The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Part 1, Slice 1

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA - ELEVENTH EDITION


  FIRST    edition, published in three volumes,       1768-1771.
  SECOND   edition, published in ten volumes,         1777-1784.
  THIRD    edition, published in eighteen volumes,    1788-1797.
  FOURTH   edition, published in twenty volumes,      1801-1810.
  FIFTH    edition, published in twenty volumes,      1815-1817.
  SIXTH    edition, published in twenty volumes,      1823-1824.
  SEVENTH  edition, published in twenty-one volumes,  1830-1842.
  EIGHTH   edition, published in twenty-two volumes,  1853-1860.
  NINTH    edition, published in twenty-five volumes, 1875-1889.
  TENTH    edition, ninth edition and eleven
  supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
  ELEVENTH edition, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.


THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION


ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II

ANDROS to AUSTRIA

[E-Text Edition of Volume II - Part 01 of 16 - ANDROS to ANISE]




INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

[Note: Listing adjusted to E-Text Edition of Volume II, Part 01. The
full list of contributors appear in the complete E-text Edition of
Volume II. A complete list of all contributors to the encyclopaedia,
appears in the final volume.]


A.B.R. - ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R S F.L.S. D.Sc. Keeper of the
Department of Botany, British Museum.

- ANGIOSPERMS


C.Pl. - REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. Fellow of Corpus Christi College,
Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of _Life and Times of Alfred the
Great_; &c.

- ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE


E.O. - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. Consulting Surgeon
to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities
of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.

- ANEURYSM


H.M.C. - HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare
College, Cambridge. Author of _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

- ANGLI; ANGLO-SAXONS


H.Sm. - HUGH SHERINGHAM. Angling Editor of _The Field_ (London).

- ANGLING


I.B.B. - ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR, F.R.S., M.D. King's Botanist in
Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Professor
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of Botany
in the University of Glasgow, 1879-1884. Sherardian Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford, 1884-1888.

- ANGIOSPERMS (_in part_).


J.G.C.A. - JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. Student, Censor and Tutor
of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. Formerly Fellow of
Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of _Studica Pontica_.

- ANGORA


L.J.S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Department of Mineralogy,
British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

- ANHYDRITE


L.M.Br. - LOUIS MAURICE BRANDIN, M.A. Fielden Professor of French and
of Romance Philology in the University of London.

- ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE


N.W.T. - NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist
to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe
d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought Transference_; _Kinship
and Marriage in Australia_; &c.

- ANIMAL-WORSHIP, ANIMISM


P.C.M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor
at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital,
1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal
College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903. Examiner in Zoology to
the University of London, 1903.

- ANIMAL


P.C.Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

- ANGLESEY, 1st EARL OF


P.Vi. - PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and
Harvard). Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of
Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Honorary Professor of History
in the University of Moscow. Author of _Villainage in England_;
_English Society in the 11th Century_; &c.

- ANGLO-SAXON LAW


T.Ba. - SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme
Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Author of _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; &c. M.P.
for Blackburn, 1910.

- ANGARY


W.H.Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

- ANGEL


W.H.Di. - WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S.

- ANEMOMETER


W.M.R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article:
ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

- ANGELICO, FRA


PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

  Anglican Communion.
  Angola.


  [Note regarding E-text edition:
  Volume and page numbers have been incorporated into the text
  at the first paragraph break of each page as: v.02 p.0001 ]



THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II, PART I


[v.02 p.0001]

ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America,
was born in London on the 6th of December 1637, son of Amice Andros,
an adherent of Charles I., and the royal bailiff of the island of
Guernsey. He served for a short time in the army of Prince Henry of
Nassau, and in 1660-1662 was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of
Bohemia (Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then
served against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in
what is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke of York
(later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys, though his
jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until his recall in
1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty and favouritism in
the collection of the revenues, he proved himself to be a capable
administrator, whose imperious disposition, however, rendered him
somewhat unpopular among the colonists. During a visit to England in
1678 he was knighted. In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his
capital, of the "Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts
(including Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was extended
over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious interference with
colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest resentment, and on the
18th of April 1689, soon after news of the arrival of William, prince
of Orange, in England reached Boston, the colonists deposed and
arrested him. In New York his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon
afterwards deposed by Jacob Leisler (q.v.); and the inter-colonial
union was dissolved. Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but
was immediately released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698
he was governor of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of
Commissary James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694
he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was governor
of Guernsey. He died in London in February 1714 and was buried at
St. Anne's, Soho.

See _The Andros Tracts_ (3 vols., Boston, 1869-1872).



ANDROS, or ANDRO, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most
northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about 2 m. N.
of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom of Greece. It is
nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 10 m. Its surface is
for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered
valleys. Andros, the capital, on the east coast, contains about 2000
inhabitants. The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the
west coast; the town possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus.
The island has about 18,000 inhabitants.

The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population, perhaps
with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally dependent on
Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become sufficiently prosperous
to send out several colonies to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageirus,
Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships to Xerxes and was
subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian
League it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 447 had to be
coerced by the settlement of a cleruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its
freedom and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the
second Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for as a
frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea, Macedonia and
Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308
it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed
again to Macedonia after a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it
was captured by a combined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and
remained a possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that
kingdom in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
A.D. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva under
Venetian protection.



ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a contemporary
of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the speech of
Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality in proposing
the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five Hundred at the
expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled several important
posts, and during the Social War was appointed extraordinary
commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes. Both Demosthenes
and Aristotle (_Rhet._ iii. 4) speak favourably of his powers as an
orator. He is said to have gone into exile at Megara, and to have
composed an _Atthis_, or annalistic account of Attica from the
earliest times to his own days (Pausanias vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed
whether the annalist and orator are identical, but an Androtion
who wrote on agriculture is certainly a different person. Professor
Gaetano de Sanctis (in _L'Attide di Androzione e un papiro
di Oxyrhynchos_, Turin, 1908) attributes to Androtion, the
atthidographer, a 4th-century historical fragment, discovered by
B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v.). Strong
arguments against this view are set forth by E.M. Walker in the
_Classical Review_, May 1908.

[v.02 p.0002]



ANDÚJAR (the anc. _Slilurgi_), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Jaén; on the right bank of the river Guadalquivir and the
Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 16,302. Andújar is widely known
for its porous earthenware jars, called _alcarrazas_, which keep water
cool in the hottest weather, and are manufactured from a whitish clay
found in the neighbourhood.



ANECDOTE (from [Greek: an]-, privative, and [Greek: ekdidomi], to give
out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It
has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not
published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret
histories--Procopius, _e.g._, gives this as one of the titles of his
secret history of Justinian's court--or portions of ancient writers
which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first
time. Of such _anecdota_ there are many collections; the earliest was
probably L.A. Muratori's, in 1709. In the more general and popular
acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of
detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections
are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by
T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the
_Percy Anecdotes_ (1820-1823).



ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1679-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse
about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as
surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at
Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he
was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he
was practising in Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his
successful surgical treatment of _fistula lacrymalis_, and while
at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the
fine-pointed syringe still known by his name.



ANEMOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind, and [Greek: metron],
a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the
pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1)
those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure
of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the
pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will
give information about both these quantities.

Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1)
those which do not require a wind vane or weathercock, (2) those
which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. Thomas Romney
Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally
used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists
of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of
horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a
cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the
centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of
turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any
given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated.
The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is
easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented
to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also
faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence
a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round
providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer
are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand
it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual
velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but
violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first
designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the
cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third
of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by
some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for
it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly
called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very
largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost
any value between two and a little over three. The result has been
that wind velocities published in many official publications have
often been in error by nearly 50%.

The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging
to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation
is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must
be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal.
Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to
follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil
the same purpose must be employed. This type of instrument is very
little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In
cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as
in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these
anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give
most satisfactory results.

Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate
and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a
good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists
of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind
vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the
wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring
determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate,
and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in
the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved
by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long
series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding
60 lb per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values
are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the
anemometer.

The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while
the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the
force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for
following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make
matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often
connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A
violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by
its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the
same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen
it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion,
and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its
position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act
the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be
indicated on the chart.

A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate
being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by
hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back
farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples
of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the
winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has
not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lb are extremely
rare.

Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a
sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing
to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small
light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing
cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over
a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has
given satisfactory results.

Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid
with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is
perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument
has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an
increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in
all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication.
If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it
causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical
use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on
the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis,
the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great
variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1)
utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube
facing the wind, and the decrease of pressure caused inside when the
wind blows over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of
a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure
differences on which the action depends are very small, and special
means are required to register them, but in the ordinary form of
recording anemometer (fig. 2), any wind capable of turning the vane
which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of
registration.

[v.02 p.0003]

The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the
exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling
or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any
convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two
connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as
though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on
which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of
the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be
considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the
air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are
carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an
effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the
opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may
entirely alter the registration.

[Illustration: FIG. 1 & FIG. 2 Anemometers.]

The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is
one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on
engineering give the relation P=.005 _v_^2 when P is the pressure in
lb per sq. ft. and _v_ the velocity in miles per hour. The history
of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the
18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating
that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the
qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received
general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions
of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by .003, for many
independent authorities using different methods have found values very
close to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure
is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed.
Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter
of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and
for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the
relation P=.003 _v_^2 is fairly correct.

In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is
measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale.
In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a
high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an
allowance must be made. Approximately 1-1/2% should be added to the
velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it
stands above sea-level.

(W.H. Di.)



ANEMONE, or WIND-FLOWER (from the Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind), a
genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety
species in the north and south temperate zones. _Anemone nemorosa_,
wood anemone, and _A. Pulsatilla_, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain;
the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone pastures in some of
the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs
with an underground rootstock, and radical, more or less deeply cut,
leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white,
red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three
leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles
which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the species are
favourite garden plants; among the best known is _Anemone coronaria_,
often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with
parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on
stalks of from 6 to 9-in. high; the flowers are of various colours,
but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There
are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the
centre are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden
favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They
grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which
should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October,
and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected
by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in
May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into
a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the
seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a
flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of
handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as
the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively
spring-blooming plants, of which _A. hortensis_ and _A. fulgens_ have
less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers;
they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by _A.
Pulsatilla_, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer
surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid _A.
japonica_, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the
latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy
perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 2-1/2 to 3 ft.
in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf
species, represented by the native British _A. nemorosa_ and _A.
apennina_, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for
planting in woods and shady places.

The genus _Hepatica_ is now generally included in anemone as a
subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and are
varieties of the common South European _A. Hepatica_; they are
charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.



ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century
he is treated in the catalogues as two persons--Anacletus and Cletus.
According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve
years (c. 77-88).



ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman
masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about
1560, studied under G.M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as
composer to the papal chapel. Several masses and motets of his are
printed in Proske's _Musica Divina_ and other modern anthologies, and
it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy
of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as
1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems
to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his
numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if
we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement,
which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference,
that "he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its
subdivisions" is incomprehensible. Quavers were common property in
all musical countries quite early in the 16th century, and semiquavers
appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers
are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music
as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation to
indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt
from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of
preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism.
They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and
hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their
own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The
12-part _Stabat Mater_ in the seventh volume of Palestrina's complete
works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.

[v.02 p.0004]


ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir,
situated between the rivers Eure and Vègre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by
rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent
castle, built in the middle of the 16th century by Henry II. for Diana
of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated
the armies of the League in 1590.



ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh)
bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor
and translator of Aneurin's principal epic poem _Gododin_, for a
son of Gildas, the historian. _Gododin_ is an account of the British
defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by Stephens with
Dawstane in Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have been taken
prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently interpreted.
It was translated and edited by W.F. Skene in his _Four Ancient
Books of Wales_ (1866), and Stephens' version was published by the
Cymmrodorion Society in 1888. See CELT: _Literature_ (Welsh).



ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. [Greek: aneurisma], a dilatation), a
cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of an artery and
contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the
dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation
of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or
injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflammation of the inner coats
of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass in the hand is apt to
cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial)
and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually
followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound
in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape in
to the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to
condense and form the sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased,
may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed
tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac.

The division, of aneurysms into two classes, _true_ and _false_, is
unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false is not
an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal tender. A better
classification is into _spontaneous_ and _traumatic_. The man who has
chronic inflammation of a large artery, the result, for instance, of
gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney-disease, and whose artery
yields under cardiac pressure, has a _spontaneous_ aneurysm; the
barman or window-cleaner who has cut his radial artery, the soldier
whose brachial or femoral artery has been bruised by a rifle bullet
or grazed by a bayonet, and the boy whose naked foot is pierced by
a sharp nail, are apt to be the subjects of _traumatic_ aneurysm.
In those aneurysms which are a _saccular_ bulging on one side of the
artery the blood may be induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit
layer upon layer of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This
laminar coagulation by constant additions gradually fills the
aneurysmal cavity and the pulsation in the sac then ceases;
contraction of the sac and its contents gradually takes place and
the aneurysm is cured. But in those aneurysms which are _fusiform_
dilatations of the vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for
the blood sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or
laminated fibrine.

In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood
pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely
effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted
to more promptly and securely than was previously the case.
Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment
by compression, or the application of an india rubber bandage, the
surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the artery, and
applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience
has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has
none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it.
Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or
other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by
dissecting out the aneurysm. Popliteal, carotid and other aneurysms,
which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this
plan, which is the old "Method of Antyllus" with modern aseptic
conditions. Speaking generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with
surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic
measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and
disappointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be
dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a
pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so
that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase
the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac.

(E.O.)



ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. _anfractuosus_, winding), twisting and
turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to
denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea,
mountains, or the fissures (_sulci_) separating the convolutions of
the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.



ANGARIA (from [Greek: aggaros], the Greek form of a Babylonian word
adopted in Persian for "mounted courier"), a sort of postal system
adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians,
among whom, according to Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 6; cf. Herodotus
viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback
were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the empire, for
the transmission of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers.
In the Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was a
compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant exemption.
The word, which in the 4th century was used for the heavy transport
vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the animals by which
they were drawn, came to mean generally "compulsory service." So
_angaria_, _angariare_, in medieval Latin, and the rare English
derivatives "angariate," "angariation," came to mean any service which
was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general.



ANGARY (Lat. _jus angariae_; Fr. _droit d'angarie_; Ger. _Angarie_;
from the Gr. [Greek: aggareia], the office of an [Greek: aggaros],
courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to
seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from
doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including
that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art.
53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land,
annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides
that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other
ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though
belonging to companies or private persons, _may be used_ for military
operations, but "must be restored at the conclusion of peace _and_
indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that "the plant of
railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those
states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them
as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of
angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both
belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however,
that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the
"necessity of war" can be made to cover.

(T. BA.)



ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in
monotheistic religions, _e.g._. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in
allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of
superhuman beings are continuous; but in monotheism there is a sharp
distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand,
and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the
"angels."

"Angel" is a transcription of the Gr. [Greek: angelos], messenger.
[Greek: angelos] in the New Testament, and the corresponding _mal'akh_
in the Old Testament, sometimes mean "messenger," and sometimes
"angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English
Versions. "Angel" is also used in the English Version for [Hebrew:]
_'Abbir_, Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for [Hebrew:]
_'Elohim_, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure [Hebrew:] _shin'an_,
in Ps. lxviii. 17.

[v.02 p.0005]

In the later development of the religion of Israel, _'Elohim_ is
almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times
_'Elohim_ (gods), _bn[=e] 'Elohim, bn[=e] Elim_ (sons of gods,
_i.e._ members of the class of divine beings) were general terms
for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of
superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and therefore inferior,
and ultimately subordinate.[1] So, too, the angels are styled "holy
ones,"[2] and "watchers,"[3] and are spoken of as the "host of
heaven"[4] or of "Yahweh."[5] The "hosts," [Hebrew:] _Sebaoth_ in
the title _Yahweh Sebaoth_, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time
identified with the angels.[6] The New Testament often speaks of
"spirits," [Greek: pneumata].[7] In the earlier periods of the
religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally
stated, so that the idea of "angel" in the modern sense does not
occur, but we find the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, Angel of the Lord, or
_Mal'akh Elohim_, Angel of God. The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ is an appearance
or manifestation of _Yahweh_ in the form of a man, and the term
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii.
2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the _Mal'akh
Yahweh_ say they have seen God.[8] The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ (or _Elohim_)
appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the
Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.[9] The phrase _Mal'akh Yahweh_ may
have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King;
but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and
later on, when the angels were classified, the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ came
to mean an angel of distinguished rank.[10] The identification of the
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ with the _Logos_, or Second Person of the Trinity, is
not indicated by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea
of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct
from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish
persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine
of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.

In the earlier literature the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_ is almost
the only _mal'akh_ ("angel") mentioned. There are, however, a few
passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_. There are the cherubim who guard Eden.
In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and
Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but
possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone.[11]
At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder,[12] and later
on they appear to him at Mahanaim.[13] In all these cases the
angels, like the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, are connected with or represent a
theophany. Similarly the "man" who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel is
identified with God.[14] In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman
beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus the
pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say about
angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations
of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly mention angels.[15]
Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular religion of ancient
Israel had much to say of superhuman beings other than Yahweh, but
that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed references to them as
unedifying. Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.

The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period
immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy[16] and
Isaiah;[17] and at the same time we find angels prominent in Ezekiel
who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the
hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and
perhaps even by the angelology of Zoroastrianism.[18] Ezekiel gives
elaborate descriptions of cherubim;[19] and in one of his visions he
sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem.[20] As
in Genesis they are styled "men," _mal'akh_ for "angel" does not occur
in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels play
a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as "men," sometimes as
_mal'akh_, and the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ seems to hold a certain primacy
among them.[21] Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the
High Priest before the divine tribunal.[22] Similarly in Job the _bne
Elohim_, sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them
Satan, still in his rôle of public prosecutor, the defendant being
Job.[23] Occasional references to "angels" occur in the Psalter;[24]
they appear as ministers of God.

In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the "evil angels" of A.V. conveys a false
impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., _i.e._ angels who
inflict chastisement as ministers of God.

The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of
Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by
Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels,[25]
parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas (Amesha Spenta), or
seven great spirits of the Persian mythology, but the connexion is
doubtful.

In the Priestly Code, _c._ 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels
apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in Genesis
i. 26.

During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent
a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences.
In Daniel, _c._ 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as "men" or
"princes," appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are
implied, there are "princes" and "chief" or "great princes"; and
the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is
pre-eminent,[26] he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading
part is played by Raphael, "one of the seven holy angels."[27]

In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the
canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers
of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as
subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The
statement[28] that God "charged His angels with folly" applies to
all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen
nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we
find Asmodaeus the evil demon, [Greek: to poneros daimonion], who
strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to "a devil
or evil spirit," [Greek: pneuma].[29] The Fall of the Angels is not
properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as
interpreted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the _bn[=e] Elohim_
of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but
they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism
and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the
_bne Elohim_ suffered any loss of status through their act.

The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the
gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process
by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton
in _Paradise Lost_. The development of the doctrine of an organized
hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period 200
B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination
ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as
the various books of Enoch and the _Ascension of Isaiah_ supply much
information on this subject.

[v.02 p.0006]

In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God
and the agents of revelation;[30] and Our Lord speaks of angels
as fulfilling such functions,[31] implying in one saying that they
neither marry nor are given in marriage.[32] Naturally angels are most
prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest
in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the
doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we
have names, Gabriel,[33] and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon,[34]
Beelzebub.[35] and Satan;[36] ranks are implied, archangels,[37]
principalities and powers,[38] thrones and dominions.[39] Angels
occur in groups of four or seven.[40] In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with
the "Angels" of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably
guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that
the "princes" in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the "angels"
are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
"angels" are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or
chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use
of "angel," and it is doubtful whether the monarchical government of
churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written.

Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the
angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important
part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Midrashim and the Kabbala.
Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much
influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the
_De Hierarchia Celesti_, written in the 5th century in the name
of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and
confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and
modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings,
or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain
knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
existence of beings intermediate between man and God.

The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the
_Book of Jubilees_ and the Slavonic _Enoch_ describe their creation;
and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in, unto and
through Christ.

Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels.
It is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the cherubim and Isaiah's
account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual
beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions.
Angels are constantly spoken of as "men," and, including even the
Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions
of human life; they eat and drink,[41] walk[42] and speak.[43] Putting
aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having
wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish,[44] exercise
miraculous powers,[45] and fly.[46] Seeing that the anthropomorphic
language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the
Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in
either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and
elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies,[47] and the
elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c.[48] The angels are
infinitely numerous.[49]

The _function_ of the angels is that of the supernatural servants of
God. His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as we have
seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the _bne Elohim_ and
the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike the court and the
army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers. In his dealings with
men, the angels, as their name implies, are specially His messengers,
declaring His will and executing His commissions. Through them he
controls nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations;
and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels.[50].
Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels.[51]
According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by angels.
Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated the Jewish and
Christian ideas as to angels.

While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence of
spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is probable that
many of the details may be regarded merely as symbolic imagery. In
Scripture the function of the angel overshadows his personality; the
stress is on their ministry; they appear in order to perform specific
acts.


[Footnote 1: _E.g._ Gen. vi. 2; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. I.]

[Footnote 2: Zech. xiv. 5.]

[Footnote 3: Dan. iv. 13.]

[Footnote 4: Deut. xvii. 3 (?).]

[Footnote 5: Josh. v. 14 (?).]

[Footnote 6: The identification of the "hosts" with the stars comes
to the same thing; the stars were thought of as closely connected with
angels. It is probable that the "hosts" were also identified with the
armies of Israel.]

[Footnote 7: Rev. i. 4.]

[Footnote 8: Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 22.]

[Footnote 9: Exod. iii. 2, xiv.]

[Footnote 10: Zech. i. 11f.]

[Footnote 11: Cf. xviii. I with xviii. 2, and note change of number in
xix. 17.]

[Footnote 12: Gen. xxviii. 12, E.]

[Footnote 13: Gen. xxxii. I, E.]

[Footnote 14: Gen. xxxii. 24, 30, J.]

[Footnote 15: "An angel" of I Kings xiii. 18 might be the _Mal'akh
Yahweh_, as in xix. 5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its
present form, may be exilic or post-exilic.]

[Footnote 16: Deut. vi. 4. 5.]

[Footnote 17: Isaiah xliii. 10 &c.]

[Footnote 18: It is not however certain that these doctrines of
Zoroastrianism were developed at so early a date.]

[Footnote 19: Ezek. i.x.]

[Footnote 20: Ezek. ix.]

[Footnote 21: Zech. i. 11 f.]

[Footnote 22: Zech. iii. 1.]

[Footnote 23: Job i., ii. Cf. I Chron. xxi. 1.]

[Footnote 24: Pss. xci. 11, ciii. 20 &c.]

[Footnote 25: Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. 2.]

[Footnote 26: Dan. viii. 16, x. 13, 20, 21.]

[Footnote 27: Tob. xii. 15.]

[Footnote 28: Job iv. 18.]

[Footnote 29: Tobit iii. 8, 17, vi. 7.]

[Footnote 30: _E.g._ Matt. i. 20 (to Joseph), iv. 11. (to Jesus), Luke
i. 26 (to Mary), Acts xii. 7 (to Peter).]

[Footnote 31: _E.g._ Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27.]

[Footnote 32: Mark xii. 25.]

[Footnote 33: Luke i. 19.]

[Footnote 34: Rev. ix. 11.]

[Footnote 35: Mark iii. 22.]

[Footnote 36: Mark i. 13.]

[Footnote 37: Michael, Jude 9.]

[Footnote 38: Rom. viii. 38; Col, ii. 10.]

[Footnote 39: Col. i. 16.]

[Footnote 40: Rev. vii. 1.]

[Footnote 41: Gen. xviii. 8.]

[Footnote 42: Gen. xix. 16.]

[Footnote 43: Zech. iv. 1.]

[Footnote 44: Judges vi. 12, 21.]

[Footnote 45: Rev. vii. 1. viii.]

[Footnote 46: Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6.]

[Footnote 47: Job xxxviii. 7; _Asc. of Isaiah_, iv. 18; Slav. _Enoch_,
iv. 1.]

[Footnote 48: Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; possibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8,
20.]

[Footnote 49: Ps. lxviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10.]

[Footnote 50: Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15.]

[Footnote 51: Gal. iii. 19; Heb. ii. 2; _LXX_. of Deut. xxxiii. 2.]


BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the sections on "Angels" in the handbooks of O.T.
Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c.; and of
N.T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee's _Dogmatics_. Also
commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan on
_Daniel_, and G.A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 310 ff.; and articles
_s.v._ "Angel" in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, and the _Encyclopaedia
Biblica_.

(W.H. BE.)



ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (_angelot, ange_) in 1340,
and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new issue of
the "noble," and so at first called the "angel-noble." It varied in
value between that period and the time of Charles I. (when it was
last coined) from 6s. 8d. to 10s. The name was derived from the
representation it bore of St. Michael and the dragon. The angel was the
coin given to those who came to be touched for the disease known
as king's evil; after it was no longer coined, medals, called
touch-pieces, with the same device, were given instead.



ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order _Umbelliferae_,
represented in Britain by one species, _A. sylvestris_, a tall
perennial herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels
of white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given to
a plant of an allied genus, _Archangelica officinalis_, the tender
shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic
sweetmeats. _Angelica balsam_ is obtained by extracting the roots with
alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether. It is of
a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica wax and
angelicin, C_{18}_H_{30}_O. The essential oil of the roots of
_Angelica archangelica_ contains ß-terebangelene, C_{10}_H_{16}, and
other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains ß-terebangelene,
together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.

The angelica tree is a member of the order _Avaliaceae_, a species of
_Aralia (A. spinosa_), a native of North America; it grows 8 to 12 ft.
high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an umbrella-like head,
and much divided leaves.



ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. Il Beato Fra Giovanni
Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of
the Florentine state in the 15th century, the representative, beyond
all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately,
termed simply "Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town where he
first took the vows; more often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound
designation into English, it runs thus--"the Beatified Friar John the
Angelic of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as
Fra Giovanni or Friar John; "The Angelic" is a laudatory term which
was assigned to him at an early date,--we find it in use within thirty
years after his death; and, at some period which is not defined in
our authorities, he was beatified by due ecclesiastical process. His
baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni being only his name in religion. He
was born at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown
but seemingly well-to-do parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes
stated); in 1407 he became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at
Fiesole, and in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order.
Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not certain,
but may be pronounced probable. The painter named Lorenzo Monaco may
have contributed to his art-training, and the influence of the Sienese
school is discernible in his work.

[v.02 p.0007]

According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were in the
Certosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest extant
performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, whither he
was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the
opening years of his monastic life. His first works executed in fresco
were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent
of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-painter, he may have worked
under, or as a follower of, Gherardo Starnina. From 1418 to 1436
he was back at Fiesole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican
convent of S. Marco in Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the
altarpiece for the choir, followed by many other works; he may have
studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel
in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of
Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome. The pope
who reigned from 1431 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and he it was who in
1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angelico, to
be archbishop of Florence. If the story (first told by Vasari) is
true--that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico
only after the archbishopric had been offered to himself, and by
him declined on the ground of his inaptitude for so elevated and
responsible a station--Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his
successor Nicholas V., must have been the pope who sent the invitation
and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in
1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself
credible enough. Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in
the first half of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del
Sacramento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul III. In June
1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the
cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli. He
afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V. In
this capital he died in 1455, and he lies buried in the church of the
Minerva.

According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on
whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could
have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and
self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to
the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing
diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched
or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as
divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain. He
was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should
be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without
fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last
Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most
frequently treated.

Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra
Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able
to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed
to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the
convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series
of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the first cloister is the
Crucifixion with St. Dominic kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on
a wall near the dormitory; in the chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion,
with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized
figures--the red background, which has a strange and harsh effect, is
the misdoing of some restorer; an "Annunciation," the figures of about
three-fourths of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage,
the "Virgin enthroned," with four saints; on the wall of a cell,
the "Coronation of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas,
Benedict, Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcoming
Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an "Adoration of the Magi"; the "Marys
at the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the altarpiece which
Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected
with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it
represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian (the patrons of
the Medici family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and
Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but
it has long been severed from the main subject. In the Uffizi gallery,
an altarpiece, the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the Infant and
twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than
those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and
Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr,
now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the predella
of this picture has, since 1860, been in the National Gallery, London,
and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The
subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the Resurrection, and
a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or
beati of the Dominican order; here are no fewer than 266 figures
or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This
predella was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another
picture which used to form an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now
obtains world-wide celebrity in the Louvre--the "Coronation of the
Virgin," with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic.
For the church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a
"Deposition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a "Last
Judgment," both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria Novella, a
"Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three sections, now
in the Uffizi,--this again is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto
cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling,
portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints
and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are now much
repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V., the acts
of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and
on the ceiling the four evangelists. These works of the painter's
advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show
vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate
treatment of the architectural perspectives. Naturally, there are a
number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his;
for instance, a "St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Lateran
museum, and a "Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo,
Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently
practised as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises
that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also
a Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more famous
artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes
at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio
series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence,
in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and
Gentile da Fabriano are named as pupils of the Beato.

We have spoken of Angelico's art as "pietistic"; this is in fact
its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity,
devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness, which is
intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a
particular ideal--that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment
from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not
always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces
becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which
hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds,
therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he
produces little genuine impression. After allowing for this, Angelico
should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical
painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his
monastic calling, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness.
Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly
falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such
as Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as
Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a
subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and
actions--the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or
contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish
and harmony of composition and colour, without corresponding
mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame
was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his tints
is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of gilding; this
conduces materially to that celestial character which so pre-eminently
distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the
hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed.

[v.02 p.0008]

Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention those by S.
Beissel, 1895; V.M. Crawford, 1900; R.L. Douglas, 1900; I.B. Supino,
1901; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901.

(W.M.R.)



ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American philanthropist, was
born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the 5th of June 1823. He
graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied law at the Harvard Law School,
and in 1851 was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he practised
for many years. In 1868 he founded and became president of the
Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the
same year establishing and becoming editor of _Our Dumb Animals_, a
journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the humane
treatment of animals. For many years he was active in the organization
of humane societies in England and America. In 1882 he initiated the
movement for the establishment of Bands of Mercy (for the promotion
of humane treatment of animals), of which in 1908 there were more than
72,000 in active existence. In 1889 he founded and became president
of the American Humane Education Society. He became well known as a
criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safeguarding of
the public health and against adulteration of food. He died at Boston
on the 16th of March 1909.



ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in a
perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a corruption of
the word angle-lights, as they are nearly triangular.



ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the Annunciation.
It has its name from the opening words, _Angelus Domini nuntiavit
Mariae_. It consists of three texts describing the mystery, recited
as versicle and response alternately with the salutation "Hail, Mary!"
This devotion is recited in the Catholic Church three times daily,
about 6 A.M., noon and 6 P.M. At these hours a bell known as the
Angelus bell is rung. This is still rung in some English country
churches, and has often been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival
of the curfew bell. The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed
to Pope Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is
ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be thrice
said daily.



ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet, was born in 1624
at Breslau. His family name was Johann Scheffler, but he is generally
known by the pseudonym Angelus Silesius, under which he published his
poems and which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran,
and at first physician to the duke of Württemberg-Oels, he joined in
1652 the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest, and
became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died at Breslau
on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published under the title
_Heilige Seelenlust, oder geistliche Hirtenlieder der in ihren
Jesum verliebten Psyche_ (1657), a collection of 205 hymns, the most
beautiful of which, such as, _Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde deiner
Gottheit hast gemacht_ and _Mir nach, spricht Christus, unser Held_,
have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal. More remarkable,
however, is his _Geistreiche Sinn-und Schluss-reime_ (1657),
afterwards called _Cherubinischer Wandersmann_ (1674). This is a
collection of "Reimsprüche" or rhymed distichs embodying a strange
mystical pantheism drawn mainly from the writings of Jakob Böhme and
his followers. Silesius delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of
mysticism. The essence of God, for instance, he held to be love; God,
he said, can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an
object of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself,
without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words, by
becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially one.

A complete edition of Scheffler's works (_Sämtliche poetische Werke_)
was published by D.A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1862). Both
the _Cherubinischer Wandersmann_ and _Heilige Seelenlust_ have been
republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901); a selection from the
former work by O.E. Hartleben (1896). For further notices of Silesius'
life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben in _Weimarisches Jahrbuch
I_. (Hanover, 1854); A. Kahlert, _Angelus Silesius_ (1853); C.
Seltmann, _Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik_ (1896), and a biog. by
H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).



ANGERMÜNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on Lake Münde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin-Stettin
railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien-walde and
Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant churches, a grammar
school and court of law. Its industries embrace iron founding and
enamel working. In 1420 the elector Frederick I. of Brandenburg gained
here a signal victory over the Pomeranians.



ANGERONA, or ANGERONIA, an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions
are variously explained. According to ancient authorities, she was a
goddess who relieved men from pain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans
and their flocks from _angina_ (quinsy); or she was the protecting
goddess of Rome and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which
might not be pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it
was even thought that Angerona itself was this name. Modern scholars
regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and Dea Dia; or
as the goddess of the new year and the returning sun (according to
Mommsen, _ab angerendo_= [Greek: apo tou anapheresthai. ton haelion).]
Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronalia, was celebrated on the
21st of December. The priests offered sacrifice in the temple of
Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in which stood a statue of Angerona,
with a finger on her mouth, which was bound and closed (Macrobius
i. 10; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 9; Varro, _L. L._ vi. 23). She was
worshipped as Ancharia at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her
has been recently discovered. (See FAESULAE.)



ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department of
Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway to Nantes.
Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on both banks of the
Maine, which are united by three bridges. The surrounding district is
famous for its flourishing nurseries and market gardens. Pierced
with wide, straight streets, well provided with public gardens, and
surrounded by ample, tree-lined boulevards, beyond which lie new
suburbs, Angers is one of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its
numerous medieval buildings the most important is the cathedral of
St. Maurice, dating in the main from the 12th and 13th centuries.
Between the two flanking towers of the west façade, the spires of
which are of the 16th century, rises a central tower of the same
period. The most prominent feature of the façade is the series of
eight warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the
nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir and
transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are its rich
stained glass (12th, 13th and 15th centuries) and valuable tapestry
(14th to 18th centuries). The bishop's palace which adjoins the
cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the 12th century. Of the
other churches of Angers, the principal are St. Serge, an abbey-church
of the 12th and 15th centuries, and La Trinité (12th century). The
prefecture occupies the buildings of the famous abbey of St. Aubin; in
its courtyard are elaborately sculptured arcades of the 11th and 12th
centuries, from which period dates the tower, the only survival of the
splendid abbey-church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (13th
century) and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (11th century) are also to be
seen. The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and
a moat, dates from the 13th century and is now used as an armoury.
The ancient hospital of St. Jean (12th century) is occupied by an
archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault, a mansion built about
1500, contains the public library, the municipal museum, which has
a large collection of pictures and sculptures, and the Musée David,
containing works by the famous sculptor David d'Angers, who was a
native of the town. One of his masterpieces, a bronze statue of René
of Anjou, stands close by the castle. The Hôtel de Pincé or d'Anjou
(1523-1530) is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are
also many curious wooden houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The
palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and
a hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the modern
buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating
from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court of
assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce,
a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of
the Bank of France and several learned societies. Its educational
institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, a lycée, a preparatory
school of medicine and pharmacy, a university with free faculties
(_facultés libres_) of theology, law, letters and science, a higher
school of agriculture, training colleges, a school of arts and
handicrafts and a school of fine art. The prosperity of the town
is largely due to the great slate-quarries of the vicinity, but the
distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable, rope and thread-making,
and the manufacture of boots and shoes, umbrellas and parasols are
leading industries. The weaving of sail-cloth and woollen and other
fabrics, machine construction, wire-drawing, and manufacture of
sparkling wines and preserved fruits are also carried on. The chief
articles of commerce, besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp,
early vegetables, fruit, flowers and live-stock.

[v.02 p.0009]

Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under the
Romans called Juliomagus. During the 9th century it became the seat of
the counts of Anjou (_q.v._). It suffered severely from the invasions
of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding years, and of the English
in the 12th and 15th centuries; the Huguenots took it in 1585, and the
Vendean royalists were repulsed near it in 1793. Till the Revolution,
Angers was the seat of a celebrated university founded in the 14th
century.

See L.M. Thorode, _Notice de la ville d'Angers_ (Angers, 1897).



ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant, and patron of
the fine arts, was born at St. Petersburg and settled in London about
1749. His collection of paintings, consisting of about forty of
the most exquisite specimens of the art, purchased by the British
government, on his death, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery.



ANGILBERT (d. 814), Frankish Latin poet, and minister of Charlemagne,
was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school
under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser of the emperor's son, Pippin,
he assisted for a while in the government of Italy, and was later
sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796.
Although he was the father of two children by Charlemagne's daughter,
Bertha, one of them named Nithard, we have no authentic account of
his marriage, and from 790 he was abbot of St. Riquier, where his
brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert,
however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal
rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the
closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne
to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814.
Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's literary circle, and was
the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been
preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between
Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and
Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius,
and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the
greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars
(796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a
delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house
surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The
reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name
occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his
salutation.

Angilbert's poems have been published by E. Dummler in the _Monumenta
Germaniae Historica_. For criticisms of this edition see Traube in
Roederer's _Schriften für germanische Philologie_ (1888). See also A.
Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France._



ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for "pain of the chest"), a term applied to a
violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably in connexion
with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion causing progressive
degeneration of the heart muscle (see HEART: _Disease_). An attack of
angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure of pain, felt
at first over the region of the heart, but radiating through the chest
in various directions, and frequently extending down the left arm.
A feeling of constriction and of suffocation accompanies the pain,
although there is seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the
attack comes on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily
exertion, the sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the
continuance of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The
countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the pulse
feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly the attack
subsides and complete relief is obtained. The duration of a paroxysm
rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but it may last for a longer
period. The attacks are apt to recur on slight exertion, and even in
aggravated cases without any such exciting cause. Occasionally the
first seizure proves fatal; but more commonly death takes place as the
result of repeated attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under
middle life, and is much more common in males than in females. It
must always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the
treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all other
remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of nitrite
of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed by the
physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose strength. As soon
as the pain begins the patient crushes a pearl in his handkerchief
and holds it to his mouth and nose. The relief given in this way is
marvellous and usually takes place within a very few seconds. In the
rare cases where this drug does not relieve, hypodermic injections
of morphia are used. But on account of the well-known dangers of this
drug, it should only be administered by a medical man. To prevent
recurrence of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous
attention to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and
physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is "bed,"
of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least premonition of
anginal pain.


_Pseudo-angina_.--In connexion with angina pectoris, a far more common
condition must be mentioned that has now universally received the
name of pseudo-angina. This includes the praecordial pains which very
closely resemble those of true angina. The essential difference lies
in the fact that pseudo-angina is independent of structural disease
of the heart and coronary arteries. In true angina there is some
condition within the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the nerve
centres. In pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart but
some peripheral or visceral nerve. The impulse passes thence to the
medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of pain
that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are three main
varieties:--(1) the reflex, (2) the vaso-motor, (3) the toxic. The
reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due to irritation
from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of pseudo-angina may be
agonizing, the pain radiating through the chest and into the left arm,
but the patient does not usually assume the motionless attitude of
true angina, and the duration of the seizure is usually much longer.
The treatment is that of the underlying neurosis and the prognosis is
a good one, sudden death not occurring.



ANGIOSPERMS. The botanical term "Angiosperm" ([Greek: angeion],
receptacle, and [Greek: sperma], seed) was coined in the form
Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of
his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included flowering
plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contradistinction to
his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic
fruits--the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as
a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus
with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of
the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its
modern scope only became possible after Robert Brown had established
in 1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and
Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms. From
that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual,
reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was
used antithetically by botanical writers, but with varying limitation,
as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851
of Hofmeister's brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the
embryo-sac of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct
relationships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the true position
of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the
term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable
designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than
Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicotyledons
and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is nowadays
received and in which it is used here.

[v.02 p.0010]

The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in the
direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit and
adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angiosperms are
the highest expression of this evolution and constitute the dominant
vegetation of the earth's surface at the present epoch. There is no
land-area from the poles to the equator, where plant-life is possible,
upon which Angiosperms are not found. They occur also abundantly in
the shallows of rivers and fresh-water lakes, and in less number in
salt lakes and in the sea; such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however,
primitive forms, but are derived from immediate land-ancestors.
Associated with this diversity of habitat is great variety in general
form and manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the
surface of a pond consists of a tiny green "thalloid" shoot, one, that
is, which shows no distinction of parts--stem and leaf, and a
simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The great
forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of hundreds of
years, has developed a wide-spreading system of trunk and branches,
bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets innumerable leaves, while
beneath the soil a widely-branching root-system covers an area of
corresponding extent. Between these two extremes is every conceivable
gradation, embracing aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or
climbing in habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater
variety than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants,
the Gymnosperms.


_Internal structure._

In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far exceeds
that found in Gymnosperms (see PLANTS: _Anatomy_). The vascular
bundles of the stem belong to the collateral type, that is to say,
the elements of the wood or xylem and the bast or phloem stand side
by side on the same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into
which the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in
the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central
pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and
phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue, known as
cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles
(interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular
periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development
of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon
becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk
of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences
in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end
of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into
concentric rings, one for each season of growth--the so-called annual
rings. In the smaller group, the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more
numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue.
Moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in
diameter only in exceptional cases.


_Vegetative organs._

As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodial; dichotomy or the forking
of the growing point into two equivalent branches which replace the
main stem, is absent both in the case of the stem and the root. The
leaves show a remarkable variety in form (see LEAF), but are generally
small in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in
some Monocotyledons, _e.g._ in the Aroid family, where in some genera
the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each season.

In rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower,
as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the
underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral leaves are
borne on one and the same axis. Generally, flowers are formed only
on shoots of a higher order, often only on the ultimate branches of
a much branched system. A potential branch or bud, either foliage or
flower, is formed in the axil of each leaf; sometimes more than one
bud arises, as for instance in the walnut, where two or three stand in
vertical series above each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or
are called to development under exceptional circumstances, such as
the destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of
a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous buds
which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds occasionally arise
from the roots, when they are called adventitious; this occurs in many
fruit trees, poplars, elms and others. For instance, the young shoots
seen springing from the ground around an elm are not seedlings but
root-shoots. Frequently, as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root,
the original root of the seedling, persists throughout the life of
the plant, forming, as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as
in carrot, or in perennials, a much-branched root system. In many
Dicotyledons and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes,
and its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the stem.


_Flower._

The most characteristic feature of the Angiosperm is the flower, which
shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration, and supplies the
most trustworthy characters for the distinction of the series and
families or natural orders, into which the group is divided. The
flower is a shoot (stem bearing leaves) which has a special form
associated with the special function of ensuring the fertilization of
the egg and the development of fruit containing seed. Except where
it is terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf,
which is then known as a bract. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower
arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then
termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion of
the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf-bearing or
vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system
in which the bracts are small and scale-like. Such a branch-system is
called an inflorescence. The primary function of the flower is to bear
the spores. These, as in Gymnosperms, are of two kinds, microspores
or pollen-grains, borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and
megaspores, in which the egg-cell is developed, contained in the
ovule, which is borne enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The
flower may consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where
each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually,
however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly concerned
with the reproductive process, acting as protective organs for the
sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope. These form the perianth
and are in one series, when the flower is termed monochlamydeous, or
in two series (dichlamydeous). In the second case the outer series
(calyx of sepals) is generally green and leaf-like, its function being
to protect the rest of the flower, especially in the bud; while
the inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly
coloured, and more delicate in structure, its function being to
attract the particular insect or bird by agency of which pollination
is effected. The insect, &c., is attracted by the colour and scent
of the flower, and frequently also by honey which is secreted in some
part of the flower. (For further details on the form and arrangement
of the flower and its parts, see FLOWER.)


_Stamen and pollen._

Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (_microsporangia_)
which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on a stalk
or filament. The development of the microsporangia and the contained
spores (pollen-grains) is closely comparable with that of the
microsporangia in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is
set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means
of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family
(Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then dropped
or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some member of the
animal kingdom, on to the receptive surface of the carpel of the same
or another flower. The carpel, or aggregate of carpels forming the
pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an ovary containing one or more ovules
and a receptive surface or stigma; the stigma is sometimes carried up
on a style. The mature pollen-grain is, like other spores, a single
cell; except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, it has
a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose, the
endospore or intine, and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or
extine. The exospore often bears spines or warts, or is variously
sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value
for the distinction of genera or higher groups. Germination of the
microspore begins before it leaves the pollen-sac. In very few cases
has anything representing prothallial development been observed;
generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative cell) is cut
off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on the stigma, under
favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain puts forth a pollen-tube
which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its
way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the mouth
of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube-cell has meanwhile passed into
the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which divides to
form two male- or sperm-cells. The male-cells are carried to their
destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.

[v.02 p.0011]


_Pistil and embryo-sac._

The ovary contains one or more ovules borne on a placenta, which is
generally some part of the ovary-wall. The development of the ovule,
which represents the macrosporangium, is very similar to the
process in Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two coats
surrounding the central nucellus, except at the apex where an opening,
the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a cellular tissue enveloping
one large cell, the embryo-sac or macrospore. The germination of the
macrospore consists in the repeated division of its nucleus to form
two groups of four, one group at each end of the embryo-sac. One
nucleus from each group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of
the sac, where the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus.
Of the three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells
(the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere, the
other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive egg-cells
(in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as synergidae.
The three cells at the opposite end are known as antipodal cells
and become invested with a cell-wall. The gametophyte or prothallial
generation is thus extremely reduced, consisting of but little more
than the male and female sexual cells--the two sperm-cells in the
pollen-tube and the egg-cell (with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac.


_Fertilization._

At the period of fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity
to the opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen-tube has
penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes absorbed, and the male or
sperm-cells are ejected into the embryo-sac. Guided by the synergidae
one male-cell passes into the oosphere with which it fuses, the two
nuclei uniting, while the other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or,
as it is also called, the endosperm nucleus. This remarkable
double fertilization as it has been called, although only recently
discovered, has been proved to take place in widely-separated
families, and both in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is
every probability that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal
process in Angiosperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere
immediately surrounds itself with a cell-wall and becomes the oospore
which by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant. The
endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular tissue which
fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo-sac, and forms a
tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored a supply of nourishment
for the use later on of the embryo. It has long been known that after
fertilization of the egg has taken place, the formation of endosperm
begins from the endosperm nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as
the recommencement of the development of a prothallium after a pause
following the reinvigorating union of the polar nuclei. This view is
still maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization
within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first
male-cell, as the true or generative fertilization, and that of the
polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertilization
which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the other.
If, on the other hand, the endosperm is the product of an act of
fertilization as definite as that giving rise to the embryo itself,
we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced within the
embryo-sac--one, the embryo, which becomes the angiospermous plant,
the other, the endosperm, a short-lived, undifferentiated nurse to
assist in the nutrition of the former, even as the subsidiary embryos
in a pluri-embryonic Gymnosperm may facilitate the nutrition of the
dominant one. If this is so, and the endosperm like the embryo is
normally the product of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid
endosperm as it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we
may have the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the
mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants, regarding
which it has only been possible hitherto to assert that they were
indications of the extension of the influence of the pollen beyond the
egg and its product. This would not, however, explain the formation
of fruits intermediate in size and colour between those of crossed
parents. The signification of the coalescence of the polar nuclei is
not explained by these new facts, but it is noteworthy that the second
male-cell is said to unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus,
the sister of the egg, before the union of this with the basal polar
one. The idea of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new
one; it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of
the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that these
represented male and female cells, an assumption for which there
was no evidence and which was inherently improbable. The proof of a
coalescence of the second male nucleus with the definitive nucleus
gives the conception a more stable basis. The antipodal cells aid more
or less in the process of nutrition of the developing embryo, and may
undergo multiplication, though they ultimately disintegrate, as do
also the synergidae. As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting
qualitative change is associated with the process of fertilization.
The number of chromosomes (see PLANTS: _Cytology_) in the nucleus of
the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the number
found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this reduced number
persists in the cells derived from them. The full number is restored
in the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the process of
fertilization, and remains until the formation of the cells from which
the spores are derived in the new generation.

In several natural orders and genera departures from the course of
development just described have been noted. In the natural order
Rosaceae, the series Querciflorae, and the very anomalous genus
_Casuarina_ and others, instead of a single macrospore a more or less
extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one cell proceeds to
the formation of a functional female cell. In _Casuarina_, _Juglans_
and the order Corylaceae, the pollen-tube does not enter by means
of the micropyle, but passing down the ovary wall and through the
placenta, enters at the chalazal end of the ovule. Such a method
of entrance is styled chalazogamic, in contrast to the porogamic or
ordinary method of approach by means of the micropyle.


_Embryology._

The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into
the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested by
cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying number of transverse
segment-walls transform it into a pro-embryo--a cellular row of which
the cell nearest the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the
embryo-sac, and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo,
while the terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons
the shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of
the pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining
ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal cell
forms the cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the embryo, its
axial part and the root being derived from the adjacent cell; the
cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the apex of the primary
stem a lateral one--a condition in marked contrast with that of the
Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons, however, the cotyledon is not
really terminal. The primary root of the embryo in all Angiosperms
points towards the micropyle. The developing embryo at the end of the
suspensor grows out to a varying extent into the forming endosperm,
from which by surface absorption it derives good material for growth;
at the same time the suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of
nutrition, and may even develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed,
special absorptive "suspensor roots" which invest the developing
embryo, or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule, or even into
the placenta. In some cases the embryo or the embryo-sac sends
out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument. As the embryo
develops it may absorb all the food material available, and store,
either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl, what is not immediately
required for growth, as reserve-food for use in germination, and by so
doing it increases in size until it may fill entirely the embryo-sac;
or its absorptive power at this stage may be limited to what is
necessary for growth and it remains of relatively small size,
occupying but a small area of the embryo-sac, which is otherwise
filled with endosperm in which the reserve-food is stored. There are
also intermediate states. The position of the embryo in relation to
the endosperm varies, sometimes it is internal, sometimes external,
but the significance of this has not yet been established.

[v.02 p.0012]

The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from the
endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before that of the
egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the nursing of the young
embryo. If in its extension to contain the new formations within it
the embryo-sac remains narrow, endosperm formation proceeds upon the
lines of a cell-division, but in wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is
first of all formed as a layer of naked cells around the wall of the
sac, and only gradually acquires a pluricellular character, forming
a tissue filling the sac. The function of the endosperm is primarily
that of nourishing the embryo, and its basal position in the
embryo-sac places it favourably for the absorption of food material
entering the ovule. Its duration varies with the precocity of the
embryo. It may be wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the
embryo within the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more
or less conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as
a massive element of the seed its nutritive function is usually
apparent, for there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and
according to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in
cellulose, mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored
reserve food within itself and thus provided for self-nutrition, such
endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other functions, for
instance, that of water-absorption.

Some deviations from the usual course of development may be noted.
Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an egg-cell
without the latter having been fertilized, has been described in
species of _Thalictrum_, _Antennaria_ and _Alchemilla_. Polyembryony
is generally associated with the development of cells other than the
egg-cell. Thus in _Erythronium_ and _Limnocharis_ the fertilized
egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos are produced.
Isolated cases show that any of the cells within the embryo-sac may
exceptionally form an embryo, _e.g._ the synergidae in species of
_Mimosa_, _Iris_ and _Allium_, and in the last-mentioned the
antipodal cells also. In _Coelebogyne_ (Euphorbiaceae) and in _Funkia_
(Liliaceae) polyembryony results from an adventitious production
of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the top of the
embryo-sac. In a species of _Allium_, embryos have been found
developing in the same individual from the egg-cell, synergids,
antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus. In two Malayan species of
_Balanophora_, the embryo is developed from a cell of the endosperm,
which is formed from the upper polar nucleus only, the egg apparatus
becoming disorganized. The last-mentioned case has been regarded
as representing an apogamous development of the sporophyte from the
gametophyte comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But
the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the examples
cited above suggests the use of great caution in formulating definite
morphological theories upon them.


_Fruit and seed._

As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the
embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of
the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its outer limit,
and combines with it and the integument to form the _seed-coat_; or
the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed. In some
plants the nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat of
deposit of reserve-food constituting the _perisperm_ which may coexist
with endosperm, as in the water-lily order, or may alone form a
food-reserve for the embryo, as in _Canna_. Endospermic food-reserve
has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter is
comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series. Seeds
in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are commonly called
_albuminous_ or _endospermic_, those in which neither is found are
termed _exalbuminous_ or _exendospermic_. These terms, extensively
used by systematists, only refer, however, to the grosser features
of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident occurrence of a
food-reserve; many so-called exalbuminous seeds show to microscopic
examination a distinct endosperm which may have other than a nutritive
function. The presence or absence of endosperm, its relative amount
when present, and the position of the embryo within it, are valuable
characters for the distinction of orders and groups of orders.
Meanwhile the ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or pericarp,
the structure of which is closely associated with the manner of
distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization is
felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in
the formation of the fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple,
strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite
relation to that of the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of
protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also
directly promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the
seed is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the
protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemination. On
the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the
embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly developed.


_Dissemination._

Dissemination is effected by the agency of water, of air, of
animals--and fruits and seeds are therefore grouped in respect of this
as hydrophilous, anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these
are obvious--buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the
first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching
mechanism or attractive structure for the third. The methods in which
these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and every part of
the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into requisition to
supply the adaptation (see FRUIT). Special outgrowths, arils, of the
seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In the feature of fruit and
seed, by which the distribution of Angiosperms is effected, we have a
distinctive character of the class. In Gymnosperms we have seeds, and
the carpels may become modified and close around these, as in _Pinus_,
during the process of ripening to form an imitation of a box-like
fruit which subsequently opening allows the seeds to escape; but
there is never in them the closed ovary investing from the outset the
ovules, and ultimately forming the ground-work of the fruit.


_Germination of Seed._

Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds upon a
suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of which is a
sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of vitality of the embryo is
a point of interest. Some seeds retain vitality for a period of many
years, though there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine
"mummy wheat" will germinate; on the other hand some seeds lose
vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the seed the
more slow as a general rule will germination be in starting, but there
are notable exceptions. This pause, often of so long duration, in
the growth of the embryo between the time of its perfect development
within the seed and the moment of germination, is one of the
remarkable and distinctive features of the life of Spermatophytes. The
aim of germination is the fixing of the embryo in the soil, effected
usually by means of the root, which is the first part of the embryo
to appear, in preparation for the elongation of the epicotyledonary
portion of the shoot, and there is infinite variety in the details
of the process. In albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the
absorbents of the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought
above ground (_epigeal_), either withdrawn from the seed-coat or
carrying it upon them, and then they serve as the first green organs
of the plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (_hypocotyl_)
commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Exalbuminous
Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their cotyledons, which
may in germination remain below ground (_hypogeal_). In albuminous
Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself, probably in consequence of its
terminal position, is commonly the agent by which the embryo is thrust
out of the seed, and it may function solely as a feeder, its extremity
developing as a sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or
it may become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping
off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted. Exalbuminous
Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or strongly hygrophilous plants
and have often peculiar features in germination.

[v.02 p.0013]


_Vegetative reproduction._

Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements of
Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an occasional
process. At the same time every bud on a shoot has the capacity
to form a new plant if placed in suitable conditions, as the
horticultural practice of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we
see plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we know
may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and on roots.
Where detachable buds are produced, which can be transported through
the air to a distance, each of them is an incipient shoot which may
have a root, and there is always reserve-food stored in some part of
it. In essentials such a bud resembles a seed. A relation between
such vegetative distribution buds and production of flower is usually
marked. Where there is free formation of buds there is little flower
and commonly no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous
plants are an illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for
flower.


_Phylogeny and taxonomy._

The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is
unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the
general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path or paths of their
evolution, we can as yet say little.

Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history tells us
nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by their vegetative organs.
We readily recognize in them now-a-days the natural classes of
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons distinguished alike in vegetative
and in reproductive construction, yet showing remarkable parallel
sequences in development; and we see that the Dicotyledons are the
more advanced and show the greater capacity for further progressive
evolution. But there is no sound basis for the assumption that
the Dicotyledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the
palaeontological evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being
the older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin
of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is manifestly a
temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with ranal ones of
the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of Angiosperms has not
sprung from that of Gymnosperms.

Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature
of Angiosperms supply the clue to phylogeny, but the uncertainty
regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower gives
a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct progressive
sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure has appeared
to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has been taken to
be always derived. There is, however, abundant evidence that it may
have the one or the other character in different cases. Apart from
this, botanists are generally agreed that the concrescence of parts of
the flower-whorls--in the gynaeceum as the seed-covering, and in the
corolla as the seat of attraction, more than in the androecium and the
calyx--is an indication of advance, as is also the concrescence
that gives the condition of epigyny. Dorsiventrality is also clearly
derived from radial construction, and anatropy of the ovule has
followed atropy. We should expect the albuminous state of the seed
to be an antecedent one to the exalbuminous condition, and the recent
discoveries in fertilization tend to confirm this view. Amongst
Dicotyledons the gamopetalous forms are admitted to be the highest
development and a dominant one of our epoch. Advance has been along
two lines, markedly in relation to insect-pollination, one of which
has culminated in the hypogynous epipetalous bicarpellate forms with
dorsiventral often large and loosely arranged flowers such as occur
in Scrophulariaceae, and the other in the epigynous bicarpellate
small-flowered families of which the Compositae represent the most
elaborate type. In the polypetalous forms progression from hypogyny
to epigyny is generally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with
insect-pollination has been established, a dominant group has been
developed as in the Leguminosae. The starting-point of the class,
however, and the position within it of apetalous families with
frequently unisexual flowers, have provoked much discussion. In
Monocotyledons a similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny is observed,
and from the dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this
connexion it is noteworthy that so many of the higher forms are
adapted as bulbous geophytes, or as aerophytes to special xerophilous
conditions. The Gramineae offer a prominent example of a dominant
self-pollinated or wind-pollinated family, and this may find
explanation in a multiplicity of factors.

Though best known for his artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus
was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system of
arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to their true
affinities. In his _Philosophia Botanica_ (1751) Linnaeus grouped the
genera then known into sixty-seven orders (_fragmenta_), all except
five of which are Angiosperms. He gave names to these but did not
characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger groups.
Some represent natural groups and had in several cases been already
recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are, in the light
of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined polypetalous and
gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order, and even
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are classed together where they have
some striking physiological character in common.

Work on the lines suggested by the Linnaean _fragmenta_ was continued
in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine Laurent,
and the arrangement suggested by the latter in his _Genera Plantarum
secundum Ordines Naturales disposita_ (1789) is the first which can
claim to be a natural system. The orders are carefully characterized,
and those of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen classes under the two
main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The former comprise
three classes, which are distinguished by the relative position of the
stamens and ovary; the eleven classes of the latter are based on the
same set of characters and fall into the larger subdivisions Apetalae,
Monopetalae and Polypetalae, characterized respectively by absence,
union or freedom of the petals, and a subdivision, _Diclines
Irregulares_, a very unnatural group, including one class only. A.P.
de Candolle introduced several improvements into the system. In his
arrangement the last subdivision disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall
into two groups, a larger containing those in which both calyx and
corolla are present in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae,
representing the Apetalae and _Diclines Irregulares_ of Jussieu.
The dichlamydeous group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae,
Calyciflorae and Corolliflorae, depending on the position and union of
the petals. This, which we may distinguish as the French system,
finds its most perfect expression in the classic _Genera Plantarum_
(1862-1883) of Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description,
based on careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of
flowering plants. The subdivision is as follows:--

  DICOTYLEDONS.

  Polypetalae:
  Thalamiflorae.
  Disciflorae.
  Calyciflorae.

  Gamopetalae:
  Inferae.
  Heteromerae.
  Bicarpellatae.

  Monochlamydeae in eight series.
  Monocotyledons in seven series.

Of the Polypetalae, series 1, Thalamiflorae, is characterized by
hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed in 6
larger groups or cohorts. Series 2, Disciflorae, takes its name from
a development of the floral axis which forms a ring or cushion at the
base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary is superior.
It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, Calyciflorae, has petals
and stamens perigynous, or sometimes superior. It contains 27 orders
in 5 cohorts.

Of the Gamopetalae, series 1, Inferae, has an interior ovary and
stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders
in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary,
stamens as many as the corolla-lobes or more, and more than two
carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae,
has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains 24
orders in 4 cohorts.

The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form groups
characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovules, and are
now recognized as of unequal value.

The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning
with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and
Scitamineae, and passing through the petaloid hypogynous orders
(series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to
Juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses
its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, screw-pines and
others where it is more or less aborted (series Nudiflorae). Series
6, Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series
Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a
grass-like habit.

[v.02 p.0014]

The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicotyledons
undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more elaborate
forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is the
inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders which are
closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing in absence
of a corolla. The German systematist, A.W. Eichler, attempted
to remove this disadvantage which since the time of Jussieu had
characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped the Dicotyledons
in two subclasses. The earlier Choripetalae embraces the Polypetalae
and Monochlamydae of the French systems. It includes 21 series, and
is an attempt to arrange as far as possible in a linear series those
orders which are characterized by absence or freedom of petals. The
second subclass, Gamopetalae, includes 9 series and culminates
in those which show the most elaborate type of flower, the series
Aggregatae, the chief representative of which is the great and
wide-spread order Compositae. A modification of Eichler's system,
embracing the most recent views of the affinities of the orders of
Angiosperms, has been put forward by Dr. Adolf Engler of Berlin, who
adopts the suggestive names Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the
two subdivisions of Dicotyledons. Dr. Engler is the principal editor
of a large series of volumes which, under the title _Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien_, is a systematic account of all the known genera
of plants and represents the work of many botanists. More recently
in _Das Pflanzenreich_ the same author organized a series of complete
monographs of the families of seed-plants.

As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler's system is now
preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty in the
way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows:

  Monocotyledons.
  Liorhizal Dicotyledons.
  Dicotyledons.
  INSEMINEAE.
  SEMINEAE.
  _Unitegmineae.
  Bitegmineae_.

The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal
Dicotyledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae
and Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological
differentiation of the epidermis of their root is that generally
characteristic of Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons--the
old view of the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being
adopted. But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is
extremely doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering
the position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as
a distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the
members of the two orders. Ovular characters determine the grouping in
the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the integument,
the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which the
funicle is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of
this leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The
Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed, and
therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however,
mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only
one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable.
Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments to
be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and bitegminous
groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an indusium, not a
character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know, the number of the
ovular coats is inconstant within the same family. At the same time
the groups based upon the integuments are of much the same extent as
the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of other systems. We do not yet
know the significance of this correlation, which, however, is not an
invariable one, between number of integuments and union of petals.

Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr. C.J. Chamberlain
of Chicago University have given a valuable general account of the
morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the flower, and the
series of events which ends in the formation of the seed (_Morphology
of Angiosperms_, Chicago, 1903).


AUTHORITIES.--The reader will find in the following works details
of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and Hooker,
_Genera Plantarum_ (London, 1862-1883); Eichler, _Bluthendiagramme_
(Leipzig, 1875-1878); Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien_ (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, _Syllabus der
Pflanzenfamilien_, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903); Knuth, _Handbuch der
Blutenbiologie_ (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs, _History of Botany_,
English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder, _Systematische Anatomie
der Dicotyledonen_ (Stuttgart, 1899); van Tieghem, _Elements de
botanique_; Coulter and Chamberlain, _Morphology of Angiosperms_ (New
York, 1903).

(I.B.B.; A.B.R.)



ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of the ancient
Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests to the north of the
Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous of the remains being the
town of Angkor-Thom and the temple of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on
the right bank of the river Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap.
Other remains of the same form and character lie scattered about the
vicinity on both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient
stone bridge.

Angkor-Thom lies about a quarter of a mile from the river. According
to Aymonier it was begun about A.D. 860, in the reign of the Khmer
sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished towards A.D. 900. It consists
of a rectangular enclosure, nearly 2 m. in each direction, surrounded
by a wall from 20 to 30 ft. in height. Within the enclosure, which
is entered by five monumental gates, are the remains of palaces and
temples, overgrown by the forest. The chief of these are:--

(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an enclosure
containing also the pyramidal religious structure known as the
Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there extends a terrace
decorated with magnificent reliefs.

(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by galleries with
colonnades, within which is another and more elaborate system of
galleries, rectangular in arrangement and enclosing a cruciform
structure, at the centre of which rises a huge tower with a circular
base. Fifty towers, decorated with quadruple faces of Brahma, are
built at intervals upon the galleries, the whole temple ranking as
perhaps the most remarkable of the Khmer remains.

Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architecture, lies
less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within a rectangular
park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter of which measures 6060
yds. On the west side of the park a paved causeway, leading over the
moat and under a magnificent portico, extends for a distance of a
quarter of a mile to the chief entrance of the main building. The
temple was originally devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards
to that of Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the
first half of the 12th century A.D. It consists of three stages,
connected by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions
as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower
pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the terraces
of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vaulting supported on
columns lead from the three western portals to the second stage.
They are connected by a transverse gallery, thus forming four square
basins. Khmer decoration, profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in
the representation of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on
every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often depicted;
floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders, mouldings and
capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the chief material employed
by the Khmers; limonite was also used. The stone was cut into huge
blocks which are fitted together with great accuracy without the use
of cement.

See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., 1900-1904); Doudart de
Lagrée, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ (1872-1873); A.H. Mouhot,
_Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos_ (2 vols., 1864); Fournereau
and Porcher, _Les Ruines d'Angkor_ (1890); L. Delaporte, _Voyage
au Cambodge: l'architecture Khmer_ (1880); J. Moura, _Le Royaume de
Cambodge_ (2 vols., 1883).



ANGLE (from the Lat. _angulus_, a corner, a diminutive, of which the
primitive form, _angus_, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat.
_angere_, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. [Greek:
ankos], a bend; both connected with the Aryan root _ank_-, to bend:
see ANGLING), in geometry, the inclination of one line or plane to
another. Euclid (_Elements_, book I) defines a plane angle as the
inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet
each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other (see
GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN). According to Proclus an angle must be either
a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was
utilized by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a
straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the
interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the
third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse
angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of these concepts and
the various definitions of angles in Euclidean geometry is to be
found in W.B. Frankland, _The First Book of Euclid's Elements_ (1905).
Following Euclid, a right angle is formed by a strai