and tropical climates. The rotifera were once
supposed to be hermaphrodites, but the existence of sexes in one species
has been clearly established. The male, however, is much smaller, and
far less developed than the female. In some of these species,
germ-cells, or eggs, are found, which do not require fecundation for
reproduction or development, so that they belong to the non-sexual
class.

The third variety of hermaphrodites embraces those animals in which the
male organs are so disposed as not to fecundate the ova of the same
body, but require the co-operation of two individuals, notwithstanding
the co-existence in each of the organs of both sexes. Each in turn
impregnates the other. The common leech, earth-worm, and snail,
propagate in this manner.

_Unnatural hermaphrodism_ is characteristic of insects and crustaceans,
in which the whole body indicates a neutral character, tending to
exhibit the peculiarities of male or female, in proportion to the kind
of sexual organs which predominates. Half of the body may be occupied by
male, the other half by female organs, and each half reflects its
peculiar sexual characteristics. Some butterflies are dimidiate
hermaphrodites; _i.e._ one side of the body has the form and color of
the male, the other the form and color of the female. The wings show by
their color and appearance these sexual distinctions. The stag-beetle is
also an example. We have accounts of dimidiate hermaphrodite lobster,
male in one half and female in the other half of the body.

Among the numerous classes of higher animals, which have red blood, we
have heard of no well-authenticated instance of hermaphrodism, or the
complete union of _all_ the reproductive organs in one individual. True,
the term _hermaphrodite_ is often applied to certain persons in whom
there is some malformation, deficiency, or excess, of the genital
organs. These congenital deformities consisting of combined increase or
deficiency, supernumerary organs, or transposition of them, which
usually render generation physically impossible, have been called
_bisexual hermaphrodism_ and classed as monstrosities. We have many
published accounts of them, hence, further reference to them here is
unnecessary. We would especially refer those readers who may desire to
make themselves further acquainted with this interesting subject, to the
standard physiological works of Flint, Foster, Carpenter, Bennett,
Dalton, and others equally eminent in this particular branch of science.

Certain theories have been advanced concerning conditions which may
influence the sex of the offspring. One is that the right ovary
furnishes the germs for males, the left for females that the right
testicle furnishes sperm capable of fecundating the germs of males, and
the left testicle, the germs of the left ovary, for females. That
fecundation sometimes takes place from right to left and thus produces
these abnormal variations. We merely state the hypothesis, but do not
regard it as accounting for the distinction of sex, or as causing
monstrosities, though it is somewhat plausible as a theory, and is not
easily disproved. In the lower order of animals, as sheep and swine, one
of the testicles has been removed, and there resulted afterward both
male and female progeny, so that the theory seems to lack facts for a
foundation.

We sometimes witness in the child excessive development, as five
fingers, a large cranium, which results in dropsical effusion, or
deficient brain, as in idiots; sometimes a hand or arm is lacking, or
possibly there is a dual connection, as in the case of the Siamese
twins; or, two heads united on one body. It is difficult to give any
satisfactory explanation of these abnormal developments. From age to
age, the type is _constant_, and preserves a race-unity. The crossings
of the races are only transient deviations, not capable of perpetuation,
and quickly return again to the original stock. This force is
persistent, for inasmuch as the individual represents the race, so does
his offspring represent the parental characteristics, in tastes,
proclivities, and morals, as well as in organic resemblances. This
constancy is unaccountable, and more mysterious than the occasional
malformation of germs in the early period of foetal life. If to every
deviation from that original form and structure, which gives character
to the productions of nature, we apply the term _monster_, we shall find
but very few, and from this whole class there will be a very small
number indeed of _sexual_ malformations. If the sexes be deprived of the
generative organs, they approach each other in disposition and
appearance. All those who are partly male and partly female in their
organization, unite, to a certain extent, the characteristics of both
sexes. When the female loses her prolific powers, many of her sexual
peculiarities and attractions wane.


DIOECIOUS REPRODUCTION.


_Dioecious_ is a word derived from the Greek, and signifies _two
households;_ hence, _dioecious reproduction_ is sexual generation by
male and female individuals. Each is distinguished by sexual
characteristics. The male sexual organs are complete in one individual,
and all the female organs belong to a separate feminine organization. In
some of the vertebrates, impregnation does not require sexual congress;
in other words, fecundation may take place _externally_. The female fish
of some species first deposits her ova, and afterwards the male swims to
that locality and fertilizes them with sperm.

In higher orders of animals, fecundation occurs _internally_, the
conjunction of the sperm and germ cells requiring the conjugation of the
male and female sexual organs. The sperm-cells of the male furnish the
quickening principle, which sets in play all the generative energies,
while the germ-cell, susceptible to its vivifying presence, responds
with all the conditions necessary to evolution. The special laboratory
which furnishes spermatic material is the _testes_, while the stroma of
the _ovaries_ contributes the germ-cell. Several different modes of
reproducing are observed when fecundation occurs within the body, which
vary according to the peculiarities and organization of the female.

MODES OF DIOECIOUS REPRODUCTION.--A very familiar illustration of one
mode is found in the common domestic fowl, the egg of which vivified
within the ovarium, is afterward expelled and hatched by the simple
agency of warmth. This mode of reproduction is called _oviparous
generation_.

The ovaries, as well as all their latent germs, are _remarkably_
influenced by the first fecundation. It seems to indicate monogamy as
the rule of higher sexual reproduction. The farmer understands that if
he wishes to materially improve his cows, the first offspring must be
begotten by a better, purer breed, and all that follow will be
essentially benefited, even if not so well sired. Neither will the best
blood exhibit its most desirable qualities in the calves whose mothers
have previously carried inferior stock. So that there are sexual
ante-natal influences which may deteriorate the quality of the progeny.
The Jews understood this principle, in the raising up of sons and
daughters unto a deceased brother. The fact that the sexual influence of
a previous conception is not lost, is illustrated when, in a second
marriage, the wife bears a son or daughter resembling bodily or
mentally, or in both of these respects the former husband. This
indicates a union for life by natural influences which never die out.

With some species of fish and reptiles, the egg is impregnated
internally, and the process of _laying_ commences immediately, but it
proceeds so slowly through the excretory passages, that it is hatched
and born alive. This is called _ovo-viviparous generation_.

As we rise in the scale of organization, animals are more completely
developed, and greater economy is displayed in their preservation. The
germ passes from the ovary into an organ prepared for its reception and
growth, to which, after fecundation, it becomes attached, and where it
remains until sufficiently developed to maintain respiratory life. This
organ is called the _womb_, or _uterus_, and is peculiar to most
mammalia. This mode of reproduction is termed _viviparous generation_.

The kangaroo and oppossum are provided with a pouch attached to the
abdomen, which receives the young born at an early stage of development.
They remain in contact with the mammæ, from which they obtain their
nourishment, until their growth is sufficiently completed to maintain an
independent existence. This is called _marsupial generation_. The
variety of reproduction which is most interesting, is that of the human
species, and is called _viviparous generation_. It includes the
functions of copulation, fecundation, gestation, parturition, and
lactation.

For the full and perfect development of mankind, both mental and
physical chastity is necessary. The health demands abstinence from
unlawful intercourse. Therefore children should not be allowed to read
impure works of fiction, which tend to inflame the mind and excite the
passions. Only in total abstinence from illicit pleasures is there moral
safety and health, while integrity, peace, and happiness, are the
conscious rewards of virtue. Impurity travels downward with
intemperance, obscenity, and corrupting diseases, to degradation and
death. A dissolute, licentious, free-and-easy life is filled with the
dregs of human suffering, iniquity, and despair. The penalties which
follow a violation of the law of chastity are found to be severe and
swiftly retributive.

[Illustration: Fig. 100.
Male]

[Illustration: Fig. 101.
Female]

[Illustration: Fig. 102.
Outline of the Female Urinary and
Generative Organs.]

The union of the sexes in holy matrimony is a law of nature finding
sanction in both morals and legislation. Even some of the lower animals
unite in this union for life, and instinctively observe the law of
conjugal fidelity with a consistency which might put to blush other
animals more highly endowed. It is important to discuss this subject and
understand our social evils, as well as the unnatural desires of the
sexes, which must be controlled or they lead to ruin. Sexual
propensities are possessed by all, and they must be held in abeyance,
until they are exercised for legitimate purposes. Hence parents ought to
understand the value of mental and physical labor to elevate and
strengthen the intellectual and moral faculties of their children, to
develop the muscular system and direct the energies of the blood into
healthful channels. Vigorous employment of mind and body engrosses the
vital energies and diverts them from undue excitement of the sexual
desires.

[Illustration: Fig. 103.
Outline of the Male Reproductive Organs.]

Sexual generation by pairing individuals is the most economical mode of
propagating the species. The lower orders of animals possess wonderful
multiplicative powers and their faculty for reproduction is offset by
various destructive forces. The increased ability for self-maintenance
implies diminished reproductive energy; hence the necessity for greater
economy and safety in rearing the young. As certain larvae and insects
increase, the birds which feed upon them become more numerous. When this
means of support becomes inadequate, these same birds diminish in number
in proportion to the scarcity of their food. Many have remarked that
very prolific seasons are followed by unusual mortality, just as periods
of uncommon prosperity precede those of severe disaster.

The increased mental and moral cultivation of mankind imposes upon them
the necessity for greater physical culture. "Wiser and weaker," is a
trite saying, and means that the exercise of the higher nature discloses
the equivalent necessity of culturing the body, in order to support the
increasing expenditures of the former. Mental and moral discipline are
essential for a proper understanding how to provide for the body, for
physical training increases the capacity of the individual for
self-preservation. Constant vigilance is the price of health as well as
of liberty.

It is an interesting physiological fact that, while the growth and
development of the individual are rapidly progressing, the reproductive
powers remain almost inactive, and that the commencement of reproduction
not only indicates an arrest of growth, but, in a great measure,
contributes toward it. From infancy to puberty, the body and its
individual organs, structurally as well as functionally, are in a state
of gradual and progressive evolution. Men and women generally increase
in stature until the twenty-fifth year, and it is safe to assume that
perfection of function is not established until maturity of bodily
development is completed. Solidity and strength are represented in the
organization of the male, grace, and beauty in that of the female. His
broad shoulders represent physical power and the right of dominion,
while her bosom is the symbol of love and nutrition. The father
encounters hardships, struggles against difficulties, and braves dangers
to provide for his household; the mother tenderly supplies the infant's
wants, finding relief and pleasure in imparting nourishment, and
surrounds helpless infancy with an affection which is unwearied in its
countless ministering attentions. Her maternal functions are indicated
by greater breadth of the hips. Physical differences so influence their
mental natures, that, "before experience has opened their eyes, the
dreams of the young man and maiden differ." The development of either is
in close sympathy with their organs of reproduction. Any defect of the
latter impairs our fair ideal, and detracts from those qualities which
impart excellence, and crown the character with perfections. Plainly has
Nature marked out, in the organization, very different offices to be
performed by the sexes, and has made these distinctions fundamental.

Likewise, Nature expresses the intention of reproduction by giving to
plants and animals distinctive organs for this purpose. These are
endowed with exquisite sensibility, so that their proper exercise
produces enjoyment beneficial to both. Excessive sexual indulgence not
only prostrates the nervous system, enfeebles the body, and drains the
blood of its vivifying elements, but is inconsistent with intellectual
activity, morality, and spiritual development. The most entrancing
delights and consummate enjoyments are of the emotive order, ideal,
abstract, and pure, so inspiring that they overpower the grosser sensual
pleasures and diffuse their own sweet chastity and refining influence
over all the processes of life.

Hence, the gratification of the sexual instincts should always be
moderate. It should be regulated by the judgment and will, and kept
within the bounds of health. No person has a moral right to carry this
indulgence so far as to produce injurious consequences to either party,
and he who cannot refrain from it is in no proper condition to propagate
his species. In all culture there must be self-control, and the practice
of self-denial at the command of love and justice is always a virtue.
Self-government is the polity of our people, and we point with pride and
laudable exultation to our political maxims, laws, and free
institutions. The family is the prototype of society. If self-restraint
be practiced in the marital relation, then the principle of self-control
will carry health, strength, and morality into all parts of the
commonwealth. The leading characteristics of any nation are but the
reflection of the traits of its individual members, and thus the family
truly typifies the practical morality and enduring character of a
people.


OVULATION.


The _Ovaries_ are those essential parts of the generative system of the
human female in which the ova are matured. There are two ovaries, one on
each side of the uterus, and connected with it by the Fallopian tubes;
they are ovoidal bodies about an inch in diameter, and furnish the
_germs_ or ovules. These latter are very minute, seldom measuring 1/120
of an inch in diameter, and frequently are not more than half that size.
The ovaries develop with the growth of the female, so that, finally, at
the pubescent period, they ripen and liberate an ovum, or germ vesicle,
which is carried into the uterine cavity through the Fallopian tubes.
With the aid of the microscope, we find that these ova are composed of
granular substance, in which is found a miniature yolk surrounded by a
transparent membrane, called the _zona pellucida_. This yolk contains a
germinal vesicle in which can be discovered a nucleus, called the
_germinal spot_. The process of the growth of the ovaries is very
gradual, and their function of ripening and discharging an ovum every
month into the Fallopian tubes and uterus is not developed until between
the twelfth and fifteenth years.

This period, which indicates, by the feelings and ideas, the desires and
will, that the subjects are capable of procreation, is called _puberty_.
The mind acquires new and more delicate perceptions, the person becomes
plumper, the mammæ enlarge, and there is grace and perfection in every
movement, a conscious completeness for those relations of life for which
this function prepares them. The period of puberty is also indicated by


MENSTRUATION.


The catamenial discharge naturally follows the ripening and liberation
of an ovum, and as the ovaries furnish one of these each month, this
monthly flow is termed the _menses_ (the plural of the Latin word
_mensis_, which signifies a month). The menstrual flow continues from
three to five days, and is merely the exudation of ordinary venous blood
through the mucous lining of the cavity of the uterus. At this time, the
nervous system of females is much more sensitive, and from the fact that
there is greater aptitude to conception immediately before and after
this period, it is supposed that the sexual feeling is then the
strongest. When impregnation occurs immediately before the appearance of
the menses, their duration is generally shortened, but not sufficiently
to establish the suspicion that conception has taken place. The germ is
the contribution of the female, which provides the conditions which only
require the vivifying principle of the sperm for the development of
another being. The period of aptitude for conception terminates at the
time both ovulation and menstruation cease, which, unless brought about
earlier by disease, usually occurs about the forty-fifth year of her
age.


FECUNDATION.


Since in the beginning God created male and female, and said unto them,
"Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth," it is evident that
what was originated by creation must be continued by procreation. The
process of generation the reader will find described on pages 12 and 13.
Then commences a wonderful series of transforming operations,
rudimentary changes preliminary to the formation of tissues, structures
and functions, which finally qualify the organism for independent
existence. The ovum, when expelled from the ovary, enters the
fimbriated, or fringe-like extremity of the Fallopian tube, to commence
at once its descent to the uterus. The process of passing through this
minute tube varies in different animals. In birds and reptiles, the bulk
of the expelled ova is so great as to completely fill up the tube, and
it is assisted in its downward course, partly by its own weight and
partly by the peristaltic action of the muscular coat of the canal. In
the human subject, however, the ova are so minute that nature has
supplied a special agent for their direct transmission; otherwise they
might be retained, and not reach their destination. Accordingly, the
fimbriated, trumpet-shaped extremity of the Fallopian tubes, which is
nearest to the ovaries, and, consequently from the ovary first receives
the ovum when expelled; is provided with a series of small hairs, termed
_cilia_, forming the lining or basement membrane of the tubes, and, the
movements of these cilia being towards the uterus, transmit, by their
vibrating motion, the ovum from the ovary, through the Fallopian tubes,
to the uterus.

The mature ovum, however, is not by itself capable of being converted
into the embryo. It requires fecundation by the spermatic fluid of the
male, and this may take place immediately on the expulsion of the ovum
from the ovary, or during its passage through the Fallopian tube, or,
according to Bischoff, Coste, and others, in the cavity of the uterus,
or even upon the surface of the ovary. Should impregnation, however,
fail, the ovum gradually loses its vitality, and is eventually expelled
by the uterine secretions. It occasionally happens that the descent of
the impregnated ovum is arrested, and the formation of the embryo
commences in the ovary. This is termed _ovarian pregnancy_. Or again,
the ovum may be arrested in its passage through the Fallopian tube,
causing what is termed _tubal pregnancy_; or, after it has been expelled
from the ovary, it may fail to be received by the fimbriated extremity,
and escape into the cavity of the abdomen, forming what has been termed
_ventral pregnancy_. If the microscopic germ lodges in some slight
interstice of fiber, during its passage through the walls of the uterus,
it may be detained long enough to fix itself there, and when this
occurs, it is termed _interstitial pregnancy_. All these instances of
extra-uterine pregnancy may necessitate the employment of surgical
skill, in order that they may terminate with safety to the mother. Their
occurrence, however, is very rare.

The intense nervous excitement produced by the act of coition is
immediately followed by a corresponding degree of depression, and a too
frequent repetition of it is necessarily injurious to health. The
secretions of the seminal fluid being, like other secretions, chiefly
under the influence of the nervous system, an expenditure of them
requires a corresponding renewal. This renewal greatly taxes the
corporeal powers, inducing lassitude, nervousness, and debility. It is a
well known fact that the highest degree of mental and bodily vigor is
inconsistent with more than a moderate indulgence in sexual intercourse.

To ensure strength, symmetry, and high intellectual culture in the human
race, requires considerable care. Consideration should be exercised in
the choice of a companion for life. Constitutional as well as hereditary
ailments demand our closest attention. Age has also its judicious
barriers. As before stated, when reproduction commences, growth, as a
rule, ceases, therefore, it is inexpedient that matrimony should be
consummated before the parties have arrived at mature stature.


PREVENTION OF CONCEPTION.


Much has been written upon the question whether married people have a
right to decline the responsibilities of wedlock. The practice of
inducing abortion is not only immoral but criminal, because it is
destructive to both the health of the mother and the life of the embryo
being. If both the parties to a marriage be feeble, or if they be not
temperamentally adapted to each other, so that their children would be
deformed, insane, or idiotic, then to beget offspring would be a
flagrant wrong. If the mother is already delicate, possessing feeble
constitutional powers, she is inadequate to the duties of maternity,
_and it is not right to lay such burdens upon her_. Self-preservation is
the first law of nature, which all ought to respect. The woman may be
able to discharge the duties of a loving wife and companion, when she
cannot fulfill those of child-bearing. If the husband love his wife as
he ought, he will resign all the pleasure necessary to secure her
exemption from the condition of maternity. It seems to us, that it is a
great wickedness, unpardonable even, to be so reckless of consequences,
and so devoid of all feeling, as to expose a frail, feeble, affectionate
woman to those perils which almost insure her death. To enforce
pregnancy under such circumstances is a crime. Every true man,
therefore, should rather practice self-control and forbearance, than
entail on his wife such certain misery, if not danger to life.

Undoubtedly, the trial is great, but if a sacrifice be required, let the
husband forbear the gratification of passions which will assuredly be
the means of developing in his delicate wife symptoms that may speedily
hurry her into a premature grave. Before she has recovered from the
effects of bearing, nursing, and rearing one child, ere she has regained
proper tone and vigor of body and mind, she is unexpectedly overtaken,
_surprised_ by the manifestation of symptoms which again indicate
pregnancy. Children thus begotten are not apt to be hardy and
long-lived. From the love that parents feel for their posterity, from
their wishes for their success, from their hopes that they may be useful
from every consideration for their future well-being, let them exercise
precaution and forbearance, until the wife becomes sufficiently healthy
and enduring to bequeath her own vital stamina to the child she bears.

From what has been said on this subject, it behooves the prudent husband
to weigh well the injurious, nay criminal results which may follow his
lust. Let him not endanger the health, and it may be the life, of his
loving and confiding wife through a lack of self-denial. Let him
altogether refrain, rather than be the means of untold misery and,
perhaps, the destruction of the person demanding his most cherished love
and protection. On so important a subject, we feel we should commit an
unpardonable wrong were we not to speak thus plainly and openly. An
opportunity has been afforded us, which it would be reprehensible to
neglect. We shall indeed feel we have been amply rewarded, if these
suggestive remarks of ours tend in any way to remove or alleviate the
sufferings of an uncomplaining and loving wife. Our sympathies, always
susceptible to the conditions of sorrow and suffering, have been
enlisted to give faithfully, explicitly, and plainly, warnings of danger
and exhortations to prudence and nothing remains for us but to maintain
the principles of morality, and leave to the disposal of a wise and
overruling Providence the mystery of all seemingly untoward events. In
every condition of life, evils arise, and most of those which are
encountered are avoidable. Humanity should be held accountable for those
evils which it might, but does not shun.

By a statute of the national government, prevention of pregnancy is
considered a punishable offense; whereas every physician is instructed
by our standard writers and lecturers on this subject, that not only
prevention is necessary in many instances, but even abortion must
sometimes be produced in order to save the mother's life. As we view the
matter, the law of the national government asserts the ruling principle,
and the exceptions to it must be well established by evidence, in order
to fully justify such procedure. The family physician may, with the
concurrence of other medical counselors, be justified, in rare cases, in
advising means for the prevention of conception, but he should exercise
this professional duty _only_ when the responsibility is shared by other
members of the profession, and the circumstances fully and clearly
warrant such a practice.

After fecundation, the length of time before conception takes place is
variously estimated. Should impregnation occur at the ovary or within
the Fallopian tubes, usually about a week elapses before the fertilized
germ enters the uterus, so that ordinarily the interval between the act
of insemination and that of conception varies from eight to fourteen
days.


DOUBLE CONCEPTION.


If two germs be evolved simultaneously, each may be impregnated by
spermatozoa, and a twin pregnancy be the result. This is by no means a
rare occurrence. It is very unusual, however, to have one birth followed
by another after an interval of three or four months, and each babe
present the evidences of full maturity. Perhaps such occurrences may be
accounted for on the supposition that the same interval of time elapses
between the impregnation of the two germs as there is difference
observed in their birth; that after the act of insemination, sperm was
carried to each ovary; that one had matured a germ ready for
fecundation, then impregnation and conception immediately followed, and
the decidua of the uterus hermetically sealed both Fallopian tubes, and
thus securely retained the sperm within the other Fallopian canal. The
stimulus of the sperm so pent up causes that ovary to mature a germ,
although it may do so slowly, and after two or three months it is
perfected, fertilized, and a second conception occurs within the uterus.
If each embryo observe a regular period of growth and each be born at
maturity, there must be an interval of two or three months between their
births. But it is far more common for the parturition of the first,
displaying signs of full maturity, to coincide with the birth of a
second which is immature and which cannot sustain respiratory life. The
birth of the latter is brought about prematurely, by the action of the
uterus in expelling the matured child.


UTERINE PREGNANCY.


There are many who manifest a laudable desire to understand the
physiology of conception, the changes which take place, and the order of
their natural occurrence. When impregnation takes place at the ovaries
or within the Fallopian tubes, there is exuded upon the inner surface of
the womb a peculiar nutritious substance. It flows out of the minute
porous openings surrounding the termination of the Fallopian tube within
the uterine cavity, and, thus, is in readiness to receive the germ, and
retain it there until it becomes attached. Undoubtedly, the germ imbibes
materials from this matter for its nurture and growth. This membranous
substance is termed the _decidua_, and disappears after conception is
insured. Two membranes form around the embryo; the inner one is called
the _amnion_, the outer one the _chorion_. Both serve for the protection
of the embryo, and the inner one contains the _liquor amnii,_ in which
it floats during intra-uterine life. Immediately after conception, the
small glands in the neck of the uterus usually throw out a sticky
secretion, filling the canal, or uniting its sides, so that nothing can
enter or leave the uterine cavity.

The fertilized ovum rapidly develops. After its conception it imbibes
nourishment, and there is a disposition in fluids to pass into it,
through its delicately-organized membranes. If this process is not
involuntary, it is, at all events, at the convenience and use of the
developing germ. After three months the embryo is termed the _foetus_.
Its fluids are then so much more highly organized, that some of them are
tinged with sanguine hues, and thenceforward acquire the characteristics
of red blood. Out of red blood, blood-vessels are formed, and from the
incipient development of the heart follow faint lines of arteries, and
the engineers of nutrition survey a circulatory system, perfecting the
vascular connections by supplementing the arteries with a complete
net-work of veins and capillaries.


THE PLACENTA OR AFTERBIRTH.


Whenever conception occurs, a soft, spongy substance is formed between
the uterus and the growing ovum, called the _placenta_. It is composed
of membrane, cellular tissue, blood-vessels, and connecting filaments.
The principal use of this organ seems to be to decarbonate the blood of
the foetus, and to supply it with oxygen. It performs the same function
for the foetus that the lungs do for the organism after birth. It allows
the blood of the foetus to come into very close contact with that of the
mother, from which it receives a supply of oxygen, and to which it gives
up carbonic acid. This interchange of gases takes place in the placenta,
or between it and the uterus, through the intervening membranes. This
decarbonating function requires the agency of the maternal lungs, for
the purpose of oxygenating the mother's blood.

The placenta is attached to the uterus by simple adhesion. True, in some
instances, morbid adhesion takes place, or a growing together in
consequence of inflammation, but the natural junction is one merely of
contact, the membranes of the placenta spreading out upon the cavity of
the uterus, so that, finally, the former may be entirely removed without
a particle of disturbance or injury to the latter. Formerly, it was
supposed that the placental vessels penetrated into the substance of the
uterus. We know now there is no such continuation of the vessels of the
one into the other. The decarbonation of the blood requires the
placental and uterine membranes to be in contact with each other.

If the union were vascular, the mother's blood would circulate in the
foetal body, and the impulses of the maternal heart might prove too
strong for the delicate organism of the embryo. Besides, the separation
of the placenta from the uterus might prove fatal to both parent and
offspring. The placenta is only a temporary organ, and when its
functions are no longer required, it is easily and safely removed.


THE UMBILICAL CORD.


The foetal blood is transmitted to and fro between the body of the child
and the placenta, by a cord which contains two arteries and one vein.
This is called the _umbilical cord_, because it enters the body at the
middle of the abdominal region, or _umbilicus_. It is composed, also, of
its own proper membranous sheath, or skin, and cellular tissues, besides
the blood-vessels. Two months after pregnancy, this cord can be seen,
when it commences to grow rapidly.


QUICKENING.


Not until the mother feels motion is she said to be quick with child.
That is, the child must be old and strong enough to communicate a
physical impulse, which the mother can distinctly perceive, before it is
regarded as having received life. This is a fallacy, for the germ has to
be endowed with life before organization can begin. The act of
impregnation communicates the vital principle, and from that moment it
starts upon its career of development. A long period elapses after this
occurs before it can make the mother feel its motions. Before
quickening, the attempt to destroy the foetus is not considered so grave
a crime by our laws, but after this quickening takes place, it is deemed
a felony.


THE RIGHT TO TERMINATE PREGNANCY.


The expediency and the moral right to prematurely terminate pregnancy
must be admitted when weighty and sufficient reasons for it exist. Such
a course should never be undertaken, however, without the advice and
approval of the family physician, and, whenever it is possible, the
counsel of another medical practitioner should be obtained. There may be
so great a malformation of the pelvic bones as to preclude delivery at
full term, or, as in some instances, the pregnant condition may endanger
the life of the mother, because she is not able to retain nourishment
upon the stomach. In such cases only, is interference warranted, and
even then the advice of some well-informed physician should be first
obtained, to make sure that the life of the mother is endangered before
so extreme a measure is resorted to.

Those who are qualified for maternal duties should not undertake to
defeat the intentions of nature, simply because they love ease and
dislike responsibility. Such persons may be considered genteel ladies,
but, practically, they are indifferent to the claims of society and
posterity. How such selfishness contrasts with the glorious, heroic,
Spartan spirit of the young woman who consulted us in reference to the
acceptance of a tempting offer of marriage! She was below medium size
and delicately organized. She hesitated in her answer, because she was
uncertain as to her duty to herself, and to her proposed husband, and on
account of the prospective contingencies of matrimony. After she was
told that it was doubtful whether she could discharge the obligations of
maternity with safety to herself, and yet that she might prove to her
intended husband a true and valuable wife, she quickly answered, her
black eyes radiant with the high purpose of her soul: "If I assent to
this offer, I shall accept the condition and its consequences also, even
if pregnancy be my lot and I know it will cost me my life!" She acceded
to the proposal, and years found them one in happiness; then a daughter
was born, but the bearing and nursing were too much for her delicate
constitution, and she continued to sink until she found rest in the
grave. Of all her beautiful and noble sayings, none reflect more moral
grandeur of spirit than the one in which she expressed her purpose to
prove true to posterity.


THE SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.


The symptoms which indicate pregnancy are cessation of the menses,
enlargement of the mammæ, nausea, especially in the morning, distention
of the abdomen, and movement of the foetus. A married woman has reason
to suspect that she may have conceived, when, at the proper time, she
fails to menstruate, especially when she knows that she is liable to
become pregnant. A second menstrual failure strengthens this suspicion,
although there are many other causes which might prevent the appearance
of the menses, such as disease of the uterus, general debility, or
taking cold, and all of these should be taken into account. In the
absence of all apparent influences calculated to obstruct the menses,
the presumption ordinarily is that pregnancy is the cause of their
non-appearance. The evidence is still more conclusive when the mammæ and
abdomen enlarge after experiencing morning sickness. Notwithstanding all
these symptoms, the audible sound of the heart, or the movements of the
foetus, are the only _infallible_ signs of a pregnant condition.


THE DURATION OF PREGNANCY.


The ordinary duration of pregnancy is about forty weeks, or 280 days. It
is difficult to foretell exactly when a pregnancy will be completed, for
it cannot be known precisely when it began. Some gestations are more
protracted than others, but the average duration is the time we have
given. A very reasonable way to compute the term, is to reckon three
months back from the day when the menses ceased and then add five days
to that time, which will be the date of the expected time of
confinement. It is customary, also, for women to count from the middle
of the month after the last appearance of the menses, and then allow ten
_lunar_ months for the term. This computation generally proves correct,
except in those instances in which conception takes place immediately
before the fast appearance of the catamenia. A few women can forecast
the time of labor from the occurrence of quickening, by allowing
eighteen weeks for the time which has elapsed since conception, and
twenty-two more for the time yet to elapse before the confinement. With
those in whom quickening occurs regularly in a certain week of
pregnancy, this calculation may prove nearly correct.

The English law fixes no precise limit for the legitimacy of the child.
In France a child is regarded as lawfully begotten if born within three
hundred days after the death or departure of the husband. There are a
sufficient number of cases on record to show that gestation may be
prolonged two, and even three, weeks beyond the ordinary, or average
term. The variation of time may be thus accounted for: after
insemination, a considerable interval elapses before fecundation takes
place, and the passage of the fertilized germ from the ovary to the
uterus is also liable to be retarded. There are many circumstances and
conditions which might serve to diminish its ordinary rate of progress,
and postpone the date of conception. This would materially lengthen the
_apparent_ time of gestation.

It is likewise difficult to determine the shortest period at which
gestation may terminate, and the child be able to survive. A child may
be born and continue to live for some months, after twenty-four or
twenty-five weeks of gestation; it was so decided, at least, in an
ecclesiastical trial.

We have not the space to describe minutely, or at length, the formation
and growth of the foetal structures, and trace them separately from
their origin to their completion at the birth of the child. The student
of medicine must gain information by consulting large works and
exhaustive treatises on this interesting subject.

What trifling contingencies defeat vitality! Conception may be prevented
by acrid secretions, the result of disease of the reproductive organs.
Leucorrheal matter may destroy the vitalizing power of the sperm-cells.
There are many ways, even after impregnation, of compromising the
existence of the frail embryo. Accidents, injuries, falls, blows, acute
diseases, insufficient nutrition and development, in fact, a great
variety of occurrences may destroy the life of the embryo, or foetus.
After birth, numerous diseases menace the child. By what constant care
must it ever be surrounded, and how often is it snatched from the very
jaws of death!

What, then, is man but simply a germ, evolving higher powers, and
destined for a purer and nobler existence! His latent life secretly
emerges from mysterious obscurity, is incarnated, and borne upon the
flowing stream of time to a spiritual destination--to realms of
immortality! As he nears those ever-blooming shores, the eye of faith,
illuminated by the inspired word, dimly discerns the perennial glories.
Quickened by Faith, Hope, and Love, his spirit is transplanted into the
garden of paradise, the Eden of happiness, redeemed, perfected, and made
glorious in the divine image of Him who hath said, "I am the Way, the
_Truth_, and the LIFE."

       *       *       *       *       *




PART II.

HYGIENE.




CHAPTER I.

HYGIENE DEFINED.--PURE AIR.


The object of hygiene is the _preservation of health_. Hitherto, we have
considered, at some length, the science of functions, or _Physiology_,
and now, under the head of _Hygiene_, we will give an outline of the
means of maintaining the functional integrity of the system. It is
difficult to avoid including under this head Preventive Medicine, the
special province of which is to abate, remove, or destroy the many
causes of disease.

The Greeks bestowed divine honors upon Aesculapius, because he remedied
the evils of mankind and healed the sick. The word hygiene is derived
from Hygeia, the name of the Greek goddess of health. As male and female
are made one in wedlock, so Medicine and Hygiene, restoration and
preservation, are inseparably united.

Hygiene inculcates sanitary discipline, medicine, remedial discipline;
hygiene prescribes healthful agencies, medical theory and practice,
medicinal agencies; hygiene ministers with salubrious and salutary
agents, medicine assuages with rectifying properties and qualities;
hygiene upholds and sustains, medical practice corrects and heals; the
one is preservative and conservative, the other curative and
restorative. These discriminations are as radical as health and
sickness, as distinct as physiology and pathology, and to confound them
is as unnatural as to look for the beauties of health in the chamber of
sickness.

The true physician brings to his aid Physiology, Hygiene, and Medicine,
and combines the science of the former with the art of the latter, that
restoration may be made permanent, and the health preserved by the aid
of hygiene. But when any one makes Hygiene exclusively the physician, or
deals wholly in hygienic regulations with little respect for physiology,
or lavishly advertises with hygienic prefixes, we may at once consider
it a display, not of genuine scientific knowledge, but only of the
ignorance of a quack. Some of the modern twaddle about health is a
conglomeration of the poorest kind of trash, expressing and inculcating
more errors and whims than it does common sense. Many persons dilate
upon these subjects with amazing flippancy, their mission seeming to be
to traduce the profession rather than to act as help-mates and
assistants. We do not believe that there is any real argument going on
between the educated members of the medical profession but rather that
the senseless clamor we occasionally hear comes only from the stampede
of some routed, demoralized company of quacks.

In the following pages we shall introduce to the reader's attention
several important hygienic subjects, although there are many more that
ought to receive special notice. Such as we do mention, demand universal
attention, because a disregard of the conditions which we shall
enumerate, is fraught with great danger. Our lives are lengthened or
shortened by the observance or neglect of the rules of common sense, and
these do not require any great personal sacrifice, or the practice of
absurd precautions.


PURE AIR FOR RESPIRATION.


Ordinary atmospheric air contains nearly 2,100 parts of oxygen and 7,900
of nitrogen, and about three parts of carbonic acid, in 10,000 parts;
expired air contains about 470 parts of carbonic acid, and only between
1500 and 1600 parts of oxygen, while the quantity of nitrogen undergoes
little or no alteration. Thus air which has been breathed has lost about
five per cent. of oxygen and has gained nearly five per cent. of
carbonic acid. In addition the expired air contains a greater or less
quantity of highly decomposable animal matter, and, however dry the
atmospheric air may be, the expired air is always saturated with watery
vapor, and, no matter what the temperature of the external air may be,
that of the exhaled air is always nearly as warm as the blood. An adult
man on a average breathes about sixteen times in a minute and at every
inspiration takes in about thirty cubic inches of air, and at every
expiration exhales about the same amount. Hence, it follows that about
16-2/3 cubic feet of air are passed through the lungs of an adult man
every hour, and deprived of oxygen and charged with carbonic acid to the
amount of nearly five per cent. The more nearly the composition of the
external air approaches that of the expired air, the slower will be the
diffusion of carbonic acid outwards and of oxygen inwards, and the more
charged with carbonic acid and deficient in oxygen will the blood in the
lungs become. Asphyxia takes place whenever the proportion of carbonic
acid in the external air reaches ten per cent., providing the oxygen is
diminished in like proportion, and it does not matter whether this
condition of the external air is produced by shutting out fresh air from
a room or by increasing the number of persons who are consuming the same
air; or by permitting the air to be deprived of oxygen by combustion by
a fire. A deficiency of oxygen and an accumulation of carbonic acid in
the atmosphere, produce injurious effects, however, long before the
asphyxiating point is attained. Headache, drowsiness, and uneasiness
occur when less than one per cent. of the oxygen of the atmosphere is
replaced by other matters, and the constant breathing of such an
atmosphere lowers vitality and predisposes to disease.

Therefore, every human being should be supplied, by proper ventilation,
with a sufficient supply of fresh air. Every adult individual ought to
have at least 800 cubic feet of air-space to himself, and this space
ought to communicate freely with the external atmosphere by means of
direct or indirect channels. Hence, a sleeping-room for one adult person
should not be less than nine by ten feet in breadth and length and nine
feet in height. What occurred in the Black Hole at Calcutta is an
excellent illustration of the effect of vitiated air. One hundred and
forty-six Englishmen were confined in a room eighteen feet square, with
two small windows on one side to admit air. Ten hours after their
imprisonment, only twenty-three were alive.

VENTILATION OF SCHOOL ROOMS. The depression and faintness from which
many students suffer, after being confined in a poorly ventilated school
room, is clearly traceable to vitiated air, while the evil is often
ascribed to excessive mental exertion. The effect of ventilation upon
the health of students is a subject of universal interest to parents and
educators, and at present is receiving the marked attention of school
authorities. Dr. F. Windsor, of Winchester, Mass., made a few pertinent
remarks upon this subject in the annual report of the State Board of
Health, of Massachusetts, 1874. One of the institutions, which was
spoken of in the report of 1873, as a _model_, in the warming and
ventilation of which much care had been bestowed, was visited in
December, 1873. He reports as follows: "I visited several of the rooms,
and found the air in all, offensive to the smell, the odor being such as
one would imagine old boots, dirty clothes, and perspiration would make
if boiled down together;" again, in the new _model_ school-house the hot
air enters at two registers in the floor on one side, and makes (or is
supposed to make) its exit by a ventilator at the floor, on the other
side of the room." The master said "_the air was supposed to have some
degree of intelligence, and to know that the ventilator was its proper
exit_." Thorough ventilation has been neglected by many school officials
on account of the increased expense it causes. In our climate, during
seven months at least, pure atmospheric air must be paid for. The
construction of vertical ducts, the extra amount of fuel, and the
attendant expenditures are the objections which, in the opinion of many
persons, outweigh the health and happiness of the future generation. It
is necessary for the proper ventilation of our school rooms that an
adequate supply of fresh air should be admitted, which should be warmed
before being admitted to the room, and which should be discharged as
contaminated, after its expiration. The proper ventilation of the school
room consists in the warming and introduction of fresh air from without,
and the discharge of the expired and unwholesome air from within. This
may be accomplished by means of doors, windows, chimneys, and finally by
ventilators placed, one near the level of the floor, and the other near
the ceiling of the room. The ventilators ought to be arranged on the
opposite sides of the room, in order to insure a current, and an
abundant supply of air. When trustees and patrons realize that pure air
is absolutely essential to health, and that their children are being
slowly poisoned by the foul air of school rooms, then they will
construct our halls of learning with a due regard for the laws of
hygiene, and students will not droop under their tasks on account of the
absence of Nature's most bountiful gift, _pure air_.

VENTILATION OF FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS. This is a subject which demands
the immediate attention of manufacturers and employers. The odors of
oil, coal gas, and animal products, render the air foul and stagnant,
and often give rise to violent diseases among the operatives. From two
to four hundred persons are often confined in workshops six hundred feet
long, with no means of ventilation except windows _on one side only_.
The air is breathed and re-breathed, until the operatives complain of
languor and headache, which they attribute to overwork. The _real_ cause
of the headache is the inhalation of foul air at every expansion of the
lungs. If the proprietors would provide efficient means for ventilating
their workshops, the cost of construction would be repaid with compound
interest, in the better health of their operatives and the consequent
increase of labor. Our manufacturers must learn and practice the great
principle of political economy, namely, that the interests of the
laborer and employer are mutual.

VENTILATION OF OUR DWELLINGS. Not less important is the ventilation of
our dwellings; each apartment should be provided with some channel for
the escape of the noxious vapors constantly accumulating. Most of the
tenements occupied by the poor of our cities are literally dens of
poison. Their children inhale disease with their earliest breath. What
wonder that our streets are filled with squalid, wan-visaged children!
Charity, indeed, visits these miserable homes, bringing garments and
food to their half-famished inmates; but she has been slow to learn that
fresh air is just as essential to life as food or clothing. Care should
be taken by the public authorities of every city, that its tenement
houses do not degenerate into foul hovels, like those of the poor
English laborer, so graphically portrayed by Dickens. But ill-ventilated
rooms are not found exclusively in the abodes of the poor. True, in the
homes of luxury, the effect of vitiated air is modified by food, etc.
Men of wealth give far more attention to the architecture and adornment
of their houses, to costly decorations and expensive furniture, than to
proper ventilation. Farmers, too, are careless in the construction of
their cottages. Their dwellings are often built, for convenience, in too
close proximity to the barn. Because they do not construct a suitable
sewer or drain, the filth and refuse food is thrown out of the back
door, where it accumulates and undergoes putrefaction; the vitiated air
penetrates the interior of the house, and, there being no means of
ventilation, it remains to be breathed by the occupants. The result is,
that for the sake of saving a few dollars, which ought to be expended in
the construction of necessary flues and sewers, the farmer often sees
the child he prizes far more than his broad acres gradually decline, or
suddenly fall a victim to fevers or malignant disease. Parents, make
your homes healthy, let in the pure, fresh air and bright sunlight, so
that your conscience may never upbraid you with being neglectful of the
health and lives of your little ones.


SITE FOR HOMES.


MALARIA. When about to construct our residences, besides securing proper
ventilation and adequate drainage, we ought to select the location for a
home on dry soil. Low levels, damp surroundings, and marshy localities
not only breed malaria and fevers, but are a prolific cause of colds,
coughs, and consumption. Care should be taken not to locate a dwelling
where the natural currents of air, or high winds, will be likely to
bring the poison of decayed vegetable matter from low lands. Certain
brooks, boggy land, ponds, foggy localities, too much shade, all these
are favorable to the development of disease. Then the walls of a
building should be so constructed as to admit air between the exterior
and interior surfaces, otherwise the interior of the house will be damp
and unwholesome. In the dead of winter in northern latitudes the house
ought to be kept slightly tempered with warmth, both night and day, a
condition very favorable to the introduction and change of atmospheric
currents. The invigorating tendencies of a dry, pure atmosphere are
remarkably beneficial, while air charged with moisture and decay is
exceedingly baneful, introducing diseases under various forms.

Neither should the dwelling be shaded by dense foliage. The dampness of
the leaves tends to attract malaria. Trees growing a little distance
from the house, however, obstruct the transmission of unhealthy vapors
arising beyond them. Malaria generally lurks near the surface of the
earth, and seems to be more abundant in the night time. Persons sleeping
in the upper story of a house may escape its morbid influence, while
those occupying apartments on the lower floor, become affected.


DAMP CELLARS.


Damp cellars, under residences, are a fruitful cause of disease. Dr.
Sanford B. Hunt, in an article in the _Newark Daily Advertiser_,
speaking of the recent epidemic of diphtheria in New York City, says:

"Pestilences that come bodily, like cholera, are faced and beaten by
sanitary measures. Those which come more subtly need for their defeat
only a higher detective ability and a closer study of causes, many of
which are known, but hidden under the cellars of our houses, and which
at last are only preventable by public authority and at public expense
in letting out the imprisoned dampness which saturates the earth on
which our dwellings are built. Where wood rots, men decay. This is
clearly shown in the sanitary map printed in the _Times_. In the great
district surrounding Central Park, and which participates in its
drainage system, there are no cases. On the whole line of Fifth Avenue
there are none. The exempt districts are clearly defined by the
character of the soil, drainage, and sewerage, and by the topography,
which either has natural or artificial drainage, but most of which is so
dry that only surface-water and house-filth--which does not exist in
those palaces--can affect the health of the residents. But in the
tenement houses and on the made lands where running streams have been
filled in and natural springs choked up by earth fillings, diphtheria
finds a nidus in which to develop itself. The sanitary map coincides
precisely with the topographic map made by Gen. Viele. Where he locates
buried springs and water-courses, there we find the plague spots of
diphtheria and in the same places, on previous maps prepared by the
Board of Health, we find other low types and stealthy diseases, such as
typhoid and irruptive fevers, and there we shall find them again when
the summer and autumnal pestilences have yielded place to those which
belong to the indoor poisoned air in the winter. The experience of other
cities, notably London and Dublin, once plague spots and now as healthy
as any spot on earth, proves that most of the causations of disease are
within the control of the competent sanitary engineer, even in
localities crowded beyond American knowledge, and houses built upon soil
saturated for centuries with the offal of successive and uncleanly
generations. Wet earth, kept wet by the boiling up of imprisoned
springs, is a focus of disease. Dry earth is one of the most perfect
deodorizers, the best of oxydizers and absorbents, destroying the germs
of disease with wonderful certainty. On those two facts rests the theory
of public hygiene."


DUST AND DISEASE.


The air we breathe is heavily loaded with minute particles of floating
dust, their presence being revealed only by intense local illumination.
Professor Tyndall says: "solar light, in passing through a dark room,
reveals its track by illuminating the dust floating in the air. 'The
sun,' says Daniel Culverwell, 'discovers atoms, though they be invisible
by candle-light, and makes them dance naked in his beams.'"

After giving the details and results of a series of experiments in which
he attempted to extract the dust from the air of the Royal Institute by
passing it through a tube containing fragments of glass wetted with
concentrated sulphuric acid, and thence through a second tube containing
fragments of marble wetted with a strong solution of caustic potash,
which experiments were attended with perfect failure, the Professor
continues, "I tried to intercept this floating matter in various ways;
and on the day just mentioned, prior to sending the air through the
drying apparatus, I carefully permitted it to pass over the tip of a
spirit-lamp flame. The floating matter no longer appeared, having been
burnt up by the flame. It was, therefore, of _organic origin_. I was by
no means prepared for this result; for I had thought that the dust of
our air was, in great part, inorganic and non-combustile." In a foot
note he says, "according to an analysis kindly furnished me by Dr.
Percy, the dust collected _from the walls_ of the British Museum
contains fully fifty per cent of inorganic matter. I have every
confidence in the results of this distinguished chemist; they show that
the _floating_ dust of our rooms is, as it were, winnowed from the
heavier matter." Again he says: "the air of our London rooms is loaded
with this organic dust, nor is the country air free from its presence.
However ordinary daylight may permit it to disguise itself, a
sufficiently powerful beam causes dust suspended in air to appear almost
as a semi-solid. Nobody could, in the first instance, without
repugnance, place the mouth at the illuminated focus of the electric
beam and inhale the thickly-massed dust revealed there. Nor is the
repugnance abolished by the reflection that, although we do not see the
floating particles, we are taking them into our lungs every hour and
minute of our lives." "The notion was expressed by Kircher and favored
by Linnaeus, that epidemic diseases are due to germs which float in the
atmosphere, enter the body, and produce disturbance by the development
within the body of parasitic life. While it was struggling against great
odds, this theory found an expounder and a defender in the President of
this institution. At a time when most of his medical brethren considered
it a wild dream, Sir Henry Holland contended that some form of the
germ-theory was probably true." Professor Tyndall proposes means by the
application of which air loaded with noxious particles may be freed from
them before entering the air passages. The following embodies his
suggestions on this point:


COTTON-WOOL RESPIRATOR.


"I now empty my lungs as perfectly as possible, and placing a handful of
cotton-wool against my mouth and nostrils, inhale through it. There is
no difficulty in thus filling the lungs with air. On expiring this air
through a glass tube, its freedom from floating matter is at once
manifest. From the very beginning of the act of expiration the beam is
pierced by a black aperture. The first puff from the lungs abolishes the
illuminated dust, and puts a patch of darkness in its place; and the
darkness continues throughout the entire course of the expiration. When
the tube is placed below the beam and moved to and fro, the same
smoke-like appearance as that obtained with a flame is observed. _In
short, the cotton-wool, when used in sufficient quantity, and with due
care, completely intercepts the floating matter on its way to the
lungs_.

The application of these experiments is obvious. If a physician wishes
to hold back from the lungs of his patient, or from his own, the germs
or virus by which contagious disease is propagated, he will employ a
cotton-wool respirator. If perfectly filtered, attendants may breathe
the air unharmed. In all probability the protection of the lungs and
mouth will be the protection of the entire system. For it is exceedingly
probable that the germs which lodge in the air-passages, or find their
way with the saliva into the stomach with its absorbent system, are
those which sow in the body epidemic disease. If this be so, then
disease can be warded off by carefully prepared filters of cotton-wool.
I should be most willing to test their efficacy in my own person. But
apart from all doubtful applications, it is perfectly certain that
various noxious trades in England may be rendered harmless by the use of
such filters. I have had conclusive evidence of this from people engaged
in such trades. A form of respirator devised by Mr. Garrick, a hotel
proprietor in Glasgow, in which inhalation and exhalation occur through
two different valves, the one permitting the air to enter through the
cotton-wool, and the other permitting the exit of the air direct into
the atmosphere, is well adapted for this purpose. But other forms might
readily be devised."


LIGHT AND HEALTH.


Our dwellings ought freely to admit the sunlight. Diseases which have
baffled the skill of physicians have been known to yield when the
patients were removed from dark rooms to light and cheerful apartments.
Lavoisier placed light, as an agent of health, even before pure air.
Plants which grow in the shade are slender and weak, and children
brought up in dark rooms are pale, sallow, and rickety. It is a bad
practice to avoid the sunlight through fear of spoiling the complexion,
since the sun's rays are necessary to give to it the delicate tints of
beauty and health. Air is necessary for the first inspiration and the
last expiration of our lives, but the purity and healthfulness of the
atmosphere depend upon the warming rays of the sun, while our bodies
require light in order that their functions may be properly performed.
We know that without solar light, there can be no proper vegetable
growth, and it is equally necessary for the beauty and perfection of
animal development. Our dwellings should therefore be well lighted and
made as bright and cheerful as possible. Women who curtain the windows,
soften the light, and tint the room with some mellow shade, may do so in
order to hide their own faulty complexions. The skin of persons confined
in dungeons or in deep mines becomes pale or sickly yellow, the blood
grows watery, the skin blotches, and dropsy often intervenes. On the
other hand, invalids carried out from darkened chambers into the bright
sunlight are stimulated, the skin browns, nutrition becomes more active,
the blood improves, and they become convalescent. Light is especially
necessary for the healthy growth of children. There is nothing more
beautiful and exhilarating than the glorious sunlight. Let its luminous,
warming, and physiological forces come freely into our dwellings, enter
into the chemistry of life, animate the spirits, and pervade our homes
and our hearts with its joy-inspiring and health-imparting influences.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER II.

FOOD. BEVERAGES. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. CLOTHING.


The human body is continually undergoing changes, which commence with
the earliest dawn of existence and end only with death. The old and
worn-out materials are constantly being removed to make room for the
new. Growth and development, as well as the elimination of worn-out and
useless matter, continually require new supplies, which are to be
derived from our food. To fulfill these demands it is necessary that the
nutriment should be of the proper quality, and of sufficient variety to
furnish all the constituents of the healthy body. In order that food may
be of utility, like other building materials, it must undergo
preparation; the crude substance must be worked up into proper condition
and shape for use, in other words, it must be _digested_. But this does
not end the process of supply, each different substance must be taken by
the different bands of workmen, after due preparation in the workshop,
to its appropriate locality in the structure, and there fitted into its
proper place; this is _assimilation_. In reality it becomes a portion of
the body, and is advantageous in maintaining the symmetry and usefulness
of the part to which it is assigned; this constitutes the ultimate
object of food, _nutrition_.

EATING is the process of receiving the food into the mouth, _i.e.,
prehension; mastication and insalivation_--minutely dividing and mixing
it with the saliva; _deglutition_--conveying it to the stomach. Plenty
of time should be taken at meals to thoroughly masticate the food and
mix it with the saliva, which, being one of the natural solvents, favors
its farther solution by the juices of the stomach; the healthy action of
the digestive powers is favored by tranquility of mind, agreeable
associations, and pleasant conversation while eating. It is proverbial
of the American people that they bolt their food whole, washing it down
with various fluids, thus forcing the stomach to perform not only its
own duties, but also those of the teeth and salivary glands. This manner
of dispatching food, which should go through the natural process above
described, is not without its baleful consequences, for the Americans
are called a nation of _dyspeptics_.

Eating slowly, masticating the food thoroughly, and drinking but
moderately during meals, will allow the juices of the stomach to fulfill
their proper function, and healthy digestion and nutrition will result.
If the food is swallowed nearly whole, not only will a longer time be
required for its solution, but frequently it will ferment and begin to
decay before nutritive transformation can be effected, even when the
gastric juice is undiluted with the fluids which the hurried eater
imbibes during his meal.

REGULARITY OF MEALS cannot be too strongly insisted upon. The stomach,
as well as other parts of the body, must have intervals of rest or its
energies are soon exhausted, its functions impaired, and _dyspepsia_ is
the result. Nothing of the character of food should ever be taken except
at regular meal times. Some persons are munching cakes, apples, nuts,
candies, etc., at all hours, and then wonder why they have weak
stomachs. They take their meals regularly, and neither eat rapidly nor
too much, and yet they are troubled with indigestion. The truth is they
keep their stomachs almost constantly at work, and hence tired out,
which is the occasion of the annoyance and distress they experience.

EATING TOO MUCH. It should always be remembered that the nutrition of
our bodies does not depend upon the amount eaten, but upon the amount
that is digested. Eating too much is nearly as bad as swallowing the
food whole. The stomach is unable to digest all of it, and it ferments
and gives rise to unpleasant results. The unnatural distention of the
stomach with food causes it to press upon the neighboring organs,
interfering with the proper performance of their functions, and, if
frequently repeated, gives rise to serious disease. People more
frequently eat too much than too little, and to omit a meal when the
stomach is slightly deranged is frequently the best medicine. It is an
excellent plan to rise from the table before the desire for food is
quite satisfied.

LATE SUPPERS. It is generally conceded that late suppers are injurious,
and should never be indulged in. Persons who dine late have little need
of food after their dinner, unless they are kept up until a late hour.
In such cases a moderate meal may be allowed, but it should be eaten two
or three hours before retiring. Those who dine in the middle of the day
should have supper, but sufficiently early so that a proper length of
time may elapse before going to bed, in order that active digestion may
not be required during sleep. On the other hand, it is not advisable to
go wholly without this meal, but the food eaten should be light, easily
digestible, and moderate in quantity. Persons who indulge in hearty
suppers at late hours, usually experience a poor night's rest, and wake
the next morning unrefreshed, with a headache and a deranged stomach.
Occasionally more serious consequences follow; gastric disorders result,
apoplexy is induced; or, perhaps, the individual never wakes.

FEEDING INFANTS. For at least six or seven months after birth, the most
appropriate food for an infant is its mother's milk, which, when the
parent is healthy, is rich in all the elements necessary for its growth
and support. Next to the mother's milk, that of a healthy nurse should
be preferred; in the absence of both, milk from a cow that has recently
calved is the most natural substitute, in the proportion of one part
water to two parts milk, slightly sweetened. The milk used should be
from but one cow. All sorts of paps, gruels, panadas, cordials,
laxatives, etc., should be strictly prohibited, for their employment as
food cannot be too severely censured. Vomiting, diarrhea, colic, green
stools, griping, etc., are the inevitable results of their continued
use. The child should be fed at regular intervals, of about two hours,
and be limited to a proper amount each time, which, during the first
month, is about two ounces. From 11 P.M. to 5 A.M. the child should be
nursed but once. As the child grows older the intervals should be
lengthened, and the amount taken at a time gradually increased. The plan
of gorging the infant's stomach with food every time it cries, cannot be
too emphatically condemned.

After the sixth or seventh month, in addition to milk, bits of bread may
be allowed, the quantity being slowly increased, thus permitting the
diet to change gradually from fluid to solid food, so that, when the
teeth are sufficiently developed for mastication, the child has become
accustomed to various kinds of nourishment. Over-feeding, and
continually dosing the child with cordial, soothing syrups, etc., are
the most fruitful sources of infant mortality, and should receive the
condemnation of every mother in the land.

PREPARATION OF FOOD. The production of pure blood requires that all the
food selected should be rich in nutritious elements, and well cooked. To
announce a standard by which all persons shall be guided in the
selection and preparation of their food is impossible. Especially is
this the case in a country the inhabitants of which represent almost
every nation on the face of the globe. Travelers are aware that there is
as much diversity in the articles of food and methods of cookery, among
the various nationalities, as in the erection of their dwellings, and in
their mental characteristics. In America we have a conglomeration of all
these peoples; and for a native American to lay down rules of cookery
for his German, French, English, Welsh, and Irish neighbors, or _vice
versa_, is useless, for they will seldom read them, and, therefore,
cannot profit by them. There are, however, certain conditions recognized
by the hygienic writers of every nation. The adequate nutrition of the
organic tissues demands a plentiful supply of pure blood, or the
digestive apparatus will become impaired, the mental processes deranged,
and the entire bony and muscular systems will lose their strength and
elasticity, and be incapacitated for labor.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD REQUIRED. The different periods and
circumstances of life require their appropriate food, and the welfare of
mankind demands that it should supply both the inorganic and organic
substances employed in the development of every tissue. The inorganic
elements employed in our construction, of which _Phosphorus, Sulphur,
Soda, Iron, Lime,_ and _Potash_ are the most important, are not
considered as aliments, but are found in the organic kingdom, variously
arranged and combined with organic materials in sufficient quantities
for ordinary purposes. When, however, from any cause, a lack of any of
these occurs, so that their relative normal proportions are deranged,
the system suffers, and restoration to a healthy condition can only be
accomplished by supplying the deficiency; this may be done by selecting
the article of food richest in the element which is wanting, or by
introducing it as a medicine. It must be remembered that those
substances which enter into the construction of the human fabric, are
not promiscuously employed by nature, but that each and every one is
destined to fulfill a definite indication.

_Lime_ enters largely into the formation of bone, either as a
_phosphate_ or a _carbonate_, and is required in much greater quantities
in early life, while the bone is undergoing development, than
afterwards. In childhood the bones are composed largely of animal
matter, being pliable and easily moulded. For this reason the limbs of
young children bend under the weight of their bodies, and unless care is
taken they become bow-legged and distorted. Whenever there is a
continued deficiency of the earthy constituents, disease of the bones
ensues. Therefore, during childhood, and particularly during the period
of dentition, or teething, the food should be nutritious and at the same
time contain a due proportion of lime, which is preferable in the form
of a phosphate. When it cannot be furnished by the food, it should be
supplied artificially. Delayed, prolonged, and tedious dentition
generally arises from a deficiency of lime.

With the advance of age it accumulates, and the bone becomes hard,
inelastic, and capable of supporting heavy weights. Farther on, as in
old age, the animal matter of bone becomes diminished, and lime takes
its place, so that the bones become brittle and are easily broken. Lime
exists largely in hard water, and to a greater or less extent in milk,
and in nearly all foods except those of an acid character.

_Phosphorus_ exists in various combinations in different parts of the
body, particularly in the brain and nervous system. Persons who perform
a large amount of mental labor require more phosphorus than those
engaged in other pursuits. It exists largely in the hulls of wheat, in
fish, and in eggs. It should enter to a considerable extent into the
diet of brain workers, and the bread consumed by them should be made of
unbolted flour.

_Sulphur, Iron, Soda_, and _Potash_ are all necessary in the various
tissues of the body, and deficiency of any one of them, for any
considerable length of time, results in disease. They are all supplied,
variously arranged and combined, in both animal and vegetable food; in
some articles they exist to a considerable extent, in others in much
smaller quantities. _Sulphur_ exists in eggs and in the flesh of
animals, and often in water. _Iron_ exists in the yolk of eggs, in
flesh, and in several vegetables. _Soda_ is supplied in nearly all food,
and largely in common salt, which is a composition of sodium and
hydrochloric acid, the latter entering into the gastric juice. _Potash_
exists, in some form or other, in sufficient quantities for health, in
both vegetable and animal food.

CLASSES OF FOOD. All kinds of food substances may be divided into four
classes. _Proteids, Fats, Amyloids_, and _Minerals_. Proteids are
composed of the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen,
sometimes combined with sulphur and phosphorus. In this class are
included the _gluten_ of flour; the _albumen_, or white of eggs; and the
_serum_ of the blood; the _fibrin_ of the blood; _syntonin_, the chief
constituent of muscle and flesh, and _casein_, one of the chief
constituents of cheese, and many other similar, but less frequent
substances.

Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only, and contain more
hydrogen than would be required to form water if united with the oxygen
which they contain. All vegetable and animal oils and fatty matters are
included in this class.

Amyloids consist of substances which are also composed of carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen only; but they contain just enough hydrogen to
produce water when combined with their oxygen, or two parts of hydrogen
to one of oxygen. This division includes _sugar, starch, dextrine_, and
_gum_. The above three classes of food-stuffs are only obtained through
the activity of living organisms, vegetable or animal, and have been,
therefore, appropriately termed by Prof. Huxley, _vital food-stuffs._

The mineral food-stuffs may, as we have seen, be procured from either
the living or the non-living world. They include water and various
earthy, metallic, and alkaline salts.

VARIETY OF FOOD NECESSARY. No substance can serve permanently for food
except it contains a certain quantity of proteid matter in the shape of
albumen, fibrin, casein, etc., and, on the other hand, any substance
containing proteid matter in a shape in which it can be readily
assimilated, may serve as a permanent vital food-stuff. Every substance,
which is to serve as a permanent food, must contain a sufficient
quantity, ready-made, of this most important and complex constituent of
the body. In addition, it must also contain a sufficient quantity of the
mineral ingredients which enter into the composition of the body. Its
power of supporting life and maintaining the weight and composition of
the body remains unaltered, whether it contains fats or amyloids or not.
The secretion of urea, and, consequently, the loss of nitrogen, goes on
continually, and the body, therefore, must necessarily waste unless the
supply of proteid matter is constantly renewed, since this is the only
class of foods that contains nitrogen in any considerable quantity.
There can be no absolute necessity for any other food-stuffs but those
containing the proteid and mineral elements of the body. From what has
been said, it will readily be seen that whether an animal be carnivorous
or herbivorous, it begins to starve as soon as its vital food-stuffs
consist only of amyloids, or fats, or both. It suffers from what has
been termed _nitrogen starvation,_ and if proteid matters are withheld
entirely, it soon dies. In such a case, and still more in the case of an
animal which is entirely deprived of vital food, the organism, as long
as it continues to live, feeds upon itself, the waste products
necessarily being formed at the expense of its own body.

Although proteid matter is the essential element of food, and under
certain circumstances may be sufficient of itself to support the body,
it is a very uneconomical food. The white of an egg, which may be taken
as a type of the proteids, contains about fifteen per cent. of nitrogen,
and fifty-three per cent. of carbon; therefore, a man feeding upon this,
would take in about three and a half times as much carbon as nitrogen.
It has been proved that a healthy, adult man, taking a fair amount of
exercise and maintaining his weight and body temperature, eliminates
about thirteen times as much carbon as nitrogen. However, if he is to
get his necessary quantity, about 4000 grains of carbon, out of albumen,
he must eat 7,547 grains of that substance; but this quantity of albumen
contains nearly four times as much nitrogen as he requires. In other
words, it takes about four pounds of lean meat, free from fat, to
furnish 4,000 grains of carbon, the quantity required, whereas one pound
yields the requisite quantity of nitrogen. Thus a man restricted
exclusively to a proteid diet, must take an enormous quantity of it.
This would involve a large amount of unnecessary physiological labor, to
comminute, dissolve, and absorb the food, and to excrete the superfluous
nitrogenous matter. Unproductive labor should be avoided as much in
physiological as in political economy. The universal practice of
subsisting on a mixed diet, in which proteids are mixed with fats or
amyloids, is therefore justifiable.

Fats contain about 80 per cent. of carbon, and amyloids about 40 per
cent. We have seen that there is sufficient nitrogen in a pound of meat
free from fat, to supply a healthy adult man for twenty-four hours, but
that it contains only one-fourth of the quantity of carbon required.
About half a pound of fat, or one pound of sugar, will supply the
quantity of carbon necessary. The fat, if properly subdivided, and the
sugar, by reason of its solubility, pass with great ease into the
circulation, the physiological labor, consequently, being reduced to a
minimum.

Several common articles of diet contain in themselves all the necessary
elements. Thus, butchers' meat ordinarily contains from 30 to 50 per
cent. of fat; and bread contains the proteid, gluten, and the amyloids,
starch and sugar, together with minute quantities of fat. However, on
account of the proportion in which these proteid and other components of
the body exist in these substances, neither of them, by itself is such a
physiologically economical food, as it is when combined with the other
in the proportion of three to eight, or three quarters of a pound of
meat to two pounds of bread a day.

It is evident that a variety of food is necessary for health. Animals
fed exclusively upon one class, or upon a single article of diet, droop
and die; and in the human family we know that the constant use of one
kind of diet causes disgust, even when not very long continued.
Consequently, we infer that the welfare of man demands that his food be
of sufficient variety to supply his body with all of its component
parts. If this is not done the appetite is deranged, and often craves
the very article which is necessary to supply the deficiency. After the
component parts of the organism have assimilated the nutritious elements
of particular kinds of food for a certain length of time, they lose the
power of effecting the necessary changes for proper nutrition, and a
supply of other material is imperatively demanded. When the diet has
been long restricted to proteids, consisting largely of salt meats,
fresh vegetables and fruits containing the organic acids, become
indispensable; otherwise, the scorbutic condition, or scurvy, is almost
sure to be developed. Fresh vegetables and fruits should be eaten in
considerable quantities at the proper seasons.

VALUE OF ANIMAL FOOD. The principal animal food used in this country
consists of _Pork, Mutton, Beef_, and _Fish_. Beef and mutton are rich
in muscle-producing material. Although pork is extensively produced in
some portions of this country, and enters largely into the diet of some
classes, yet its use, except in winter, is not to be encouraged. The
same amount of beef would give far greater returns in muscular power.

In addition to the meats mentioned, _Wild Game_ furnishes palatable,
nutritious, and easily-digested food. _Domestic Fowls_, when young, are
excellent, and with the exception of geese and ducks, are easily
digested. _Wild Birds_ are considered much healthier food than those
which are domesticated. All of these contain more or less of the
elements which enter into the composition of the four classes of foods.

VEGETABLE FOODS. _Wheat_ is rich in all the elements which compose the
four classes, and, when the flour is unbolted, it is one of the best
articles for supplying all the elements.

_Barley_ stands next to wheat in nourishing qualities, but is not so
palatable.

_Oats_ are rich in all the elements necessary for nutrition. Oatmeal is
a favorite article of diet among the Scotch, and, judging from their
hardy constitutions, their choice is well founded. In consequence of the
large proportion of phosphorus which they contain, they are capable of
furnishing a large amount of nourishment for the brain.

_Rye_ is nutritious, but it is not so rich in tissue-forming material.

_Indian Corn_ is an article well known and extensively used throughout
the United States, and is a truly valuable one, capable of being
prepared in a great variety of ways for food. It contains more carbon
than wheat, and less nitrogen and phosphorus, though enough of both to
be extremely valuable.

_Rice_ is rather meagre in nutriment; it contains but little phosphorous
matter, with less carbon than other cereals, and is best and most
generally employed as a diet in tropical countries.

_Beans and Peas_ are rich in nutritious matter, and furnish the manual
laborer with a cheap and wholesome diet.

The _Potato_ is the most valuable of all fresh vegetables grown in
temperate climates. Its flavor is very agreeable, and it contains very
important nutritive and medicinal qualities, and is eaten almost daily
by nearly every family in North America. Until very recently it, with
the addition of a little butter-milk or skim-milk, constituted almost
the sole diet of the Irish people. The average composition of the potato
is stated by Dr. Smith to be as follows: Water 75 per cent., nitrogen
2.1, starch 18.8, sugar 3.2, fat 0.2, salts 0.7. The relative values of
different potatoes may be ascertained very correctly by weighing them in
the hand, for the heavier the tuber the more starch it contains.

_Turnip and Cabbage_ are 92.5 per cent. water, and, consequently, poor
in nutrition, though they are very palatable. The solid portions of
cabbage, however, are rich in albumen.

It is evident that the quantity necessary to maintain the system in
proper condition must be greatly modified by the habits of life, the
condition of the organism, the age, the sex, and the climate. The daily
loss of substance which must be replaced by material from without, as we
have seen, is very great. In addition to the loss of carbon and
nitrogen, about four and a half pounds of water are removed from the
system in twenty-four hours, and it is necessary that about this
quantity should be introduced into the system in some form or other,
however much it may be adulterated. Professor Dalton states: "From
experiments performed while living on an exclusive diet of bread, fresh
meat, and butter, with coffee and water for drink, we have found that
the entire quantity of food required during twenty-four hours by a man
in full health and taking free exercise in the open air is as follows:

    Meat,  .  .  .  .  .  .  16 oz., or 1.03 lb. avoir.
    Bread, .  .  .  .  .  .  19    "    1.19  "    "
    Butter or fat,  .  .  .   3½   "    0.22  "    "
    Water, .  .  .  .  .  52 fluid oz., 3.38  "    "

That is to say, rather less than two and a half pounds of solid food,
and rather over three pounds of liquid food."

CLIMATE exerts an important influence on the quantity and quality of
food required by the system. In northern latitudes the inhabitants are
exposed to extreme cold and require an abundant supply of food, and
especially that which contains a large amount of fat. On this account
fat meat is taken in large quantities and with a relish. The quantity of
food consumed by the natives of the Arctic zone is almost incredible.
The Russian Admiral, Saritcheff, relates that one of the Esquimaux in
his presence devoured a mass of boiled rice and butter which weighed
twenty-eight pounds, at a single meal, and Dr. Hayes states that usually
the daily ration of an Esquimau is from twelve to fifteen pounds of
meat, one-third of which is fat, and on one occasion he saw a man eat
ten pounds of walrus flesh at a single meal. The intense cold creates a
constant craving for fatty articles of food, and some members of his own
party were in the habit of drinking the contents of the oil-kettle with
great apparent relish.

DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD. Unless an article of diet can be digested it is
of no value, no matter how rich it may be in nutriment. The quantity of
food taken, will influence to a considerable extent, the time consumed
in its digestion. The stomachs of all are not alike in this respect, and
the subject of time has been a difficult one to determine. The
experiments of Dr. Beaumont with the Canadian, St. Martin, who
accidentally discharged the contents of a loaded gun into his stomach,
creating an external opening through which the process of digestion
could be observed, have furnished us with the following table, which is
correct enough to show relatively, if not absolutely, the time required
for the digestion of various articles:

    ======================================================
        ARTICLES OF DIET.       |  Mode of   | Hours. Min.
                                |Preparation.|
    ----------------------------|------------|------------
    Milk........................|Boiled......|    2   00
     "  ........................|Raw.........|    2   15
    Eggs, fresh.................| " .........|    2   00
     "      "  .................|Whipped.....|    1   30
     "      "  .................|Roasted.....|    2   15
     "      "  .................|Soft boiled.|    3   00
     "      "  .................|Hard boiled.|    3   30
     "      "  .................|Fried.......|    3   30
    Custard.....................|Baked.......|    2   45
    Codfish, cured, dry.........|Boiled......|    2   00
    Trout, salmon, fresh........| " .........|    1   30
    Trout, salmon, fresh........|Fried.......|    1   30
    Bass, striped,   "  ........|Broiled.....|    3   00
    Flounder,        "  ........|Fried.......|    3   30
    Catfish,         "  ........| " .........|    3   30
    Salmon, salted..............|Boiled......|    4   00
    Oysters, fresh..............|Raw.........|    2   55
       "       "  ..............|Roasted.....|    3   15
       "       "  ..............|Stewed......|    3   30
    Venison steak...............|Broiled.....|    1   35
    Pig, sucking................|Roasted.....|    2   30
    Lamb, fresh.................|Broiled.....|    2   30
    Beef, fresh, lean, dry......|Roasted.....|    3   30
     " with mustard, etc........|Boiled......|    3   10
     "  "   salt only...........|  "   ......|    3   36
     "  "    "    "  ...........|Fried.......|    4   00
     " fresh, lean, rare........|Roasted.....|    3   00
    Beefsteak...................|Broiled.....|    3   00
    Mutton, fresh...............|  "    .....|    3   00
      "       "  ...............|Boiled......|    3   00
      "       "  ...............|Roasted.....|    3   15
    Veal, fresh.................|Broiled.....|    4   00
     "      "  .................|Fried.......|    4   30
    Porksteak...................|Broiled.....|    3   15
    Pork, fat and lean..........|Roasted.....|    5   15
     "    recently salted.......|Raw.........|    3   00
     "       "       "   .......|Stewed......|    3   00
     "       "       "   .......|Broiled.....|    3   15
    ------------------------------------------------------


    ARTICLES OF DIET.          |Mode of Preparation. |Hours/Min.
    ---------------------------|---------------------|----------
    Pork, recently salted----- |Fried------------    |4 15
      "     "        "   ----- |Boiled-----------    |4 30
    Turkey, wild ------------- |Roasted----------    |2 18
       "    tame ------------- |   "   ----------    |2 30
       "      "  ------------- |Boiled ----------    |2 25
    Goose, wild -------------- |Roasted ---------    |2 30
    Chickens, full-grown ----- |Fricasseed ------    |2 45
    Fowls, domestic ---------- |Boiled ----------    |4 00
      "       "     ---------- |Roasted ---------    |4 00
    Ducks, tame -------------- |  "     ---------    |4 00
      "    wild -------------- |  "     ---------    |4 30
    Soup, barley ------------- |Boiled ----------    |1 30
      "   bean --------------- |   "   ----------    |3 00
      "   chicken ------------ |   "   ----------    |3 00
      "   mutton ------------- |   "   ----------    |3 30
      "   oyster ------------- |   "   ----------    |3 30
      "   beef, vegetables,    |                     |
          and bread ---------- |   "   ----------    |4 00
      "   marrow-bones ------- |   "   ----------    |4 15
    Pig's feet, soused ------- |   "   ----------    |1 00
    Tripe, soused ------------ |   "   ----------    |1 00
    Brains, animal ----------- |   "   ----------    |1 45
    Spinal marrow, animal ---- |   "   ----------    |2 40
    Liver, beef, fresh ------- |Broiled ---------    |2 00
    Heart, animal ------------ |Fried -----------    |4 00
    Cartilage ---------------- |Boiled ----------    |4 15
    Tendon ------------------- |   "   ----------    |5 30
    Hash, meat, and vegetables |Warmed ----------    |2 30
    Sausage, fresh ----------- |Broiled ---------    |3 20
    Gelatine ----------------- |Boiled ----------    |2 30
    Cheese, old, strong ------ |Raw -------------    |3 30
    Green corn and beans ----- |Boiled ----------    |3 45
    Beans, pod --------------- |   "   ----------    |2 30
    Parsnips ----------------- |   "   ----------    |2 30
    Potatoes ----------------- |Roasted ---------    |2 30
       "     ----------------- |Baked -----------    |2 30
       "     ----------------- |Boiled ----------    |2 30
    Cabbage, head ------------ |Raw -------------    |2 30
       "      "  with vinegar  | "  -------------    |2 00
       "      "   ------------ |Boiled ----------    |4 30
    Carrot, orange ----------- |  "    ----------    |3 13
    Turnips, flat ------------ |  "    ----------    |3 30
    Beets -------------------- |  "    ----------    |3 45
    Bread, corn -------------- |Baked -----------    |3 15
      "    wheat, fresh ------ |  "   -----------    |3 30
    Apples, sweet, mellow ---- |Raw -------------    |1 30
       "    sour ------------- | "  -------------    |2 00
       "     "  hard --------- | "  -------------    |2 50

Milk is more easily digested than almost any other article of food. It
is very nutritious, and, on account of the variety of the elements which
it contains, it is extremely valuable an article of diet, especially
when the digestive powers are weakened, as in fevers, or during
convalescence from any acute disease. Eggs are also very nutritious and
easily digested. Whipped eggs are digested and assimilated with great
ease. Fish, as a rule, are more speedily digested than is the flesh of
warm-blooded animals. Oysters, especially when taken raw, are very
easily digested. We have known dyspeptics who were unable to digest any
other kind of animal food, to subsist for a considerable period upon raw
oysters. The flesh of mammalia seems to be more easily digested than
that of birds. Beef, mutton, lamb, and venison are easily digested,
while fat roast pork and veal are digested with difficulty. According to
the foregoing table vegetables were digested in about the same time as
ordinary animal food, but it should be remembered that a great part of
the digestion of these is effected in the small intestine. Soups are, as
a rule, very quickly digested. The time required for the digestion of
bread is about the same as that required for the digestion of ordinary
meats. Boiled cabbage is one of the most difficult substances to digest.

COOKERY. "Cookery," says Mrs. Owen, "Is the art of turning every morsel
to the best use; it is the exercise of skill, thought, and ingenuity to
make every particle of food yield the utmost nourishment and pleasure,
of which it is capable." We are indebted to this practical woman for
many valuable suggestions in this art; and some of our recommendations
are drawn from her experience.

SOUPS. The nutritious properties, tone, and sweetness of soup depend in
the first place upon the freshness and quality of the meat; secondly on
the manner in which it is boiled. Soups should be nicely and delicately
seasoned, according to the taste of the consumer, by using parsley,
sage, savory, thyme, sweet marjoram, sweet basil, or any of the
vegetable condiments. These may be raised in the garden, or obtained at
the drug stores, sifted and prepared for use. In extracting the juices
of meats, in order that soups may be most nutritious, it is important
that the meat be put into _cold_ water, or that which is not so hot as
to coagulate the albumen (which would prevent it from being extracted),
and then, by slow heat and a simmering process, the most nutritious
properties will be brought out.

BEEF SOUP may be made of any bone of the beef, by putting it into cold
water, adding a little salt, and skimming it well just before it boils.
If a vegetable flavor be desired, celery, carrots, onions, turnips,
cabbage, or potatoes, may be added, in sufficient quantities to suit the
taste.

MUTTON SOUP may be made from the fore-quarter, in the same manner as
described above, thickened with pearl-barley or rice, and flavored to
suit the taste.

BOILED FISH. Clean the fish nicely, then sprinkle flour on a cloth and
wrap it around them; salt the water, and, when it boils, put in the
fish; let them boil half an hour, then carefully remove them to a
platter, adding egg sauce and parsley. To _bake fish_, prepare by
cleaning, scaling, etc., and let them remain in salt water for a short
time. Make a stuffing of the crumbs of light bread, and add to it a
little salt, pepper, butter, and sweet herbs, and stir with a spoon.
Then fill the fish with the stuffing and sew it up. Put on butter, salt,
pepper, and flour, having enough water in the dish to keep it from
burning, and baste often. A four pound fish will bake in fifty or sixty
minutes.

BROILED STEAK. Sirloin and porter-house steaks should be broiled
quickly. Preserve them on ice for a day or two and their tenderness is
much increased. Never broil them until the meal is ready to be served.

BOILED HEAT. When meat is to be boiled for _eating,_ put it into boiling
water, by which its juices are coagulated and its richness preserved.
The slower it boils, the more tender, plump, and white it will be. Meat
should be removed as soon as done, or it will lose its flavor and become
soggy.

PORK STEAKS. The best steaks are cut off the shoulder--ham steaks being
rather too dry. They should be well fried, in order to destroy the
little living parasites, called Trichinae which sometimes infest this
kind of meat. They are introduced into the stomach by eating ham, pork,
or sausages made from the flesh of hogs infested by them. Thorough
cooking destroys them, and those who will persist in the use of swine's
flesh can afford to have it "_done brown._"

BAKED MUTTON. To bake mutton well, a person should have a brisk, sharp
fire, and keep the meat well basted. It requires two hours to bake a leg
of mutton, weighing eight pounds.

BREAD. The health and happiness of a family depend, to a certain extent,
on good, well-baked bread. At all events, our enjoyment would be greater
if it were only better prepared. We make the following extract from an
article printed by the State Board of Health, concerning the food of the
people of Massachusetts: "As an example of good bread we would mention
that which is always to be had at the restaurant of Parker's Hotel, in
Boston. It is not better than is found on the continent of Europe on all
the great lines of travel, and in common use by millions of people in
Germany and France; but with us, it is a rare example of what bread may
be. It is made from a mixture of flour, such as is generally sold in our
markets, water, salt, and yeast--nothing else. The yeast is made from
malt, potatoes, and hops. _The dough is kneaded from one and a half to
two hours, and is then thoroughly baked."_ The truth seems to be that
the kneading, which in this country takes the housewife's time and
muscle, in Europe is done by the help of machinery. So here, in large
villages and cities, people might furnish themselves with good bread, by
means of co-operative associations, even at a less cost than at present.


BEVERAGES.


WATER. The importance of water in the economy of nature is obvious to
all. It is the most abundant substance of which we have knowledge. It
composes four-fifths of the weight of vegetables, and three-fourths of
that of animals. It is essential to the continuance of organic life.
Water is universally present in all of the tissues and fluids of the
body. It is not only abundant in the blood and secretions, but it is
also an ingredient of the solids of the body. According to the most
accurate computations, water is found to constitute from two-thirds to
three-fourths of the entire weight of the human body. The following
table, compiled by Robin and Verdeil, shows the proportion of water per
thousand parts in different solids and fluids:

    QUANTITY OF WATER IN 1,000 PARTS.

    Teeth,                100
    Bones,                130
    Cartilage,            550
    Muscles,              750
    Ligaments,            768
    Brain,                789
    Blood,                795
    Synovial fluid,       805
    Bile,                 880
    Milk,                 887
    Pancreatic juice,     900
    Urine,                936
    Lymph,                960
    Gastric juice,        975
    Perspiration,         986
    Saliva,               995

THE NATURAL DRINK OF MAN. Water constitutes the natural drink of man. No
other liquid can supply its place. Its presence, however, in the body is
not permanent. It is discharged from the body in different ways; by the
urine, the feces, the breath, and the perspiration. In the first two, it
is in a liquid form, in the others in a vaporous form. It is estimated
that about forty-eight per cent. is discharged in the liquid, and
fifty-two per cent. in the vaporous form; but the absolute as well as
the relative amount discharged depends upon a variety of circumstances.

Water is never found perfectly pure, since it holds in solution more or
less of almost every substance with, which it comes in contact. Rain
falling in the country remote from habitations is the purest water that
nature furnishes, for it is then only charged with the natural gases of
the atmosphere. In cities it absorbs organic and gaseous impurities, as
it falls through the air, and flowing over roofs of houses carries with
it soot and dust. Water from melted snow is purer than rain-water, since
it descends in a solid form, and is therefore incapable of absorbing
gases. Rain-water is not adapted to drinking purposes, unless well
filtered. All water, except that which has been distilled, contains air,
and it is due to this fact, that aquatic animals can live in it; for
example, put a fish in distilled water and it will soon die.

MINERAL IMPURITIES. Rain-water, which has filtered through the soil and
strata of the earth, dissolves the soluble materials, and carries them
down to lower levels, until they finally collect in the sea. Common
well, spring, and mineral waters contain from 5 to 60 grains to the
gallon; sea-water contains 2,000 grains while in some parts of the Dead
Sea there are 20,000 grams to the gallon. The principal mineral
impurities of well and spring water are lime, magnesia, soda, and oxide
of iron, combined with carbonic and sulphuric acids, forming carbonates,
sulphates, and chloride of sodium, or common salt. The most general,
however, are carbonate and sulphate of lime.

Mineral waters are usually obtained from springs which contain a
considerable amount of saline matter. Those waters which abound in salts
of iron are called _chalybeate_ or _ferruginous_. Those containing salt
are termed _saline_. Those in which contain sulphur are termed
_sulphurous_. Water derives the quality of hardness from the salts of
lime--chiefly the sulphates--which it contains. Hard water, being an
imperfect solvent, is unsuitable for washing purposes. There are two
varieties of hardness, one of which is temporary, being due to the
presence of carbonic acid gas in the water which holds the salts in
solution and may be removed by merely boiling the water and thus
expelling the gas when the salts are deposited, while the other is
permanent and can only be removed by the distillation of the water. It
has been ascertained that twelve pounds of the best hard soap must be
added to 10,000 gallons of water of one degree of hardness before a
lather will remain and, consequently, 0.12 lb. to 100 gallons of water
is a measure of one degree of hardness. Since hard water is not so
useful in cooking and other domestic purposes, as soft water, causing a
great waste of labor and material, it is often highly desirable to
soften it, which is effected by the addition of lime in what is known as
_Clark's process_. One ounce of quicklime should be added to 1000
gallons of water for each degree of hardness. It should be first slacked
and stirred up in a few gallons and then thoroughly mixed with the
entire quantity. Then it should be allowed to remain, and will become
clear in about three hours, but should not be drunk for twelve hours.

The purity of drinking water is a matter of much importance. That which
contains a minute quantity of lead will give rise to all the symptoms of
lead poisoning, if the use of it be sufficiently prolonged. An account
is given of the poisoning of the royal family of France, many of whom
suffered from this cause when in exile at Claremont. The amount of lead
was only one grain in the gallon. Care should therefore be taken to
avoid drinking the water which has been contained in leaden pipes. It
should always be allowed to run a few minutes before being used.

An excess of saline ingredients, which in small quantities are harmless,
frequently produces marked disorders of the digestive organs. A small
amount of putrescent matter habitually introduced into the system, as in
the use of food, is productive of the most serious results, which can be
traced to the direct action of the poison introduced. A case is recorded
of a certain locality favorably situated with regard to the access of
pure air, where an epidemic of fever broke out much to the astonishment
of the inhabitants. Upon observation it was found that the attacks of
fever were limited to those families who used water from a neighboring
well. The disagreeable taste of the water which had been observed, was
subsequently traced to the bursting of a sewer, which had discharged a
part of its contents into the well. When the cause was removed, there
was no recurrence of the evil effects.

ORGANIC IMPURITIES. "Water is liable to organic contamination from a
multitude of causes, such as drainage from dwellings, dust, insects, the
decaying of vegetable and animal matter. These impurities may be
mechanically suspended or held in solution in the water. Although
organic impurities, which are mechanically suspended in water, are
poisonous, yet they are generally associated with animalculea, and these
feed upon, and finally consume them. Good water never contains
animalculæ. They are never found in freshly fallen rain-water, remote
from dwellings, but abound, to a greater or less extent in cisterns,
marshes, ponds, and rivers. These little workers serve a useful purpose
since they consume the dead organic matter from the water, and, having
fulfilled their mission, sink to the bottom and die. Water which
contains organic matter is exceedingly dangerous to health, and its use
should be carefully avoided.

In low lands where the current of streams is sluggish, and shallow pools
abound, the water is apt to be more or less infected with decaying
vegetable substances. Many people living in such localities, and wishing
to obtain water with as little trouble as possible, dig a hole in the
ground, a few feet in depth, and allow the stagnant surface water to
accumulate. This water is used for drinking and cooking. The result is
that ague prevails in such localities.

Care should be taken that wells, from which the water is used for
household purposes, are located at a distance from barn-yards, privies,
sinks, vaults, and stagnant pools.

PURIFICATION OF WATER. There are various methods of purifying water. It
may be accomplished by distillation, which is the most perfect method;
by filtration through sand, crushed charcoal, and other porous
substances, which deprives it of suspended impurities and living
organisms; by boiling, which destroys the vitality of all animal and
vegetable matters, drives out the gases and precipitates carbonate of
lime, which composes the crust frequently seen upon the inside of
tea-kettles or boilers; by the use of chemical agents, which may be
employed to destroy or precipitate the deleterious substances. Alum is
often used to cleanse roily water, two or three grains in solution,
being sufficient for a quart. It causes the impurities to settle to the
bottom, so that the clear water can be poured or dipped out for use. One
or two grains of the permanganate of potassium will render wholesome a
gallon of water containing animal impurities.

HOW TO USE WATER. Very little if any water should be taken at meal time,
since the salivary glands furnish an abundance of watery fluid to assist
in mastication. When these glands are aided with water to "wash down"
the food, their functions become feeble and impaired. The gastric juice
is diluted and digestion is weakened. Large draughts of cold water ought
never to be indulged in, since they cause derangement of the stomach.
When the body is overheated, the use of much water is injurious. It
should only be taken in small quantities. Thirst may be partially
allayed, without injury, by holding cold water in the mouth for a short
time and then spitting it out, taking care to swallow but very little.
Travelers frequently experience inconvenience from change of water. If
the means are at hand, let them purify their drinking water, if not,
they should drink as little as possible. Persons who visit the banks of
the Ohio, Missouri, or Mississippi rivers and similar localities, almost
invariably suffer from some form of gastric or intestinal disease. Water
standing in close rooms soon becomes unfit to drink and should not be
used. A drink of cold water taken on going to bed, and another on rising
are conducive to health, especially in the case of persons troubled with
constipation. "_Drink water_" said the celebrated Dubois to the young
persons who consulted him, "_drink water, I tell you!_" Du Moulin, the
great medical authority of his time, wrote, just previous to his death,
"_I leave two great physicians behind me--diet and water_."

TEA AND COFFEE. These substances are almost universally used as
beverages, and when properly employed, serve a four-fold purpose: they
quench thirst, excite an agreeable exhilaration, repress the waste of
the system, and supply nourishment. In consequence of being generally
used at meal times, their stimulant properties are employed to promote
digestion, and consequently they are not so objectionable as they might
otherwise be. The liquids introduced into the stomach at meal times
should not be cold. Tea and coffee are drunk warm, while water, except
in a few instances, is always drunk cold, the effects of which have
already been shown. That their inordinate use may be injurious no body
can deny, but this is equally true of other beverages, even pure, cold
water. Scientific investigators inform us that the use of these agents
as beverages, when judiciously employed, is not injurious. It has been
urged that they are poisonous, but if they are, they are very slow in
their operation.

When properly prepared, they are very agreeable beverages, and as man
will drink more or less at meals, they are allowable; for if their use
were excluded, some other beverage would be sought after, and quite
likely one of an alcoholic character employed, so of two evils, if this
be an evil, let us choose the least. Unlike alcoholic stimulants, they
exhilarate without a depressing reaction after their influence has
passed off. But one cup should be drunk at a meal, and it should be of
moderate strength. The use of large quantities of drink at meals retards
digestion by diluting the digestive fluids. The excessive use of large
quantities of strong tea or coffee stimulates the brain and causes
wakefulness, and produces irritability of the nervous system. When they
are productive of such effects, their use is injurious, and should be
considerably moderated or wholly discontinued. No criterion can be given
by which the amount the system will tolerate can be regulated. What one
person may take with impunity, may be deleterious to an other.
Individuals differ greatly in this respect. There are some who cannot
tolerate them at all, either because of some peculiarity of
constitution, or on account of disease. And sometimes when tea is
agreeable and beneficial, coffee disagrees with the individual and _vice
versa._ Persons of nervous habits whether natural or acquired, are apt
to find their wakefulness and irritability increased by the use of tea,
particularly if strong, while coffee will have a tranquilizing effect.
Persons of a lymphatic or bilious temperament often find that coffee
disagrees with them, aggravating their troubles and causing biliousness,
constipation, and headache, while tea proves agreeable and beneficial.
Whenever they disagree with the system, the best rule is to abandon
their use. We find many persons who do not use either, and yet enjoy
health, a fact which proves that they are not by any means
indispensable, and, no doubt, were it customary to go without them,
their absence would be but slightly missed.

Tea and coffee are adulterated to a very great extent, and persons using
them will be greatly imposed upon. This is an evil we cannot remedy. If
people make use of them, their experience in selecting them must be
their guide; however, it is believed that the Black and Japan varieties
of tea are the least apt to be adulterated, and coffee, to insure
purity, should be purchased in the berry, and ground by the purchaser.

In preparing tea an infusion should be made by adding boiling water to
the leaves, and permitting them to steep for a few minutes only, for a
concentrated decoction, made by boiling for a long time, liberates the
astringent and bitter principles and drives off the agreeable aroma
which resides in a volatile oil.

Coffee should be prepared by adding cold water to the ground berry, and
raising it slowly to the boiling point. Long-continued boiling liberates
the astringent and bitter principles upon which its stimulant effects to
a great extent depend, and drives off with the steam the aromatic oil
from which the agreeable taste is derived.


ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.


These are divided into three classes: malted, fermented, and distilled.
They all contain more or less alcohol, and their effects are, therefore,
in some respects similar, and, in the words of Dr. B.W. Richardson, the
great English authority on hygiene: "To say this man only drinks ale,
that man only drinks wine, while a third drinks spirits, is merely to
say, when the apology is unclothed, that all drink the same danger. * *
Alcohol is a universal intoxicant, and in the higher orders of animals
is capable of inducing the most systematic phenomena of disease. But it
is reserved for man himself to exhibit these phenomena in their purest
form, and to present, through them, in the morbid conditions belonging
to his age, a distinct pathology. Bad as this is, it might be worse; for
if the evils of alcohol were made to extend equally to animals lower
than man, we should soon have, none that were tameable, none that were
workable, and none that were eatable." Researches have shown that the
proportion of half a drachm of alcohol to the pound weight of the body,
is the quantity which usually produces intoxication, and that an
increase of this amount to one drachm immediately endangers the life of
the individual. The first symptom which attracts attention, when alcohol
commences to take effect upon the body, is an increase in the number of
the pulsations of the heart. Dr. Parkes and Count Wolowicz conducted a
series of interesting experiments on young adult men. They counted the
pulsations of the heart, at regular intervals, during periods when the
subject drank only water; and then they counted the beats of the heart
in the same individual during successive periods in which alcohol was
drunk in increasing quantities.

The following details are taken from their report:

"The highest of the daily means of the pulse observed during the first
or water period was 77.5; but on this day two observations were
deficient. The next highest daily mean was 77 beats.

If instead of the mean of the eight days, or 73.57, we compare the mean
of this one day, viz., 77 beats per minute, with the alcoholic days, so
as to be sure not to over-estimate the action of the alcohol, we find:

    On the ninth day, with one fluid ounce of alcohol,
      the heart beat 430 times more.
    On the tenth day, with two fluid ounces, 1,872 times more.
    On the eleventh day, with four fluid ounces, 12,960 times more.
    On the twelfth day, with six fluid ounces, 30,672 times more.
    On the thirteenth day, with eight fluid ounces, 23,904 times more.
    On the fourteenth day, with eight fluid ounces, 25,488 times more.

But as there was ephemeral fever on the twelfth day, it is right to make
a deduction, and to estimate the number of beats in that day as midway
between the twelfth and twenty-third days, or 18,432. Adopting this, the
mean daily excess of beats during the alcoholic days was 14,492, or an
increase of rather more than thirteen per cent.

The first day of alcohol gave an excess of one per cent., and the last
of twenty-three per cent.; and the mean of these two gives almost the
same percentage of excess as the mean of the six days.

Admitting that each beat of the heart was as strong during the alcoholic
as in the water period (and it was really more powerful), the heart on
the last two days of alcohol was doing one-fifth more work.

Adopting the lowest estimate which has been given of the daily work done
by the heart, viz., as equal to 122 tons lifted one foot, the heart,
during the alcoholic period, did daily work in excess equal to lifting
15.8 tons one foot, and in the last two days did extra work to the
amount of twenty-four tons lifted as far.

The period of rest for the heart was shortened, though, perhaps, not to
such an extent as would be inferred from the number of beats; for each
contraction was sooner over. The beat on the fifth and sixth days after
alcohol was left off, and apparently at the time when the last traces of
alcohol were eliminated, showed, in the sphygmographic tracing, signs of
unusual feebleness; and, perhaps, in consequence of this, when the
brandy quickened the heart again, the tracing showed a more rapid
contraction of the ventricles, but less power than in the alcoholic
period. The brandy acted, in fact, on a heart whose nutrition had not
been perfectly restored."

The flush often seen on the cheeks of those who are under the influence
of alcoholic liquors, and which is produced by a relaxed and distended
condition of the superficial blood vessels, is erroneously supposed by
many to merely extend to the parts exposed to view. On this subject, Dr.
Richardson says: "If the lungs could be seen, they, too, would be found
with their vessels injected; if the brain and spinal cord could be laid
open to view, they would be discovered in the same condition; if the
stomach, the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, or any other vascular
organs or parts could be laid open to the eye, the vascular engorgement
would be equally manifest. In the lower animals I have been able to
witness this extreme vascular condition in the lungs, and once I had the
unusual, though unhappy opportunity of observing the same phenomenon in
the brain of a man who, in a paroxysm of alcoholic delirium, cast
himself under the wheels of a railway carriage. The brain,
instantaneously thrown out from the skull by the crash, was before me
within three minutes after the accident. It exhaled the odor of spirit
most distinctly, and its membranes and minute structures were vascular
in the extreme. It looked as if it had been recently injected with
vermilion injection. The white matter of the cerebrum, studded with red
points, could scarcely be distinguished when it was incised, it was so
preternaturally red; and the pia mater, or internal vascular membrane
covering the brain, resembled a delicate web of coagulated red blood, so
tensely were its fine vessels engorged. This condition extended through
both the larger and the smaller brain, cerebrum, and cerebellum, but was
not so marked in the medulla, or commencing portion of the spinal cord,
as in the other portions.

In course of time, in persons accustomed to alcohol, the vascular
changes, temporary only in the novitiate, become confirmed and
permanent. The bloom on the nose which characterizes the genial toper is
the established sign of alcoholic action on the vascular structure.

Recently, physiological research has served to explain the reason why,
under alcohol the heart at first beats so quickly, why the pulse rises,
and why the minute blood-vessels become so strongly injected.

At one time it was imagined that alcohol acts immediately upon the heart
by stimulating it to increased motion; and from this idea,--false idea,
I should say,--of the primary action of alcohol, many erroneous
conclusions have been drawn. We have now learned that there exist many
chemical bodies which act in the same manner as alcohol, and that their
effect is not to stimulate the heart, but to weaken the contractile
force of the extreme and minute vessels which the heart fills with blood
at each of its strokes. These bodies produce, in fact, a paralysis of
the organic nervous supply of the vessels which constitute the minute
vascular structures. The minute vessels when paralysed offer inefficient
resistance to the force of the heart, and the pulsating organ thus
liberated, like the main-spring of a clock from which the resistance has
been removed, quickens in action, dilating the feebly resistant vessels,
and giving evidence really not of increased, but of wasted power."

The continued use of alcoholic liquors in any considerable quantity
produces irritation and inflammation of the stomach, and structural
disease of the liver. Dr. Hammond has shown that alcohol has a special
affinity for nervous matter, and is, therefore, found in greater
quantity in the brain and spinal cord than elsewhere in the body. The
gray matter of the brain undergoes, to a certain extent, a fatty
degeneration, and there is a shrinking of the whole cerebrum, with
impairment of the intellectual faculties, muscular tremor, and a
shambling gait.

Large doses of alcohol cause a diminution of the temperature of the
body, which in fevers is more marked than in the normal state.

In addition to the organic diseases enumerated above, and delirium
tremens, the following diseases are frequently the result of the
excessive use of alcoholic liquors: epilepsy, paralysis, insanity,
diabetes, gravel, and diseases of the heart and blood-vessels.

The physiological deductions of Dr. Richardson are so much in accord
with our own that we quote them in full:

"In the first place we gather from the physiological reading of the
action of alcohol that the agent is narcotic. I have compared it
throughout to chloroform, and the comparison is good in all respects
save one, viz.: that alcohol is less fatal than chloroform as an instant
destroyer. It kills certainly in its own way, but its method of killing
is slow, indirect, and by disease.

The well-proven fact that alcohol, when it is taken into the body,
reduces the animal temperature, is full of the most important
suggestions. The fact shows that alcohol does not in any sense act as a
supplier of vital heat as is commonly supposed, and that it does not
prevent the loss of heat as those imagine 'who take just a drop to keep
out the cold,' It shows, on the contrary, that cold and alcohol, in
their effects on the body, run closely together, an opinion confirmed by
the experience of those who live or travel in cold regions of the earth.
The experiences of the Arctic voyagers, of the leaders of the great
Napoleonic campaigns in Russia, of the good monks of St. Bernard, all
testify that death from cold is accelerated by its ally alcohol.
Experiments with alcohol in extreme cold tell the like story, while the
chilliness of the body which succeeds upon even a moderate excess of
alcoholic indulgence leads directly to the same indication of truth.

The conclusive evidence now in our possession that alcohol taken into
the animal body sets free the heart, so as to cause the excess of motion
of which the record has been given above, is proof that the heart, under
the frequent influence of alcohol, must undergo deleterious change of
structure. It may, indeed, be admitted in proper fairness, that when the
heart is passing through these rapid movements it is working under less
pressure than when its movements are slow and natural; and this
allowance must needs be made, or the inference would be that the organ
ought to stop at once, in function, by the excess of strain put upon it.
At the same time the excess of motion is injurious to the heart and to
the body at large; it subjects the heart to irregularity of supply of
blood, it subjects the body in all its parts to the same injurious
influence; it weakens, and, as a necessary sequence, degrades both the
heart and the body.

Speaking honestly, I cannot, by any argument yet presented to me, admit
the alcohols by any sign that should distinguish them from other
chemical substances of the paralysing narcotic class. When it is
physiologically understood that what is called stimulation or excitement
is, in absolute fact, a relaxation, a partial paralysis, of one of the
most important mechanisms in the animal body, the minute, resisting,
compensating circulation, we grasp quickly the error in respect to the
action of stimulants in which we have been educated, and obtain a clear
solution of the well-known experience that all excitement, all passion,
leaves, after its departure, lowness of heart, depression of mind,
sadness of spirit. We learn, then, in respect to alcohol, that the
temporary excitement it produces is at the expense of the animal force,
and that the ideas of its being necessary to resort to it, that it may
lift up the forces of the animal body into true and firm and even
activity, or that it may add something useful to the living tissues, are
errors as solemn as they are widely disseminated. In the scientific
education of the people no fact is more deserving of special comment
than this fact, that excitement is wasted force, the running down of the
animal mechanism before it has served out its time of motion.

It will be said that alcohol cheers the weary, and that to take a little
wine for the stomach's sake is one of the lessons that comes from the
deep recesses of human nature. I am not so obstinate as to deny this
argument, There are times in the life of man when the heart is
oppressed, when the resistance to its motion is excessive, and when
blood flows languidly to the centres of life, nervous and muscular. In
these moments alcohol cheers. It lets loose the heart from its
oppression; it lets flow a brisker current of blood into the failing
organs; it aids nutritive changes, and altogether is of temporary
service to man. So far, alcohol may be good, and if its use could be
limited to this one action, this one purpose, it would be amongst the
most excellent of the gifts of science to mankind. Unhappily, the border
line between this use and the abuse of it, the temptation to extend
beyond the use, the habit to apply the use when it is not wanted as
readily as when it is wanted, overbalance, in the multitude of men, the
temporary value that attaches truly to alcohol as a physiological agent.
Hence alcohol becomes a dangerous instrument even in the hands of the
strong and wise, a murderous instrument in the hands of the foolish and
weak. Used too frequently, used too excessively, this agent, which in
moderation cheers the failing body, relaxes its vessels too extremely;
spoils vital organs; makes the force of the circulation slow, imperfect,
irregular; suggests the call for more stimulation; tempts to renewal of
the evil, and ruins the mechanism of the healthy animal before its hour
for ruin, by natural decay, should be at all near.

It is assumed by most persons that alcohol gives strength, and we hear
feeble persons saying daily that they are being 'kept up by stimulants.'
This means actually that they are being kept down; but the sensation
they derive from the immediate action of the stimulant deceives them and
leads them to attribute passing good to what, in the large majority of
cases, is persistent evil. The evidence is all-perfect that alcohol
gives no potential power to brain or muscle. During the first stage of
action it may enable a wearied or a feeble organism to do brisk work for
a short time; it may make the mind briefly brilliant; it may excite
muscle to quick action, but it does nothing substantially, and fills up
nothing it has destroyed, as it leads to destruction. A fire makes a
brilliant sight, but leaves a desolation. It is the same with alcohol.

On the muscular force the very slightest excess of alcoholic influence
is injurious. I find by measuring the power of muscle for contraction in
the natural state and under alcohol, that so soon as there is a distinct
indication of muscular disturbance, there is also indication of muscular
failure, and if I wished by scientific experiment to spoil for work the
most perfect specimen of a working animal, say a horse, without
inflicting mechanical injury, I could choose no better agent for the
purpose of the experiment than alcohol. But alas! the readiness with
which strong, well-built men slip into general paralysis under the
continued influence of this false support, attests how unnecessary it
would be to subject a lower animal to the experiment. The experiment is
a custom, and man is the subject.

The true place of alcohol is clear; it is an agreeable temporary shroud.
The savage, with the mansions of his soul unfurnished, buries his
restless energy under its shadow. The civilized man overburdened with
mental labor, or with engrossing care, seeks the same shade; but it is
shade, after all, in which, in exact proportion as he seeks it, the
seeker retires from perfect natural life. To search for force in alcohol
is, to my mind, equivalent to the act of seeking for the sun in
subterranean gloom until all is night.

It may be urged that men take alcohol, nevertheless, take it freely, and
yet live; that the adult Swede drinks his average cup of twenty-five
gallons of alcohol per year and remains on the face of the earth. I
admit force even in this argument, for I know under the persistent use
of alcohol there is a limited provision for the continuance of life. In
the confirmed alcoholic the alcohol is, in a certain sense, so disposed
of that it fits, as it were, the body for a long season, nay, becomes
part of it; and yet it is silently doing its fatal work. The organs of
the body may be slowly brought into a state of adaptation to receive it
and to dispose of it. But in that very preparation they are themselves
made to undergo physical changes tending to the destruction of their
function, to perversion of their structure, and to all those varied
modifications of organic parts which the dissector of the human subject
learns to recognize,--almost without concern, and certainly without
anything more than commonplace curiosity,--as the devastations incident
to alcoholic indulgence."

The statistics collected from the census of the United States for 1860,
and given by Dr. De Marmon, in the _New York Medical Journal_ for
December, 1870, must carry conviction to all minds of the correctness of
the foregoing deductions:

"For the last ten years the use of spirits has, 1. Imposed on the nation
a direct expense of 600,000,000 dollars. 2. Has caused an indirect
expense of 600,000,000 dollars. 3. Has destroyed 300,000 lives. 4. Has
sent 100,000 children to the poorhouses. 5. Has committed at least
150,000 people into prisons and workhouses. 6. Has made at least 1,000
insane. 7. Has determined at least 2,000 suicides. 8. Has caused the
loss by fire or violence, of at least 10,000,000 dollars' worth of
property. 9. Has made 200,000 widows and 1,000 orphans."

If these were the statistics twenty-four years ago, with our greatly
increased population, what must they be to-day? We will let the reader
draw his own conclusions.

MALTED LIQUORS. Under this head are included all those liquors into the
composition of which malt enters, such as beer, ale, and porter. The
proportion of alcohol in these liquors varies greatly. In beer, it is
from two to five per cent.; in Edinburgh ale, it amounts to six per
cent.; in porter, it is usually from four to six per cent. In addition
to alcohol and water, the malted liquors contain from five to fourteen
per cent. of the extract of malt, and from 0.16 to 0.60 per cent. of
carbonic acid. They possess, according to Pereira, three properties:
they quench thirst; they stimulate, cheer, and, if taken in sufficient
quantity, intoxicate; and they nourish or strengthen. The first of these
qualities is due to the water entering into their composition; the
second, to the alcohol; the third is attributed the nutritive principles
of the malt.

OBJECTIONS TO THEIR USE AS BEVERAGES. These articles are either pure or
adulterated. In their pure state the objection to their use for this
purpose lies in the fact that they contain alcohol. This, as we have
seen, is a poisonous substance, which the human system in a state of
health does not need. Its use, when the body is in a normal condition,
is uncalled for, and can only be deleterious. Beverages containing this
poison are more or less deleterious to healthy persons, according to the
amount of it which they contain.

These liquors are frequently adulterated, and this increases their
injurious effects. The ingenuity of man has been taxed to increase their
intoxicating properties; to heighten the color and flavor, to create
pungency and thirst; and to revive old beer. To increase the
intoxicating power, tobacco or the seeds of the Cocculus indicus are
added; to heighten the color and flavor, burnt sugar, liquorice, or
treacle, quassia, or strychnine, coriander, and caraway seeds are
employed; to increase the pungency, cayenne pepper or common salt is
added; to revive old beer, or ale, it is shaken up with green vitriol or
sulphate of iron, or with alum and common salt.

FERMENTED LIQUORS. These are cider and wine. Cider contains alcohol to
the amount of from five to ten per cent., saccharine matter, lactic
acid, and other substances. New cider may be drunk in large quantities
without inducing intoxication, but old cider is quite as intoxicating as
ale or porter.

The composition of wine is very complex, the peculiar qualities which
characterize the different varieties cannot be ascertained by chemical
analysis. Wine is a solution of alcohol in water, combined with various
constituents of the grape. The amount of alcohol in wines ranges from
six to forty per cent. As beverages, these are open to the same
objections as those manufactured from malt. As a medicine, wine is a
useful remedy. Concerning its use in this capacity, Prof. Liebig says:
"Wine is a restorative. As a means of refreshment when the powers of
life are exhausted--as a means of compensation where a misappropriation
occurs in nutrition, and as a means of protection against transient
organic disturbances, it is surpassed by no product of nature or art."
That an article is useful in medicine, however, is no reason why it
should be used as a beverage by those in health. It is rather an
argument against such a practice. For it is generally true that the
drugs used to restore the diseased system to health, are pernicious or
poisonous to it when in a normal condition.

DISTILLED LIQUORS. These are whiskey, brandy, and the kindred
productions of the still. Whiskey is a solution of alcohol in water,
mixed with various other principles which impart to it peculiar physical
properties. The amount of alcohol which it contains varies from
forty-eight to fifty-six per cent. Old whiskey is more highly prized
than the more recent product of the still, from the fact that when kept
for some years certain volatile oils are generated which, impart to it a
mellowness of flavor.

Brandy is a solution of alcohol in water, together with various other
substances. It contains from fifty to fifty-six per cent. of alcohol.
Pure brandy is distilled from wine, 1,000 gallons of wine yielding from
100 to 150 gallons of brandy, but a very large proportion of the brandy
is made with little or no wine. It is made artificially from high wines
by the addition of oil of Cognac, to give it flavor, burnt sugar to give
it color, and logwood or catechu, to impart astringency and roughness of
taste. The best brandy is obtained by distillation from the best quality
of white wines, from the districts of Cognac and Armagnac in France.


THE CLOTHING.


There is no physical agent which exerts a more constant or more powerful
influence upon health and life, than the atmosphere. The climate in
these latitudes is exceedingly variable, ranging all the way from 110°
Fahr. in summer to 40° below zero in the winter season. The body of
every individual should be so protected from cold, that it can maintain
a mean temperature of 98° Fahr.

When the body is warm there is a free and equal circulation of the blood
throughout all the structures. When the surface is subjected to cold,
the numerous capillaries and minute vessels carrying the blood, contract
and diminish in size, increasing the amount of this fluid in the
internal organs, thus causing congestion. The blood must go somewhere,
and if driven from the surface, it retreats to the cavities within.
Hence this repletion of the vital organs causes pain from pressure and
fullness of the distended blood-vessels, and the organic functions are
embarrassed. Besides, cold upon the surface shuts up the pores of the
skin, which are among the most active and important excretory ducts of
the system. It is evident, then, that we require suitable clothing, not
only for comfort, but to maintain the temperature and functions
essential to health and life.

The chief object to be attained by dress is the maintenance of a uniform
temperature of the body. To attain this end, it is necessary that the
exhalations of the system, which are continually escaping through the
pores of the skin, should be absorbed or conducted away from the person.
These exudations occur in the form of sensible or insensible
perspiration, and the clothing, to be healthy, should be so porous as to
allow them freely to escape into the air.

A substance should also be chosen which is known to be a poor conductor
of heat. That generated by the system will thus be retained where it is
needed, instead of being dispersed into the atmosphere.

We might add that the better the material for accomplishing these
purposes, the less will be needed to be worn; for we do not wish to wear
or carry about with us any more material than is necessary. It so
happens that all of these qualities are found combined in _flannel_. The
value of this article worn next to the skin cannot be over-rated, for
while it affords protection from cold during the winter months, it is
equally beneficial during the heat of summer, because it imbibes the
perspiration, and being very porous, allows it to escape. The skin
always feels soft, smooth, and pliable, when it is worn; but, when
cotton takes its place, it soon becomes dry and harsh. Its natural
adaptability to these purposes, shows that it is equally a comfort and a
source of health. Where the skin is very delicate, flannel sometimes
causes irritation. In such cases a thin fabric of linen, cotton, or
silk, should be worn next the skin, with flannel immediately over it.
Where there is a uniform and extreme degree of heat, cotton and linen
are very conducive to comfort. But they are unsuitable in a climate or
season liable to sudden fluctuations in temperature.

The value of furs, where people are exposed to extreme cold, cannot be
overestimated. They are much warmer than wool, and are chiefly used as
wraps on going outdoors. They are too cumbrous and expensive for
ordinary wear in this latitude, but in places near the poles they
constitute the chief clothing of the inhabitants.

The quantity of clothing worn is another important item. The least that
is necessary to keep the body well protected and evenly tempered when
employed is the rule of health. Some people, instead of wearing flannels
next to the body, put on other material in greater abundance, thus
confining the perspiration to the skin and making the body chilly. The
amount of clothing is then increased, until they are so heavily clad
that they cannot exercise. It is far better to wear one thickness of
flannel next to the skin, and then cotton, or woolen, for outside
garments, and be able to exercise, thus allowing the blood to circulate
and to assist in the warming process.

One great fault in dress consists in neglecting to properly clothe the
upper extremities. Some people do not reflect upon the necessity, while
others are too proud to be directed by plain common sense. In the winter
season, the feet should be covered with woolen stockings. The next
matter of importance, is to get a thick, broad-soled shoe, so large that
it will not prevent the free circulation of the blood. Then for walking,
and especially for riding, when the earth is wet and cold, or when there
is snow on the ground, wear a flannel-lined rubber or "Arctic"
over-shoe. _Be sure and keep the feet comfortable and warm at all
times._

Our next advice is to keep the legs warm. We were called not long ago,
to see a young lady who had contracted a severe cold. She had been to an
entertainment where the apartments were nicely warmed, and from thence
had walked home late in the evening. We inquired into the circumstances
of the case, and ascertained that she wore flannel about her chest, and
that she also wore rubbers over her shoes, but the other portions of the
lower extremities were protected by cotton coverings. In short, her legs
were not kept warm, and she took cold by going out from warm rooms into
a chilly atmosphere. A good pair of woolen leggings might have saved her
much suffering. The results of insufficient protection of the lower
extremities are colds, coughs, consumption, headaches, pain in the side,
menstrual derangements, uterine congestion and disorders, besides
disablement for the ordinary and necessary duties of life. All these may
be prevented by clothing the legs suitably, and wearing comfortable
flannels.

Young people can bear a low temperature of the body better than old
people, because they possess greater power of endurance. But that is no
reason for unnecessary exposure.

The amount of clothing should be regulated according to the
heat-generating power of the individual, and also according to the
susceptibility to cold. No two persons are exactly alike in these
respects. But it is never proper for young people to reject the counsels
of experience, or treat lightly the advice to protect themselves
thoroughly against the cold. Many a parent's heart has ached as he has
followed the mortal remains of a darling child to the grave, knowing
that if good advice had been heeded, in all human probability, the life
would have been prolonged.

The most deleterious mechanical errors in clothing are those which
affect the chest and body. Tight lacing still plays too important a part
in dress. It interferes with the free and healthy movements of the body,
and effects a pressure which is alike injurious to the organs of
respiration, circulation, and digestion. The great muscle of
respiration, the diaphragm, is impeded in its motion, and is, therefore,
unable to act freely. The large blood-vessels are compressed, and when
the pressure is excessive the heart and lungs are also subjected to
restraint and thrown out of their proper positions. From the compression
of the liver and stomach, the functions of digestion are impeded, a
distaste for solid food, flatulency and pain after eating are the
unmistakable proofs of the injury which is being inflicted.

The evil effects of such pressure are not confined to actual periods of
time during which this pressure is applied. They continue after it has
been removed and when the chest and trunk of the body have thus been
subjected to long-continued pressure they become permanently deformed.
These deformities necessarily entail great suffering in child-bearing.

The evil effects of mechanical pressure on other parts of the body are
not uncommon. The leg is sometimes so indented by a tight garter that
the returning flow of blood through the veins is prevented, and a
varicose condition of these vessels is produced.

Irregular and excessive pressure on the foot by imperfectly fitting
shoes or boots produce deformities of the feet and cause much suffering.
The high heels which are so common on the shoes of women and children
inflict more than a local injury. Every time the body comes down upon
the raised heel with its full weight a slight shock or vibration is
communicated throughout the entire extent of the spinal column, and the
nervous mechanism is thereby injured. Furthermore, displacements of the
pelvic organs frequently result from these unnatural and absurd articles
of dress. Women of fashion are subjected to much annoyance from wearing
long, flowing skirts suspended from their waists to trail uselessly on
the floor and gather dust. It is impossible for the wearers of these
ridiculous garments to exercise their limbs properly or to breathe
naturally. Indigestion, palpitation, shortness of breath, and physical
degeneracy are the inevitable consequences of their folly. The skirts
should always be suspended from the shoulders and not from the hips. It
is especially important that the clothing of children should not fit too
tightly.

It is very important that the clothing should be kept clean. That which
is worn for a long time becomes saturated with the excretions and
exhalations of the body, which prevent free transpiration from the pores
of the skin, and thereby induce mental inactivity and depression of the
physical powers. Unclear clothing may be the means of conveying disease.
Scarlet fever has been conveyed frequently by the clothing of a nurse
into a healthy family. All of the contagious diseases have been
communicated by clothing contaminated in laundries.

Certain dyes which are largely used in the coloring of wearing apparel
are poisonous, and give rise to local disease of the skin, accompanied
in some instances, with constitutional symptoms. The principal poisonous
dyes are the red and yellow aniline. A case of poisoning from wearing
stockings colored with aniline dyes, in which there were severe
constitutional symptoms, came under our observation at the Invalids'
Hotel recently.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER III.

PHYSICAL EXERCISE. MENTAL CULTURE. SLEEP. CLEANLINESS.


A well-developed physical organization is essential to perfect health.
Among the Greeks, beauty ranked next to virtue, and an eminent author
has said that "the nearer we approach Divinity, the more we reflect His
eternal beauty." The perfect expression of thought requires the physical
accompaniments of language, gesture, etc. The human form is pliable,
and, with proper culture, can be made replete with expression, grace and
beauty. The cultivation of the intellectual powers has been allowed to
supplant physical training to a great extent. The results are abnormally
developed brains, delicate forms, sensitive nerves and shortened lives.
That the physical and mental systems should be collaterally developed,
is a fact generally overlooked by educators. The fullness of a great
intellect is generally impaired when united with a weak and frail body.
We have sought perfection in animals and plants. To the former we have
given all the degree of strength and grace requisite to their peculiar
duties; to the latter we have imparted all the delicate tints and
shadings that fancy could picture. We have studied the laws of their
existence, until we are familiar with every phase of their production;
yet it remains for man to learn those laws of his own being, by a
knowledge of which he may promote and preserve the beauty of the human
form, and thus render it, indeed, an image of its Maker. When the body
is tenanted by a cultivated intellect, the result is a unity which is
unique, commanding the respect of humanity, and insuring a successful
life to the possessor. Students are as a rule pale and emaciated. Mental
application is generally the cause assigned when, in reality, it is the
result of insufficient exercise, impure air, and dietetic errors. An
intelligent journalist has remarked that "many of our ministers weigh
too little in the pulpit, because they weigh too little on the scales."
The Greek Gymnasium and Olympian Games were the sure foundations of that
education from which arose that subtle philosophy, poetry, and military
skill which have won the admiration of nineteen centuries. The laurel
crown of the Olympian victor was far more precious to the Grecian youth
than the gilded prize is to our modern genius. A popular lecturer has
truly remarked, that "we make brilliant mathematicians and miserable
dyspeptics; fine linguists with bronchial throats; good writers with
narrow chests and pale complexions; smart scholars, but not that union,
which the ancients prized, of a sound mind in a sound body. The brain
becomes the chief working muscle of the system. We refine and re-refine
the intellectual powers down to a diamond point and brilliancy, as if
they were the sole or reigning faculties, and we had not a physical
nature binding us to earth, and a spiritual nature binding us to the
great heavens and the greater God who inhabits them. Thus the university
becomes a sort of splendid hospital with this difference, that the
hospital _cures_, while the university _creates_ disease. Most of them
are indicted at the bar of public opinion for taking the finest young
brain and blood of the country, and, after working upon them for four
years, returning them to their homes skilled indeed to perform certain
linguistic and mathematical dexterities, but very much below par in
health and endurance, and, in short, seriously damaged and physically
demoralized." We read with reverence the sublime teachings of Aristotle
and Plato; we mark the grandeur of Homer and the delicate beauties of
Virgil; but we do not seek to reproduce in our modern institutions the
gymnasium, which was the real foundation of their genius. Colleges which
are now entering upon their career, should make ample provision for
those exercises which develop the _physical man._ This lack of bodily
training is common with all classes, and its effects are written in
indelible characters on the faces and forms of old and young.
Constrained positions in sitting restrict the movements of the diaphragm
and ribs and often cause diseases of the spine, or unnatural curvatures,
which prove disastrous to health and happiness. The head should be held
erect and the shoulders thrown backward, so that at each inspiration the
lungs may be fully expanded.

Physical exercise should never be too violent or too prolonged. Severe
physical labor, and athletic sports, if indulged in to an extreme
degree, produce undue excitability of the heart, and sometimes cause it
to become enlarged. There is a form of heart disease induced by undue
exertion which may be called a wearing out or wasting away of that
organ. It is common in those persons whose occupations expose them to
excessive physical labor for too many hours together. This feebleness of
heart is felt but little by vigorous persons under forty years of age,
but in those who have passed this age it becomes manifest. However, when
any person so affected is attacked by any acute disease, the heart is
more liable to fail, and thus cause a fatal termination.

Aneurism of the aorta or the large arteries branching off from it, which
is a dilatation of the walls of these vessels, caused by the rupture of
one or two of their coats, is generally induced by excessive physical
strain, such as lifting heavy weights, or carrying weights up long
flights of stairs, violent horseback exercise, or hurrying to catch a
train or street car.

[Illustration: Fig. 104.]

AN ERECT CARRIAGE is not only essential to health, but adds grace and
beauty to every movement. Although man was made to stand erect, thus
indicating his superiority over all other animals, yet custom has done
much to curve that magnificent ce