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Title: A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature

Author: John W. Cousin

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[Illustration: I WILL MAKE A PRIEF OF IT IN MY NOTE-BOOK MERRY WIVES OF
WINDSOR]




A SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

BY JOHN W. COUSIN

LONDON: PUBLISHED

by J.M. DENT & SONS. LTD

AND IN NEW YORK

BY E.P. DUTTON & CO




INTRODUCTION

The primary aim of this book is to give as much information about English
authors, including under this designation American and Colonial writers,
as the prescribed limits will admit of. At the same time an attempt has
been made, where materials exist for it, to enhance the interest by
introducing such details as tend to illustrate the characters and
circumstances of the respective writers and the manner in which they
passed through the world; and in the case of the more important, to give
some indication of the relative place which they hold and the leading
features of their work.

Including the Appendix of Living Writers, the work contains upwards of
1600 names; but large as this number is, the number of those who have
contributed something of interest and value to the vast store of English
Literature is larger still, and any attempt to make a book of this kind
absolutely exhaustive would be futile.

The word "literature" is here used in a very wide sense, and this gives
rise to considerable difficulty in drawing the line of exclusion. There
are very many writers whose claim to admission may reasonably be
considered as good as that of some who have been included; but even had
it been possible to discover all these, their inclusion would have
swelled the work beyond its limits. A line had to be drawn somewhere, and
the writer has used his best judgment in making that line as consistent
as possible. It may probably, however, be safely claimed that every
department of the subject of any importance is well represented.

Wherever practicable (and this includes all but a very few articles),
various authorities have been collated, and pains have been taken to
secure accuracy; but where so large a collection of facts and dates is
involved, it would be too sanguine to expect that success has invariably
been attained.

J.W.C.

_January_, 1910.


The following list gives some of the best known works of Biography:--


    Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English Literature and English and
    American Authors, 1859-71, Supplement, by J.F. Kirke, 1891; W.
    Hazlitt, Collections and Notes of Early English Literature, 1876-93;
    R. Chambers, Cyclopaedia of English Literature, 1876, 1901; Halkett
    and Laign, Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Literature,
    1882-88; Dictionary of National Biography, ed. by Leslie Stephen and
    Sidney Lee, 1885, etc., re-issue, 1908, etc.; Appleton's Cyclopaedia
    of American Biography, ed. by J. Grant Wilson and John Fiske, 1887,
    etc.; J. Thomas, Universal Dictionary of Biography and Mythology,
    1887-89; Men and Women of the Time, 15th edit., ed. by Victor G.
    Plarr, 1889.


LIST OF CONTRACTIONS USED THROUGHOUT THE WORK

   _b._       born                 Edin.        Edinburgh
   _c._      _circa_              _fl._         flourished
    Camb.     Cambridge            Glas.        Glasgow
    Coll.     College             _m._          married
   _coll._    collected            Oxf.         Oxford
   _cr._      created              pres.        president
   _d._       died                _pub._        published
   _dau._     daughter             Prof.        Professor
   _ed._      educated             sec.         secretary
            { edition             _s._          son
    ed.     { editor               Univ.        University
            { edited




ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879).--Educationalist and miscellaneous author,
_b._ at Hallowell, Maine, _ed._ at Bowdoin Coll. and Andover, entered the
ministry of the Congregational Church, but was best known as an
educationist and writer of religious and other books, mainly for the
young. Among them are _Beechnut Tales_ and _The Rollo Books_, both of
which still have a very wide circulation.


ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877).--Historian, etc., _b._ Brunswick,
Maine, and _ed._ at Bowdoin Coll. He studied theology and became a
minister of the Congregational Church at various places in Massachusetts
and Connecticut. Owing to the success of a little work, _The Mother at
Home_, he devoted himself, from 1844 onwards, to literature, and
especially to historical writing. Among his principal works, which were
very popular, are: _History of Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1852-55), _History of
the Civil War in America_ (1863-66), and _History of Frederick the Great_
(1871).


A BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856).--Comic writer, _b._ in London, the
_s._ of a lawyer, and belonged to a family claiming descent from Thomas a
Becket. Destined for the legal profession, he was called to the Bar. In
addition to contributions to various periodicals and newspapers,
including _Punch_, _The Illustrated London News_, _The Times_, and
_Morning Herald_, he produced over fifty plays, many of which attained
great popularity, and he also helped to dramatise some of Dickens' works.
He is perhaps best known as the author of _Comic History of England_,
_Comic History of Rome_, _Comic Blackstone_, etc. He was also
distinguished in his profession, acted as a commissioner on various
important matters, and was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate.


ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844).--Physician and writer on mental science,
_s._ of a minister, was _b._ at Aberdeen, and _ed._ at the Grammar School
and Marischal College there. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, in which
city he practised as a physician. He made valuable contributions to the
literature of his profession, and _pub._ two works, _Enquiry Concerning
the Intellectual Powers_ (1830) and _The Philosophy of the Moral
Feelings_ (1833), which, though popular at the time of their publication,
have long been superseded. For his services as a physician and
philanthropist he received many marks of distinction, including the
Rectorship of Marischal College.


ABERCROMBIE, PATRICK (1656-1716).--Antiquary and historian, was physician
to James II. in 1685; he was a Jacobite and opposed the Union in various
pamphlets. His chief work was _Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation_
(1711-16).


ACTON, JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG-ACTON, 1ST LORD
(1834-1902).--Historian, _s._ of Sir Richard A., and grandson of Sir John
A., who was Prime Minister of Naples, was _b._ at Naples. He belonged to
an ancient Roman Catholic family, and was _ed._ first at Oscott near
Birmingham under Dr. (afterwards Card.) Wiseman. Thence he went to
Edinburgh, where he studied privately, and afterwards to Munich, where he
resided in the house of Dr. Dollinger, the great scholar and subsequent
leader of the Old Catholic party, by whom he was profoundly influenced.
While at Edinburgh he endeavoured to procure admission to Cambridge, but
without success, his religion being at that time a bar. He early devoted
himself to the study of history, and is said to have been on terms of
intimacy with every contemporary historian of distinction, with the
exception of Guizot. He sat in the House of Commons 1859-65, but made no
great mark, and in 1869 was raised to the peerage as Lord Acton of
Aldenham. For a time he edited _The Rambler_, a Roman Catholic
periodical, which afterwards became the _Home and Foreign Review_, and
which, under his care, became one of the most learned publications of the
day. The liberal character of A.'s views, however, led to its stoppage in
deference to the authorities of the Church. He, however, maintained a
lifelong opposition to the Ultramontane party in the Church, and in 1874
controverted their position in four letters to _The Times_ which were
described as the most crushing argument against them which ever appeared
in so condensed a form. A.'s contributions to literature were few, and,
in comparison with his extraordinary learning, comparatively unimportant.
He wrote upon _Cardinal Wolsey_ (1877) and _German Schools of History_
(1886). He was extremely modest, and the loftiness of his ideals of
accuracy and completeness of treatment led him to shrink from tasks which
men of far slighter equipment might have carried out with success. His
learning and his position as a universally acknowledged master in his
subject were recognised by his appointment in 1895 as Professor of Modern
History at Cambridge. Perhaps his most valuable services to historical
literature were his laying down the lines of the great _Cambridge Modern
History_, and his collection of a library of 60,000 vols., which after
his death was purchased by an American millionaire and presented to Lord
Morley of Blackburn, who placed it in the University of Cambridge.


ADAMNAN, ST. (625?-704).--Historian, _b._ in Donegal, became Abbot of
Iona in 679. Like other Irish churchmen he was a statesman as well as an
ecclesiastic, and appears to have been sent on various political
missions. In the great controversy on the subject of the holding of
Easter, he sided with Rome against the Irish Church. He left the earliest
account we have of the state of Palestine in the early ages of the
Church; but of even more value is his _Vita Sancti Columbae_, giving a
minute account of the condition and discipline of the church of Iona. He
_d._ 704.


ADAMS, FRANCIS, W.L. (1862-1893).--Novelist, was _b._ at Malta, and _ed._
at schools at Shrewsbury and in Paris. In 1882 he went to Australia, and
was on the staff of _The Sydney Bulletin_. In 1884 he _publ._ his
autobiographical novel, _Leicester_, and in 1888 _Songs of the Army of
the Night_, which created a sensation in Sydney. His remaining important
work is _Tiberius_ (1894), a striking drama in which a new view of the
character of the Emperor is presented. He _d._ by his own hand at
Alexandria in a fit of depression caused by hopeless illness.


ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719).--Poet, essayist and statesman, was the _s._
of Lancelot Addison, Dean of Lichfield. _B._ near Amesbury, Wilts., A.
went to the Charterhouse where he made the acquaintance of Steele
(_q.v._), and then at the age of fifteen to Oxford where he had a
distinguished career, being specially noted for his Latin verse. Intended
at first for the Church, various circumstances combined to lead him
towards literature and politics. His first attempts in English verse took
the form of complimentary addresses, and were so successful as to obtain
for him the friendship and interest of Dryden, and of Lord Somers, by
whose means he received, in 1699, a pension of L300 to enable him to
travel on the continent with a view to diplomatic employment. He visited
Italy, whence he addressed his _Epistle_ to his friend Halifax. Hearing
of the death of William III., an event which lost him his pension, he
returned to England in the end of 1703. For a short time his
circumstances were somewhat straitened, but the battle of Blenheim in
1704 gave him a fresh opportunity of distinguishing himself. The
government wished the event commemorated by a poem; A. was commissioned
to write this, and produced _The Campaign_, which gave such satisfaction
that he was forthwith appointed a Commissioner of Appeals. His next
literary venture was an account of his travels in Italy, which was
followed by the opera of _Rosamund_. In 1705, the Whigs having obtained
the ascendency, A. was made Under-Secretary of State and accompanied
Halifax on a mission to Hanover, and in 1708 was appointed Chief
Secretary for Ireland and Keeper of the Records of that country. It was
at this period that A. found his true vocation and laid the foundations
of his real fame. In 1709 Steele began to bring out the _Tatler_, to
which A. became almost immediately a contributor: thereafter he (with
Steele) started the _Spectator_, the first number of which appeared on
March 1, 1711. This paper, which at first appeared daily, was kept up
(with a break of about a year and a half when the _Guardian_ took its
place) until Dec. 20, 1714. In 1713 the drama of _Cato_ appeared, and was
received with acclamation by both Whigs and Tories, and was followed by
the comedy of the _Drummer_. His last undertaking was _The Freeholder_, a
party paper (1715-16). The later events in the life of A., viz., his
marriage in 1716 to the Dowager Countess of Warwick, to whose son he had
been tutor and his promotion to be Secretary of State did not contribute
to his happiness. His wife appears to have been arrogant and imperious;
his step-son the Earl was a rake and unfriendly to him; while in his
public capacity his invincible shyness made him of little use in
Parliament. He resigned his office in 1718, and, after a period of
ill-health, _d._ at Holland House, June 17, 1719, in his 48th year.
Besides the works above mentioned, he wrote a _Dialogue on Medals_, and
left unfinished a work on the Evidences of Christianity. The character of
A., if somewhat cool and unimpassioned, was pure, magnanimous, and kind.
The charm of his manners and conversation made him one of the most
popular and admired men of his day; and while he laid his friends under
obligations for substantial favours, he showed the greatest forbearance
towards his few enemies. His style in his essays is remarkable for its
ease, clearness, and grace, and for an inimitable and sunny humour which
never soils and never hurts. The motive power of these writings has been
called "an enthusiasm for conduct." Their effect was to raise the whole
standard of manners and expression both in life and in literature. The
only flaw in his character was a tendency to convivial excess, which must
be judged in view of the laxer manners of his time. When allowance has
been made for this, he remains one of the most admirable characters and
writers in English literature.

SUMMARY.--_B._ Amesbury, _ed._ Charterhouse and Oxford; received
travelling pension, 1699; _Campaign_ (1704) leads to political office;
goes to Ireland, 1708; assists Steele in _Tatler_, 1709; _Spectator_
started, 1711; marries Lady Warwick, 1716; Secretary of State, 1716-18;
_d._ 1719.

Lives in _Biographica Britannica_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._, _Johnson's
Lives of Poets_, and by Lucy Aikin, Macaulay's _Essay_, Drake's _Essays
Illustrative of Tatler, Guardian, and Spectator_; Pope's and Swift's
Correspondence, etc.

The best edition of the books is that in _Bohn's British Classics_ (6
vols., 1856); others are Tickell's (4 vols., 1721); _Baskerville_ edit.
(4 vols., 1761); Hurd's (6 vols., 1811); Greene's (1856); Dent's
_Spectator_ (1907).


ADOLPHUS, JOHN (1768-1845).--Historian, studied law and was called to the
Bar in 1807. He wrote _Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution_
(1799) and _History of England from_ 1760-1783 (1802), and other
historical and biographical works.


AELFRED (849-901).--King of the West Saxons, and writer and translator,
_s._ of Ethelwulf, _b._ at Wantage. Besides being the deliverer of his
country from the ravages of the Danes, and the restorer of order and
civil government, _AE._ has earned the title of the father of English
prose writing. The earlier part of his life was filled with war and
action, most of the details regarding which are more or less legendary.
But no sooner had he become King of Wessex, in 871, than he began to
prepare for the work of re-introducing learning into his country.
Gathering round him the few scholars whom the Danes had left, and sending
for others from abroad, he endeavoured to form a literary class. His
chief helper in his great enterprise was Asser of St. David's, who taught
him Latin, and became his biographer in a "life" which remains the best
original authority for the period. Though not a literary artist, AE. had
the best qualities of the scholar, including an insatiable love alike for
the acquisition and the communication of knowledge. He translated several
of the best books then existing, not, however, in a slavish fashion, but
editing and adding from his own stores. In all his work his main desire
was the good of his people. Among the books he translated or edited were
(1) _The Handbook_, a collection of extracts on religious subjects; (2)
_The Cura Pastoralis_, or Herdsman's book of Gregory the Great, with a
preface by himself which is the first English prose; (3) _Bede's
Ecclesiastical History of the English_; (4) _The English Chronicle_,
which, already brought up to 855, he continued up to the date of writing;
it is probably by his own hand; (5) Orosius's _History of the World_,
which he adapted for English readers with many historical and
geographical additions; (6) the _De Consolatione Philosophiae_ of
Boethius; and (7) a translation of some of the Psalms. He also made a
collection of the best laws of his predecessors, Ethelbert, Ine, and
Offa. It has been said "although King Alfred lived a thousand years ago,
a thousand years hence, if there be England then, his memory will yet be
precious to his country."


AELFRIC (955-_c._ 1022).--Called Grammaticus (10th century), sometimes
confounded with two other persons of the same name, AE. of Canterbury and
AE. of York, was a monk at Winchester, and afterwards Abbot of Cerne and
Eynsham successively. He has left works which shed an important light on
the doctrine and practice of the early Church in England, including two
books of homilies (990-94), a _Grammar_, _Glossary_, _Passiones Sanctorum_
(Sufferings of the Saints), translations of parts of the Bible with
omissions and interpolations, _Canones AElfrici_, and other theological
treatises. His writings had an influence on the formation of English
prose. He filled in his age somewhat the same position that Bede did in
his, that of a compiler and populariser of existing knowledge.


AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847).--Novelist and writer on Jewish history and
religion, was _b._ at Hackney of Jewish parents of Spanish descent. She
was delicate from childhood, and early showed great interest in history,
especially Jewish. The death of her _f._ threw her on her own resources.
After a few dramas and poems she _pub._ in America in 1842 _Spirit of
Judaism_, and in 1845 _The Jewish Faith_ and _The Women of Israel_. She
is, however, best known by her novels, of which the chief are _Home
Influence_ (1847) and _A Mother's Recompense_ (1850). Her health gave way
in 1847, and she _d._ in that year at Frankfort.


AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Dr. John A.,
Unitarian divine, _b._ at Kibworth, studied medicine at Edinburgh and
London, and received degree of M.D. at Leyden. He began practice at
Yarmouth but, one of his pamphlets having given offence, he removed to
London, where he obtained some success in his profession, devoting all
his leisure to literature, to which his contributions were incessant.
These consisted of pamphlets, translations, and miscellaneous works, some
in conjunction with his sister, Mrs. Barbauld. Among his chief works are
_England Delineated_, _General Biography_ in 10 vols., and lives of Selden
and Ussher.


AIKIN, LUCY (1781-1864).--Historical and miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of
above and niece of Mrs. Barbauld (_q.v._). After _pub._ a poem,
_Epistles on Women_, and a novel, _Lorimer_, she began the historical
works on which her reputation chiefly rests, viz., _Memoirs of the Courts
of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I._ (1818-33) and a _Life of
Addison_. She also wrote lives of her father and of Mrs. Barbauld. She
was remarkable for her conversational powers, and was also an admirable
letter-writer. Like the rest of her family she was a Unitarian.


AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904).--Biographer and critic, _s._ of an architect
in London, _grad._ at Cambridge, entered the Church, and, after holding
various minor preferments, became Master of the Temple. He wrote memoirs
of Hood and Crabbe, but is best known for his biography of Lamb and his
edition of his works in 6 vols. (1883-88).


AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882).--Novelist, _s._ of a solicitor,
was _b._ in Manchester. He was destined for the legal profession, which,
however, had no attraction for him; and going to London to complete his
studies made the acquaintance of Mr. John Ebers, publisher, and at that
time manager of the Opera House, by whom he was introduced to literary
and dramatic circles, and whose _dau._ he afterwards married. For a short
time he tried the publishing business, but soon gave it up and devoted
himself to journalism and literature. His first successful novel was
_Rookwood_, _pub._ in 1834, of which Dick Turpin is the leading
character, and thenceforward he continued to pour forth till 1881 a
stream of novels, to the number of 39, of which the best known are _The
Tower of London_ (1840), _Old St. Paul's_ (1841), _Lancashire Witches_,
and _The Constable of the Tower_. The titles of some of his other novels
are _Crichton_ (1837), _Jack Sheppard_ (1839), _Guy Fawkes_, _The Star
Chamber_, _The Flitch of Bacon_, _The Miser's Daughter_ (1842), and
_Windsor Castle_ (1843). A. depends for his effects on striking
situations and powerful descriptions: he has little humour or power of
delineating character.


AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876).--Poet, _b._ at Bowden, Roxburghshire, went to
Edinburgh, where he became the friend of Professor Wilson, Carlyle, and
other men of letters. He contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_, and was
editor of the _Dumfries Herald_ (1835-63). His chief poem is _The Captive
of Fez_ (1830); and in prose he wrote _Religious Characteristics_, and
_The Old Bachelor in the Old Scottish Village_ (1848), all of which were
received with favour. Carlyle said that in his poetry he found everywhere
"a healthy breath as of mountain breezes."


AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770).--Poet, _s._ of a butcher at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gave early indications of talent, and was sent to
the University of Edinburgh with the view of becoming a dissenting
minister. While there, however, he changed his mind and studied for the
medical profession. Thereafter he went to Leyden, where he took his
degree of M.D. in 1744. While there he wrote his principal poem, _The
Pleasures of the Imagination_, which was well received, and was
subsequently translated into more than one foreign language. After trying
Northampton, he settled as a physician in London; but was for long
largely dependent for his livelihood on a Mr. Dyson. His talents brought
him a good deal of consideration in society, but the solemn and pompous
manner which he affected laid him open to some ridicule, and he is said
to have been satirised by Smollett (_q.v._) in his _Peregrine Pickle_. He
endeavoured to reconstruct his poem, but the result was a failure. His
collected poems were _pub._ 1772. His works, however, are now little
read. Mr. Gosse has described him as "a sort of frozen Keats."


ALCOTT, LOUISA M. (1832-1888).--Writer of juvenile and other tales,
_dau._ of Amos Bronson Alcott, an educational and social theorist,
lecturer, and author, was _b._ in Pennsylvania. During the American civil
war she served as a nurse, and afterwards attained celebrity as a writer
of books for young people, of which the best is _Little Women_ (1868).
Others are _Little Men_ and _Jo's Boys_. She also wrote novels, including
_Moods_ and _Work_.


ALCUIN or EALHWINE (735-804).--Theologian and general writer, was _b._
and _ed._ at York. He wrote in prose and verse, his subjects embracing
educational, theological, and historical matters. Returning from Rome, to
which he had been sent to procure the _pallium_ for a friend, he met
Charlemagne at Parma, and made upon him so favourable an impression that
he was asked to enter his service as preceptor in the sciences to himself
and his family. His numerous treatises, which include metrical annals,
hagiographical and philosophical works, are not distinguished by
originality or profundity, but he is the best representative of the
culture and mental activity of his age, upon which, as the minister of
education of the great emperor, he had a widely-spread influence.


ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1906).--Poet and novelist, _b._ at
Portsmouth, N.H., was for some time in a bank, and then engaged in
journalism. His first book was _The Bells, a Collection of Chimes_
(1855), and other poetical works are _The Ballad of Babie Bell_, _Cloth
of Gold_, _Flower and Thorn_, etc. In prose he wrote _Daisy's Necklace_,
_The Course of True Love_, _Marjorie Daw_, _Prudence Palfrey_, etc.


ALESIUS, ALEXANDER (1500-1565).--Theologian and controversialist. His
unlatinised name was Aless or Alane, and he was _b._ at Edinburgh and
_ed._ at St. Andrews, where he became a canon. Originally a strong and
able defender of the Romish doctrines, he was chosen to argue with
Patrick Hamilton, the proto-martyr of the Reformation in Scotland, with
the object of inducing him to recant. The result, however, was that he
was himself much shaken in his allegiance to the Church, and the change
was greatly accelerated by the martyrdom of H. His subsequent protest
against the immorality of the clergy led to his imprisonment, and
ultimately, in 1532, to his flying for his life to Germany, where he
became associated with Luther and Melancthon, and definitely joined the
reforming party. Coming to England in 1535, he was well received by
Cranmer and other reformers. While in England he studied medicine, and
practised as a physician in London. On the fall of T. Cromwell in 1540 he
again retired to Germany, where, at Leipzig, he obtained a professorship.
During the reign of Edward VI. he re-visited England and was employed by
Cranmer in connection with the 1st Liturgy of Edward VI. Returning to
Leipsic he passed the remainder of his days in peace and honour, and was
twice elected Rector of the University. His writings were both exegetical
and controversial, but chiefly the latter. They include _Expositio Libri
Psalmorum Davidis_ (1550). His controversial works refer to such subjects
as the translation of the Bible into the vernacular, against Servetus,
etc.


ALEXANDER, MRS. CECIL F. (HUMPHREYS) (1818-1895).--_dau._ of Maj. H.,
_b._ in Co. Waterford, _m._ the Rev. W. Alexander, afterwards Bishop of
Derry and Archbishop of Armagh. Her _Hymns for Little Children_ had
reached its 69th edition before the close of the century. Some of her
hymns, _e.g._ "There is a Green Hill" and "The Roseate Hues of Early
Dawn," are known wherever English is spoken. Her husband has also written
several books of poetry, of which the most important is _St. Augustine's
Holiday and other Poems_.


ALFORD, HENRY (1810-1871).--Theologian, scholar, poet, and miscellaneous
writer, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ in London. After passing through
various private schools, he proceeded to Cambridge, where he had a
distinguished career, and after entering the Church and filling various
preferments in the country, became minister of Quebec Chapel, London,
whence he was promoted to be Dean of Canterbury. His great work was his
_Greek Testament_ in 4 vols., of which the first was _pub._ in 1849 and
the last in 1861. In this work he largely followed the German critics,
maintaining, however, a moderate liberal position; and it was for long
the standard work on the subject in this country. A. was one of the most
versatile men, and prolific authors, of his day, his works consisting of
nearly 50 vols., including poetry (_School of the Heart_ and _Abbot of
Munchelnaye_, and a translation of the _Odyssey_), criticism, sermons,
etc. In addition to the works above mentioned he wrote _Chapters on the
Greek Poets_ (1841), the _Queen's English_ (1863), and many well-known
hymns, and he was the first editor of the _Contemporary Review_. He was
also an accomplished artist and musician. His industry was incessant and
induced a premature breakdown in health, which terminated in his death in
1871. He was the friend of most of his eminent contemporaries, and was
much beloved for his amiable character.


ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839).--Didactic and philosophical writer, was
_b._ in Edinburgh and _ed._ at Glasgow University and Oxford. After being
presented to various livings in England, A. came to Edinburgh as
incumbent of St. Paul's Episcopal Chapel, where he attained popularity as
a preacher of sermons characterised by quiet beauty of thought and grace
of composition. His chief contribution to literature is his _Essay on the
Nature and Principles of Taste_ (1790), in which the "association" theory
is supported.


ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD (1792-1867).--Historian, _s._ of the above, was
_b._ at Kenley, Shropshire, and after studying under a private tutor, and
at Edinburgh University, was, in 1814, called to the Bar, at which he
ultimately attained some distinction, becoming in 1834 Sheriff of
Lanarkshire, in which capacity he rendered valuable service in times of
considerable difficulty. It was when travelling in France in 1814 that he
conceived the idea of his _History of Europe_, which deals with the
period from the outbreak of the French Revolution to the restoration of
the Bourbons, and extends, in its original form (1833-42), to 10 vols.
The work is one of vast industry, and gives a useful account of an
important epoch, but is extremely diffuse and one-sided, and often prosy.
Disraeli satirises the author in _Coningsby_ as Mr. Wordy, who wrote a
history to prove that Providence was on the side of the Tories. It had,
however, an enormous sale. A continuation of it (1852-59) brought the
story down to the accession of Louis Napoleon. A. was also the author of
a life of Marlborough, and of two standard works on the criminal law of
Scotland. In his private and official capacities he was highly respected,
and was elected Lord Rector successively of Marischal Coll., Aberdeen,
and of Glasgow University. He was created a baronet by Lord Derby in
1852.


ALLEN, CHARLES GRANT (1848-1899).--Scientific writer and novelist, _b._
in Canada, to which his _f._, a clergyman, had emigrated, and _ed._ at
Birmingham and Oxford. For a time he was a professor in a college for
negroes in Jamaica, but returning to England in 1876 devoted himself to
literature. His first books were on scientific subjects, and include
_Physiological AEsthetics_ (1877) and _Flowers and Their Pedigrees_. After
assisting Sir W.W. Hunter in his _Gazeteer of India_, he turned his
attention to fiction, and between 1884 and 1899 produced about 30 novels,
among which _The Woman Who Did_ (1895), promulgating certain startling
views on marriage and kindred questions, created some sensation. Another
work, _The Evolution of the Idea of God_, propounding a theory of
religion on heterodox lines, has the disadvantage of endeavouring to
explain everything by one theory. His scientific works also included
_Colour Sense_, _Evolutionist at Large_, _Colin Clout's Calendar_, and
the _Story of the Plants_, and among his novels may be added _Babylon_,
_In all Shades_, _Philistia_ (1884), _The Devil's Die_, and _The British
Barbarians_ (1896).


ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889).--Poet, the _s._ of a banker of English
descent, was _b._ at Ballyshannon, entered the customs service, and was
ultimately settled in London, where he contributed to _Leigh Hunt's
Journal_. Hunt introduced him to Carlyle and other men of letters, and in
1850 he _pub._ a book of poems, which was followed by _Day and Night
Songs_ (1854), _Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland_ (1864) (his most
ambitious, though not his most successful work), and _Collected Poems_ in
6 vols. (1888-93). He also edited _The Ballad Book_ for the _Golden
Treasury_ series in 1864. In 1870 he retired from the civil service and
became sub-editor of _Fraser's Magazine_ under Froude, whom he succeeded
as editor (1874-79). His verse is clear, fresh, and graceful. He married
Helen Paterson, the water colourist, whose idylls have made the name of
"Mrs. Allingham" famous also. He _d._ in 1889. Other works are _Fifty
Modern Poems_ (1865), _Songs, Poems, and Ballads_ (1877), _Evil May Day_
(1883), _Blackberries_ (1884), _Irish Songs and Poems_ (1887), and
_Varieties in Prose_ (1893). A selection from his diaries and
autobiography was _pub._ in 1906.


ALLSTON, WASHINGTON (1779-1843).--Painter and poet, _b._ in S. Carolina,
became a distinguished painter, and also wrote a good deal of verse
including _The Sylphs of the Seasons_, etc. (1813), and _The Two
Painters_, a satire. He also produced a novel, _Monaldi_. He was known as
"the American Titian."


AMORY, THOMAS (1691(?)-1788).--Eccentric writer, was of Irish descent. In
1755 he _publ._ _Memoirs containing the lives of several ladies of Great
Britain, a History of Antiquities and Observations on the Christian
Religion_, which was followed by the _Life of John Buncle_ (1756),
practically a continuation. The contents of these works are of the most
miscellaneous description--philology, natural science, theology, and, in
fact, whatever occurred to the writer, treated without any system, but
with occasional originality and felicity of diction. The author, who was
probably more or less insane, is described as having a very peculiar
aspect, with the manner of a gentleman, scarcely ever stirring abroad
except at dusk. He reached the age of 97.


ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (1845-1909).--Poet, _s._ of a quarrier at Kirkconnel,
Dumfriesshire, became a surfaceman on the railway. Spending all his
leisure in self-culture, he mastered German, French, and Spanish
sufficiently to read the chief masterpieces in these languages. His
poetic vein, which was true if somewhat limited in range, soon manifested
itself, and his first book, _Songs of Labour_, appeared in 1873, and
there followed _Two Angels_ (1875), _Songs of the Rail_ (1878), and
_Ballads and Sonnets_ (1879). In the following year he was made assistant
librarian in the University of Edinburgh, and after an interval as
secretary to the Philosophical Institution there, he returned as Chief
Librarian to the university. Thereafter he wrote little. Of a simple and
gentle character, he made many friends, including the Duke of Argyll,
Carlyle, and Lord Houghton. He generally wrote under the name of
"Surfaceman."


ANDREWES, LANCELOT (1555-1626).--Churchman and scholar, was _b._ in
London, and _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School and Cambridge, where he
took a fellowship and taught divinity. After receiving various other
preferments he became Dean of Westminster, and a chaplain-in-ordinary to
Queen Elizabeth, who, however, did not advance him further on account of
his opposition to the alienation of ecclesiastical revenues. On the
accession, however, of James I., to whom his somewhat pedantic learning
and style of preaching recommended him, he rose into great favour, and
was made successively Bishop of Chichester, of Ely, and, in 1618, of
Winchester. He attended the Hampton Court Conference, and took part in
the translation of the Bible, known as the _Authorised Version_, his
special work being given to the earlier parts of the Old Testament: he
acted, however, as a sort of general editor. He was considered as, next
to Ussher, the most learned churchman of his day, and enjoyed a great
reputation as an eloquent and impassioned preacher, but the stiffness and
artificiality of his style render his sermons unsuited to modern taste.
His doctrine was High Church, and in his life he was humble, pious, and
charitable. Ninety-six of his sermons were published in 1631 by command
of Charles I.

There are lives by A.T. Russell (1863), and R.L. Ottley (1894);
_Devotions_ were edited by Rev. Dr. Whyte (1900).


ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805).--Poet, _s._ of Dr. A., a wealthy
clergyman, rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, was _ed._ at Eton and
Cambridge. He _pub._ in 1766 a satirical poem of considerable sparkle,
_The New Bath Guide_, from which Smollett is said to have drawn largely
in his _Humphrey Clinker_. He made many other excursions into literature
which are hardly remembered, and ended his days as a country squire at
the age of eighty.


D'ARBLAY, FRANCES (BURNEY) (1752-1840).--Novelist, _dau._ of Dr. Charles
B., a musician of some distinction, was _b._ at Lynn Regis, where her
_f._ was organist. Her mother having died while she was very young, and
her _f._, who had come to London, being too busy to give her any
attention, she was practically self-educated. Her first novel, _Evelina_,
_pub._ anonymously in 1778, at once by its narrative and comic power,
brought her fame, and, through Mrs. Thrale (_q.v._), she made the
acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, with whom she became a great favourite. Her
next literary venture was a comedy, _The Witlings_; but, by the advice of
her _f._, it was not put upon the stage. In 1782, however, she produced
_Cecilia_, which, like its predecessor, had an enormous sale, and which,
though not perhaps so popular as _Evelina_, added to her fame. She now
became the friend of Burke and other distinguished persons, including
Mrs. Delaney, through whom she became known to the royal family, and was
offered the appointment of Second Keeper of the Robes, which, with some
misgivings, she accepted. This situation did not prove a happy one, the
duties being menial, the society uncongenial, and the court etiquette
oppressive and injurious to her health, and in 1791 she obtained
permission to retire on a pension of L100. She had, during her connection
with the court, continued her _Diary_, which she had begun in girlhood,
and continued during her whole life, and which during this period
contains many interesting accounts of persons and affairs of note. She
married (1793) Gen. D'Arblay, a French _emigre_, their only income being
her slender pension. This she endeavoured to increase by producing a
tragedy, _Edwy and Elvira_, which failed. In 1795 she _pub._ by
subscription another novel, _Camilla_, which, though it did not add to
her reputation, considerably improved her circumstances, as it is said to
have brought her L3000. After some years spent in France, where her
husband had obtained employment, she returned to England and _pub._ her
last novel, _The Wanderer_, which fell flat. Her only remaining work was
a life of her father, written in an extraordinarily grandiloquent style.
She died in 1840, aged 87.


ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735).--Physician and satirist, was _b._ in
Kincardineshire, and after studying at Aberdeen and Oxford, took his
degree of M.D. at St. Andrews. Settling in London, he taught mathematics.
Being by a fortunate accident at Epsom, he was called in to prescribe for
Prince George, who was suddenly taken ill there, and was so successful in
his treatment that he was appointed his regular physician. This
circumstance made his professional fortune, for his ability enabled him
to take full advantage of it, and in 1705 he became physician to the
Queen. He became the cherished friend of Swift and Pope, and himself
gained a high reputation as a wit and man of letters. His principal works
are the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, partly by Pope, but to which he
was the chief contributor, the _History of John Bull_ (1712), mainly
against the Duke of Marlborough, _A Treatise concerning the Altercation
or Scolding of the Ancients_, and the _Art of Political Lying_. He also
wrote various medical treatises, and dissertations on ancient coins,
weights, and measures. After the death of Queen Anne, A. lost his court
appointments, but this, as well as more serious afflictions with which he
was visited, he bore with serenity and dignity. He was an honourable and
amiable man, one of the very few who seems to have retained the sincere
regard of Swift, whose style he made the model of his own, with such
success that writings by the one were sometimes attributed to the other:
his _Art of Political Lying_ is an example. He has, however, none of the
ferocity of S.


ARGYLL, GEORGE JOHN DOUGLAS CAMPBELL, 8TH DUKE OF (1823-1900).--Statesman
and writer on science, religion, and politics, succeeded his _f._, the
7th duke, in 1847. His talents and eloquence soon raised him to
distinction in public life. He acted with the Liberal party until its
break-up under the Irish policy of Mr. Gladstone, after which he was one
of the Unionist leaders. He held the offices of Lord Privy Seal,
Postmaster-General, and Indian Secretary. His writings include _The Reign
of Law_ (1866), _Primeval Man_ (1869), _The Eastern Question_ (1879),
_The Unseen Foundations of Society_ (1893), _Philosophy of Belief_
(1896), _Organic Evolution Cross-examined_ (1898). He was a man of the
highest character, honest, courageous, and clear-sighted, and, though
regarded by some professional scientists as to a certain extent an
amateur, his ability, knowledge, and dialectic power made him a
formidable antagonist, and enabled him to exercise a useful, generally
conservative, influence on scientific thought and progress.


ARMSTRONG, JOHN, M.D. (1709-1779).--Poet, _s._ of the minister of
Castleton, Roxburghshire, studied medicine, which he practised in London.
He is remembered as the friend of Thomson, Mallet, and other literary
celebrities of the time, and as the author of a poem on _The Art of
Preserving Health_, which appeared in 1744, and in which a somewhat
unpromising subject for poetic treatment is gracefully and ingeniously
handled. His other works, consisting of some poems and prose essays, and
a drama, _The Forced Marriage_, are forgotten, with the exception of the
four stanzas at the end of the first part of Thomson's _Castle of
Indolence_, describing the diseases incident to sloth, which he
contributed.


ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904).--Poet, _s._ of a Sussex magistrate, was
_b._ at Gravesend, and _ed._ at King's School, Rochester, London, and
Oxford. Thereafter he was an assistant master at King Edward's School,
Birmingham, and was in 1856 appointed Principal of the Government Deccan
College, Poona. Here he received the bias towards, and gathered material
for, his future works. In 1861 he returned to England and became
connected with _The Daily Telegraph_, of which he was ultimately editor.
The literary task which he set before him was the interpretation in
English verse of the life and philosophy of the East. His chief work with
this object is _The Light of Asia_ (1879), a poem on the life and
teaching of Buddha, which had great popularity, but whose permanent place
in literature must remain very uncertain. In _The Light of the World_
(1891), he attempted, less successfully, a similar treatment of the life
and teaching of Jesus. Other works are _The Song of Songs of India_
(1875), _With Saadi in the Garden_, and _The Tenth Muse_. He travelled
widely in the East, and wrote books on his travels. He was made K.C.I.E.
in 1888.


ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888).--Poet and critic, _s._ of Dr. A., of Rugby
(_q.v._), was _b._ at Laleham and _ed._ at Rugby, Winchester, and Balliol
Coll., Oxford, becoming a Fellow of Oriel in 1845. Thereafter he was
private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council,
through whose influence he was in 1851 appointed an inspector of schools.
Two years before this he had _pub._ his first book of poetry, _The
Strayed Reveller_, which he soon withdrew: some of the poems, however,
including "Mycerinus" and "The Forsaken Merman," were afterwards
republished, and the same applies to his next book, _Empedocles on Etna_
(1852), with "Tristram and Iseult." In 1857 he was appointed to the
Professorship of Poetry at Oxford, which he held for ten years. After
this he produced little poetry and devoted himself to criticism and
theology. His principal writings are, in poetry, _Poems_ (1853),
containing "Sohrab and Rustum," and "The Scholar Gipsy;" _Poems, 2nd
Series_ (1855), containing "Balder Dead;" _Merope_ (1858); _New Poems_
(1867), containing "Thyrsis," an elegy on A.H. Clough (_q.v._), "A
Southern Night," "Rugby Chapel," and "The Weary Titan"; in prose he wrote
_On Translating Homer_ (1861 and 1862), _On the Study of Celtic
Literature_ (1867), _Essays in Celtic Literature_ (1868), _2nd Series_
(1888), _Culture and Anarchy_ (1869), _St. Paul and Protestantism_
(1870), _Friendship's Garland_ (1871), _Literature and Dogma_ (1873),
_God and the Bible_ (1875), _Last Essays on Church and Religion_ (1877),
_Mixed Essays_ (1879), _Irish Essays_ (1882), and _Discourses in America_
(1885). He also wrote some works on the state of education on the
Continent. In 1883 he received a pension of L250. The rationalistic
tendency of certain of his writings gave offence to many readers, and the
sufficiency of his equipment in scholarship for dealing with some of the
subjects which he handled was called in question; but he undoubtedly
exercised a stimulating influence on his time; his writings are
characterised by the finest culture, high purpose, sincerity, and a style
of great distinction, and much of his poetry has an exquisite and subtle
beauty, though here also it has been doubted whether high culture and
wide knowledge of poetry did not sometimes take the place of the true
poetic fire.

There is a bibliography of A.'s works by T.B. Smart (1892), and books
upon him have been written by Prof. Saintsbury (1899), H. Paul (1902),
and G.W.E. Russell (1904), also papers by Sir L. Stephen, F. Harrison,
and others.


ARNOLD, THOMAS (1795-1842).--Historian, _s._ of an inland revenue officer
in the Isle of Wight, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxford, and after some
years as a tutor, was, in 1828, appointed Head Master of Rugby. His
learning, earnestness, and force of character enabled him not only to
raise his own school to the front rank of public schools, but to exercise
an unprecedented reforming influence on the whole educational system of
the country. A liberal in politics, and a zealous church reformer, he was
involved in many controversies, educational and religious. As a churchman
he was a decided Erastian, and strongly opposed to the High Church party.
In 1841 he was appointed Professor of Modern History at Oxford. His chief
literary works are his unfinished _History of Rome_ (three vols.
1838-42), and his _Lectures on Modern History_. He _d._ suddenly of
angina pectoris in the midst of his usefulness and growing influence. His
life, by Dean Stanley (_q.v._), is one of the best works of its class in
the language.


ASCHAM, ROGER (1515-1568).--Didactic writer and scholar, _s._ of John A.,
house-steward in the family of Lord Scrope, was _b._ at Kirby Wiske,
Yorkshire, and _ed._ first by Sir Humphrey Wingfield, and then at St.
John's Coll., Cambridge, where he devoted himself specially to the study
of Greek, then newly revived, and of which, having taken a fellowship, he
became a teacher. He was likewise noted for his skill in penmanship,
music, and archery, the last of which is the subject of his first work,
_Toxophilus_, _pub._ in 1545, and which, dedicated to Henry VIII., gained
him the favour of the King, who bestowed a pension upon him. The objects
of the book are twofold, to commend the practice of shooting with the
long bow as a manly sport and an aid to national defence, and to set the
example of a higher style of composition than had yet been attempted in
English. Soon afterwards he was made university orator, and master of
languages to the Lady (afterwards Queen) Elizabeth. He then went abroad
in various positions of trust, returning on being appointed Latin
Secretary to Edward VI. This office he likewise discharged to Mary and
then to Elizabeth--a testimony to his tact and caution in these changeful
times. His principal work, _The Schoolmaster_, a treatise on education,
was printed by his widow in 1570. He also _pub._ a book on the political
state of Germany.

Editions: of _Toxophilus_, Arber; _Schoolmaster_, Arber, also Mayer
(1883); English works, Bennet (1767), with life by Dr. Johnson; whole
works, Giles (1864-5).


ASGILL, JOHN (1659-1738).--Eccentric writer, student at the Middle
Temple, 1686, and called to the Bar 1692. In 1699 he _pub._ in an unlucky
hour a pamphlet to prove that death was not obligatory upon Christians,
which, much to his surprise, aroused the public wrath and led to his
expulsion from the Irish and English House of Commons successively. A.
thereafter fell on evil days, and passed the rest of his life between the
Fleet and the King's Bench, where, strange to say, his zeal as a
pamphleteer continued unabated. He _d._ in 1738.


ASHMOLE, ELIAS (1617-1692).--Antiquary, was _ed._ at Lichfield, and
became a solicitor in 1638. On the breaking out of the Civil War he
sided with the royalists; went to Oxford and studied science, including
astrology. The result of his studies in this region of mystery was his
_Theatrum Chymicum Britannicum_, which gained him great repute and the
friendship of John Selden. His last astrological treatise was _The Way to
Bliss_, which dealt with the subject of "the philosopher's stone." He
also wrote various works on antiquarian subjects, and a _History of the
Order of the Garter_. A. held various posts under government, and
presented to the University of Oxford a valuable collection of
curiosities now known as the Ashmolean Museum. He also bequeathed his
library to the University. His wife was a _dau._ of Sir W. Dugdale, the
antiquary.


ASSER (_d._ 909?).--Chronicler, a monk of St. David's, afterwards Bishop
of Sherborne, was the friend, helper, and biographer of AElfred. In
addition to his life of AElfred he wrote a chronicle of England from 849
to 887.


ATHERSTONE, EDWIN (1788-1872).--Poet and novelist. His works, which were
planned on an imposing scale, attracted some temporary attention and
applause, but are now forgotten. His chief poem, _The Fall of Nineveh_,
consisting of thirty books, appeared at intervals from 1828 to 1868. He
also produced two novels, _The Sea Kings in England_ and _The Handwriting
on the Wall_.


ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732).--Controversialist and preacher, was _b._
near Newport Pagnel, Bucks, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxford.
He became the leading protagonist on the High Church side in the
ecclesiastical controversies of his time, and is believed to have been
the chief author of the famous defence of Dr. Sacheverell in 1712. He
also wrote most of Boyle's _Examination of Dr. Bentley's Dissertations on
the Epistles of Phalaris_, and _pub._ sermons, which, with his letters to
Swift, Pope, and other friends, constitute the foundation of his literary
reputation. During the reign of the Tories he enjoyed much preferment,
having been successively Canon of Exeter, Dean of Christ Church, Dean of
Westminster, and Bishop of Rochester. His Jacobite principles, however,
and his participation in various plots got him into trouble, and in 1722
he was confined in the Tower, deprived of all his offices, and ultimately
banished. He _d._ at Paris, Feb. 15, 1732, and was buried privately in
Westminster Abbey.


AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697).--Antiquary, was a country gentleman who
inherited estates in several counties in England, which he lost by
litigation and otherwise. He devoted himself to the collection of
antiquarian and miscellaneous observations, and gave assistance to
Dugdale and Anthony a-Wood in their researches. His own investigations
were extensive and minute, but their value is much diminished by his
credulity, and want of capacity to weigh evidence. His only publication
is his _Miscellanies_, a collection of popular superstitions, etc., but
he left various collections, which were edited and _publ._ in the 19th
century.


AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817).--Novelist, _dau._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at
the rectory of Steventon near Basingstoke. She received an education
superior to that generally given to girls of her time, and took early to
writing, her first tale being begun in 1798. Her life was a singularly
uneventful one, and, but for a disappointment in love, tranquil and
happy. In 1801 the family went to Bath, the scene of many episodes in her
writings, and after the death of her _f._ in 1805 to Southampton, and
later to Chawton, a village in Hants, where most of her novels were
written. A tendency to consumption having manifested itself, she removed
in May, 1817, to Winchester for the advantage of skilled medical
attendance, but so rapid was the progress of her malady that she died
there two months later. Of her six novels, four--_Sense and Sensibility_
(1811), _Pride and Prejudice_ (1813), _Mansfield Park_ (1814) and _Emma_
(1816)--were _pub._ anonymously during her life-time; and the others,
_Northanger Abbey_--written in 1798--and _Persuasion_, finished in 1816,
appeared a few months after her death, when the name of the authoress was
divulged. Although her novels were from the first well received, it is
only of comparatively late years that her genius has gained the wide
appreciation which it deserves. Her strength lies in the delineation of
character, especially of persons of her own sex, by a number of minute
and delicate touches arising out of the most natural and everyday
incidents in the life of the middle and upper classes, from which her
subjects are generally taken. Her characters, though of quite ordinary
types, are drawn with such wonderful firmness and precision, and with
such significant detail as to retain their individuality absolutely
intact through their entire development, and they are never coloured by
her own personality. Her view of life is genial in the main, with a
strong dash of gentle but keen satire: she appeals rarely and slightly to
the deeper feelings; and the enforcement of the excellent lessons she
teaches is left altogether to the story, without a word of formal
moralising. Among her admirers was Sir W. Scott, who said, "That young
lady has a talent for describing the involvements of feelings and
characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met
with;" others were Macaulay (who thought that in the world there were no
compositions which approached nearer to perfection), Coleridge, Southey,
Sydney Smith, and E. FitzGerald.


AUSTIN, JOHN (1790-1859).--Jurist, served in the army in Sicily and
Malta, but, selling his commission, studied law, and was called to the
Bar 1818. He did not long continue to practise, but devoted himself to
the study of law as a science, and became Professor of Jurisprudence in
London University 1826-32. Thereafter he served on various Royal
Commissions. By his works he exercised a profound influence on the views
of jurisprudence held in England. These include _The Province of
Jurisprudence Determined_ (1832), and his _Lectures on Jurisprudence_.


AYTON, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638).--Poet, _s._ of A. of Kinaldie in Fife.
After _grad._ at St. Andrews, he studied law at Paris, became ambassador
to the Emperor, and held other court offices. He appears to have been
well-known to his literary contemporaries in England. He wrote poems in
Latin, Greek, and English, and was one of the first Scotsmen to write in
the last. His chief poem is _Diophantus and Charidora; Inconstancy
Upbraided_ is perhaps the best of his short poems. He is credited with a
little poem, _Old Long Syne_, which probably suggested Burns's famous
_Auld Lang Syne_.


AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTONE (1813-1865).--Poet and humorist, _s._ of Roger
A., a Writer to the Signet, was _b._ in Edinburgh and _ed._ there, and
was brought up to the law, which, however, as he said, he "followed but
could never overtake." He became a contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_
in 1836, and continued his connection with it until his death. In it
appeared most of his humorous prose pieces, such as _The Glenmutchkin
Railway_, _How I Became a Yeoman_, and _How I Stood for the Dreepdaily
Burghs_, all full of vigorous fun. In the same pages began to appear his
chief poetical work, the _Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers_, and a novel,
partly autobiographical, _Norman Sinclair_. Other works were _The Bon
Gaultier Ballads_, jointly with Theodore Martin, and _Firmilian, a
Spasmodic Tragedy_, under the _nom-de-plume_ of T. Percy Jones, intended
to satirise a group of poets and critics, including Gilfillan, Dobell,
Bailey, and Alexander Smith. In 1845 A. obtained the Chair of Rhetoric
and Belles Lettres in Edinburgh University, which he filled with great
success, raising the attendance from 30 to 150, and in 1852 he was
appointed sheriff of Orkney and Shetland. He was married to a _dau._ of
Professor Wilson (Christopher North).


BACON, FRANCIS, LORD VERULAM, AND VISCOUNT ST. ALBAN'S
(1561-1626).--Philosopher and statesman, was the youngest _s._ of Sir
Nicholas B., Lord Keeper, by his second wife, a _dau._ of Sir Anthony
Cooke, whose sister married William Cecil, Lord Burghley, the great
minister of Queen Elizabeth. He was _b._ at York House in the Strand on
Jan. 22, 1561, and in his 13th year was sent with his elder brother
Anthony to Trinity Coll., Cambridge. Here he first met the Queen, who was
impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him
"the young Lord Keeper." Here also he became dissatisfied with the
Aristotelian philosophy as being unfruitful and leading only to
resultless disputation. In 1576 he entered Gray's Inn, and in the same
year joined the embassy of Sir Amyas Paulet to France, where he remained
until 1579. The death of his _f._ in that year, before he had completed
an intended provision for him, gave an adverse turn to his fortunes, and
rendered it necessary that he should decide upon a profession. He
accordingly returned to Gray's Inn, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to
induce Burghley to give him a post at court, and thus enable him to
devote himself to a life of learning, he gave himself seriously to the
study of law, and was called to the Bar in 1582. He did not, however,
desert philosophy, and _pub._ a Latin tract, _Temporis Partus Maximus_
(the Greatest Birth of Time), the first rough draft of his own system.
Two years later, in 1584, he entered the House of Commons as member for
Melcombe, sitting subsequently for Taunton (1586), Liverpool (1589),
Middlesex (1593), and Southampton (1597). In the Parliament of 1586 he
took a prominent part in urging the execution of Mary Queen of Scots.
About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the
result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the Bar,
and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the
Star Chamber, a valuable appointment, into the enjoyment of which,
however, he did not enter until 1608. About 1591 he formed a friendship
with the Earl of Essex, from whom he received many tokens of kindness ill
requited. In 1593 the offices of Attorney-general, and subsequently of
Solicitor-general became vacant, and Essex used his influence on B.'s
behalf, but unsuccessfully, the former being given to Coke, the famous
lawyer. These disappointments may have been owing to a speech made by B.
on a question of subsidies. To console him for them Essex presented him
with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for L1800,
equivalent to a much larger sum now. In 1596 he was made a Queen's
Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls, and in the
next year (1597), he _pub._ the first edition of his _Essays_, ten in
number, combined with _Sacred Meditations_ and the _Colours of Good and
Evil_. By 1601 Essex had lost the Queen's favour, and had raised his
rebellion, and B. was one of those appointed to investigate the charges
against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an
ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former
friend and benefactor, who was executed on Feb. 25, 1601. This act B.
endeavoured to justify in _A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons,
etc., of ... the Earl of Essex, etc._ His circumstances had for some time
been bad, and he had been arrested for debt: he had, however, received a
gift of a fine of L1200 on one of Essex's accomplices. The accession of
James VI. in 1603 gave a favourable turn to his fortunes: he was
knighted, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by
writing his _Apologie_ (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex,
who had favoured the succession of James. In the first Parliament of the
new king he sat for St. Alban's, and was appointed a Commissioner for
Union with Scotland. In 1605 he _pub._ _The Advancement of Learning_,
dedicated, with fulsome flattery, to the king. The following year he
married Alice Barnham, the _dau._ of a London merchant, and in 1607 he
was made Solicitor-General, and wrote _Cogita et Visa_, a first sketch of
the _Novum Organum_, followed in 1609 by _The Wisdom of the Ancients_.
Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the Star
Chamber, and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and
present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain
further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary
policy. In 1613 he became Attorney-General, and in this capacity
prosecuted Somerset in 1616. The year 1618 saw him Lord Keeper, and the
next Lord Chancellor and Baron Verulam, a title which, in 1621, he
exchanged for that of Viscount St. Albans. Meanwhile he had written the
_New Atlantis_, a political romance, and in 1620 he presented to the king
the _Novum Organum_, on which he had been engaged for 30 years, and which
ultimately formed the main part of the _Instauratio Magna_. In his great
office B. showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the
majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and
judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. In 1621 a
Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with
corruption under 23 counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no
attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire
whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my
act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a
broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of L40,000, remitted by the
king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (which was
that he should be released in a few days), and to be incapable of holding
office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of
his titles. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and writing. In 1622
appeared his _History of Henry VII._, and the 3rd part of the
_Instauratio_; in 1623, _History of Life and Death_, the _De Augmentis
Scientarum_, a Latin translation of the _Advancement_, and in 1625 the
3rd edition of the _Essays_, now 58 in number. He also _pub._
_Apophthegms_, and a translation of some of the _Psalms_. His life was
now approaching its close. In March, 1626, he came to London, and shortly
after, when driving on a snowy day, the idea struck him of making an
experiment as to the antiseptic properties of snow, in consequence of
which he caught a chill, which ended in his death on 9th April 1626. He
left debts to the amount of L22,000. At the time of his death he was
engaged upon _Sylva Sylvarum_. The intellect of B. was one of the most
powerful and searching ever possessed by man, and his developments of the
inductive philosophy revolutionised the future thought of the human race.
The most popular of his works is the _Essays_, which convey profound and
condensed thought in a style that is at once clear and rich. His moral
character was singularly mixed and complex, and bears no comparison with
his intellect. It exhibits a singular coldness and lack of enthusiasm,
and indeed a bluntness of moral perception and an absence of
attractiveness rarely combined with such extraordinary mental endowments.
All that was possible to be done in defence of his character and public
conduct has been done by his accomplished biographer and editor, Mr.
Spedding (_q.v._). Singular, though of course futile, attempts, supported
sometimes with much ingenuity, have been made to claim for B. the
authorship of Shakespeare's plays, and have indeed been extended so as to
include those of Marlowe, and even the _Essays_ of Montaigne.

SUMMARY.--_B._ London 1561, _ed._ Trinity Coll., Cambridge, dissatisfied
with Aristotelean philosophy, entered Gray's Inn 1576, in France 1576-79,
called to Bar 1582, enters Parliament 1584, became friend of Essex 1591,
who presents him with estate 1593, _pub._ 1st ed. of _Essays_ 1597,
prosecutes Essex 1601, _pub._ _Advancement of Learning_ 1605,
Solicitor-Gen. 1607, _pub._ _Wisdom of the Ancients_ 1609, Attorney-Gen.
1613, prosecuted Somerset 1616, Lord Keeper 1618, Lord Chancellor with
title of Verulam 1619, Visc. St. Albans 1621, _pub._ _Novum Organum_
1620, charged with corruption, and retires from public life 1621, _pub._
_Henry VII._ and 3rd part of _Instauratio_ 1622, _d._ 1626.

The standard edition of B.'s works is that of Spedding, Ellis, and Heath
(14 vols. 1857-74), including _Life and Letters_ by Spedding. See also
Macaulay's _Essays_; Dean Church in _Men of Letters Series_; Dr. Abbott's
_Life_ (1885), etc. For philosophy Fowler's _Novum Organum_ (1878).


BACON, ROGER (1214?-1294).--Philosopher, studied at Oxford and Paris. His
scientific acquirements, regarded in that age as savouring of
witchcraft, and doubtless also his protests against the ignorance and
immorality of the clergy, excited the jealousy and hatred of the
Franciscans, and he was in consequence imprisoned at Paris for ten years.
Clement IV., who had been a sympathiser, desired on his accession to see
his works, and in response B. sent him _Opus Majus_, a treatise on the
sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), followed
by _Opus Secundum_ and _Opus Tertium_. Clement, however, was near death
when they arrived. B. was comparatively free from persecution for the
next ten years. But in 1278 he was again imprisoned for upwards of ten
years. At the intercession of some English noblemen he was at last
released, and spent his remaining years at Oxford. He possessed one of
the most commanding intellects of his own, or perhaps of any, age, and,
notwithstanding all the disadvantages and discouragements to which he was
subjected, made many discoveries, and came near to many more. There is
still preserved at Oxford a rectified calendar in which he approximates
closely to the truth. He received the sobriquet of the "Doctor
Mirabilis."


BAGE, ROBERT (1728-1801).--Novelist, _b._ in Derbyshire, was the _s._ of
a paper-maker. It was not until he was 53 that he took to literature; but
in the 15 years following he produced 6 novels, of which Sir Walter Scott
says that "strong mind, playful fancy, and extensive knowledge are
everywhere apparent." B., though brought up as a Quaker, imbibed the
principles of the French Revolution. He was an amiable and benevolent
man, and highly esteemed. _Hermsprong; or, Man as He is Not_ (1796) is
considered the best of his novels, of which it was the last. The names of
the others are _Mount Kenneth_ (1781), _Barham Downs_ (1784), _The Fair
Syrian_ (1787), _James Wallace_ (1788), and _Man as He is_ (1792).


BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877).--Economist, _s._ of a banker, _b._ at
Langport, Somerset, _ed._ at University Coll., London, and called to the
Bar, but did not practise, and joined his _f._ in business. He wrote for
various periodicals, and from 1860 was editor of _The Economist_. He was
the author of _The English Constitution_ (1867), a standard work which
was translated into several languages; _Physics and Politics_ (1872), and
_Lombard Street_ (1873), a valuable financial work. A collection of
essays, biographical and economic, was _pub._ after his death.


BAILEY, PHILIP JAMES (1816-1902).--Poet, _s._ of a journalist, _b._ at
Nottingham, and _ed._ there and at Glasgow, of which he was made an LL.D.
in 1891. His life was a singularly uneventful one. He lived at
Nottingham, Jersey, Ilfracombe, London, and again at Nottingham, where he
_d._ He travelled a good deal on the Continent. He was by profession a
barrister, but never practised, and devoted his whole energies to poetry.
His first poem, _Festus_ (1839), is, for the daring of its theme and the
imaginative power and moral altitude which it displays, one of the most
notable of the century; as the work of one little past boyhood it is a
prodigy of intellectual precocity. Along with its great qualities it has
many faults in execution, and its final place in literature remains to
be determined. It was _pub._ anonymously, and had great success, but has
fallen into unmerited, but perhaps temporary, neglect. Among its greatest
admirers was Tennyson. The subsequent poems of B., _The Angel World_
(1850), _The Mystic_ (1855), _The Age_ (1858), and _The Universal Hymn_
(1867), were failures, and the author adopted the unfortunate expedient
of endeavouring to buoy them up by incorporating large extracts in the
later editions of _Festus_, with the effect only of sinking the latter,
which ultimately extended to over 40,000 lines. B. was a man of
strikingly handsome appearance, and gentle and amiable character.


BAILLIE, JOANNA (1762-1851).--Dramatist and poetess, _dau._ of the
minister of Bothwell, afterwards Professor of Divinity at Glasgow. Her
mother was a sister of the great anatomists, William and John Hunter, and
her brother was the celebrated physician, Matthew B., of London. She
received a thorough education at Glasgow, and at an early age went to
London, where the remainder of her long, happy, and honoured, though
uneventful, life was passed. In 1798, when she was 36, the first vol. of
her _Plays on the Passions_ appeared, and was received with much favour,
other two vols. followed in 1802 and 1812, and she also produced
_Miscellaneous Plays_ in 1804, and 3 vols. of _Dramatic Poetry_ in 1836.
In all her works there are many passages of true and impressive poetry,
but the idea underlying her _Plays on the Passions_, that, namely, of
exhibiting the principal character as acting under the exclusive
influence of one passion, is artificial and untrue to nature.


BAILLIE, LADY GRIZEL (1665-1746).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Patrick Home or
Hume, afterwards Earl of Marchmont, was married to George Baillie of
Jerviswoode. In her childhood she showed remarkable courage and address
in the services she rendered to her father and his friend, Robert Baillie
of Jerviswoode, the eminent Scottish patriot, when under persecution. She
left many pieces both prose and verse in MS., some of which were _pub._
The best known is the beautiful song, _Were na my heart licht I wad die_.


BAILLIE, ROBERT (1599-1662).--Historical writer, _s._ of B. of Jerviston,
_ed._ at Glasgow, he entered the Church of Scotland and became minister
of Kilwinning in Ayrshire. His abilities soon made him a leading man. He
was a member of the historic Assembly of 1638, when Presbyterianism was
re-established in Scotland, and also of the Westminster Assembly, 1643.
In 1651 he was made Professor of Divinity in Glasgow, and 10 years later
Principal. His _Letters and Journals_, edited for the Bannatyne Club by
D. Laing (_q.v._), are of the greatest value for the interesting light
they throw on a period of great importance in Scottish history. He was
one of the wisest and most temperate churchmen of his time.


BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903).--Philosopher, _b._ at Aberdeen, and
graduated at Marischal Coll. there, became in 1860 Professor of Logic in
his university, and wrote a number of works on philosophy and psychology,
including _The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855), _The Emotions and the
Will_, _Mental and Moral Science_ (1868), _Logic_ (1870), and _Education
as a Science_ (1879). In 1881 he was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen
University.


BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1645).--Historian and religious writer, studied
law, was knighted in 1603, and was High Sheriff of Oxfordshire 1620. B.
was the author of _The Chronicle of the Kings of England_ (1643), which
was for long held as a great authority among the country gentlemen. It
has, however, many errors. B. fell on evil days, was thrown into the
Fleet for debt incurred by others, for which he had made himself
responsible, and _d._ there. It was during his durance that the
_Chronicle_ and some religious treatises were composed. The _Chronicle_
was continued by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, who became a strong
Royalist.


BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893).--Traveller, _b._ in London, and
after being a planter in Ceylon, and superintending the construction of a
railway between the Danube and the Black Sea, went with his wife, a
Hungarian lady, in search of the sources of the Nile, and discovered the
great lake, Albert Nyanza. B. was knighted in 1866, and was for 4 years
Governor-General of the Equatorial Nile Basin. His books, which are all
on travel and sport, are well written and include _Albert Nyanza_ (1866),
_Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_ (1867).


BALE, JOHN (1495-1563).--Historian and controversialist, _b._ at Cove,
Suffolk, and _ed._ as a Carmelite friar, but becoming a Protestant,
engaged in violent controversy with the Roman Catholics. After undergoing
persecution and flying to Flanders, he was brought back by Edward VI. and
made Bishop of Ossory. On the death of Edward he was again persecuted,
and had to escape from Ireland to Holland, but returned on the accession
of Elizabeth, who made him a Prebendary of Canterbury. His chief work is
a Latin _Account of the Lives of Eminent Writers of Great Britain_.
Besides this he wrote some dramas on scriptural subjects, and an account
of the trial and death of Sir John Oldcastle. He wrote in all 22 plays,
of which only 5 have come down, the names of certain of which give some
idea of their nature, _e.g._, _The Three Leaves of Nature_, _Moses and
Christ_, and _The Temptacyon of Our Lord_.


BALLANTINE, JAMES (1808-1877).--Artist and author, _b._ in Edinburgh,
began life as a house painter. He studied art, and became one of the
first to revive the art of glass-painting, on which subject he wrote a
treatise. He was the author of _The Gaberlunzie's Wallet_ (1843), _Miller
of Deanhaugh_ (1845), _Poems_ (1856), _100 Songs with Music_ (1865), and
a _Life of David Roberts, R.A._ (1866).


BALLANTYNE, ROBERT MICHAEL (1825-1894).--Writer of tales for boys, _b._
in Edinburgh, was a connection of the well-known printers. As a youth he
spent some years in the service of the Hudson's Bay Co., and was then a
member of Constable's printing firm. In 1856 he took to literature as a
profession, and _pub._ about 80 tales, which, abounding in interesting
adventure and information, and characterised by a thoroughly healthy
tone, had great popularity. Among them are _The Young Fur Traders_
(1856), _The Coral Island_, _Fighting the Flames_, _Martin Rattler_, _The
World of Ice_, _The Dog Crusoe_, _Erling the Bold_, and _Black Ivory_. B.
was also an accomplished water-colour artist, and in all respects lived
up to the ideals he sought to instil into his readers. He _d._ at Rome.


BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800-1891).--American historian, _b._ at Worcester,
Massachusetts, and after _grad._ at Harvard, studied in Germany, where he
became acquainted and corresponded with Goethe, Hegel, and other leaders
of German thought. Returning to America he began his _History of the
United States_ (1834-74). The work covers the period from the discovery
of the Continent to the conclusion of the Revolutionary War in 1782. His
other great work is _The History of the Formation of the Constitution of
the United States_ (1882). B. filled various political offices, and was
in 1846 Minister Plenipotentiary to England, and in 1867 Minister to
Prussia. His writing is clear and vigorous, and his facts generally
accurate, but he is a good deal of a partisan.


BANIM, JOHN (1798-1842).--Novelist, began life as a miniature painter,
but was led by the success of his first book, _Tales of the O'Hara
Family_, to devote himself to literature. The object which he set before
himself was to become to Ireland what Scott has been to Scotland, and the
influence of his model is distinctly traceable in his writings. His
strength lies in the delineation of the characters of the Irish lower
classes, and the impulses, often misguided and criminal, by which they
are influenced, and in this he has shown remarkable power. The first
series of the _O'Hara Tales_ appeared in 1825, the second in 1826. Other
works are _The Croppy_ (1828), _The Denounced_ (1830), _The Smuggler_
(1831), _The Mayor of Windgap_, and his last, _Father Connell_. Most of
these deal with the darker and more painful phases of life, but the
feeling shown in the last-named is brighter and tenderer. B. latterly
suffered from illness and consequent poverty, which were alleviated by a
pension from Government. He also wrote some poems, including _The Celt's
Paradise_, and one or two plays. In the _O'Hara Tales_, he was assisted
by his brother, MICHAEL BANIM (1796-1874), and there is difficulty in
allocating their respective contributions. After the death of John,
Michael wrote _Clough Fionn_ (1852), and _The Town of the Cascades_
(1864).


BANNATYNE, RICHARD (_d._ 1605).--Secretary to John Knox, compiled
_Memorials of Transactions in Scotland from 1569 to 1573_.


BARBAULD, ANNA LETITIA (1743-1825).--Poetess, etc., _dau._ of Dr. John
Aikin (_q.v._), was _b._ at Kibworth-Hencourt, Leicestershire. Her _f._
kept an academy for boys, whose education she shared, and thus became
acquainted with the classics. In 1773 she _pub._ a collection of
miscellaneous poems, which was well received, and in the following year
she married the Rev. R. Barbauld, a French Protestant and dissenting
minister, who also conducted a school near Palgrave in Suffolk. Into this
enterprise Mrs. B. threw herself with great energy, and, mainly owing to
her talents and reputation, it proved a success and was afterwards
carried on at Hampstead and Newington Green. Meantime, she continued her
literary occupations, and brought out various devotional works, including
her _Hymns in Prose for Children_. These were followed by _Evenings at
Home_, _Selections from the English Essayists_, _The Letters of Samuel
Richardson_, with a life prefixed, and a selection from the British
novelists with introductory essay.


BARBOUR, JOHN (1316?-1395).--Poet. Of B.'s youth nothing is certainly
known, but it is believed that he was _b._ near Aberdeen, and studied at
Oxford and Paris. He entered the Church, and rose to ecclesiastical
preferment and Royal favour. He is known to have been Archdeacon of
Aberdeen in 1357, when, and again in 1364, he went with some young
scholars to Oxford, and he also held various civil offices in connection
with the exchequer and the King's household. His principal poem, _The
Bruce_, was in progress in 1376. It consists of 14,000 octosyllabic
lines, and celebrates the praises of Robert the Bruce and James Douglas,
the flowers of Scottish chivalry. This poem is almost the sole authority
on the history it deals with, but is much more than a rhyming chronicle;
it contains many fine descriptive passages, and sings the praises of
freedom. Its style is somewhat bald and severe. Other poems ascribed to
B. are _The Legend of Troy_, and _Legends of the Saints_, probably
translations. B. devoted a perpetual annuity of 20 shillings, bestowed
upon him by the King, to provide for a mass to be sung for himself and
his parents, and this was duly done in the church of St. Machar until the
Reformation.

_The Bruce_, edited by C. Innes for Spalding Club (1856), and for Early
Engl. Text Soc. by W.W. Skeat, 1870-77; and for Scott. Text Soc. (1894);
_The Wallace_ and _The Bruce_ re-studied, J.T.T. Brown, 1900; G. Neilson
in Chambers' Cyc. Eng. Lit. (1903).


BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (1475?-1552).--Poet, probably of Scottish birth, was a
priest in England. He is remembered for his satirical poem, _The Ship of
Fools_ (1509), partly a translation, which is of interest as throwing
light on the manners and customs of the times to which it refers. He also
translated Sallust's _Bellum Jugurthinum_, and the _Mirrour of Good
Manners_, from the Italian of Mancini, and wrote five _Eclogues_. His
style is stiff and his verse uninspired.


BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621).--Satirist, _s._ of a Scotsman, who was
Professor of Law at Pont-a-Mousson, Lorraine, came with his _f._ to
England about 1603. He wrote several works in English and Latin, among
which are _Euphormionis Satyricon_, against the Jesuits, and _Argenis_, a
political romance, resembling in certain respects the _Arcadia_ of
Sidney, and the _Utopia_ of More.


BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690).--Apologist of the Quakers, _s._ of Col.
David B. of Ury, _ed._ at the Scots Coll. in Paris, of which his uncle
was Rector, made such progress in study as to gain the admiration of his
teachers, specially of his uncle, who offered to make him his heir if he
would remain in France, and join the Roman Catholic Church. This he
refused to do, and, returning to Scotland, he in 1667 adopted the
principles of the Quakers as his _f._ had already done. Soon afterwards
he began to write in defence of his sect, by _pub._ in 1670 _Truth
cleared of Calumnies_, and _a Catechism and Confession of Faith_ (1673).
His great work, however, is his _Apology for the Quakers_, _pub._ in
Latin in 1676, and translated into English in 1678. It is a weighty and
learned work, written in a dignified style, and was eagerly read. It,
however, failed to arrest the persecution to which the Quakers were
exposed, and B. himself, on returning from the Continent, where he had
gone with Foxe and Penn, was imprisoned, but soon regained his liberty,
and was in the enjoyment of Court favour. He was one of the twelve
Quakers who acquired East New Jersey, of which he was appointed nominal
Governor. His latter years were spent at his estate of Ury, where he _d._
The essential view which B. maintained was, that Christians are
illuminated by an inner light superseding even the Scriptures as the
guide of life. His works have often been reprinted.


BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (1788-1845).--Novelist and humorous poet, _s._ of
a country gentleman, was _b._ at Canterbury, _ed._ at St. Paul's School
and Oxford, entered the church, held various incumbencies, and was
Divinity Lecturer, and minor canon of St. Paul's. It is not, however, as
a churchman that he is remembered, but as the author of the _Ingoldsby
Legends_, a series of comic and serio-comic pieces in verse, sparkling
with wit, and full of striking and often grotesque turns of expression,
which appeared first in _Bentley's Miscellany_. He also wrote, in
_Blackwood's Magazine_, a novel, _My Cousin Nicholas_.


BARLOW, JOEL (1754-1812).--Poet, _b._ at Reading, Connecticut, served for
a time as an army chaplain, and thereafter betook himself to law, and
finally to commerce and diplomacy, in the former of which he made a
fortune. He was much less successful as a poet than as a man of affairs.
His writings include _Vision of Columbus_ (1787), afterwards expanded
into the _Columbiad_ (1807), _The Conspiracy of Kings_ (1792), and _The
Hasty Pudding_ (1796), a mock-heroic poem, his best work. These are
generally pompous and dull. In 1811 he was _app._ ambassador to France,
and met his death in Poland while journeying to meet Napoleon.


BARNARD, LADY ANNE (LINDSAY) (1750-1825).--Poet, _e. dau._ of the 5th
Earl of Balcarres, married Andrew Barnard, afterwards Colonial Secretary
at Cape Town. On the _d._ of her husband in 1807 she settled in London.
Her exquisite ballad of _Auld Robin Gray_ was written in 1771, and _pub._
anonymously. She confessed the authorship to Sir Walter Scott in 1823.


BARNES, BARNABE (1569?-1609).--Poet, _s._ of Dr. Richard B. Bishop, of
Durham, was _b._ in Yorkshire, and studied at Oxford. He wrote
_Parthenophil_, a collection of sonnets, madrigals, elegies, and odes, _A
Divine Centurie of Spirituall Sonnets_, and _The Devil's Charter_, a
tragedy. When at his best he showed a true poetic vein.


BARNES, WILLIAM (1801-1886).--Poet and philologist, _s._ of a farmer,
_b._ at Rushay, Dorset. After being a solicitor's clerk and a
schoolmaster, he entered the Church, in which he served various cures.
He first contributed to a newspaper, _Poems in Dorset Dialect_,
separately _pub._ in 1844. _Hwomely Rhymes_ followed in 1858, and a
collected edition of his poems appeared in 1879. His philological works
include _Philological Grammar_ (1854), _Se Gefylsta, an Anglo-Saxon
Delectus_ (1849). _Tiw, or a View of Roots_ (1862), and a _Glossary of
Dorset Dialect_ (1863). B.'s poems are characterised by a singular
sweetness and tenderness of feeling, deep insight into humble country
life and character, and an exquisite feeling for local scenery.


BARNFIELD, RICHARD (1574-1627).--Poet, _e.s._ of Richard B., gentleman,
was _b._ at Norbury, Shropshire, and _ed._ at Oxford. In 1594 he _pub._
_The Affectionate Shepherd_, a collection of variations in graceful verse
of the 2nd Eclogue of Virgil. His next work was _Cynthia, with certain
Sonnets and the Legend of Cassandra_ in 1595; and in 1598 there appeared
a third vol., _The Encomion of Lady Pecunia, etc._, in which are two
songs ("If music and sweet poetrie agree," and "As it fell upon a day")
also included in _The Passionate Pilgrim_, an unauthorised collection,
and which were long attributed to Shakespeare. From this time, 1599, B.
produced nothing else, and seems to have retired to the life of a country
gentleman at Stone in Staffordshire, in the church of which he was buried
in 1627. He was for long neglected; but his poetry is clear, sweet, and
musical. His gift indeed is sufficiently attested by work of his having
passed for that of Shakespeare.


BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677).--Divine, scholar, and mathematician, _s._ of a
linen-draper in London, was _ed._ at Charterhouse, Felsted, Peterhouse,
and Trinity Coll., Cambridge, where his uncle and namesake, afterwards
Bishop of St. Asaph, was a Fellow. As a boy he was turbulent and
pugnacious, but soon took to hard study, distinguishing himself in
classics and mathematics. Intending originally to enter the Church, he
was led to think of the medical profession, and engaged in scientific
studies, but soon reverted to his first views. In 1655 he became
candidate for the Greek Professorship at Cambridge, but was unsuccessful,
and travelled for four years on the Continent as far as Turkey. On his
return he took orders, and, in 1660, obtained the Greek Chair at
Cambridge, and in 1662 the Gresham Professorship of Geometry, which he
resigned on being appointed first Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
the same university. During his tenure of this chair he _pub._ two
mathematical works of great learning and elegance, the first on Geometry
and the second on Optics. In 1669 he resigned in favour of his pupil,
Isaac Newton, who was long considered his only superior among English
mathematicians. About this time also he composed his _Expositions of the
Creed_, _The Lord's Prayer_, _Decalogue_, and _Sacraments_. He was made a
D.D. by royal mandate in 1670, and two years later Master of Trinity
Coll., where he founded the library. Besides the works above mentioned,
he wrote other important treatises on mathematics, but in literature his
place is chiefly supported by his sermons, which are masterpieces of
argumentative eloquence, while his treatise on the _Pope's Supremacy_ is
regarded as one of the most perfect specimens of controversy in
existence. B.'s character as a man was in all respects worthy of his
great talents, though he had a strong vein of eccentricity. He _d._
unmarried in London at the early age of 47. B.'s theological works were
edited by Napier, with memoir by Whewell (9 vols., 1839).


BARTON, BERNARD (1784-1849).--Poet, _b._ of Quaker parentage, passed
nearly all his life at Woodbridge, for the most part as a clerk in a
bank. He became the friend of Southey, Lamb, and other men of letters.
His chief works are _The Convict's Appeal_ (1818), a protest against the
severity of the criminal code of the time, and _Household Verses_ (1845),
which came under the notice of Sir R. Peel, through whom he obtained a
pension of L100. With the exception of some hymns his works are now
nearly forgotten, but he was a most amiable and estimable man--simple and
sympathetic. His _dau._ Lucy, who married Edward Fitzgerald, the
translator of _Omar Khayyam_, _pub._ a selection of his poems and
letters, to which her husband prefixed a biographical introduction.


BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887).--Philosopher, _s._ of a Baptist
minister, _b._ at Wellington, Somerset, intended to study for Baptist
ministry, and was at a theological seminary at Bath with that view, but
being strongly attracted to philosophical studies, left it and went to
Edin., when he became the favourite pupil of Sir W. Hamilton (_q.v._), of
whose philosophical system he continued an adherent. After working as ed.
of a newspaper in Edinburgh, and after an interval of rest rendered
necessary by a breakdown in health, he resumed journalistic work in 1858
as assistant ed. of the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed Prof. of
Logic and English Literature at St. Andrews, in which capacity his mind
was drawn to the study of Shakespeare, and he contributed to the
_Edinburgh Review_ and _Fraser's Magazine_ valuable papers (chiefly
relating to his vocabulary and the extent of his learning) afterwards
collected as _Shakespeare Studies_. In 1873 he was appointed to
superintend the ninth ed. of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, in which,
after 1880, he was assisted by W. Robertson Smith (_q.v._).


BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691).--Divine scholar and controversialist, was
_b._ of poor, but genteel, parents at Rowton in Shropshire, and although
he became so eminent for learning, was not _ed._ at any university.
Circumstances led to his turning his attention to a career at court under
the patronage of the Master of the Revels, but a short experience of this
sufficed; and giving himself to the Christian ministry, he was ordained
in 1638, and, after being master of a school at Dudley, exercised his
ministry successively at Bridgnorth and Kidderminster. His learning and
capacity for business made him the leader of the Presbyterian party. He
was one of the greatest preachers of his own day, and consistently
endeavoured to exert a moderating influence, with the result that he
became the object of attack by extremists of opposing views. Though
siding with the Parliament in the Civil War, he opposed the execution of
the King and the assumption of supreme power by Cromwell. During the war
he served with the army as a chaplain. On the return of Charles II., B.
was made one of his chaplains, and was offered the see of Hereford, which
he declined, and his subsequent request to be allowed to return to
Kidderminster was refused. He subsequently suffered persecution at the
hands of Judge Jeffreys. After the Revolution he had a few years of peace
and quiet. His literary activity was marvellous in spite of ill-health
and outward disturbance. He is said to have written 168 works, the best
known of which are _The Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650), and _Call to
the Unconverted_ (1657), manuals of practical religion; and, among his
controversial writings, _Methodus Theologiae_ (1681), and _Catholic
Theology_ (1675), in which his theological standpoint--a compromise
between Arminianism and Calvinism--is set forth. Dr. Isaac Barrow says
that "his practical writings were never mended, and his controversial
seldom confuted," and Dean Stanley calls him "the chief English
Protestant schoolman." B. left an autobiography, _Reliquiae Baxterianae_,
which was a favourite book with both Johnson and Coleridge. Other works
by him are _The Life of Faith_ (1670), _Reasons of the Christian
Religion_ (1672), and _Christian Directory_ (1675). _Practical Works_ in
23 vols. (1830) edited with memoirs by W. Orme, also _Lives_ by A.B.
Grosart (1879), Dean Boyle (1883), and J.H. Davies (1886).


BAYLY, ADA ELLEN (_d._ 1903).--Novelist, wrote several stories under the
name of "Edna Lyall," which were very popular. They include
_Autobiography of a Slander_, _Donovan_, _Hope the Hermit_, _In the
Golden Days_, _To Right the Wrong_, _We Two_, and _Won by Waiting_.


BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a
wealthy lawyer in Bath. Originally intended for the law, he changed his
mind and thought of entering the Church, but abandoned this idea also,
and gave himself to writing for the stage and the periodical press. He is
chiefly known for his songs, of which he wrote hundreds, which, set to
the music of Bishop and other eminent composers, found universal
acceptance. Some were set to his own music. He also wrote several novels
and a number of farces, etc. Although making a large income from his
writings, in addition to that of his wife, he fell into embarrassed
circumstances. Among the best known of his songs are _I'd be a
Butterfly_, _Oh, no, we never mention Her_, and _She wore a Wreath of
Roses_. He may be regarded as, excepting Moore, the most popular song
writer of his time.


BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, 1ST EARL of (1804-1881).--Statesman and
novelist, was the _s._ of Isaac D. (_q.v._). Belonging to a Jewish family
settled first in Spain, whence in the 15th century they migrated to
Italy, he was _b._ in London in 1804 and privately _ed._ His _f._
destined him for the law, and he was articled to a solicitor. The law
was, however, uncongenial, and he had already begun to write. After some
journalistic work, he brought himself into general notice by the
publication, in 1827, of his first novel, _Vivian Grey_, which created a
sensation by its brilliance, audacity, and slightly veiled portraits of
living celebrities. After producing a _Vindication of the British
Constitution_, and some political pamphlets, he followed up his first
success by a series of novels, _The Young Duke_ (1831), _Contarini
Fleming_ (1832), _Alroy_ (1833), _Venetia and Henrietta Temple_ (1837).
During the same period he had also written _The Revolutionary Epic_ and
three burlesques, _Ixion_, _The Infernal Marriage_, and _Popanilla_.
These works had gained for him a brilliant, if not universally admitted,
place in literature. But his ambition was by no means confined to
literary achievement; he aimed also at fame as a man of action. After
various unsuccessful attempts to enter Parliament, in which he stood,
first as a Radical, and then as a Tory, he was in 1837 returned for
Maidstone, having for his colleague Mr. Wyndham Lewis, whose widow he
afterwards married. For some years after entering on his political
career, D. ceased to write, and devoted his energies to parliamentary
work. His first speech was a total failure, being received with shouts of
laughter, but with characteristic courage and perseverance he pursued his
course, gradually rose to a commanding position in parliament and in the
country, became leader of his party, was thrice Chancellor of the
Exchequer, 1852, 1858-59, and 1866-68, in which last year he became Prime
Minister, which office he again held from 1874 till 1880. To return to
his literary career, in 1844 he had _pub._ _Coningsby_, followed by
_Sybil_ (1845), and _Tancred_ (1847), and in 1848 he wrote a life of Lord
G. Bentinck, his predecessor in the leadership of the Protectionist
party. His last novels were _Lothair_ (1870), and _Endymion_ (1880). He
was raised to the peerage as Earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, and was a
Knight of the Garter. In his later years he was the intimate friend as
well as the trusted minister of Queen Victoria. The career of D. is one
of the most remarkable in English history. With no family or political
influence, and with some personal characteristics, and the then current
prejudices in regard to his race to contend with, he rose by sheer force
of will and intellect to the highest honours attainable in this country.
His most marked qualities were an almost infinite patience and
perseverance, indomitable courage, a certain spaciousness of mind, and
depth of penetration, and an absolute confidence in his own abilities,
aided by great powers of debate rising occasionally to eloquence. Though
the object, first of a kind of contemptuous dislike, then of an intense
opposition, he rose to be universally regarded as, at all events, a great
political force, and by a large part of the nation as a great statesman.
As a writer he is generally interesting, and his books teem with striking
thoughts, shrewd maxims, and brilliant phrases which stick in the memory.
On the other hand he is often artificial, extravagant, and turgid, and
his ultimate literary position is difficult to forecast.

_Lives_ by Froude (1890), Hitchman (1885), see also _Dictionary of Nat.
Biog. etc._


BEATTIE, JAMES (1735-1803).--Poet and philosophical writer, _s._ of a
shopkeeper and small farmer at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, and _ed._
at Aberdeen; he was, in 1760, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy
there. In the following year he _pub._ a vol. of poems, which attracted
attention. The two works, however, which brought him most fame were: (1)
his _Essay on Truth_ (1770), intended as an answer to Hume, which had
great immediate success, and led to an introduction to the King, a
pension of L200, and the degree of LL.D. from Oxford; and (2) his poem of
_The Minstrel_, of which the first book was _pub._ in 1771 and the
second in 1774, and which constitutes his true title to remembrance. It
contains much beautiful descriptive writing. The _Essay on Truth_ and his
other philosophical works are now forgotten. B. underwent much domestic
sorrow in the death of his wife and two promising sons, which broke down
his own health and spirits.


BEAUMONT, FRANCIS (1584-1616), AND FLETCHER, JOHN (1579-1625).--Poets and
dramatists. As they are indissolubly associated in the history of English
literature, it is convenient to treat of them in one place. B. was the
_s._ of Francis B., a Judge of the Common Pleas, and was _b._ at the
family seat, Grace Dieu, Leicestershire. He was _ed._ at Oxford, but his
_f._ dying in 1598, he left without taking his degree. He went to London
and entered the Inner Temple in 1600, and soon became acquainted with Ben
Jonson, Drayton, and other poets and dramatists. His first work was a
translation from Ovid, followed by commendatory verses prefixed to
certain plays of Jonson. Soon afterwards his friendship with F. began.
They lived in the same house and had practically a community of goods
until B.'s marriage in 1613 to Ursula, _dau._ and co-heiress of Henry
Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by whom he had two _dau._ He _d._ in 1616,
and is buried in Westminster Abbey. F. was the youngest _s._ of Richard
F., Bishop of London, who accompanied Mary Queen of Scots to the
scaffold. He went to Cambridge, but it is not known whether he took a
degree, though he had some reputation as a scholar. His earliest play is
_The Woman Hater_ (1607). He is said to have died of the plague, and is
buried in St. Saviour's Church, Southwark. The plays attributed to B. and
F. number 52 and a masque, and much labour has been bestowed by critics
in endeavouring to allocate their individual shares. It is now generally
agreed that others collaborated with them to some extent--Massinger,
Rowley, Shirley, and even Shakespeare. Of those believed to be the joint
work of B. and F. _Philaster_ and _The Maid's Tragedy_ are considered the
masterpieces, and are as dramas unmatched except by Shakespeare. _The Two
Noble Kinsmen_ is thought to contain the work of Shakespeare. As regards
their respective powers, B. is held to have had the graver, solider, and
more stately genius, while F. excelled in brightness, wit, and gaiety.
The former was the stronger in judgment, the latter in fancy. The plays
contain many very beautiful lyrics, but are often stained by gross
indelicacy. The play of _Henry VIII._ included in Shakespeare's works, is
now held to be largely the work of F. and Massinger. Subjoined is a list
of the plays with the authorship according to the latest authorities.

(1) BEAUMONT.--_The Masque_. (2) FLETCHER.--_Woman Hater_ (1607),
_Faithful Shepherdess_ (1609), _Bonduca_ (_Boadicea_) (1618-19), _Wit
without Money_ (1614?), _Valentinian_ (1618-19), _Loyal Subjects_ (1618),
_Mad Lover_ (1618-19), _Humorous Lieutenant_ (1618?), _Women Pleased_
(1620?), _Island Princess_ (1621), _Pilgrim_ (1621), _Wild Goose Chase_
(1621), _Woman's Prize_ (? _pub._ 1647), _A Wife for a Month_ (1624),
_Chances_ (late, _p._ 1647), perhaps _Monsieur Thomas_ (_p._ 1639), and
_Sea Voyage_ (1622). (3) BEAUMONT and FLETCHER.--_Four Plays in One_
(1608), _King and No King_ (1611), _Cupid's Revenge_ (1611?), _Knight of
Burning Pestle_ (1611), _Maid's Tragedy_ (1611), _Philaster_ (1611),
_Coxcomb_ (1612-13), _Wits at Several Weapons_ (1614), _Scornful Lady_
(1616), doubtfully, _Thierry and Theodoret_ (1616), and _Little French
Lawyer_ (1620) perhaps by F. and Massinger, and _Laws of Candy_ (?)
perhaps by B. and Massinger. (4) FLETCHER and OTHERS.--_Honest Man's
Fortune_ (1613), F., Mass., and Field; _The Captain_ (1613), and _Nice
Valour_ (_p._ 1647), F. and Middleton (?); _Bloody Brothers_ (1616-17),
F., Mid., and Rowley or Fielding and B. Jonson (?); _Queen of Corinth_
(1618-19), F. and Row. or Mass. and Mid.; _Barneveld_ (1619), by F. and
Massinger; _Knight of Malta_ (1619), _False One_ (1620), _A Very Woman_
(1621?), _Double Marriage_ (1620), _Elder Brother_ (_p._ 1637), _Lover's
Progress_ (_p._ 1647), _Custom of the Country_ (1628), _Prophetess_
(1622), _Spanish Curate_ (1622), by F. and Shakespeare; _Henry VIII._
(1617), and _Two Noble Kinsmen_ (_p._ 1634), by F. and Rowley, or
Massinger; _Maid of the Mill_ (1625-6), _Beggar's Bush_ (?) (1622), by F.
and Shirley; _Noble Gentleman_ (?) _Night Walker_ (1633?), _Lovers
Pilgrimage_ (1623?), _Fair Maid of the Inn_ (1625-26), also with
Middleton?

The latest ed. is that of Mr. Bullen (11 vols., 1904), and A.R. Waller (7
vols., _pub._ C.U.P., 1909); Dyce (11 vols., 1843-46); _Francis
Beaumont_, G.C. Macaulay (1883); _Lyric Poems_ of B. and F., E. Rhys
(1897); _Bibliography_, A.C. Potter in _Harvard Bibliograph.
Contributions_, 1891.


BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1582-1627?).--Poet, elder brother of Francis B., the
dramatist (_q.v._). His poems, of which the best known is _Bosworth
Field_, _pub._ by his _s._, 1629. Another, _The Crown of Thorns_, is
lost.


BECKFORD, WILLIAM (_c._ 1760-1844).--Miscellaneous writer, only _s._ of
William B., Lord Mayor of London, the associate and supporter of John
Wilkes, inherited at the age of 9 an enormous fortune. In these
circumstances he grew up wayward and extravagant, showing, however, a
strong bent towards literature. His education was entrusted to a private
tutor, with whom he travelled extensively on the Continent. At the age of
22 he produced his oriental romance, _Vathek_ (_c._ 1781), written
originally in French and, as he was accustomed to boast, at a single
sitting of three days and two nights. There is reason, however, to
believe that this was a flight of imagination. It is an impressive work,
full of fantastic and magnificent conceptions, rising occasionally to
sublimity. His other principal writings are _Memoirs of Extraordinary
Painters_ (1780), a satirical work, and _Letters from Italy with Sketches
of Spain and Portugal_ (1835), full of brilliant descriptions of scenes
and manners. B.'s fame, however, rests nearly as much upon his eccentric
extravagances as a builder and collector as upon his literary efforts. In
carrying out these he managed to dissipate his fortune of L100,000 a
year, only L80,000 of his capital remaining at his death. He sat in
parliament for various constituencies, and one of his two _dau._ became
Duchess of Hamilton.


BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL (1803-1849).--Dramatic poet and physiologist, _s._
of Dr. Thos. B., an eminent physician, and nephew of Maria Edgeworth.
_Ed._ at the Charterhouse and Oxford, he _pub._ in 1821 _The
Improvisatore_, which he afterwards endeavoured to suppress. His next
venture was _The Bride's Tragedy_ (1822), which had considerable success,
and won for him the friendship of "Barry Cornwall." Thereafter he went to
Goettingen and studied medicine. He then wandered about practising his
profession, and expounding democratic theories which got him into
trouble. He _d._ at Bale in mysterious circumstances. For some time
before his death he had been engaged upon a drama, _Death's Jest Book_,
which was published in 1850 with a memoir by his friend, T.F. Kelsall. B.
had not the true dramatic instinct, but his poetry is full of thought and
richness of diction. Some of his short pieces, _e.g._: "If there were
dreams to sell," and "If thou wilt ease thine heart," are masterpieces of
intense feeling exquisitely expressed.


BEDE or BAEDA (673-735).--Historian and scholar. B., who is sometimes
referred to as "the father of English history," was in his youth placed
under the care of Benedict Biscop, Abbot of Wearmouth, and of Ceolfrith,
afterwards Abbot of Jarrow. Ordained deacon in 692 and priest in 703, he
spent most of his days at Jarrow, where his fame as a scholar and teacher
of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew brought him many disciples. Here likewise he
_d._ and was buried, but his bones were, towards the beginning of the
11th century, removed to Durham. The well-deserved title of "Venerable"
usually prefixed to his name first appears in 836. He was the most
learned Englishman of his age. His industry was marvellous, and its
results remain embodied in about 40 books, of which about 25 are
commentaries on books of Scripture. The others are lives of saints and
martyrs, and his two great works, _The Ecclesiastical History of England_
and the scientific treatise, _De Natura Rerum_. The former of these gives
the fullest and best information we have as to the history of England
down to the year 731, and the latter is an encyclopaedia of the sciences
as then known. In the anxious care with which he sought out and selected
reliable information, and referred to authorities he shows the best
qualities of the modern historian, and his style is remarkable for "a
pleasing artlessness."

_History of Early Engl. Lit._, Stopford Brooke (2 vols., 1892), etc.


BEECHER, HENRY WARD (1813-1887).--Orator and divine, _s._ of Lyman B. and
_bro._ of Harriet Beecher Stowe, was one of the most popular of American
preachers and platform orators, a prominent advocate of temperance and of
the abolition of slavery. His writings, which had a wide popularity,
include _Summer in the Soul_ and _Life Thoughts_.


BEHN, APHRA (JOHNSTON) (1640-1689).--Novelist and dramatist, _dau._ of a
barber named Johnston, but went with a relative whom she called father to
Surinam, of which he had been appointed Governor. He, however, _d._ on
the passage thither, and her childhood and youth were passed there. She
became acquainted with the celebrated slave Oronoko, afterwards the hero
of one of her novels. Returning to England in 1658 she _m._ Behn, a Dutch
merchant, but was a widow at the age of 26. She then became attached to
the Court, and was employed as a political spy at Antwerp. Leaving that
city she cultivated the friendship of various playwrights, and produced
many plays and novels, also poems and pamphlets. The former are extremely
gross, and are now happily little known. She was the first English
professional authoress. Among her plays are _The Forced Marriage_,
_Abdelazer_, _The Rover_, _The Debauchee_, etc., and her novels include
_Oronoko_ and _The Nun_. The former of these was the first book to bring
home to the country a sense of the horrors of slavery, for which let her
have credit.


BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1805-1874).--Poet and historian, was a member of
the Scottish Bar, and became Sheriff of Lanarkshire. He wrote a _Life of
Mary Queen of Scots_ (1830), strongly in her defence, and two vols. of
poetry, _Summer and Winter Hours_ (1831), and _My Old Portfolio_, the
latter also containing pieces in prose.


BELLENDEN, or BALLANTYNE, JOHN (_fl._ 1533-1587?).--Poet, _b._ towards
the close of the 15th century, and _ed._ at St. Andrews and Paris. At the
request of James V. he translated the _Historia Gentis Scotorum_ of
Boece. This translation, _Chroniklis of Scotland_ is a very free one,
with a good deal of matter not in the original, so that it may be almost
considered as a new work. It was _pub._ in 1536, and is the earliest
existing specimen of Scottish literary prose. He also translated the
first five books of Livy. He enjoyed the Royal favour, and was Archdeacon
of Moray. He latterly, however, became involved in controversy which led
to his going to Rome, where he _d._, according to one account, about
1550. Another authority, however, states that he was living in 1587.


BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832).--Writer on jurisprudence and politics, _b._
in London, _s._ of a prosperous attorney, _ed._ at Westminster and
Oxford, was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, but disliking the law, he
made little or no effort to practise, but devoted himself to physical
science and the theory of jurisprudence. In 1776 he _pub._ anonymously
his _Fragment on Government_, an able criticism of Blackstone's
_Commentaries_, which brought him under the notice of Lord Shelburne, and
in 1780 his _Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation_. Other
works were _Panopticon_, in which he suggested improvements on prison
discipline, _Discourse on Civil and Penal Legislation_ (1802),
_Punishments and Rewards_ (1811), _Parliamentary Reform Catechism_
(1817), and _A Treatise on Judicial Evidence_. By the death of his _f._
he inherited a competency on which he was able to live in frugal
elegance, not unmixed with eccentricity. B. is the first and perhaps the
greatest of the "philosophical radicals," and his fundamental principle
is utilitarianism or "the greatest happiness of the greatest number," a
phrase of which he is generally, though erroneously, regarded as the
author. The effect of his writings on legislation and the administration
of the law has been almost incalculable. He left his body to be
dissected; and his skeleton, clothed in his usual attire, is preserved in
University College, London.

_Life_ by Bowring in collected works (J.H. Barton, 11 vols., 1844).
_Study of Life and Work_, Atkinson, 1903.


BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742).--Theologian, scholar, and critic, _b._ in
Yorkshire of humble parentage, went at the age of 14 to Camb.,
afterwards had charge of a school at Spalding, and then becoming tutor to
the _s._ of Dr. Stillingfleet, Dean of St. Paul's, afterwards Bishop of
Worcester (_q.v.i_), accompanied his pupil to Oxf. After taking his
degree at both universities, and entering the Church, he laid the
foundation of his reputation as perhaps the greatest scholar England has
produced by his letter in Mill's ed. of the _Chronicle of John Malelas_,
and his _Dissertation on the Letters of Phalaris_ (1699), which spread
his fame through Europe. After receiving various preferments, including
the Boyle lectureship and the Keepership of the Royal Library, he was, in
1700, appointed Master of Trinity, and afterwards was, largely owing to
his own pugnacity and rapacity, which were almost equal to his learning,
involved in a succession of litigations and controversies. These lasted
for 20 years, and led to the temporary loss of his academic preferments
and honours. In 1717, however, he was appointed Regius Prof. of Divinity.
During the contentions referred to he continued his literary activity
without abatement, and _pub._ various ed. of the classics, including
Horace and Terence. He was much less successful in certain emendations of
Milton which he attempted. Having incurred the resentment of Pope he was
rewarded by being assigned a niche in _The Dunciad!_ His style is strong
and nervous, and sparkles with wit and sarcasm. His classical
controversies called forth Swift's _Battle of the Books_.

_Life_ by Monk (1833). _Life_ by Sir R. Jebb in _English Men of Letters_
(1882).


BERESFORD, JAMES (1764-1840).--Miscellaneous writer and clergyman. He
made translations and wrote religious books, but was chiefly known as the
author of a satirical work, _The Miseries of Human Life_ (1806-7.)


BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685-1753).--Philosopher, eldest _s._ of William B., a
cadet of the noble family of Berkeley, _b._ at Kilcrin near Kilkenny, and
_ed._ at the school of his native place and at Trinity Coll., Dublin,
where he graduated and took a Fellowship in 1707. His earliest
publication was a mathematical one; but the first which brought him into
notice was his _Essay towards a New Theory of Vision_, _pub._ in 1709.
Though giving rise to much controversy at the time, its conclusions are
now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. There next
appeared in 1710 the _Treatise concerning the Principles of Human
Knowledge_, which was followed in 1713 by _Dialogues between Hylas_ and
_Philonous_, in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading
principle of which is that the world as represented to our senses depends
for its existence on being perceived. Of this theory the _Principles_
gives the exposition and the _Dialogues_ the defence. One of his main
objects was to combat the prevailing materialism of the time. A theory so
novel was, as might be expected, received with widespread ridicule,
though his genius was realised by some of the more elect spirits, such as
Dr. S. Clarke. Shortly afterwards B. visited England, and was received
into the circle of Addison, Pope, and Steele. He then went to the
Continent in various capacities, and on his return was made Lecturer in
Divinity and Greek in his university, D.D. in 1721, and Dean of Derry in
1724. In 1725 he formed the project of founding a college in Bermuda for
training ministers for the colonies, and missionaries to the Indians, in
pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of L1100, and
went to America on a salary of L100. Disappointed of promised aid from
Government he returned, and was appointed Bishop of Cloyne. Soon
afterwards he _pub._ _Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher_, directed
against Shaftesbury, and in 1734-37 _The Querist_. His last publications
were _Siris_, a treatise on the medicinal virtues of tar-water, and
_Further Thoughts on Tar-water_. He _d._ at Oxford in 1753. His
affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much beloved. As a
thinker his is the greatest name in English philosophy between Locke and
Hume. His style is clear and dignified.

The best ed. of B. is Prof. A.C. Fraser's, with Life (4 vols., 1871, and
new, 1902); there is also a small work by the same (1881).


BERNERS, BERNES, or BARNES, JULIANA (_b._ 1388?).--Writer on heraldry and
sports. Nothing of her real history is known, but statements more or less
mythical have gathered round her name. The work attributed to her is _The
Boke of St. Albans_ (1486). It consists of four treatises on _Hawking_,
_Hunting_, _The Lynage of Coote Armiris_, and _The Blasynge of Armis_.
She was said to be the _dau._ of Sir James B., and to have been Prioress
of Sopwell Nunnery, Herts.


BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER, 2ND LORD (1467-1553).--Translator, _b._ at
Sherfield, Herts and _ed._ at Oxf., held various offices of state,
including that of Chancellor of the Exchequer to Henry VIII., and
Lieutenant of Calais, where he _d._ He translated, at the King's desire,
_Froissart's Chronicles_ (1523-25), in such a manner as to make distinct
advance in English historical writing, and the _Golden Book of Marcus
Aurelius_ (1534); also _The History of Arthur of Lytell Brytaine_
(Brittany), and the romance of _Huon of Bordeaux_.


BESANT, SIR WALTER (1836-1901).--Novelist and historian of London, _b._
at Portsmouth and _ed._ at King's Coll., London, and Camb., was for a few
years a professor at Mauritius, but a breakdown in health compelled him
to resign, and he returned to England and took the duties of Secretary to
the Palestine Exploration Fund, which he held 1868-85. He _pub._ in 1868
_Studies in French Poetry_. Three years later he began his collaboration
with James Rice (_q.v._). Among their joint productions are _Ready-money
Mortiboy_ (1872), and the _Golden Butterfly_ (1876), both, especially the
latter, very successful. This connection was brought to an end by the
death of Rice in 1882. Thereafter B. continued to write voluminously at
his own hand, his leading novels being _All in a Garden Fair_, _Dorothy
Forster_ (his own favourite), _Children of Gibeon_, and _All Sorts and
Conditions of Men_. The two latter belonged to a series in which he
endeavoured to arouse the public conscience to a sense of the sadness of
life among the poorest classes in cities. In this crusade B. had
considerable success, the establishment of The People's Palace in the
East of London being one result. In addition to his work in fiction B.
wrote largely on the history and topography of London. His plans in this
field were left unfinished: among his books on this subject is _London in
the 18th Century_.

Other works among novels are _My Little Girl_, _With Harp and Crown_,
_This Son of Vulcan_, _The Monks of Thelema_, _By Celia's Arbour_, and
_The Chaplain of the Fleet_, all with Rice; and _The Ivory Gate_, _Beyond
the Dreams of Avarice_, _The Master Craftsman_, _The Fourth Generation_,
etc., alone. _London under the Stuarts_, _London under the Tudors_ are
historical.


BICKERSTAFFE, ISAAC (_c._ 1735-1812?).--Dramatic writer, in early life a
page to Lord Chesterfield when Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, produced
between 1756 and 1771 many dramatic pieces, which had considerable
popularity, the best known of which are _Love in a Village_ (1762), and
_The Maid of the Mill_. Owing to misconduct he was dismissed from being
an officer in the Marines, and had ultimately, in 1772, to fly the
country. The remainder of his life seems to have been passed in penury
and misery. The date of his death is unknown. He was alive in 1812.


BIRD, ROBERT MONTGOMERY (1803-1854).--Novelist, an American physician,
wrote three tragedies, _The Gladiator_, _Oraloosa_, and _The Broker of
Bogota_, and several novels, including _Calavar_, _The Infidel_, _The
Hawks of Hawk Hollow_, _Peter Pilgrim_, and _Nick of the Woods_, in the
first two of which he gives graphic and accurate details and descriptions
of Mexican history.


BISHOP, SAMUEL (1731-1795).--Poet, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Merchant
Taylor's School and Oxf., took orders and became Headmaster of Merchant
Taylor's School. His poems on miscellaneous subjects fill two quarto
vols., the best of them are those to his wife and _dau._ He also _pub._
essays.


BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898).--Novelist. After studying as a landscape
painter, he took to journalism in Glasgow. In 1864 he went to London, and
soon after _pub._ his first novel, _James Merle_, which made no
impression. In the Austro-Prussian War he acted as a war correspondent.
Thereafter he began afresh to write fiction, and was more successful; the
publication of _A Daughter of Heth_ (1871) at once established his
popularity. He reached his highwater-mark in _A Princess of Thule_
(1873). Many other books were added before his death in 1898, among which
may be mentioned _In Silk Attire_ (1869), _The Strange Adventures of a
Phaeton_ (1872), _Macleod of Dare_ (1878), _White Wings_ (1880), _Shandon
Bells_ (1882), _Yolande_ (1883), _Judith Shakespeare_ (1884), _White
Heather_ (1886), _Stand Fast Craig-Royston!_ (1890), _Green Pastures and
Piccadilly_, _Three Feathers_, _Wild Eelin_ (1898).


BLACKIE, JOHN STUART (1809-1895).--Scholar and man of letters, _b._ in
Glasgow, and _ed._ at the Universities of Aberdeen and Edin., after which
he travelled and studied in Germany and Italy. Returning to Scotland he
was, in 1834, admitted to the Scottish Bar, but did not practise. His
first work was his translation of _Faust_ (1834), which won the
approbation of Carlyle. From 1841-52 B. was Prof. of Humanity (Latin) in
Aberdeen, and from 1852-82, when he retired, of Greek in Edinburgh. His
literary activity was incessant, his works consisting of translations of
_AEschylus_ and of the _Iliad_, various books of poetry, including _Lays
and Legends of Ancient Greece_, and treatises on religious,
philosophical, and political subjects, among which may be mentioned
_Self-Culture_ (1873), _Horae Hellenicae_, and a life of Burns. He was an
enthusiastic champion of Scottish nationality. Possessed of great
conversational powers and general versatility, his picturesque
eccentricity made him one of the most notable members of Scottish
society. It was owing to his efforts that a Chair of Celtic Language and
Literature was established in Edinburgh University.


BLACKLOCK, THOMAS (1721-1791).--Poet, _b._ near Annan of humble
parentage, lost his sight by smallpox when 6 months old. He began to
write poetry at the age of 12, and studied for the Church. He was
appointed Minister of Kirkcudbright, but was objected to by the
parishioners on account of his blindness, and gave up the presentation on
receiving an annuity. He then retired to Edinburgh, where he took pupils.
He _pub._ some miscellaneous poems, which are now forgotten, and is
chiefly remembered for having written a letter to Burns, which had the
effect of dissuading him from going to the West Indies. He was made D.D.
in 1767.


BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD (_c._ 1650, _d._ 1729).--Poet, one of the Court
Physicians to William III. and Anne, wrote several very long and
well-intentioned, but dull and tedious, poems, which, though praised by
Addison and Johnson, are now utterly forgotten. They include _Prince
Arthur_, _Creation_, _Redemption_, _Alfred_. As may be imagined, they
were the subject of derision by the profaner wits of the day. B. was a
successful physician and an excellent man.


BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE (1825-1900).--Novelist and poet, _b._ at
Longworth, Berks, _ed._ at Tiverton School and Oxf., practised for a
short time as a lawyer but, owing to his health, gave this up, and took
to market-gardening and literature at Teddington. His first _pub._ was
_Poems by Melanter_ (1853), followed by _Epullia_ (1855), _The Bugle of
the Black Sea_ (1855), etc.; but he soon found that fiction, not poetry,
was his true vocation. Beginning with _Clara Vaughan_ in 1864, he
produced fifteen novels, all of more than average, and two or three of
outstanding merit. Of these much the best in the opinion of the public,
though not of the author, is _Lorna Doone_ (1869), the two which rank
next to it being _The Maid of Sker_ (1872) (the author's favourite) and
_Springhaven_ (1887). Others are _Cradock Nowell_ (1866), _Alice
Lorraine_ (1875), _Cripps the Carrier_ (1876), _Mary Anerley_ (1880), and
_Christowell_ (1882). One of the most striking features of B.'s writings
is his marvellous eye for, and sympathy with, Nature. He may be said to
have done for Devonshire what Scott did for the Highlands. He has been
described as "proud, shy, reticent, strong-willed, sweet-tempered, and
self-centred."


BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780).--Legal Writer, posthumous _s._ of a
silk mercer in London, was _ed._ at Charterhouse School and Oxf., and
entered the Middle Temple in 1741. His great work is his _Commentaries on
the Laws of England_, in 4 vols. (1765-1769), which still remains the
best general history of the subject. It had an extraordinary success, and
is said to have brought the author L14,000. B. was not a man of original
mind, nor was he a profound lawyer; but he wrote an excellent style,
clear and dignified, which brings his great work within the category of
general literature. He had also a turn for neat and polished verse, of
which he gave proof in _The Lawyer's Farewell to his Muse_.


BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800).--Divine, and man of letters, _b._ and _ed._ at
Edin. After being minister at Collessie in Fife, he was translated to
Edinburgh, where he filled various pulpits, latterly that of the High
Church. In 1759 he commenced a series of lectures on composition, and
soon after the Chair of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres was founded, to which
he was appointed. His _Lectures_ were _pub._ on his resignation of the
chair in 1783. His chief fame, however, rests upon his _Sermons_, in 4
vols., which had an extraordinary popularity, and obtained for him a
pension of L200. Time has not sustained the opinion of his
contemporaries: they have been described as feeble in thought though
elegant in style, and even as "a bucket of warm water." B. was amiable,
kind to young authors, and remarkable for a harmless, but rather
ridiculous vanity and simplicity.


BLAIR, ROBERT (1699-1746).--Poet, _b._ at Edin., where his _f._ was a
clergyman, became minister of Athelstaneford, Haddingtonshire. His sole
work was _The Grave_, a poem in blank verse extending to 767 lines of
very various merit, in some passages rising to great sublimity, and in
others sinking to commonplace. It was illustrated by William Blake
(_q.v._) B.'s _s._, Robert, was a very distinguished Scottish judge and
Lord President of the Court of Session; and his successor in his
ministerial charge was Home, the author of _Douglas_.


BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827).--Poet and painter, _b._ in London, was from
earliest youth a seer of visions and a dreamer of dreams, seeing "Ezekiel
sitting under a green bough," and "a tree full of angels at Peckham," and
such he remained to the end of his days. His teeming imagination sought
expression both in verse and in drawing, and in his 14th year he was
apprenticed to James Basire, an eminent engraver, and thereafter studied
at the Royal Academy. Among his chief artistic works were illustrations
for Young's _Night Thoughts_, Blair's _Grave_, "Spiritual Portraits," and
his finest work, "Inventions to the Book of Job," all distinguished by
originality and imagination. In literature his _Songs of Innocence_
appeared in 1789, _Songs of Experience_ in 1794. These books were
literally made by Blake and his heaven-provided wife; poems and designs
alike being engraved on copper by B. and bound by Mrs. B. In like fashion
were produced his mystical books, _The Book of Thel_ (1789), _The
Marriage of Heaven and Hell_ (1790), _The Gates of Paradise_, _Visions of
the Daughters of Albion_, _Europe_, _The Book of Urizen_ (1794), _The
Book of Los_ and _The Book of Ahania_ (1795). His last books were
_Jerusalem_ and _Milton_. His earlier and shorter pieces, _e.g._ "The
Chimney-Sweeper," "Holy Thursday," "The Lamb," "The Sun-flower," "The
Tiger," etc., have an exquisite simplicity arising from directness and
intensity of feeling--sometimes tender, sometimes sublime--always
individual. Latterly he lost himself in clouds of mysticism. A truly
pious and loving soul, neglected and misunderstood by the world, but
appreciated by an elect few, he led a cheerful and contented life of
poverty illumined by visions and celestial inspirations.


BLAMIRE, SUSANNA (1747-1794).--Poetess, was of good Cumberland family,
and received the sobriquet of "The Muse of Cumberland." Her poems, which
were not collected until 1842, depict Cumbrian life and manners with
truth and vivacity. She also wrote some fine songs in the Scottish
dialect, including "Ye shall walk in Silk Attire," and "What ails this
Heart o' Mine."


BLESSINGTON, MARGARET (POWER), COUNTESS of (1789-1849).--Married as her
second husband the 1st Earl of B., with whom she travelled much on the
Continent, where she met Lord Byron, her _Conversations_ with whom she
_pub._ in 1834. This is the only one of her books which has any value.
The others were slight works on Travel, such as _The Idler in Italy_,
annuals, and novels. She became bankrupt and went to Paris, where she
lived under the protection of the Count d'Orsay.


BLIND HARRY or HENRY THE MINSTREL (_fl._ 1470-1492).--Is spoken of by
John Major in his _History of Scotland_ as a wandering minstrel, skilled
in the composition of rhymes in the Scottish tongue, who "fabricated" a
book about William Wallace, and gained his living by reciting it to his
own accompaniment on the harp at the houses of the nobles. Harry claims
that it was founded on a Latin _Life of Wallace_ written by Wallace's
chaplain, John Blair, but the chief sources seem to have been
traditionary. Harry is often considered inferior to Barbour as a poet,
and has little of his moral elevation, but he surpasses him in graphic
power, vividness of description, and variety of incident. He occasionally
shows the influence of Chaucer, and is said to have known Latin and
French.


BLIND, MATHILDE (1841-1896).--Poetess, _b._ at Mannheim, but settled in
London about 1849, and _pub._ several books of poetry, _The Prophecy of
St. Oran_ (1881), _The Heather on Fire_ (1886), _Songs and Sonnets_
(1893), _Birds of Passage_ (1895), etc. She also translated Strauss's
_Old Faith and New_, and other works, and wrote Lives of George Eliot and
Madame Roland. Her own name was Cohen, but she adopted that of her
stepfather, Karl Blind.


BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT (1766-1823).--Poet, _b._ at Honington in Suffolk, lost
his _f._ when he was a year old, and received the rudiments of education
from his mother, who kept the village school. While still a boy he went
to London, and worked as a shoemaker under an elder brother, enduring
extreme poverty. His first and chief poem, _The Farmer's Boy_, was
composed in a room where half a dozen other men were at work, and the
finished lines he carried in his head until there was time to write them
down. The manuscript, after passing through various hands, fell into
those of Capel Lofft, a Suffolk squire of literary tastes, by whose
exertions it was _pub._ with illustrations by Bewick in 1800. It had a
signal success, 26,000 copies having been sold in three years. The Duke
of Grafton obtained for him an appointment in the Seal Office, and when,
through ill-health, he was obliged to resign this, allowed him a pension
of 1s. a day. Other works were _Rural Tales_ (1804), _Wild Flowers_
(1806), _The Banks of the Wye_ (1811), and _May Day with the Muses_
(1817). An attempt to carry on business as a bookseller failed, his
health gave way, his reason was threatened, and he _d._ in great poverty
at Shefford in 1823. B.'s poetry is smooth, correct, and characterised by
taste and good feeling, but lacks fire and energy. Of amiable and simple
character, he was lacking in self-reliance.


BODENHAM, JOHN (_fl._ 1600).--Anthologist, is stated to have been the ed.
of some of the Elizabethan anthologies, viz., _Politeuphuia_ (_Wits'
Commonwealth_) (1597), _Wits' Theater_ (1598), _Belvidere, or the Garden
of the Muses_ (1600), and _England's Helicon_ (1600). Mr. Bullen says
that B. did not himself ed. any of the Elizabethan miscellanies
attributed to him by bibliographers: but that he projected their
publication, and he befriended the editors.


BOECE, or BOETHIUS, HECTOR (1465?-1536).--Historian, probably _b._ at
Dundee, and _ed._ there and at Paris, where he was a regent or professor,
1492 to 1498. While there he made the acquaintance of Erasmus. Returning
to Scotland he co-operated with Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen, in
founding the univ. there of which he was the first Principal. His
literary fame rests on two works, his _Lives of the Bishops of Mortlach
and Aberdeen_, in which his friend Elphinstone figures prominently, and
his _History of Scotland_ to the accession of James III. These works
were, of course, composed in Latin, but the _History_ was translated into
Scottish prose by John Bellenden, 1530 to 1533, and into English for
Hollinshed's _Chronicle_. The only predecessor of the work was the
compendium of Major, and as it was written in a flowing and pleasing
style it became very popular, and led to ecclesiastical preferment and
Royal favour. B. shared in the credulity of his age, but the charge of
inventing his authorities formerly brought against him has been shown to
be, to some extent at any rate, unfounded.


BOKER, GEORGE HENRY (1823-90).--Poet, was in the American Diplomatic
Service. Among his dramas, generally tragedies, are _Anne Boleyn_, _The
Betrothed_, and _Francesca da Rimini_, and among his books of poetry,
_Street Lyrics_, _Koenigsmark_, and _The Book of the Dead_. His dramas
combine poetic merit with adaptability for acting.


BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST. JOHN, 1ST VISCOUNT (1678-1751).--Statesman and
philosopher, _s._ of Sir Henry St. J., _b._ at Battersea, and _ed._ at
Eton and perhaps Oxf., was during his youth noted chiefly for
dissipation, but entering Parliament in 1701 as a supporter of Harley,
soon made himself a name by his eloquence and talent. He held office as
War and Foreign Sec. successively, became a peer in 1712, intrigued
successfully against Harley, and formed an administration during the last
days of Queen Anne, with the intention of bringing back the Stuarts,
which was frustrated by the Queen's death. On the arrival of George I.
and the accession to power of the Whigs, B. was impeached, and his name
erased from the Roll of Peers. He went to France, and became Sec. of
State to the Pretender James, who, however, dismissed him in 1716, after
which he devoted himself to philosophy and literature. In 1723 he was
pardoned and returned to England, and an act was passed in 1725 restoring
his forfeited estates, but still excluding him from the House of Lords.
He thereupon retired to his house, Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he
enjoyed the society of Swift and Pope, on the latter of whom he exerted a
strong influence. After some ineffectual efforts to regain a position in
political life, he returned to France in 1735, where he remained for 7
years, and wrote most of his chief works.

B. was a man of brilliant and versatile talents, but selfish, insincere,
and intriguing, defects of character which led to his political ruin. His
writings, once so much admired, reflect his character in their glittering
artificiality, and his pretensions to the reputation of a philosopher
have long been exploded; the chief of them are _Reflections upon Exile_,
_Letters on the Study of History_ (in which he attacked Christianity),
_Letters on the Spirit of Patriotism_, and _Idea of a Patriot King_. He
left his MSS. to David Mallet (_q.v._), who _pub._ a complete ed. of his
works in 5 vols. (1753-54).


BONAR, HORATIUS (1808-1889).--Divine and poet, _s._ of James B.,
Solicitor of Exise for Scotland, _b._ and _ed._ in Edin., entered the
Ministry of the Church of Scotland, and was settled at Kelso. He joined
the Free Church at the Disruption in 1843, and in 1867 was translated to
Edin. In 1853 he was made D.D. of Aberdeen. He was a voluminous and
highly popular author, and in addition to many books and tracts wrote a
number of hymns, many of which, _e.g._, "I heard the voice of Jesus say,"
are known all over the English-speaking world. A selection of these was
_pub._ as _Hymns of Faith and Hope_ (3 series). His last vol. of poetry
was _My Old Letters_.


BOORDE, or BORDE, ANDREW (1490?-1549).--Traveller, _b._ near Cuckfield,
Sussex, was brought up as a Carthusian, and held ecclesiastical
appointments, then practised medicine at various places, including
Glasgow, and was employed in various capacities by T. Cromwell. He
travelled widely, going as far as Jerusalem, and wrote descriptions of
the countries he had visited. His _Dyetary_ is the first English book of
domestic medicine. The _Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge_ describes
his journeys on the Continent. Other works are _The Boke of Berdes_
(Beards), _Handbook of Europe_, and _Itinerary of England_.


BORROW, GEORGE (1803-1881).--Philologist and miscellaneous author, and
traveller, _b._ at East Dereham, Norfolk, _s._ of a recruiting officer,
had a somewhat wandering childhood. He received most of his education in
Edin., and showed a peculiar talent for acquiring languages. After being
for a short time in the office of a solicitor in Norwich, he travelled
widely on the Continent and in the East, acquainting himself with the
people and languages of the various countries he visited. He specially
attached himself to the Gipsies, with whose language he became so
familiar as to _pub._ a dictionary of it. His learning was shown by his
publishing at St. Petersburg _Targum_, a work containing translations
from 30 languages. B. became a travelling agent of the Bible Society, and
his book, _The Bible in Spain_ (1843), giving an account of his
remarkable adventures in that country, made his literary reputation. It
was followed by _Lavengro_ (1851), and its sequel, _Romany Rye_ (1857),
and _Wild Wales_ (1862), which, though works of originality and extreme
interest, and now perhaps his most popular books, were received with less
public favour. The two first give a highly coloured picture of his own
story. He translated the New Testament into Manchu. In his latter years
he settled at Oulton Broad, Norfolk, where he _d._ B. was a man of
striking appearance and great vigour and originality of character and
mind. His writings hold a unique place in English literature.


BOSTON, THOMAS (1677-1732).--Scottish divine, was successively
schoolmaster at Glencairn, and minister of Simprin in Berwickshire, and
Ettrick in Selkirkshire. In addition to his best-known work, _The
Fourfold State_, one of the religious classics of Scotland, he wrote an
original little book, _The Crook in the Lot_, and a learned treatise on
the Hebrew points. He also took a leading part in the Courts of the
Church in what was known as the "Marrow Controversy," regarding the
merits of an English work, _The Marrow of Modern Divinity_, which he
defended against the attacks of the "Moderate" party in the Church. B.,
if unduly introspective, was a man of singular piety and amiability. His
autobiography is an interesting record of Scottish life, full of
sincerity and tenderness, and not devoid of humorous touches, intentional
and otherwise.


BOSWELL, SIR ALEXANDER (1775-1822).--Antiquary and song writer, _s._ of
James B., of Auchinleck, Johnson's biographer, was interested in old
Scottish authors, some of whose works he reprinted at his private press.
He wrote some popular Scotch songs, of which _Jenny's Bawbee_ and _Jenny
dang the Weaver_ are the best known. B. _d._ in a duel with Mr. Stuart of
Dunearn.


BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795).--Biographer, _s._ of Alexander B. of
Auchinleck, Ayrshire, one of the judges of the Supreme Courts of
Scotland, was _ed._ at the High School and Univ. of Edin., and practised
as an advocate. He travelled much on the Continent and visited Corsica,
where he became acquainted with the patriot General Paoli. Fortunately
for posterity he was in 1763 introduced to Dr. Johnson, and formed an
acquaintance with him which soon ripened into friendship, and had as its
ultimate fruit the immortal _Life_. He was also the author of several
works of more or less interest, including an _Account of Corsica_ (1768),
and _Journal of Tour to the Hebrides_ (in the company of Johnson) (1786).
Vain and foolish in an exceptional degree, and by no means free from more
serious faults, B. has yet produced the greatest biography in the
language. _The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D._ appeared in 1791, and at
once commanded an admiration which has suffered no diminution since. But
by this time a cloud had fallen upon the author. He had lost his
excellent wife, his health had given way, the intemperance to which he
had always been subject had mastered him, and he _d._ four years after
the appearance of his great work. B. was called to the English as well as
to the Scottish Bar, but his various foibles prevented his reaching any
great success, and he had also vainly endeavoured to enter on a political
career. The question has often been raised how a man with the
characteristics of B. could have produced so unique a work, and has been
discussed at length by Macaulay and by Carlyle, the former paradoxically
arguing that his supreme folly and meanness themselves formed his
greatest qualifications; the latter, with far deeper insight, that
beneath these there lay the possession of an eye to discern excellence
and a heart to appreciate it, intense powers of accurate observation and
a considerable dramatic faculty. His letters to William Temple were
discovered at Boulogne, and _pub._ 1857.


BOUCICAULT, DION (1820-90).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ in Dublin and
_ed._ in London, joined Macready while still young, and made his first
appearance upon the stage with Benj. Webster at Bristol. Soon afterwards
he began to write plays, occasionally in conjunction, of which the first,
_London Assurance_ (1841) had an immediate success. He was an excellent
actor, especially in pathetic parts. His plays are for the most part
adaptations, but are often very ingenious in construction, and have had
great popularity. Among the best known are _The Colleen Bawn_,
_Arrah-na-Pogue_, _Faust and Marguerite_, and _The Shaughraun_. B. _d._
in America.


BOWDLER, THOMAS (1754-1825).--Editor of _The Family Shakespeare_, _b._
near Bath, _s._ of a gentleman of independent fortune, studied medicine
at St. Andrews and at Edin., where he took his degree in 1776, but did
not practise, devoting himself instead to the cause of prison reform. In
1818 he _pub._ his _Family Shakespeare_ in 10 vols., "in which nothing is
added to the original text, but those words and expressions are omitted
which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." The work had
considerable success, 4 editions having been _pub._ before 1824, and
others in 1831, 1853, and 1861. It was, however, subjected to some
criticism and ridicule, and gave rise to the expression "bowdlerise,"
always used in an opprobrious sense. On the other hand, Mr. Swinburne has
said, "More nauseous and foolish cant was never chattered than that which
would deride the memory or depreciate the merits of B. No man ever did
better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it possible to put
him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative children." B.
subsequently essayed a similar enterprise in regard to Gibbon, which,
however, was not so successful.


BOWER, ARCHIBALD (1686-1766).--Historian, _b._ at Dundee, and _ed._ at
the Scots Coll., Douay, became a Jesuit, but afterwards joined the Church
of England, and again became a Jesuit. He wrote a _History of Rome_
(1735-44), a _History of the Popes_ (1748-66). These works are
ill-proportioned and inaccurate. His whole life appears to have been a
very discreditable one.


BOWER, or BOWMAKER, WALTER (_d._ 1449).--Was Abbot of Inchcolm, and
continued and enlarged Fordun's _Scotichronicon_.


BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE (1762-1850).--Poet and antiquary, _b._ at King's
Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which his _f._ was vicar, and _ed._ at
Winchester and Oxf., was for the most of his life Vicar of Bremhill,
Wilts, and became Prebendary and Canon Residentiary of Salisbury. His
first work, _pub._ in 1789, was a little vol. containing 14 sonnets,
which was received with extraordinary favour, not only by the general
public, but by such men as Coleridge and Wordsworth. It may be regarded
as the harbinger of the reaction against the school of Pope, in which
these poets were soon to bear so great a part. B. _pub._ several other
poems of much greater length, of which the best are _The Spirit of
Discovery_ (1805), and _The Missionary of the Andes_ (1815), and he also
enjoyed considerable reputation as an antiquary, his principal work in
that department being _Hermes Britannicus_ (1828). In 1807 he _pub._ a
_Life of Pope_, in the preface to which he expressed some views on poetry
which resulted in a rather fierce controversy with Byron, Campbell, and
others. He also wrote a _Life of Bishop Ken_. B. was an amiable,
absent-minded, and rather eccentric man. His poems are characterised by
refinement of feeling, tenderness, and pensive thought, but are deficient
in power and passion.

Other works are _Coombe Ellen and St. Michael's Mount_ (1798), _The
Battle of the Nile_ (1799), _The Sorrows of Switzerland_ (1801), _St.
John in Patmos_ (1833), etc.


BOWRING, SIR JOHN (1792-1872).--Linguist, writer, and traveller, was _b._
at Exeter. His talent for acquiring languages enabled him at last to say
that he knew 200, and could speak 100. He was appointed editor of the
_Westminster Review_ in 1824; travelled in various countries with the
view of reporting on their commercial position; was an M.P. 1835-37 and
1841-49, and held various appointments in China. His chief literary work
was the translation of the folk-songs of most European nations, and he
also wrote original poems and hymns, and works on political and economic
subjects. B. was knighted in 1854. He was the literary executor of Jeremy
Bentham (_q.v._).


BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825-1899).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._
of Rev. Dr. B. of Glasgow, was originally intended for the English Bar,
but entered the Church of Scotland, and was minister latterly at St.
Andrews, wrote in _Fraser's Magazine_ a series of light, chirping
articles subsequently collected as the _Recreations of a Country Parson_,
also several books of reminiscences, etc., written in a pleasant chatty
style, and some sermons. He was D.D. and LL.D.


BOYD, ZACHARY (1585-1653).--Divine, belonged to the family of B. of
Pinkhill, Ayrshire, was _ed._ at Glasgow and at Saumur. He translated
many parts of Scripture into uncouth verse. Among his works are _The
Garden of Zion_ and _Zion's Flowers_.


BOYLE, THE HON. ROBERT (1627-1691).--Natural Philosopher and chemist, 7th
_s._ of the 1st Earl of Cork, was _b._ at Lismore, Co. Waterford, and
_ed._ at Eton and by private tutors, after which he pursued his studies
on the Continent. On his return to England he devoted himself to the
study of science, especially natural philosophy and chemistry. He was one
of the founders of the Royal Society, and, by his experiments and
observations added to existing knowledge, especially in regard to
pneumatics. He at the same time devoted much study to theology; so much
indeed that he was strongly urged by Lord Clarendon to enter the Church.
Thinking, however, that he could serve the cause of religion better as a
layman, he declined this advice. As a director of the East India Co. he
did much for the propagation of Christianity in the East, and for the
dissemination of the Bible. He also founded the "Boyle Lectures" in
defence of Christianity. He declined the offer of a peerage. B. was a man
of great intellectual acuteness, and remarkable for his conversational
powers. Among his writings are _Origin of Forms and Qualities_,
_Experiments touching Colour_, _Hydrostatical Paradoxes_, and
_Observations on Cold_; in theology, _Seraphic Love_. His complete works
were _pub._ in 5 vols. in 1744.


BRADLEY, EDWARD (1827-1889).--Novelist, was a clergyman. He wrote under
the name of "Cuthbert Bede" a few novels and tales, _Fairy Fables_
(1858), _Glencraggan_ (1861), _Fotheringhay_ (1885), etc.; but his most
popular book was _Verdant Green, an Oxford Freshman_, which had great
vogue.


BRADWARDINE, THOMAS (1290?-1349).--Theologian, was at Oxf., where he
became Prof. of Divinity and Chancellor, and afterwards Chaplain to
Edward III., whom he attended in his French wars. He was twice elected
Archbishop of Canterbury by the monks, and on the second occasion
accepted, but _d._ of the plague within 40 days. He wrote on geometry,
but his great work was _De Causa Dei_ (on the Cause of God against
Pelagius), in which he treated theology mathematically, and which earned
for him from the Pope the title of the Profound Doctor.


BRAITHWAITE, or BRATHWAITE, RICHARD (1588-1673).--Poet, _b._ near Kendal,
and _ed._ at Oxf., is believed to have served with the Royalist army in
the Civil War. He was the author of many works of very unequal merit, of
which the best known is _Drunken Barnaby's Four Journeys_, which records
his pilgrimages through England in rhymed Latin (said by Southey to be
the best of modern times), and doggerel English verse. _The English
Gentleman_ (1631) and _English Gentlewoman_ are in a much more decorous
strain. Other works are _The Golden Fleece_ (1611) (poems), _The Poet's
Willow_, _A Strappado for the Devil_ (a satire), and _Art Asleepe,
Husband?_


BRAMSTON, JAMES (_c._ 1694-1744).--Satirist, _ed._ at Westminster School
and Oxf., took orders and was latterly Vicar of Hastings. His poems are
_The Art of Politics_ (1729), in imitation of Horace, and _The Man of
Taste_ (1733), in imitation of Pope. He also parodied Phillips's
_Splendid Shilling_ in _The Crooked Sixpence_. His verses have some
liveliness.


BRAY, ANNA ELIZA (1790-1883).--Novelist, _dau._ of Mr. J. Kempe, was
married first to C.A. Stothard, _s._ of the famous R.A., and himself an
artist, and secondly to the Rev. E.A. Bray. She wrote about a dozen
novels, chiefly historical, and _The Borders of the Tamar and Tavy_
(1836), an account of the traditions and superstitions of the
neighbourhood of Tavistock in the form of letters to Southey, of whom she
was a great friend. This is probably the most valuable of her writings.
Among her works are _Branded_, _Good St. Louis and his Times_,
_Trelawney_, and _White Hoods_.


BRETON, NICHOLAS (1545-1626).--Poet and novelist. Little is known of his
life. He was the _s._ of William B., a London merchant, was perhaps at
Oxf., and was a rather prolific author of considerable versatility and
gift. Among his poetical works are _A Floorish upon Fancie, Pasquil's
Mad-cappe_ (1626), _The Soul's Heavenly Exercise_, and _The Passionate
Shepherd_. In prose he wrote _Wit's Trenchmour_, _The Wil of Wit_ (1599),
_A Mad World, my Masters_, _Adventures of Two Excellent Princes_,
_Grimello's Fortunes_ (1604), _Strange News out of Divers Countries_
(1622), etc. His mother married E. Gascoigne, the poet (_q.v._). His
lyrics are pure and fresh, and his romances, though full of conceits, are
pleasant reading, remarkably free from grossness.


BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781-1868).--Man of science and writer, _b._ at
Jedburgh, originally intended to enter the Church, of which, after a
distinguished course at the Univ. of Edin., he became a licentiate.
Circumstances, however, led him to devote himself to science, of which he
was one of the most brilliant ornaments of his day, especially in the
department of optics, in which he made many discoveries. He maintained
his habits of investigation and composition to the very end of his long
life, during which he received almost every kind of honorary distinction
open to a man of science. He also made many important contributions to
literature, including a _Life of Newton_ (1831), _The Martyrs of Science_
(1841), _More Worlds than One_ (1854), and _Letters on Natural Magic_
addressed to Sir W. Scott, and he also edited, in addition to various
scientific journals, _The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_ (1807-29). He likewise
held the offices successively of Principal of the United Coll. of St.
Salvator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews (1838), and of the Univ. of Edin.
(1859). He was knighted in 1831. Of high-strung and nervous temperament,
he was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was
repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly
honourable and fervently religious character.


BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (_d._ 1563).--Translator, was the author of _The
Tragicall Historie of Romeus and Juliett_, from which Shakespeare
probably took the story of his _Romeo and Juliet_. Though indirectly
translated, through a French version, from the Italian of Bandello, it is
so much altered and amplified as almost to rank as an original work. The
only fact known regarding him is his death by shipwreck when crossing to
France.


BROME, RICHARD (_d._ 1652?).--Dramatist, the servant and friend of Ben
Jonson, produced upwards of 20 plays, some in conjunction with Dekker and
others. Among them are _A Fault in Friendship_, _Late Lancashire Witches_
(with Heywood and Dekker), _A Jovial Crew_ (1652), _The Northern Lass_
(1632), _The Antipodes_ (1646), _City Wit_ (1653), _Court Beggar_ (1653),
etc. He had no original genius, but knew stage-craft well.


BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855).--Novelist, _dau._ of the Rev. Patrick B.,
a clergyman of Irish descent and of eccentric habits who embittered the
lives of his children by his peculiar theories of education. Brought up
in a small parsonage close to the graveyard of a bleak, windswept village
on the Yorkshire moors, and left motherless in early childhood, she was
"the motherly friend and guardian of her younger sisters," of whom two,
Emily and Anne, shared, but in a less degree, her talents. After various
efforts as schoolmistresses and governesses, the sisters took to
literature and _pub._ a vol. of poems under the names of Currer, Ellis,
and Acton Bell, which, however, fell flat. Charlotte then wrote her first
novel, _The Professor_, which did not appear until after her death, and
began _Jane Eyre_, which, appearing in 1847, took the public by storm. It
was followed by _Shirley_ in 1849, and _Villette_ in 1852. In 1854 she
was married to her father's curate, the Rev. A. Nicholls, but after a
short though happy married life she _d._ in 1855. EMILY B.
(1818-1848).--a woman of remarkable force of character, reserved and
taciturn, _pub._ in 1848 _Wuthering Heights_, a powerful, but somewhat
unpleasing, novel, and some striking poems; and ANNE (1820-1849), was the
authoress of _The Tenant of Wildfell Hall_ and _Agnes Grey_ (1848). She
had not the intellectual force of her sisters. The novels of Charlotte
especially created a strong impression from the first, and the _pub._ of
_Jane Eyre_ gave rise to much curiosity and speculation as to its
authorship. Their strength and originality have retained for them a high
place in English fiction which is likely to prove permanent. There is a
biography of Charlotte by Mrs. Gaskell (_q.v._).

Complete ed. of the works of Charlotte B. have been issued by Mrs.
Humphrey Ward (7 vols. 1899-1900), and by Sir W.R. Nicoll, LL.D. (1903).
_Note on Charlotte Bronte_, A.C. Swinburne, 1877. A short _Life_ in Great
Writers Series by A. Birrell.


BROOKE, FULKE GREVILLE, LORD (1554-1628).--Poet and statesman, _b._ at
Beauchamp Court, Warwickshire, and _ed._ at Shrewsbury and Camb., was a
Privy Councillor, and held various important offices of state, including
that of Chancellor of the Exchequer (1614-21). In the latter year he was
created a peer. He was murdered by a servant. His works, which were
chiefly _pub._ after his death, consist of tragedies and sonnets, and
poems on political and moral subjects, including _Caelica_ (109 sonnets).
He also wrote a Life of Sir P. Sidney, whose friend he was. His style is
grave and sententious. He is buried in the church at Warwick, and the
inscription on his tomb, written by himself, is a compendious biography.
It runs: "Fulke Greville, servant to Queen Elizabeth, counsellor to King
James, friend to Sir Philip Sidney."


BROOKE, HENRY (1703-1783).--Novelist and dramatist, _b._ in Ireland, _s._
of a clergyman, studied law, but embraced literature as a career. He
wrote poems, dramas, and novels; but the only work which has kept its
place is _The Fool of Quality_ (5 vols. 1766-70), which was a favourite
book with John Wesley. His now forgotten poem, _Universal Beauty_ (1735)
was admired by Pope. His _dau._, CHARLOTTE, the only survivor of 22
children, tended him to his last days of decay, and was herself a writer,
her principal work being _Reliques of Irish Poetry_ (1789). She _d._
1793.


BROOKS, CHARLES WILLIAM SHIRLEY (1816-1874).--Journalist and novelist,
_b._ in London, began life in a solicitor's office. He early, however,
took to literature, and contributed to various periodicals. In 1851 he
joined the staff of _Punch_, to which he contributed "Essence of
Parliament," and on the death of Mark Lemon (_q.v._) he succeeded him as
editor. He _pub._ a few novels, including _Aspen Court_ and _The Gordian
Knot_.


BROOKS, MARIA (GOWAN) (1795?-1845).--American poetess, was early _m._ to
a merchant, who lost his money, and left her a young widow, after which
she wrote highly romantic and impassioned poetry. Her chief work,
_Zophiel or The Bride of Swen_, was finished under the auspices of
Southey, who called her "Maria del Occidente," and regarded her as "the
most impassioned and imaginative of all poetesses," but time has not
sustained this verdict.


BROOME, WILLIAM (1689-1745).--Poet and translator, _b._ at Haslington,
Cheshire, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb., entered the Church, and held
various incumbencies. He translated the _Iliad_ in prose along with
others, and was employed by Pope, whom he excelled as a Greek scholar, in
translating the _Odyssey_, of which he Englished the 8th, 11th, 12th,
16th, 18th, and 23rd books, catching the style of his master so exactly
as almost to defy identification, and thus annoying him so as to earn a
niche in _The Dunciad_. He _pub._ verses of his own of very moderate
poetical merit.


BROUGHAM AND VAUX, HENRY, 1ST LORD (1778-1868).--_S._ of Henry B. of
Brougham Hall, Westmoreland, _b._ in Edin., and _ed._ at the High School
and Univ. there, where he distinguished himself chiefly in mathematics.
He chose a legal career, and was called to the Scottish Bar in 1800, and
to the English Bar in 1808. His chief forensic display was his defence of
Queen Caroline in 1822. In 1810 he entered Parliament, where his
versatility and eloquence soon raised him to a foremost place. The
questions on which he chiefly exerted himself were the slave trade,
commercial, legal, and parliamentary reform, and education, and in all of
these he rendered signal service. When, in 1830, the Whigs, with whom he
had always acted, attained power, B. was made Lord Chancellor; but his
arrogance, selfishness, and indiscretion rendered him a dangerous and
unreliable colleague, and he was never again admitted to office. He
turned fiercely against his former political associates, but continued
his efforts on behalf of reform in various directions. He was one of the
founders of London Univ. and of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge. In literature he has a place as one of the original projectors
of and most voluminous contributors to _The Edinburgh Review_, and as the
author of a prodigious number of treatises on science, philosophy, and
history, including _Dialogues on Instinct_, Lives of Statesmen,
Philosophers, and Men of Science of the Time of George III., Natural
Theology, etc., his last work being an autobiography written in his 84th
year, and _pub._ 1871. His writings were far too numerous and far too
diverse in subject to be of permanent value. His fame now rests chiefly
on his services to political and specially to legal reform, and to the
diffusion of useful literature, which are his lasting monuments.


BROUGHTON, JOHN CAM HOBHOUSE, 1ST LORD (1786-1869).--Eldest _s._ of Sir
Benjamin H., _b._ at Redland near Bristol, _ed._ at Westminster School
and at Camb., where he became intimate with Byron, and accompanied him in
his journeys in the Peninsula, Greece, and Turkey, and acted as his "best
man." In 1816 he was with him after his separation from his wife, and
contributed notes to the fourth canto of _Childe Harold_, which was
dedicated to him. On his return he threw himself into politics with great
energy as an advanced Radical, and wrote various pamphlets, for one of
which he was in 1819 imprisoned in Newgate. In the following year he
entered Parliament, sitting for Westminster. After the attainment of
power by the Whigs he held various offices, including those of Sec. at
War, Chief Sec. for Ireland, and Pres. of the Board of Control. He _pub._
_Journey through Albania_ (1813), _Historical Illustrations of the Fourth
Canto of Childe Harold_ (1818), and _Recollections of a Long Life_
(1865), for private circulation, and he left in MS. _Diaries,
Correspondence, and Memoranda, etc., not to be opened till 1900_,
extracts from which were _pub._ by his _dau._, Lady Dorchester, also
under the title of _Recollections from a Long Life_ (1909).


BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-1810).--Novelist, _b._ in Philadelphia,
belonged to a Quaker family, became a lawyer, but exchanged law for
literature, and has the distinction of being the first American to adopt
a purely literary career. He wrote several novels, including _Wieland_
(1798), _Ormond_ (1799), _Arthur Mervyn_ (1800-1), and his last, _Jane
Talbot_ (1801). With a good deal of crudeness and sentimentality he has
occasional power, but dwells too much on the horrible and repulsive, the
result, perhaps, of the morbidity produced by the ill-health from which
he all his life suffered.


BROWN, GEORGE DOUGLAS (1869-1902).--Novelist, wrote _The House with the
Green Shutters_, which gives a strongly outlined picture of the harder
and less genial aspects of Scottish life and character. It may be
regarded as a useful supplement and corrective to the more roseate
presentations of the kail-yard school of J.M. Barrie and "Ian Maclaren."
It made a considerable impression. The author _d._ almost immediately
after its publication. There is an ed. with a memoir by Mr. Andrew Lang.


BROWN, DR. JOHN (1810-1882).--Physician and essayist, _s._ of John B.,
D.D., a distinguished dissenting minister in Edin. _B._ at Biggar, he was
_ed._ at the High School and Univ. of Edin., where practically the whole
of his uneventful life was spent as a physician, and where he was revered
and beloved in no common degree, and he was the cherished friend of many
of his most distinguished contemporaries, including Thackeray. He wrote
comparatively little; but all he did write is good, some of it perfect,
of its kind. His essays, among which are _Rab and his Friends_, _Pet
Marjorie_, _Our Dogs_, _Minchmoor_, and _The Enterkine_, were collected
along with papers on art, and medical history and biography, in _Horae
Subsecivae_ (Leisure Hours), 3 vols. In the mingling of tenderness and
delicate humour he has much in common with Lamb; in his insight into
dog-nature he is unique. His later years were clouded with occasional
fits of depression.


BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820).--Metaphysician, _s._ of the Rev. Samuel B.,
minister of Kirkinabreck, practised for some time as a physician in
Edin., but his tastes and talents lying in the direction of literature
and philosophy, he devoted himself to the cultivation of these, and
succeeded Dugald Stewart as Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Univ. of
Edin., in which position he had remarkable popularity as a lecturer. His
main contribution to literature is his _Lectures_, _pub._ after his
death. B. was a man of attractive character and considerable talents, but
as a philosopher he is now largely superseded. He also wrote poetry,
which, though graceful, lacked force, and is now forgotten.


BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897).--Poet, _b._ at Douglas, Isle of Man,
_s._ of a clergyman, and _ed._ there and at Oxf., entered the Church and
held various scholastic appointments, including a mastership at Clifton.
His later years were spent in his native island. He had a true lyrical
gift, and much of his poetry was written in Manx dialect. His poems
include _Fo'c'sle Yarns_ (1881), _The Doctor_ (1887), _The Manx Witch_
(1889), and _Old John_ (1893). He was also an admirable letter-writer,
and 2 vols. of his letters have been _pub._


BROWN, TOM (1663-1704).--Satirist, was _ed._ at Oxf., and there composed
the famous epigram on Dr. Fell. He was for a few years schoolmaster at
Kingston-on-Thames, but owing to his irregularities lost the appointment,
and went to London, where he wrote satires, epigrams, and miscellaneous
pieces, generally coarse and scurrilous.


BROWNE, CHARLES FARRAR (1834-1867).--Humorist (Artemus Ward), _b._ in
Maine, U.S., worked as a compositor and reporter, and became a highly
popular humorous writer, his books being _Artemus Ward his Book_, _A.W.
His Panorama_, _A.W. among the Mormons_, and _A.W. in England_.


BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS (1705-1760).--Is remembered as the author of some
clever imitations of contemporary poets on the theme of _A Pipe of
Tobacco_, somewhat analogous to the _Rejected Addresses_ of a later day.
He also wrote a Latin poem on the immortality of the soul. B., who was a
country gentleman and barrister, had great conversational powers. He was
a friend of Dr. Johnson.


BROWNE, SIR THOMAS (1605-1682).--Physician and miscellaneous and
metaphysical writer, _s._ of a London merchant, was _ed._ at Winchester
and Oxf., after which he studied medicine at various Continental univs.,
including Leyden, where he _grad._ He ultimately settled and practised at
Norwich. His first and perhaps best known work, _Religio Medici_ (the
Religion of a Physician) was _pub._ in 1642. Other books are _Pseudodoxia
Epidemica: Enquiries into Vulgar Errors_ (1646), _Hydriotaphia, or
Urn-burial_ (1658); and _The Garden of Cyrus_ in the same year. After his
death were _pub._ his _Letter to a Friend_ and _Christian Morals_. B. is
one of the most original writers in the English language. Though by no
means free from credulity, and dealing largely with trivial subjects of
inquiry, the freshness and ingenuity of his mind invest everything he
touches with interest; while on more important subjects his style, if
frequently rugged and pedantic, often rises to the highest pitch of grave
and stately eloquence. In the Civil War he sided with the King's party,
and was knighted in 1671 on the occasion of a Royal visit to Norwich. In
character he was simple, cheerful, and retiring. He has had a profound if
indirect influence on succeeding literature, mainly by impressing
master-minds such as Lamb, Coleridge, and Carlyle.

There is an ed. of B.'s works by S. Wilkin (4 vols., 1835-6), _Religio
Medici_ by Dr. Greenhill, 1881. _Life_ by Gosse in Men of Letters Series,
1903.


BROWNE, WILLIAM (1590?-1645?).--Poet, _b._ at Tavistock, _ed._ at Oxf.,
after which he entered the Inner Temple. His poems, which are mainly
descriptive, are rich and flowing, and true to the phenomena of nature,
but deficient in interest. Influenced by Spenser, he in turn had an
influence upon such poets as Milton and Keats. His chief works were
_Britannia's Pastorals_ (1613), and _The Shepheard's Pipe_ (1614).


BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT (1806-1861).--Poetess, was the _dau._ of
Edward Barrett Moulton Barrett, who assumed the last name on succeeding
to the estates of his grandfather in Jamaica. She was _b._ at Coxhoe
Hall, Durham, but spent her youth at Hope End, near Great Malvern. While
still a child she showed her gift, and her _f._ _pub._ 50 copies of a
juvenile epic, on the Battle of Marathon. She was _ed._ at home, but owed
her profound knowledge of Greek and much mental stimulus to her early
friendship with the blind scholar, Hugh Stuart Boyd, who was a neighbour.
At the age of 15 she met with an injury to her spine which confined her
to a recumbent position for several years, and from the effects of which
she never fully recovered. In 1826 she _pub._ anonymously _An Essay on
Mind and Other Poems_. Shortly afterwards the abolition of slavery, of
which he had been a disinterested supporter, considerably reduced Mr.
B.'s means: he accordingly disposed of his estate and removed with his
family first to Sidmouth and afterwards to London. At the former Miss B.
wrote _Prometheus Bound_ (1835). After her removal to London she fell
into delicate health, her lungs being threatened. This did not, however,
interfere with her literary labours, and she contributed to various
periodicals _The Romaunt of Margaret_, _The Romaunt of the Page_, _The
Poet's Vow_, and other pieces. In 1838 appeared _The Seraphim and Other
Poems_ (including "Cowper's Grave.") Shortly thereafter the death, by
drowning, of her favourite brother gave a serious shock to her already
fragile health, and for a time she hovered between life and death.
Eventually, however, she regained strength, and meanwhile her fame was
growing. The _pub._ about 1841 of _The Cry of the Children_ gave it a
great impulse, and about the same time she contributed some critical
papers in prose to R.H. Horne's _New Spirit of the Age_. In 1844 she
_pub._ two vols. of _Poems_, which comprised "The Drama of Exile,"
"Vision of Poets," and "Lady Geraldine's Courtship." In 1845 she met for
the first time her future husband, Robert Browning (_q.v._). Their
courtship and marriage, owing to her delicate health and the
extraordinary objections entertained by Mr. B. to the marriage of any of
his children, were carried out under somewhat peculiar and romantic
circumstances. After a private marriage and a secret departure from her
home, she accompanied her husband to Italy, which became her home almost
continuously until her death, and with the political aspirations of which
she and her husband both thoroughly identified themselves. The union
proved one of unalloyed happiness to both, though it was never forgiven
by Mr. Barrett. In her new circumstances her strength greatly increased.
Her husband and she settled in Florence, and there she wrote _Casa Guidi
Windows_ (1851)--by many considered her strongest work--under the
inspiration of the Tuscan struggle for liberty. _Aurora Leigh_, her
largest, and perhaps the most popular of her longer poems, appeared in
1856. In 1850 _The Sonnets from the Portuguese_--the history of her own
love-story, thinly disguised by its title--had appeared. In 1860 she
issued a _coll._ ed. of her poems under the title, _Poems before
Congress_. Soon thereafter her health underwent a change for the worse;
she gradually lost strength, and _d._ on June 29, 1861. She is generally
considered the greatest of English poetesses. Her works are full of
tender and delicate, but also of strong and deep, thought. Her own
sufferings, combined with her moral and intellectual strength, made her
the champion of the suffering and oppressed wherever she found them. Her
gift was essentially lyrical, though much of her work was not so in form.
Her weak points are the lack of compression, an occasional somewhat
obtrusive mannerism, and frequent failure both in metre and rhyme. Though
not nearly the equal of her husband in force of intellect and the higher
qualities of the poet, her works had, as might be expected on a
comparison of their respective subjects and styles, a much earlier and
wider acceptance with the general public. Mrs. B. was a woman of singular
nobility and charm, and though not beautiful, was remarkably attractive.
Miss Mitford (_q.v._) thus describes her as a young woman: "A slight,
delicate figure, with a shower of dark curls falling on each side of a
most expressive face; large, tender eyes, richly fringed by dark
eyelashes, and a smile like a sunbeam."

_Life_ by J.H. Ingram (1889); _Letters of R. Browning and E.B. Browning_
(1889). _Coll._ ed. of her works, _see_ above.


BROWNING, ROBERT (1812-1889).--Poet, only _s._ of Robert B., a man of
fine intellect and equally fine character, who held a position in the
Bank of England, was _b._ in Camberwell. His mother, to whom he was
ardently attached, was the _dau._ of a German shipowner who had settled
in Dundee, and was alike intellectually and morally worthy of his
affection. The only other member of the family was a younger sister, also
highly gifted, who was the sympathetic companion of his later years. In
his childhood he was distinguished by his love of poetry and natural
history. At 12 he had written a book of poetry which he destroyed when he
could not find a publisher. After being at one or two private schools,
and showing an insuperable dislike to school life, he was _ed._ by a
tutor, and thereafter studied Greek at Univ. Coll., London. Through his
mother he inherited some musical talent, and composed settings, for
various songs. His first _pub._ was _Pauline_, which appeared anonymously
in 1833, but attracted little attention. In 1834 he paid his first visit
to Italy, in which so much of his future life was to be passed. The
publication of _Paracelsus_ in 1835, though the poem had no general
popularity, gained the notice of Carlyle, Wordsworth, and other men of
letters, and gave him a reputation as a poet of distinguished promise.
Two years later his drama of _Stratford_ was performed by his friend
Macready and Helen Faucit, and in 1840 the most difficult and obscure of
his works, _Sordello_, appeared; but, except with a select few, did
little to increase his reputation. It was followed by _Bells and
Pomegranates_ (containing _Pippa Passes_) (1841), _A Blot in the
'Scutcheon_ (drama) (1843), _Luria_ and _A Soul's Tragedy_ (1846). In
this year he married Miss Elizabeth Barrett (_q.v._), the poetess, a
union of ideal happiness. Thereafter his home until his wife's death in
1861 was in Italy, chiefly at Florence. In 1850 he wrote _Christmas Eve
and Easter Day_, and in 1855 appeared _Men and Women_. After the death of
Mrs. Browning he returned to England, paying, however, frequent visits to
Italy. Settling in London he published successively _Dramatis Personae_
(1864), _The Ring and the Book_ (1868-69), his greatest work,
_Balaustion's Adventure_, and _Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau_ (1871),
_Fifine at the Fair_ (1872), _Red Cotton Night-cap Country_ (1873), _The
Inn Album_ (1875), _Pacchiarotto_ (1876), translation of _Agamemnon_
(1879), _La Saisiaz_, etc. (1878), _Dramatic Idylls_ (1879 and 1880),
_Asolando_ (1889) appeared on the day of his death. To the great majority
of readers, probably, B. is best known by some of his short poems, such
as, to name a few, "Rabbi Ben Ezra," "How they brought the good News to
Aix," "Evelyn Hope," "The Pied Piper of Hammelin," "A Grammarian's
Funeral," "A Death in the Desert." It was long before England recognised
that in B. she had received one of the greatest of her poets, and the
causes of this lie on the surface. His subjects were often recondite and
lay beyond the ken and sympathy of the great bulk of readers; and owing,
partly to the subtle links connecting the ideas and partly to his often
extremely condensed and rugged expression, the treatment of them was not
seldom difficult and obscure. Consequently for long he appealed to a
somewhat narrow circle. As time went on, however, and work after work was
added, the circle widened, and the marvellous depth and variety of
thought and intensity of feeling told with increasing force. Societies
began to be formed for the study of the poet's work. Critics became more
and more appreciative, and he at last reaped the harvest of admiration
and honour which was his due. Many distinctions came to him. He was made
LL.D. of Edin., a life Governor of London Univ., and had the offer of the
Lord Rectorship of Glasgow. He _d._ in the house of his son at Venice,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The keynote of his teaching is a
wise and noble optimism. His poems were collected in 2 vols. in 1896.
Some vols. of his correspondence with Mrs. B. were also _pub._

Uniform ed. of Works (17 vols. 1888-90); Furnivall's _Browning
Bibliography_ (1883), _Lives_ by Mrs. Sutherland Orr (1891); Gosse
(1890); Dowden (1904), G.K. Chesterton (English Men of Letters), etc.;
_Poetry of Robert Browning_ by Stopford Brooke, 1902, etc.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1812, _pub._ _Paracelsus_ 1835, _Sordello_ 1840, _Bells
and Pomegranates_ 1841, _m._ to E.B.B. 1846, lives chiefly in Italy till
her _d._, 1861, when he returned to England and continued to write until
his _d._, _pub._ _Dramatis Personae_, _Ring and Book_ 1868-9, _Asolando_
1889, _d._ 1889.


BRUCE, JAMES (1730-1794).--Traveller, was _b._ at the family seat of
Kinnaird, Perthshire, and _ed._ at Harrow. After various travels in
Europe he set out in 1768 on his expedition to Abyssinia, and in 1770
reached the source of the Blue Nile. He returned to England in 1774, and
in 1790 _pub._ his _Travels_ in 5 quarto vols. His notorious vanity, the
singular adventures he related, and the generally embellished character
which he imparted to his narrative excited some degree of scepticism, and
he was subjected to a good deal of satire, to which, though much annoyed,
he did not reply. It is, however, generally allowed that he had shown
great daring, perseverance, and zeal in his explorations, and that he
made a real addition to the geographical knowledge of his day.


BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767).--Poet, _s._ of a poor weaver at Kinnesswood,
Kinross-shire, as a child herded cattle, but received a good education,
including 4 sessions at the Univ. of Edin., and for a short time kept a
school. His longest poem, _Loch Leven_, shows the influence of Thomson.
His best is his _Elegy_. His promising career was cut short by
consumption in 1767. The authorship of the beautiful _Ode to the Cuckoo_
beginning "Hail, beauteous stranger of the grove" is contested, some
authorities claiming it for B. and others for the Rev. John Logan
(_q.v._), who ed. B.'s works, adding some of his own, and who claimed the
_Ode_ as his.


BRUNTON, MARY (BALFOUR) (1778-1818).--Novelist, _dau._ of Col. Balfour of
Elwick, and _m._ to the Rev. Dr. Brunton, Prof. of Oriental Languages in
the Univ. of Edin., was the authoress of two novels, _Self-Control_
(1811) and _Discipline_ (1814), which were popular in their day.


BRYANT, JACOB (1715-1804).--Scholar, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., wrote
learnedly, but paradoxically, on mythological and Homeric subjects. His
chief works were _A New System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology_
(1774-76), _Observations on the Plain of Troy_ (1795), and _Dissertation
concerning the Wars of Troy_ (1796). In the last two he endeavoured to
show that the existence of Troy and the Greek expedition were fabulous.
Though so sceptical on these points he was an implicit believer in the
authenticity of the Rowley authorship of Chatterton's fabrications. He
also wrote on theological subjects.


BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN (1794-1878).--Poet, was _b._ at Cummington,
Massachusetts, the _s._ of a doctor. His ancestors on both sides came
over in the _Mayflower_. His first poem was _Thanatopsis_ (1817), which
was greeted as the best poem produced in America up to that time. After
being a lawyer for some time he was induced to exchange law for
journalism, and acted as ed. of various periodicals. Among his best known
poems are _Lines to a Water-fowl_, _The Rivulet_, _The West Wind_, _The
Forest Hymn_, _The Fringed Gentian_, etc. His muse is tender and graceful,
pervaded by a contemplative melancholy, and a love of solitude and the
silence of the woods. Though he was brought up to admire Pope, and in his
early youth imitated him, he was one of the first American poets to throw
off his influence. He had a high sense of duty, was a prominent and
patriotic citizen, and enjoyed the esteem and even the reverence of his
fellow-countrymen. B. also produced a blank-verse translation of the
_Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_.


BRYDGES, SIR SAMUEL EGERTON (1762-1837).--Bibliographer and genealogist,
_ed._ at Camb., was called to the Bar in 1787. He wrote some novels and
poems, now forgotten, but rendered valuable service by his
bibliographical publications, _Censura Literaria, Titles and Opinions of
Old English Books_ (10 vols. 1805-9), his editions of E. Phillips's
_Theatrum Poetarum Anglicanorum_ (1800) Collin's _Peerage of England_
(1812), and of many rare Elizabethan authors. He was made a baronet in
1814. He _d._ at Geneva.


BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506-1582).--Historian and scholar _b._ at Killearn,
Stirlingshire, of poor parents, was sent in 1519, with the help of an
uncle, to the Univ. of Paris, where he first came in contact with the two
great influences of the age, the Renaissance and the Reformation. His
uncle having died, he had to leave Paris, and after seeing some military
service, returned to Scotland, and in 1524 went to St. Andrews, where he
studied under John Major (_q.v._). Two years later he found means to
return to Paris, where he graduated at the Scots Coll. in 1528, and
taught grammar in the Coll. of St. Barbe. Returning to Scotland in 1536
with a great reputation for learning he was made by James V. tutor to one
of his illegitimate sons, and incited by him to satirise the vices of the
clergy, which he did in two Latin poems, _Somnium_ and _Franciscanus_.
This stirred the wrath of the ecclesiastical powers to such a heat that,
the King withholding his protection, he was obliged in 1539 to save
himself by flight first to England and then to France, where he remained
until 1547 teaching Latin at Bordeaux and Paris. In the latter year he
was invited to become a prof. at Coimbra, where he was imprisoned by the
Inquisition as a heretic from 1549-51, and wrote the greater part of his
magnificent translation of the Psalms into Latin verse, which has never
been excelled by any modern. He returned to England in 1552, but soon
re-crossed to France and taught in the Coll. of Boncourt. In 1561 he came
back to his native country, where he remained for the rest of his life.
Hitherto, though a supporter of the new learning and a merciless exposer
of the vices of the clergy, he had remained in the ancient faith, but he
now openly joined the ranks of the Reformers. He held the Principalship
of St. Leonard's Coll., St. Andrews, was a supporter of the party of the
Regent Moray, produced in 1571 his famous _Detectio Mariae Reginae_, a
scathing exposure of the Queen's relations to Darnley and the
circumstances leading up to his death, was tutor, 1570-78, to James VI.,
whom he brought up with great strictness, and to whom he imparted the
learning of which the King was afterwards so vain. His chief remaining
works were _De Jure Regni apud Scotos_ (1579), against absolutism, and
his _History of Scotland_, which was _pub._ immediately before his death.
Though he had borne so great a part in the affairs of his country, and
was the first scholar of his age, he _d._ so poor that he left no funds
to meet the expenses of his interment. His literary masterpiece is his
_History_, which is remarkable for the power and richness of its style.
Its matter, however, gave so much offence that a proclamation was issued
calling in all copies of it, as well as of the _De Jure Regni_, that they
might be purged of the "offensive and extraordinary matters" which they
contained. B. holds his great and unique place in literature not so much
for his own writings as for his strong and lasting influence on
subsequent writers.


BUCHANAN, ROBERT (1841-1901).--Poet and novelist, _b._ at Caverswall,
Staffordshire, the _s._ of a Scottish schoolmaster and socialist, and
_ed._ at Glasgow, was the friend of David Gray (_q.v._), and with him
went to London in search of fame, but had a long period of
discouragement. His first work, a collection of poems, _Undertones_
(1863), had, however, some success, and was followed by _Idylls of
Inverburn_ (1865), _London Poems_ (1866), and others, which gave him a
growing reputation, and raised high hopes of his future. Thereafter he
took up prose fiction and the drama, not always with success, and got
into trouble owing to some drastic criticism of his contemporaries,
culminating in his famous article on the _Fleshly School of Poetry_,
which appeared in the _Contemporary Review_ (Oct. 1871), and evoked
replies from Rossetti (_The Stealthy School of Criticism_), and Swinburne
(_Under the Microscope_). Among his novels are _A Child of Nature_
(1879), _God and the Man_ (1881), and among his dramas _A Nine Days'
Queen_, _A Madcap Prince_, and _Alone in London_. His latest poems, _The
Outcast_ and _The Wandering Jew_, were directed against certain aspects
of Christianity. B. was unfortunate in his latter years; a speculation
turned out ruinously; he had to sell his copyrights, and he sustained a
paralytic seizure, from the effects of which he _d._ in a few months. He
ultimately admitted that his criticism of Rossetti was unjustifiable.


BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE of (1628-1687).--Dramatist, _s._ of
the 1st Duke, who was in 1628 assassinated by Felton. His life was full
of adventure and change of fortune. The Restoration gave him back his
already twice lost estates, which he again squandered by a life of wild
extravagance and profligacy at Court. He was a member of the "Cabal" and
intrigued against Clarendon. He wrote pamphlets, lampoons, and plays, but
his chief contribution to literature was _The Rehearsal_, a comedy, in
which he satirised the heroic drama of Dryden and others. It is believed
that S. Butler had a hand in it. Dryden had his revenge in his picture of
B. as _Zimri_ in _Absalom and Achitophel_.


BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY, JOHN SHEFFIELD, 1ST DUKE of (1648-1721).--_S._
of the 2nd Earl of Mulgrave, served in his youth as a soldier under
Prince Rupert and Turenne, and is also said to have made love to the
Princess, afterwards Queen, Anne. He was a Privy Councillor under James
II., William and Mary, and Anne, with the last of whom he remained a
favourite. His magnificent mansion was purchased and pulled down to make
way for Buckingham Palace. He wrote _An Account of the Revolution_, _An
Essay on Satire_, and _An Essay on Poetry_. He also remodelled
Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_.


BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855).--Journalist and traveller, wrote many
books of travel, both on the Old and New World. He established, and for a
year or two ed., _The Athenaeum_, and produced many pamphlets on political
and social subjects.


BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN (1826-80).--Naturalist, _b._ and _ed._ at
Oxf., where his _f._ was Dean of Christchurch. He studied medicine and
was assistant-surgeon in the Life Guards. An enthusiastic lover of
natural history, he wrote largely upon it, among his works being
_Curiosities of Natural History_ (4 vols. 1857-72), _Log Book of a
Fisherman and Zoologist_ (1876), _Natural History of British Fishes_
(1881). He also founded and ed. _Land and Water_. He was for a time
Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, and served on various commissions. Though
observant, he was not always strictly scientific in his methods and modes
of expression, and he was a strong opponent of Darwin.


BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821-1862).--Historical writer, _s._ of a wealthy
shipowner in London, was _b._ at Lee in Kent. Though never at a univ. and
little at school, he received a high degree of education privately, and
inheriting an ample fortune and a large library, he devoted himself to
travel and study, with the view of preparing for a great work which he
had projected, _The History of Civilisation in England_. As an
introduction to this he entered upon the consideration of the state of
civilisation in various other countries, but this he had scarcely
completed when his death took place at Damascus in 1862. The first vol.
was _pub._ in 1857, and the second in 1861. In these the results of a
vast amount of reading are shown; but they are not free from one-sided
views and generalisations resting on insufficient data. He has, however,
the credit of having contributed a new idea of history and the method of
writing it. The completed work was to have extended to 14 vols. B. was
one of the greatest chess-players in Europe.


BUDGELL, EUSTACE (1686-1737).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Oxf., was a
cousin of Addison, who took him to Ireland and got him appointed to a
lucrative office, which, however, he was foolish enough to throw away by
lampooning the Viceroy. He assisted A. in the _Spectator_, of which he
wrote 37 numbers signed X. In these he imitates A.'s style with some
success. B., who was vain and vindictive, fell on evil days, lost a
fortune in the South Sea Bubble, was accused of forging a will, and
committed suicide by throwing himself out of a boat at London Bridge.


BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710).--Theologian, _b._ at Wells, _ed._ at Tiverton
and Oxf., took orders, was ordained by an ejected bishop in 1658, and
received the living of Suddington near Bristol. He was a strong Royalist,
and was privy to a scheme for bringing back the Royal family. After the
Restoration he obtained further preferment, and became in 1704 Bishop of
St. David's at an age when his strength had become unequal to any very
active discharge of the duties of his see. He has a high place among
Anglican theologians, and as a defender of the doctrine of the Trinity
was held in high esteem even by Continental Romanist controversialists.
Among his works are _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1669-70) in which he
endeavoured to reconcile alleged discrepancies between the teaching of
St. Paul and St. James on the relation between faith and works, in which
he assigned to the latter the higher authority, _Defensio Fidei Nicaenae_
(1685) and _Corruptions of the Church of Rome_.


BULWER, E.L., (_see_ LYTTON.)


BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688).--_B._ at Elstow, near Bedford, the _s._ of a
poor tinker, was _ed._ at a free school, after which he worked at his
father's trade. At 17 he was drafted as a soldier in the Civil War, and
served for two years at Newport Pagnell. At 19 he _m._ a pious young
woman, whose only dowry appears to have been two books, the _Plain Man's
Pathway to Heaven_ and the _Practice of Piety_, by which he was
influenced towards a religious life. In his autobiographical book, _Grace
Abounding_, B. describes himself as having led an abandoned life in his
youth; but there appears to be no evidence that he was, outwardly at any
rate, worse than the average of his neighbours: the only serious fault
which he specifies is profanity, others being dancing and bell-ringing.
The overwhelming power of his imagination led him to contemplate acts of
impiety and profanity, and to a vivid realisation of the dangers these
involved. In particular he was harassed by a curiosity in regard to the
"unpardonable sin," and a prepossession that he had already committed it.
He continually heard voices urging him to "sell Christ," and was tortured
by fearful visions. After severe spiritual conflicts he escaped from this
condition, and became an enthusiastic and assured believer. In 1657 he
joined the Baptist Church, began to preach, and in 1660 was committed to
Bedford Jail, at first for three months, but on his refusing to conform,
or to desist from preaching, his confinement was extended with little
interval for a period of nearly 12 years, not always, however, very
rigorous. He supported his family (wife and four children, including a
blind girl) by making tagged laces, and devoted all the time he could
spare from this to studying his few books and writing. During this period
he wrote among other things, _The Holy City_ and _Grace Abounding_. Under
the Declaration of Indulgence he was released in 1672, and became a
licensed preacher. In 1675 the Declaration was cancelled, and he was,
under the Conventicle Act, again imprisoned for six months, during which
he wrote the first part of _The Pilgrim's Progress_, which appeared in
1678, and to which considerable additions were made in subsequent
editions. It was followed by the _Life and Death of Mr. Badman_ (1680),
_The Holy War_ (1682), and the second part of _The Pilgrim's Progress_
(1684). B. was now widely known as a popular preacher and author, and
exercised a wide influence. In 1688 he set out on a journey to mediate
between a father and son, in which he was successful. On the return
journey he was drenched with rain, caught a chill and _d._ in London on
August 31. He is buried in Bunhill Fields. B. has the distinction of
having written, in _The Pilgrim's Progress_, probably the most widely
read book in the English language, and one which has been translated into
more tongues than any book except the Bible. The charm of the work, which
makes it the joy of old and young, learned and ignorant, and of readers
of all possible schools of thought and theology, lies in the interest of
a story in which the intense imagination of the writer makes characters,
incidents, and scenes alike live in that of his readers as things
actually known and remembered by themselves, in its touches of tenderness
and quaint humour, its bursts of heart-moving eloquence, and its pure,
nervous, idiomatic English, Macaulay has said, "Every reader knows the
straight and narrow path as well as he knows a road on which he has been
backwards and forwards a hundred times," and he adds that "In England
during the latter half of the seventeenth century there were only two
minds which possessed the imaginative faculty in a very eminent degree.
One of these minds produced the _Paradise Lost_, the other _The Pilgrim's
Progress_." B. wrote about 60 books and tracts, of which _The Holy War_
ranks next to _The Pilgrim's Progress_ in popularity, while _Grace
Abounding_ is one of the most interesting pieces of biography in
existence.

There are numerous Lives, the most complete being that by Dr. John Brown
of Bedford (1885 new 1888): others are Southey's (1830), on which
Macaulay's _Essay_ is based, Offor (1862), Froude (1880). On _The
Pilgrim's Progress, The People of the Pilgrimage_, by J. Kerr Bain, D.D.


BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS (1784-1817).--Traveller, _b._ at Lausanne and
_ed._ in Germany, came to England in 1806 and wrote his books of travel
in English. He travelled widely in Africa and in Syria, and the adjoining
countries, became a great oriental scholar, and, disguising himself, made
the pilgrimage to Mecca, and obtained access to places not open to
Christians. He wrote accounts of his travels, and a book on Arabic
proverbs. He _d._ of dysentery at Cairo when about to start on a new
journey into the interior of Africa.


BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797).--Statesman, orator, and political philosopher,
was the _s._ of an attorney in Dublin, where he was _b._ His _f._ was a
Protestant, but his mother, whose maiden name was Nagle, was a Roman
Catholic. He received his early _ed._ at a Quaker school at Ballitore,
and in 1743 proceeded to Trinity Coll., Dublin, where he graduated in
1748. His _f._ wished him to study for the law, and with this object he,
in 1750, went to London and entered the Middle Temple. He, however,
disliked law and spent more time in literary pursuits than in legal
study. In 1756 his first _pub._ work appeared, _A Vindication of Natural
Society_, a satire on the views of Bolingbroke, but so close was the
imitation of that writer's style, and so grave the irony, that its point
as a satire was largely missed. In the same year he _pub._ his famous
treatise _On the Sublime and Beautiful_, which attracted universal
attention, and three years later (1759) he projected with Dodsley the
publisher _The Annual Register_, for which he continued to write the
yearly Survey of Events until 1788. About the same time he was introduced
to W.G. Hamilton (known as Single-speech H.) then about to go to Ireland
as Chief Sec., and accompanied him in the capacity of private sec., in
which he remained for three years. In 1765 he became private sec. to the
Marquis of Rockingham, the Whig statesman, then Prime Minister, who
became his fast friend until his death. At the same time he entered
Parliament as member for Wendover, and began his brilliant career as an
orator and philosophic statesman. The first great subject in which he
interested himself was the controversy with the American colonies, which
soon developed into war and ultimate separation, and in 1769 he _pub._,
in reply to G. Grenville, his pamphlet on _The Present State of the
Nation_. In the same year he purchased the small estate of Gregories near
Beaconsfield. His speeches and writings had now made him famous, and
among other effects had brought about the suggestion that he was the
author of the _Letters of Junius_. It was also about this time that he
became one of the circle which, including Goldsmith, Garrick, etc., had
Johnson for its central luminary. In 1770 appeared _Thoughts on the
Causes of the Present Discontent_, directed against the growth of the
Royal power on the one hand, and of faction on the other. In 1774 he was
elected member for Bristol, and continued so until 1780, when differences
with his constituency on the questions of Irish trade and Catholic
emancipation led to his resignation, after which he sat for Malton until
his final retirement from public life. Under the administration of Lord
North (1770-1782) the American war went on from bad to worse, and it was
in part owing to the splendid oratorical efforts of B. that it was at
last brought to an end. To this period belong two of his most brilliant
performances, his speech on _Conciliation with America_ (1775), and his
_Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol_ (1777). The fall of North led to
Rockingham being recalled to power, which, however, he held for a few
months only, dying in the end of 1782, during which period B. held the
office of Paymaster of the Forces, and was made a Privy Councillor.
Thereafter he committed the great error of his political life in
supporting Fox in his coalition with North, one of the most flagitious,
as it was to those concerned in it, one of the most fatal, political acts
in our parliamentary history. Under this unhappy combination he continued
to hold during its brief existence the office of Paymaster, and
distinguished himself in connection with Fox's India Bill. The coalition
fell in 1783, and was succeeded by the long administration of Pitt, which
lasted until 1801. B. was accordingly for the remainder of his political
life in opposition. In 1785 he made his great speech on _The Nabob of
Arcot's Debts_, and in the next year (1786) he moved for papers in regard
to the Indian government of Warren Hastings, the consequence of which was
the impeachment of that statesman, which, beginning in 1787, lasted until
1794, and of which B. was the leading promoter. Meanwhile, the events in
France were in progress which led to the Revolution, and culminated in
the death of the King and Queen. By these B. was profoundly moved, and
his _Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1790) electrified England,
and even Europe. Its success was enormous. The same events and the
differences which arose regarding them in the Whig party led to its break
up, to the rupture of B's friendship with Fox, and to his _Appeal from
the New to the Old Whigs_. In 1794 a terrible blow fell upon him in the
loss of his son Richard, to whom he was tenderly attached, and in whom he
saw signs of promise, which were not patent to others, and which in fact
appear to have been non-existent. In the same year the Hastings trial
came to an end. B. felt that his work was done and indeed that he was
worn out; and he took leave of Parliament. The King, whose favour he had
gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to make him Lord
Beaconsfield, but the death of his son had deprived such an honour of all
its attractions, and the only reward he would accept was a pension of
L2500. Even this modest reward for services so transcendent was attacked
by the Duke of Bedford, to whom B. made a crushing reply in the _Letter
to a Noble Lord_ (1796). His last _pub._ was the _Letter on a Regicide
Peace_ (1796), called forth by negotiations for peace with France. When
it appeared the author was dead.

B. was one of the greatest political thinkers whom England has produced,
and all his writings, like his speeches, are characterised by the welding
together of knowledge, thought, and feeling. Unlike most orators he is
more successful as a writer than as a speaker. He rose too far above the
heads of his audience, which the continued splendour of his declamation,
his inordinate copiousness, and his excessive vehemence, often passing
into fury, at length wearied, and even disgusted: but in his writings are
found some of the grandest examples of a fervid and richly elaborated
eloquence. Though he was never admitted to the Cabinet, he guided and
influenced largely the policy of his party, while by his efforts in the
direction of economy and order in administration at home, and on behalf
of kindly and just government in India, as well as by his contributions
to political philosophy, he laid his country and indeed the world under
lasting obligations.

There are _Lives_ by Prior (1824 and 1854); J. Morley (1867), and various
ed. of his works have appeared. _Select Works_ by Payne (3 vols.
1874-78).

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1729, _ed._ Trinity Coll., Dublin, enters Middle Temple
1750, _pub._ treatise _On the Sublime and Beautiful_ 1756, became friend
of Rockingham 1765, enters Parliament and engages in American
controversy, _pub._ speech on _Conciliation with America_ 1775, Paymaster
of Forces and P.C. 1782, joined coalition of Fox and North 1782, leads in
prosecution of W. Hastings 1787-94, _pub._ _Reflections on French
Revolution_ 1790 and breaks with Fox party, _pub._ _Letter on a Regicide
Peace_ 1796, _d._ 1797.


BURNET, GILBERT (1643-1715).--Theologian and historian, s. of a Royalist
and Episcopalian lawyer, who became a judge, and of the sister of
Johnston of Warristoun, a leader of the Covenanters, was _b._ in Edin.,
and _ed._ at Aberdeen and at Amsterdam, where he studied Hebrew under a
Rabbi. Returning to Scotland, he was successively Episcopal minister at
Saltoun and Prof. of Divinity in Glasgow (1669), and was then offered,
but declined, a Scotch bishopric. His energetic and bustling character
led him to take an active part in the controversies of the time, and he
endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation between Episcopacy and
Presbytery. Going to London he was in some favour with Charles II., from
whom he received various preferments. His literary reputation was greatly
enhanced by the publication in 1679 of the first vol. of his _History of
the Reformation of the Church of England_, for which he received the
thanks of Parliament, and which was completed by other two vols., in 1682
and 1714. On account of a letter of reproof which he ventured to write to
the King, he lost favour at Court, and the policy pursued by James II.
being very repugnant to him, he betook himself in 1687 to Holland, where
he became one of the advisers of the Prince of Orange. Returning to
England at the Revolution, he was made Bishop of Salisbury, which office
he adorned by liberal views and a zealous discharge of duty. The work by
which his fame is chiefly sustained, his _History of my Own Times_, was,
by his direction, not to be _pub._ until 6 years after his death. It
appeared in 1723. It gives a sketch of the history of the Civil Wars and
Commonwealth, and a detailed account of the immediately succeeding period
down to 1713. While not free from egotism and some party feeling, it is
written with a sincere desire for accuracy and fairness, and it has
largely the authority of an eye-witness. The style, if somewhat lacking
in dignity, is lively and picturesque. Among his other writings are a
_History of the Dukes of Hamilton_, and an _Exposition of the 39
Articles_.

His principal works have been repeatedly printed. Clarendon Press ed. of
_My Own Times_ by Routh (1823 and 1833).


BURNET, THOMAS (1635?-1715).--Theologian and writer on cosmogony, was
_b._ at Croft near Darlington, and _ed._ at Camb., and became Master of
Charterhouse and Clerk of the Closet to William III. His literary fame
rests on his _Telluris Theoria Sacra, or Sacred Theory of the Earth_,
_pub._ about 1692, first in Latin and afterwards in English, a work
which, in absence of all scientific knowledge of the earth's structure,
was necessarily a mere speculative cosmogony. It is written, however,
with much eloquence. Some of the views expressed in another work,
_Archaeolgiae Philosophicae_, were, however, so unacceptable to contemporary
theologians that he had to resign his post at Court.


BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796).--Poet, was _b._ near Ayr, the _s._ of William
Burness or Burns, a small farmer, and a man of considerable force of
character and self-culture. His youth was passed in poverty, hardship,
and a degree of severe manual labour which left its traces in a premature
stoop and weakened constitution. He had little regular schooling, and got
much of what education he had from his father, who taught his children
reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history, and also wrote for
them "A Manual of Christian Belief." With all his ability and character,
however, the elder B. was consistently unfortunate, and migrated with his
large family from farm to farm without ever being able to improve his
circumstances. In 1781 Robert went to Irvine to become a flax-dresser,
but, as the result of a New Year carousal of the workmen, including
himself, the shop took fire and was burned to the ground. This venture
accordingly came to an end. In 1784 the _f._ died, and B. with his
brother Gilbert made an ineffectual struggle to keep on the farm; failing
in which they removed to Mossgiel, where they maintained an uphill fight
for 4 years. Meanwhile, his love affair with Jean Armour had passed
through its first stage, and the troubles in connection therewith,
combined with the want of success in farming, led him to think of going
to Jamaica as bookkeeper on a plantation. From this he was dissuaded by a
letter from Dr. Thomas Blacklock (_q.v._), and at the suggestion of his
brother _pub._ his poems. This first ed. was brought out at Kilmarnock in
June 1786, and contained much of his best work, including "The Twa Dogs,"
"The Address to the Deil," "Hallowe'en," "The Cottar's Saturday Night,"
"The Mouse," "The Daisy," etc., many of which had been written at
Mossgiel. Copies of this ed. are now extremely scarce, and as much as
L550 has been paid for one. The success of the work was immediate, the
poet's name rang over all Scotland, and he was induced to go to Edin. to
superintend the issue of a new ed. There he was received as an equal by
the brilliant circle of men of letters which the city then
boasted--Dugald Stewart, Robertson, Blair, etc., and was a guest at
aristocratic tables, where he bore himself with unaffected dignity. Here
also Scott, then a boy of 15, saw him and describes him as of "manners
rustic, not clownish. His countenance ... more massive than it looks in
any of the portraits ... a strong expression of shrewdness in his
lineaments; the eye alone indicated the poetical character and
temperament. It was large, and of a dark cast, and literally glowed when
he spoke with feeling or interest." The results of this visit outside of
its immediate and practical object, included some life-long friendships,
among which were those with Lord Glencairn and Mrs. Dunlop. The new ed.
brought him L400. About this time the episode of Highland Mary occurred.
On his return to Ayrshire he renewed his relations with Jean Armour, whom
he ultimately married, took the farm of Ellisland near Dumfries, having
meanwhile taken lessons in the duties of an exciseman, as a line to fall
back upon should farming again prove unsuccessful. At Ellisland his
society was cultivated by the local gentry. And this, together with
literature and his duties in the excise, to which he had been appointed
in 1789, proved too much of a distraction to admit of success on the
farm, which in 1791 he gave up. Meanwhile he was writing at his best, and
in 1790 had produced _Tam o' Shanter_. About this time he was offered and
declined an appointment in London on the staff of the _Star_ newspaper,
and refused to become a candidate for a newly-created Chair of
Agriculture in the Univ. of Edin., although influential friends offered
to support his claims. After giving up his farm he removed to Dumfries.
It was at this time that, being requested to furnish words for _The
Melodies of Scotland_, he responded by contributing over 100 songs, on
which perhaps his claim to immortality chiefly rests, and which placed
him in the front rank of lyric poets. His worldly prospects were now
perhaps better than they had ever been; but he was entering upon the last
and darkest period of his career. He had become soured, and moreover had
alienated many of his best friends by too freely expressing sympathy
with the French Revolution, and the then unpopular advocates of reform at
home. His health began to give way; he became prematurely old, and fell
into fits of despondency; and the habits of intemperance, to which he had
always been more or less addicted, grew upon him. He _d._ on July 21,
1797.

The genius of B. is marked by spontaneity, directness, and sincerity, and
his variety is marvellous, ranging from the tender intensity of some of
his lyrics through the rollicking humour and blazing wit of _Tam o'
Shanter_ to the blistering satire of _Holy Willie's Prayer_ and _The Holy
Fair_. His life is a tragedy, and his character full of flaws. But he
fought at tremendous odds, and as Carlyle in his great Essay says,
"Granted the ship comes into harbour with shrouds and tackle damaged, the
pilot is blameworthy ... but to know _how_ blameworthy, tell us first
whether his voyage has been round the Globe or only to Ramsgate and the
Isle of Dogs."

The books about Burns, his life and writings, are innumerable. Among the
Lives are those by Currie (1800); Allan Cunningham (1834); J.G. Lockhart
(1828), on which is based Carlyle's memorable _Essay_ (which _see_).
Among the famous ed. of the _Poems_ may be mentioned the first
(Kilmarnock 1786), Edin. (1787), and the _Centenary_ (1896), by W.E.
Henley and T.F. Henderson.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1759, flax-dresser at Irvine 1781, farms at Mossgiel, has
love affair with Jean Armour, _pub._ first ed. of poems 1786, visits
Edin. 1786, goes to Ellisland, became exciseman 1789, _pub._ songs, _c._
1791, _d._ 1797.


BURTON, JOHN HILL (1809-1881).--Historian, was _b._ and _ed._ at
Aberdeen, was in 1831 called to the Bar, but had little practice, and in
1854 was appointed Sec. to the Prison Board of Scotland, and in 1877 a
Commissioner of Prisons. He became at an early period of his life a
contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_ and other periodicals, and in 1846
_pub._ a life of Hume, which attracted considerable attention, and was
followed by Lives of Lord Lovat and Lord President Forbes. He began his
career as an historian by the publication in 1853 of _History of Scotland
from the Revolution to the Extinction of the last Jacobite Insurrection_,
to which he added (1867-70) _History of Scotland from Agricola's Invasion
to the Revolution_, in 7 vols., thus completing a continuous narrative.
Subsequently he _pub._ a _History of the Reign of Queen Anne_ (1880).
Other works of a lighter kind were _The Book-Hunter_ (1862), and _The
Scot Abroad_ (1864). B.'s historical works display much research and a
spirit of candour and honesty, and have picturesque and spirited
passages, but the style is unequal, and frequently lacks dignity. On the
whole, however, his is regarded as the most generally trustworthy and
valuable history of Scotland at present existing.


BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS (1821-1890).--Explorer and scholar, _s._ of
an officer in the army, was _b._ at Barham House, Herts, and after a
somewhat desultory education abroad as well as at home, entered upon a
life of travel, adventure, and military and civil service in almost every
quarter of the world, including India, Africa, the nearer East, and North
and South America, in the course of which he mastered 35 languages. As an
official his masterful ways and spirit of adventure frequently brought
him into collision with superior powers, by whom he not seldom considered
himself ill-used. He was the author of upwards of 50 books on a great
variety of subjects, including travels, novels, and translations, among
which are _Personal Narrative of a Journey to Mecca_ (1855), _First
Footprints in East Africa_ (1856), _Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa_
(1860), _The Nile Basin_, a translation and life of Camoens, an
absolutely literal translation of the _Arabian Nights_, with notes and
commentaries, of which his accomplished wife _pub._ an expurgated
edition. Lady B., who was the companion of his travels after 1861, also
wrote books on Syria, Arabia, and other eastern countries, as well as a
life of her husband, a number of whose manuscripts she destroyed.


BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Lindley,
Leicestershire, and _ed._ at Oxf., took orders, and became Vicar of St.
Thomas, Oxf., 1616, and Rector of Segrave, Leicestershire, 1630. Subject
to depression of spirits, he wrote as an antidote the singular book which
has given him fame. _The Anatomy of Melancholy_, in which he appears
under the name of _Democritus Junior_, was _pub._ in 1621, and had great
popularity. In the words of Warton, "The author's variety of learning,
his quotations from rare and curious books, his pedantry sparkling with
rude wit and shapeless elegance ... have rendered it a repertory of
amusement and information." It has also proved a store-house from which
later authors have not scrupled to draw without acknowledgment. It was a
favourite book of Dr. Johnson. B. was a mathematician and dabbled in
astrology. When not under depression he was an amusing companion, "very
merry, facete, and juvenile," and a person of "great honesty, plain
dealing, and charity."

The best ed. is that of Rev. A.R. Shilleto, with introduction by A.H.
Bullen (3 vols. 1893).


BURY, LADY CHARLOTTE (1775-1861).--Novelist, _dau._ of the 5th Duke of
Argyll, and _m._ first to Col. J. Campbell, and second to Rev. E.J. Bury,
wrote a number of novels--_Flirtation_, _Separation_, _The Divorced_,
etc., but is chiefly remembered in connection with a _Diary illustrative
of the Times of George IV._ (1838), a somewhat scandalous work generally,
and probably correctly, ascribed to her. She also wrote some poems and
two devotional works. She held for some time an appointment in the
household of the Princess of Wales.


BURY, RICHARD DE (1281-1345).--_S._ of Sir Richard Aungerville, _b._ at
Bury St. Edmunds, studied at Oxf., and was a Benedictine monk, became
tutor to Edward III. when Prince of Wales, and Bishop of Durham, and held
many offices of State. He was a patron of learning, and one of the first
English collectors of books, and he wrote his work, _Philobiblon_, in
praise of books, and founded a library at Durham.


BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752).--Theologian, _b._ at Wantage, _s._ of a
Presbyterian linen-draper, was destined for the ministry of that Church,
but in 1714 he decided to enter the Church of England, and went to Oxf.
After holding various other preferments he became rector of the rich
living of Stanhope, Bishop of Bristol (1738), and Bishop of Durham
(1750), and was said to have refused the Primacy. In 1726 he _pub._
_Fifteen Sermons_, and in 1736 _The Analogy of Religion_. These two books
are among the most powerful and original contributions to ethics and
theology which have ever been made. They depend for their effect entirely
upon the force of their reasoning, for they have no graces of style. B.
was an excellent man, and a diligent and conscientious churchman. Though
indifferent to general literature, he had some taste in the fine arts,
especially architecture. B.'s works were ed. by W.E. Gladstone (2 vols.
1896), and there are Lives by Bishop W. Fitzgerald, Spooner (1902), and
others, _see_ also _History of English Thought in 18th Century_, by
Leslie Stephen.


BUTLER, SAMUEL (1612-1680).--Satirist, was the _s._ of a Worcestershire
farmer. In early youth he was page to the Countess of Kent, and
thereafter clerk to various Puritan justices, some of whom are believed
to have suggested characters in _Hudibras_. After the Restoration he
became Sec. to the Lord Pres. of Wales, and about the same time _m._ a
Mrs. Herbert, a widow with a jointure, which, however, was lost. In 1663
the first part of _Hudibras_ was _pub._, and the other two in 1664 and
1668 respectively. This work, which is to a certain extent modelled on
_Don Quixote_, stands at the head of the satirical literature of England,
and for wit and compressed thought has few rivals in any language. It is
directed against the Puritans, and while it holds up to ridicule the
extravagancies into which many of the party ran, it entirely fails to do
justice to their virtues and their services to liberty, civil and
religious. Many of its brilliant couplets have passed into the proverbial
commonplaces of the language, and few who use them have any idea of their
source. Butler, notwithstanding the popularity of his work, was neglected
by the Court, and _d._ in poverty.

Ed. of B.'s works have been issued by Bell (3 vols., 1813), and Johnson
(2 vols., 1893).


BUTLER, SAMUEL (1825-1902).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Shrewsbury
and Camb., wrote two satirical books, _Erewhon_ (nowhere) (1872), and
_Erewhon Revisited_ (1901). He translated the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ in
prose, and mooted the theory that the latter was written by a woman.
Other works were _The Fair Haven_, _Life and Habit_, _The Way of all
Flesh_ (a novel) (1903), etc., and some sonnets. He also wrote on the
Sonnets of Shakespeare.


BYRON, GEORGE GORDON, 6TH LORD BYRON (1788-1824).--Poet, was _b._ in
London, the _s._ of Captain John B. and of Catherine Gordon, heiress of
Gight, Aberdeenshire, his second wife, whom he _m._ for her money and,
after squandering it, deserted. He was also the grand-nephew of the 5th,
known as the "wicked" Lord B. From his birth he suffered from a
malformation of the feet, causing a slight lameness, which was a cause of
lifelong misery to him, aggravated by the knowledge that with proper care
it might have been cured. After the departure of his _f._ his mother went
to Aberdeen, where she lived on a small salvage from her fortune. She was
a capricious woman of violent temper, with no fitness for guiding her
volcanic son, and altogether the circumstances of his early life explain,
if they do not excuse, the spirit of revolt which was his lifelong
characteristic. In 1794, on the death of a cousin, he became
heir-presumptive to the title and embarrassed estates of the family, to
which, on the death of his great-uncle in 1798, he succeeded. In 1801 he
was sent to Harrow, where he remained until 1805, when he proceeded to
Trinity Coll., Camb., where he read much history and fiction, lived
extravagantly, and got into debt. Some early verses which he had _pub._
in 1806 were suppressed. They were followed in 1807 by _Hours of
Idleness_, which was savagely attacked in the _Edinburgh Review_. In
reply he sent forth _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ (1800), which
created considerable stir and shortly went through 5 ed. Meanwhile, he
had settled at Newstead Abbey, the family seat, where with some of his
cronies he was believed to have indulged in wild and extravagant orgies,
the accounts of which, however, were probably greatly exaggerated. In
1809 he left England, and passing through Spain, went to Greece. During
his absence, which extended over two years, he wrote the first two cantos
of _Childe Harold_, which were _pub._ after his return in 1812, and were
received with acclamation. In his own words, "he awoke one morning and
found himself famous." He followed up his success with some short poems,
_The Corsair_, _Lara_, etc. About the same time began his intimacy with
his future biographer, Thomas Moore (_q.v._), and about 1815 he married
Anne Isabella Milbanke, who had refused him in the previous year, a union
which, owing to the total incompatibility of the parties, and serious
provocations on the part of B., proved unhappy, and was in 1816 dissolved
by a formal deed of separation. The only fruit of it was a _dau._,
Augusta Ada. After this break-up of his domestic life, followed as it was
by the severe censure of society, and by pressure on the part of his
creditors, which led to the sale of his library, B. again left England,
as it turned out, for ever, and, passing through Belgium and up the
Rhine, went to Geneva, afterwards travelling with Shelley through
Switzerland, when he wrote the third canto of _Childe Harold_. He
wintered in Venice, where he formed a connection with Jane Clairmont, the
_dau._ of W. Godwin's second wife (_q.v._). In 1817 he was in Rome,
whence returning to Venice he wrote the fourth canto of _Childe Harold_.
In the same year he sold his ancestral seat of Newstead, and about the
same time _pub._ _Manfred_, _Cain_, and _The Deformed Transformed_. The
first five cantos of _Don Juan_ were written between 1818 and 1820,
during which period he made the acquaintance of the Countess Guiccioli,
whom he persuaded to leave her husband. It was about this time that he
received a visit from Moore, to whom he confided his MS. autobiography,
which Moore, in the exercise of the discretion left to him, burned in
1824. His next move was to Ravenna, where he wrote much, chiefly dramas,
including _Marino Faliero_. In 1821-22 he finished _Don Juan_ at Pisa,
and in the same year he joined with Leigh Hunt in starting a short-lived
newspaper, _The Liberal_, in the first number of which appeared _The
Vision of Judgment_. His last Italian home was Genoa, where he was still
accompanied by the Countess, and where he lived until 1823, when he
offered himself as an ally to the Greek insurgents. In July of that year
he started for Greece, spent some months in Cephalonia waiting for the
Greeks to form some definite plans. In January, 1824, he landed at
Missolonghi, but caught a malarial fever, of which he _d._ on April 19,
1824.

The final position of B. in English literature is probably not yet
settled. It is at present undoubtedly lower than it was in his own
generation. Yet his energy, passion, and power of vivid and
richly-coloured description, together with the interest attaching to his
wayward and unhappy career, must always make him loom large in the
assembly of English writers. He exercised a marked influence on
Continental literature, and his reputation as poet is higher in some
foreign countries than in his own.

Among ed. of the works of B. may be mentioned Murray's (13 vols.
1898-1904). Moore's _Life_ (1830), Lady Blessington's _Conversations with
Lord Byron_ (1834, new, 1894).

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1788, spent childhood in Aberdeen, _ed._ Harrow and Camb.,
_pub._ _English Bards etc._, 1809, _Childe Harold_ first two cantos 1812,
married 1815, separated 1816, owing to this and financial difficulties
leaves England, meets Shelley, _pub._ third canto of _Childe Harold_
1816, fourth canto 1817, writes _Don Juan_ cantos 1-4 1818-20, lives at
various places in Italy 1816-24 with Countess Guiccioli, finished _Don
Juan_ 1822, goes to Greece 1823 to assist insurgents, _d._ 1824.


BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884).--Dramatist, _b._ at Manchester, entered
the Middle Temple, but soon took to writing for the stage, and produced
many popular burlesques and extravaganzas. He also wrote for periodicals,
and was the first editor of _Fun_. Among his best dramatic pieces are
_Cyril's Success_ (1868), _Our Boys_ (1875), and _The Upper Crust_.


CAEDMON (_d._ 1680).--The first English poet of whom we have any
knowledge. Originally employed as cowherd at the Abbey of Whitby, he
became a singer when somewhat advanced in life. The story of how the gift
of song came to him is given by Bede, how having fallen asleep in the
stable he dreamed that one came to him desiring a song, and on his asking
"What shall I sing?" replied "Sing to me of the beginning of created
things." Therefore he began to sing and, on awaking, remembered his song
and added to it. Thereafter he told what had befallen him to the bailiff
who was over him, who repeated the tale to the Abbess Hilda. She having
called together certain learned and pious persons, C. was brought before
them, told his story, and recited his verses. A part of Scripture was
read to him, which he was asked to turn into verse; and this being done
he was received into the Abbey where, for the rest of his life, he lived
as a monk, and continued to make his holy songs. Much that was formerly
attributed to C. is now held to be of later date. All that is known to be
his is a Northumbrian version of Bede's Latin paraphrases of C.'s first
song: although by some the authorship of "The Dream of the Holy Rood,"
and of a fragment on "The Temptation and Fall of Man" is claimed for him.

_English Literature from Beginning to Norman Conquest_, Stopford Brooke
(1898), and _History of Early English Literature_, by the same (1892).


CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908).--Philosopher, younger brother of John C.
(_q.v._), was _b._ at Greenock, and _ed._ at Glasgow and Oxf., where he
became Fellow and Tutor of Merton Coll. In 1866 he was appointed to the
Chair of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow, which he held until 1893, when he
became Master of Balliol Coll., from which he retired in 1907. He has
written _Critical Philosophy of Kant_ (1877), _Hegel_ (1883), _Evolution
of Religion_, _Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_ (1885),
_Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers_ (1904).


CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898).--Theologian, _b._, at Greenock, and _ed._ at
Glasgow, entered the Church of Scotland, of which he became one of the
most eloquent preachers. After being a minister in the country and in
Edinburgh, he was translated to Glasgow, becoming in 1862 Prof. of
Divinity in the Univ. of that city, and in 1873 Principal. A sermon on
_Religion in Common Life_, preached before Queen Victoria, made him known
throughout the Protestant world. He wrote an _Introduction to the
Philosophy of Religion_ (1880), and a vol. on _Spinoza_ (1888).


CALAMY, EDMUND (1600-1666).--Puritan Divine, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at
Camb., was one of the principal authors of a famous controversial work
bearing the title _Smectymnuus_, made up of the initials of the various
writers, and _pub._ in 1641 in reply to Bishop Hall's _Divine Right of
Episcopacy_. His other chief work is _The Godly Man's Ark_. A
Presbyterian, he was a supporter of monarchy, and favoured the
Restoration, after which he was offered, but declined, the see of
Coventry and Lichfield. He was a member of the Savoy Conference. The
passing of the Act of Uniformity led to his retiring from ministerial
work. He is said to have _d._ of melancholy caused by the great fire of
London.


CALDERWOOD, DAVID (1575-1650).--Scottish Church historian, belonged to a
good family, and about 1604 became minister of Crailing, Roxburghshire.
Opposing the designs of James VI. for setting up Episcopacy, he was
imprisoned 1617, and afterwards had to betake himself to Holland, where
his controversial work, _Altare Damascenum_, against Episcopacy, was
_pub._ In 1625 he returned to Scotland, and began his great work, _The
Historie of the Kirk of Scotland_, which was _pub._ in an abridged form
(1646). The complete work was printed (1841-49) for the Woodrow Society.
C. became minister of Pencaitland, East Lothian, about 1640, and was one
of those appointed to draw up _The Directory for Public Worship in
Scotland_.


CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART (1831-1884).--Poet and translator, _s._ of the
Rev. H. Blayds (who assumed the name of Calverley), was _ed._ at Harrow,
Oxf., and Camb. He was called to the Bar in 1865, and appeared to have a
brilliant career before him, when a fall on the ice in 1866 changed him
from a distinguished athlete to a life-long invalid. Brilliant as a
scholar, a musician, and a talker, he is perhaps best known as one of the
greatest of parodists. He _pub._ _Verses and Translations_ (1862), and
_Fly-leaves_ (1872). He also translated _Theocritus_ (1869).


CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623).--Antiquary and historian, _b._ in London,
and _ed._ at Christ's Hospital, St. Paul's School, and Oxf., was in 1575
appointed Second Master in Westminster School, and Head Master in 1593,
and spent his vacations in travelling over England collecting antiquarian
information. His great work, _Britannia_, was _pub._ in 1586, and at once
brought him fame both at home and abroad. It is a work of vast labour and
erudition, written in elegant Latin. In 1597 C. was made Clarencieux
King-at-Arms which, setting him free from his academic duties, enabled
him to devote more time to his antiquarian and historical labours. His
other principal works are _Annals of the Reign of Elizabeth_ (printed
1615-1623), _Monuments and Inscriptions in Westminster Abbey_ (1600), and
a _coll._ of _Ancient English Historians_. He was buried in Westminster
Abbey. The Camden Society for historical research, founded in 1838, is
named after him.


CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796).--Theologian and philosopher, was a minister
of the Church of Scotland at Aberdeen, and Principal and Prof. of
Divinity in Marischal Coll. there. His _Dissertation on Miracles_ (1763),
in answer to Hume, was in its day considered a masterly argument, and was
admitted to be so by Hume himself. His other principal works were _The
Philosophy of Rhetoric_ (1776), which is still a standard work, and _A
Translation of the Four Gospels with Notes_.


CAMPBELL, JOHN, 1ST LORD CAMPBELL (1779-1861).--Lawyer and biographer,
_s._ of the minister of Cupar-Fife, had a highly successful career as a
lawyer, and held the offices successively of Solicitor and
Attorney-General, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, Lord Chief Justice, and
Lord Chancellor. His contributions to literature were _Lives of the
Chancellors_ and _Lives of the Chief Justices_. These works, though
deficient in research and accuracy, often unfair in judgments of
character, and loose and diffuse in style, are interesting and full of
information.


CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS (1822-1885).--Celtic scholar, _ed._ at Eton and
Edin., was afterwards Sec. to the Lighthouse Commission. He was an
authority on Celtic folk-lore, and _pub._ _Popular Tales of the West
Highlands_ (4 vols., 1860-62), and various Gaelic texts.


CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908).--Scholar, _s._ of a naval officer, _ed._ at
Edin., Glasgow, and Oxf., took orders, and was Vicar of Milford, Hants,
until 1863, when he was appointed Prof. of Greek at St. Andrews. He
brought out ed. of Sophocles and other works on the Greek classics, and
in conjunction with E. Abbott _The Life and Letters of Prof. Jowett_
(_q.v._), with whom he had collaborated in editing the _Republic of
Plato_. He also ed. the poems of Thomas Campbell, to whom he was related.


CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844).--Poet, was the youngest _s._ of Alexander
C., a merchant in Glasgow, where he was _b._ After leaving the Univ. of
that city, where he gained some distinction by his translations from the
Greek, and acting for some time as a tutor, he went to Edin. to study
law, in which, however, he did not make much progress, but gained fame by
producing in 1799, at the age of 21, his principal poem, _The Pleasures
of Hope_. In spite of some of the faults of youth, the vigour of thought
and description, and power of versification displayed in the poem, as
well as its noble feeling for liberty, made it a marvellous performance
for so young a man. His other larger poems are _Gertrude of Wyoming_
(1809), _O'Connor's Child_, and _Theodric_ (1824). It is not, however,
for these that he will be chiefly remembered, but for his patriotic and
war lyrics, _Ye Mariners of England_, _Hohenlinden_, and _The Battle of
the Baltic_, which are imperishable. C. was also distinguished as a
critic, and his _Specimens of the British Poets_ (1819) is prefaced by an
essay which is an important contribution to criticism. C. resided in
London from 1803 until the year of his death, which took place at
Boulogne, whither he had repaired in search of health. In addition to the
works mentioned he wrote various compilations, including _Annals of Great
Britain_, covering part of the reign of George III. In 1805 he received a
Government pension, and he was Lord Rector of Glasgow Univ. 1826-29. He
is buried in Westminster Abbey.

_Life and Letters_, Beattie (1840); Poems, _Aldine_ ed. (1875, new,
1890).


CAMPION, THOMAS (_c._ 1575-1620).--Poet and musician, _b._ at Witham,
Essex, and _ed._ at Camb., and on the Continent, studied law at Gray's
Inn, but discarding it, practised medicine in London. He wrote masques,
and many fine lyrics remarkable for their metrical beauty, of which
"Cherry Ripe" and "Lesbia" are well known. He also wrote _Epigrams_ in
Latin, and _Observations on the Arte of Poesie_ (1602). He composed the
music for most of his songs.


CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827).--Statesman, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of
a lawyer. He lost his _f._ while still an infant, and was brought up by
an uncle, who sent him to Eton and Oxf. In 1793 he entered Parliament as
a supporter of Pitt, and soon became one of the most brilliant debaters
in the House. After filling various offices, including that of Foreign
Sec., with striking ability, he was in 1827 appointed Prime Minister, but
_d._, deeply mourned by the nation, a few months later. He has a place in
literature as the leading spirit in the _Anti-Jacobin_, a paper started
during the French Revolution, in support of the English Constitution, and
which, with Gifford for ed., had many of the most eminent men of the day
as contributors. C. wrote the _Needy Knife-grinder_, _The Loves of the
Triangles_, parts II. and III., a parody on E. Darwin's _Loves of the
Plants_, _The Progress of Man_, etc. His _coll._ _Poems_ were _pub._
1823.


CAPGRAVE, JOHN (1393-1464).--Historian and theologian, _b._ at Lynn,
became an Augustinian Friar, and at length Provincial of the Order in
England. He studied probably at Camb., visited Rome, and was a client of
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, whose life he wrote. He was the author of
numerous theological and historical works, some of which are of
considerable importance, including in Latin, _Nova Legenda Angliae_, _De
Illustribus Henricis_: lives of German Emperors, English Kings, etc., of
the name of Henry, and in English, monotonous and dull, lives of St.
Gilbert and St. Katharine, and a _Chronicle_ reaching to 1417.


CAREW, RICHARD (1555-1620).--Translator and antiquary, a county gentleman
of Cornwall, _ed._ at Oxf., made a translation of the first five cantos
of Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1594), more correct than that of
Fairfax. Other works were _A Survey of Cornwall_ (1602), and an _Epistle
concerning the Excellencies of the English Tongue_ (1605).


CAREW, THOMAS (1594?-1639).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Matthew C., was _ed._ at
Oxf., entered the Middle Temple, and was one of the first and best of the
courtly poets who wrote gracefully on light themes of Court life and
gallantry. C.'s poems have often much beauty and even tenderness. His
chief work is _Coelum Britannicum_. He lived the easy and careless life
of a courtier of the day, but is said to have _d._ in a repentant frame.
His poems, consisting chiefly of short lyrics, were _coll._ and _pub._
after his death. One of the most beautiful and best known of his songs is
that beginning "He that loves a rosy cheek."


CAREY, HENRY (_d._ 1743).--Dramatist and song-writer, was believed to be
an illegitimate _s._ of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax. He wrote
innumerable burlesques, farces, songs, etc., often with his own music,
including _Chrononhotonthologos_ (1734), a burlesque on the mouthing
plays of the day, and _The Dragon of Wantley_ (1744?). His poem, _Namby
Pamby_, in ridicule of Ambrose Phillips (_q.v._), added a word to the
language, and his _Sally in our Alley_ is one of our best-known songs.
_God Save the King_ was also claimed for him, but apparently without
reason.


CARLETON, WILLIAM (1794-1869).--Novelist, _s._ of a poor Irish cottar,
_b._ and brought up among the Irish peasantry, acquired an insight into
their ideas and feelings which has never been equalled. His finest work
is in his short stories, collected under the title of _Traits and Stories
of the Irish Peasantry_, of which two series were _pub._ in 1830 and 1832
respectively. He also wrote several longer novels, of which the best is
_Fardorougha the Miser_ (1837), a work of great power. Others are _The
Misfortunes of Barny Branagan_ (1841), _Valentine M'Clutchy_ (1845),
_Rody the Rover_ (1847), _The Squanders of Castle Squander_ (1854), and
_The Evil Eye_. C. received a pension of L200 from Government.


CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805).--Autobiographer, _s._ of the Minister of
Cummertrees, Dumfriesshire, was _ed._ at Edin. and Leyden, and entering
the Church became Minister of Inveresk, and was associated with Principal
Robertson as an ecclesiastical leader. He was a man of great ability,
shrewdness, and culture, and the friend of most of the eminent literary
men in Scotland of his day. He left an autobiography in MS., which was
ed. by Hill Burton, and _pub._ in 1860, and which is one of the most
interesting contemporary accounts of his time. His stately appearance
gained for him the name of "Jupiter" C.


CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881).--Historian and essayist, was _b._ at
Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire. His _f._, James C., was a stonemason, a
man of intellect and strong character, and his mother was, as he said,
"of the fairest descent, that of the pious, the just, and the wise." His
earliest education was received at the parish school of Ecclefechan (the
Entepfuhl of _Sartor Resartus_). Thence he went to the Grammar School of
Annan, and in 1809 to the Univ. of Edin., the 90 miles to which he
travelled on foot. There he read voraciously, his chief study being
mathematics. After completing his "Arts" course, he went on to divinity
with the view of entering the Church, but about the middle of his course
found that he could not proceed. He became a schoolmaster first at Annan
and then at Kirkcaldy, where he formed a profound friendship with Edward
Irving (_q.v._), and met Margaret Gordon, afterwards Lady Bannerman,
believed by some to be the prototype of _Blumine_ in _Sartor_. Returning
in 1819 to Edin. he for a time studied law and took pupils; but his
health was bad, he suffered from insomnia and dyspepsia, and he tired of
law. He was also sorely bestead by mental and spiritual conflicts, which
came to a crisis in Leith Walk in June 1821 in a sudden uprising of
defiance to the devil and all his works, upon which the clouds lifted.
For the next two years, 1822-24, he acted as tutor to Charles Buller
(whose promising political career was cut short by his premature death)
and his brother. On the termination of this engagement he decided upon a
literary career, which he began by contributing articles to the
_Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_. In 1824 he translated Legendre's _Geometry_ (to
which he prefixed an essay on Proportion), and Goethe's _Wilhelm
Meister_; he also wrote for the _London Magazine_ a _Life of Schiller_.
About this time he visited Paris and London, where he met Hazlitt,
Campbell, Coleridge, and others. Thereafter he returned to Dumfriesshire.
In the following year (1826) he _m._ Jane Baillie Welsh, and settled in
Edin. Here his first work was _Specimens of German Romance_ (4 vols.) A
much more important matter was his friendship with Jeffrey and his
connection with the _Edinburgh Review_, in which appeared, among others,
his essays on _Richter_, _Burns_, _Characteristics_, and _German Poetry_.
In 1828 C. applied unsuccessfully for the Chair of Moral Philosophy in
St. Andrews, and the same year he went to Craigenputtock, a small
property in Dumfriesshire belonging to Mrs. C., where they remained for
several years, and where many of his best essays and _Sartor Resartus_
were written, and where his correspondence with Goethe began. In 1831 he
went to London to find a publisher for _Sartor_, but was unsuccessful,
and it did not appear in book form until 1838, after having come out in
_Fraser's Magazine_ in 1833-34. The year last mentioned found him finally
in London, settled in Cheyne Row, Chelsea, his abode for the rest of his
life. He immediately set to work on his _French Revolution_. While it was
in progress he in 1835 lent the MS. to J.S. Mill, by whose servant nearly
the whole of the first vol. was burned, in spite of which misfortune the
work was ready for publication in 1837. Its originality, brilliance, and
vividness took the world by storm, and his reputation as one of the
foremost men of letters in the country was at once and finally
established. In the same year he appeared as a public lecturer, and
delivered four courses on _German Literature_, _Periods of European
Culture_, _Revolutions of Modern Europe_, and _Heroes and Hero-Worship_,
the last of which was _pub._ as a book in 1841. Although his writings
did not yet produce a large income, his circumstances had become
comfortable, owing to Mrs. C. having succeeded to her patrimony in 1840.
Books now followed each other rapidly, _Chartism_ had appeared in 1839,
_Past and Present_ came out in 1843, and _Letters and Speeches of Oliver
Cromwell_ in 1845, the last named being perhaps the most successful of
his writings, inasmuch as it fully attained the object aimed at in
clearing Cromwell from the ignorant or malevolent aspersions under which
he had long lain, and giving him his just place among the greatest of the
nation. In 1850 he _pub._ his fiercest blast, _Latter Day Pamphlets_,
which was followed next year by his biography of his friend John Sterling
(_q.v._). It was about this time, as is shown by the _Letters and
Memoirs_ of Mrs. C., that a temporary estrangement arose between his wife
and himself, based apparently on Mrs. C.'s part upon his friendship with
Lady Ashburton, a cause of which C. seems to have been unconscious. In
1851 he began his largest, if not his greatest work, _Frederick the
Great_, which occupied him from that year until 1865, and in connection
with which he made two visits to Germany in 1852 and 1858. It is a work
of astonishing research and abounds in brilliant passages, but lacks the
concentrated intensity of _The French Revolution_. It is, however, the
one of his works which enjoys the highest reputation in Germany. In 1865
he was elected Lord Rector of the Univ. of Edin., and delivered a
remarkable address to the students by whom he was received with
enthusiasm. Almost immediately afterwards a heavy blow fell upon him in
the death of Mrs. C., and in the discovery, from her diary, of how
greatly she had suffered, unknown to him, from the neglect and want of
consideration which, owing to absorption in his work and other causes, he
had perhaps unconsciously shown. Whatever his faults, of which the most
was made in some quarters, there can be no doubt that C. and his wife
were sincerely attached to each other, and that he deeply mourned her. In
1866 his _Reminiscences_ (_pub._ 1881) were written. The Franco-German
War of 1870-71 profoundly interested him, and evoked a plea for Germany.
From this time his health began to give way more and more. In 1872 his
right hand became paralysed. In 1874 he received the distinction of the
Prussian Order of Merit, as the biographer of its founder, and in the
same year, Mr. Disraeli offered him the choice of the Grand Cross of the
Bath or a baronetcy and a pension, all of which he declined. The
completion of his 80th year in 1875 was made the occasion of many
tributes of respect and veneration, including a gold medal from some of
his Scottish admirers. He _d._ on February 5, 1881. Burial in Westminster
Abbey was offered, but he had left instructions that he should lie with
his kindred. He bequeathed the property of Craigenputtock to the Univ. of
Edin.

C. exercised a very powerful influence upon the thought of his age, not
only by his own writings and personality, but through the many men of
distinction both in literature and active life whom he imbued with his
doctrines; and perhaps no better proof of this exists than the fact that
much that was new and original when first propounded by him has passed
into the texture of the national ideas. His style is perhaps the most
remarkable and individual in our literature, intensely strong, vivid,
and picturesque, but utterly unconventional, and often whimsical or
explosive. He had in a high degree the poetic and imaginative faculty,
and also irresistible humour, pungent sarcasm, insight, tenderness, and
fierce indignation.

All the works of C. shed light on his personality, but _Sartor Resartus_
especially may be regarded as autobiographical. Froude's _Thomas Carlyle
... First 40 Years of his Life_ (1882), _Thomas Carlyle ... His Life in
London_, by the same (1884), _Letters and Memories of Jane Welsh Carlyle_
(1883), various _Lives_ and _Reminiscences_ by Prof. Masson and Nichol,
etc.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1795, _ed._ Edin., studies for Church but gives it up,
tries law, then tutor, takes to literature and writes for encyclopaedias
and magazines, and translates, _m._ 1826 Jane Welsh, settles in Edin.,
writes essays in _Edinburgh Review_, goes to Craigenputtock 1828, writes
_Sartor_ and corresponds with Goethe, _Sartor_ appears in _Fraser's
Magazine_ 1833-4, settles in London 1834, _pub._ _French Revolution_
1837, lectures, _pub._ _Heroes_, and _Chartism_ and _Sartor_ as a book
1839, _Past and Present_ 1843, _Oliver Cromwell_ 1845, _Latter Day
Pamphlets_ 1850, writes _Frederick the Great_ 1851-65, Lord Rector of
Edin. Univ. 1865, Mrs. C. _d._ 1865, writes _Reminiscences_ 1866 (_pub._
1881), _d._ 1881.


CARRUTHERS, ROBERT (1799-1878).--Journalist and miscellaneous writer,
_b._ in Dumfriesshire, was for a time a teacher in Huntingdon, and wrote
a _History of Huntingdon_ (1824). In 1828 he became ed. of the _Inverness
Courier_, which he conducted with great ability. He ed. Pope's works with
a memoir (1853), and along with Robert Chambers (_q.v._) ed. the first
ed. of _Chambers's Cyclopedia of English Literature_ (1842-44). He
received the degree of LL.D. from Edin.


CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754).--Historian, _b._ near Rugby, and _ed._ at
Oxf., took orders, but resigned his benefice at Bath when required to
take the oath of allegiance to George I. He was sec. to Francis Atterbury
(_q.v._), and was involved in the consequences of his conspiracy, but
escaped to France, where he remained until 1728. After his return he
_pub._ a life of the Duke of Ormonde (1736), and a _History of England to
1654_ in 4 vols. (1747-54), the latter a work of great research, though
dry and unattractive in style.


CARTER, ELIZABETH (1717-1806).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Deal,
_dau._ of a clergyman. Originally backward, she applied herself to study
with such perseverance that she became perhaps the most learned
Englishwoman of her time, being mistress of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and
Arabic, besides several modern European languages. She was also well read
in science. She translated Epictetus 1758, and wrote a small vol. of
poems. She was the friend of Dr. Johnson and many other eminent men. She
was of agreeable and unassuming manners.


CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM (1611-1643).--Dramatist, _s._ of a gentleman of
Gloucestershire, who had run through his fortune and kept an inn at
Cirencester, _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., entered the Church,
was a zealous Royalist, and an eloquent preacher, and lecturer in
metaphysics. He also wrote spirited lyrics and four plays. He was the
friend of Ben Jonson, H. Vaughan, and Izaak Walton. He _d._ at Oxf. of
camp fever. Among his plays are _The Royal Slave_, _The Siege_, and _The
Lady Errant_. His virtues, learning, and charming manners made him highly
popular in his day.


CARY, ALICE (1820-1871), and PHOEBE (1824-1871).--Were the _dau._ of a
farmer near Cincinnati. The former wrote _Clovernook Papers_ and
_Clovernook Children_, and other tales, and some poems. The latter wrote
poems and hymns. Both sisters attained considerable popularity.


CARY, HENRY FRANCIS (1772-1844).--Translator, was _b._ at Gibraltar, and
_ed._ at Oxf., where he was distinguished for his classical attainments.
His great work is his translation of the _Divina Commedia_ of Dante
(1805-1814), which is not only faithful to the original, but full of
poetic fire, and rendered into such fine English as to be itself
literature apart from its merits as a translation. He also translated
from the Greek. C., who was a clergyman, received a pension in 1841.


CATLIN, GEORGE (1796-1872).--Painter and writer, _b._ at Wilkesbarre,
Pennsylvania, practised for some time as a lawyer, but yielding to his
artistic instincts he took to painting. He spent the 7 years, 1832-39,
among the Indians of North America, of whom he painted about 500
portraits. He became thoroughly acquainted with their life, and _pub._ an
interesting work, _Illustrations of the Manners, etc., of the North
American Indians_ (1857). His later years were spent chiefly in Europe.


CAVE, EDWARD (1691-1754).--Publisher, _b._ near Rugby, started in 1731
_The Gentleman's Magazine_, for which Dr. Johnson was parliamentary
reporter from 1740. He _pub._ many of Johnson's works.


CAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1561).--Biographer, was Gentleman Usher to
Cardinal Wolsey, to whom he was so much attached that he followed him in
his disgrace, and continued to serve him until his death. He left in MS.
a life of his patron, which is the first separate biography in English,
and is the main original authority of the period. Admitting Wolsey's
faults, it nevertheless presents him in an attractive light. The simple
yet eloquent style gives it a high place as a biography.


CAXTON, WILLIAM (1422-1491).--Printer and translator, _b._ in the Weald
of Kent, was apprenticed to a London mercer. On his master's death in
1441 he went to Bruges, and lived there and in various other places in
the Low Countries for over 30 years, engaged apparently as head of an
association of English merchants trading in foreign parts, and in
negotiating commercial treaties between England and the Dukes of
Burgundy. His first literary labour was a translation of a French
romance, which he entitled _The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, and
which he finished in 1471. About this time he learned the art of
printing, and, after being in the service of Margaret Duchess of
Burgundy, an English princess, returned to his native country and set up
at Westminster in 1476 his printing press, the first in England. His
_Recuyell_ and _The Game and Playe of Chesse_ had already been
printed--the first books in English--on the Continent. Here was produced
the first book printed in England, _The Dictes and Sayings of the
Philosophers_ (1477). C. obtained Royal favour, printed from 80 to 100
separate works--many of them translations of his own--and _d._ almost
with pen in hand in 1491. His style is clear and idiomatic.


CENTLIVRE, MRS. SUSANNA (1667-1723).--Dramatist and actress, was the
_dau._ of a gentleman of the name of either Rawkins or Freeman, who
appears to have belonged either to Lincolnshire or Ireland, or was
perhaps connected with both, and who suffered at the hands of the
Stuarts. She _m._ at 16, lost her husband in a year, then _m._ an
officer, who fell in a duel in 18 months, and finally, in 1706, _m._
Joseph C., cook to Queen Anne, with whom she lived happily for the rest
of her days. She wrote 18 or 19 plays, well constructed and amusing,
among which may be mentioned _The Perjured Husband_ (1700), _The
Busybody_ (1709), _The Warder_ (1714), and _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_
(1717). She was a strong Whig, and sometimes made her plays the medium of
expressing her political opinions.


CHALKHILL, JOHN (_fl._ 1600).--Poet, mentioned by Izaak Walton as having
written a pastoral poem, _Thealma and Clearchus_. As nothing else is
known of him it has been held by some that the name was a _nom-de-plume_
of W. himself. It has been shown, however, that a gentleman of the name
existed during the reign of Elizabeth. W. says he was a friend of
Spenser, and that his life was "useful, quiet, and virtuous."


CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825).--Antiquary, _b._ at Fochabers, Elginshire,
emigrated to America and practised law in Baltimore; but on the outbreak
of the Revolutionary War returned to Britain, and settled in London as a
clerk in the Board of Trade. He _pub._ in 1780 a _History of the United
Colonies_, and wrote lives of Sir David Lyndsay, De Foe, and Mary Queen
of Scots. His great work, however, is his _Caledonia_, of which 3 vols.
had been _pub._ at his death. It was to have been a complete _coll._ of
the topography and antiquities of Scotland; and, as it stands, is a
monument of industry and research, though not always trustworthy in
disputed points. Besides those mentioned, C. was the author of many other
works on political, historical, and literary subjects, and had projected
several which he was unable to carry out.


CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847).--Divine, economist, and philanthropist,
_b._ at Anstruther, Fife, _s._ of a shipowner and merchant, studied at
St. Andrews and, entering the ministry of the Church of Scotland, was
first settled in the small parish of Kilmeny, Fife, but, his talents and
eloquence becoming known, he was, in 1815, translated to Glasgow, where
he was soon recognised as the most eloquent preacher in Scotland, and
where also he initiated his schemes for the management of the poor. In
1823, he became Prof. of Moral Philosophy at St. Andrews, and in 1828 of
Divinity in Edin. In 1834 he began his great scheme of Church extension,
the result of which was that in seven years L300,000 had been raised, and
220 churches built. In the same year, 1834, began the troubles and
controversies in regard to patronage and the relations of Church and
State, which in 1843 ended in the disruption of the Church, when 470
ministers with C. at their head, resigned their benefices, and founded
the Free Church of Scotland. C. was chosen its first Moderator and
Principal of its Theological Coll. in Edin. The remaining four years of
his life were spent in organising the new Church, and in works of
philanthropy. He was found dead in bed on the morning of May 30, 1847.
His chief works, which were _coll._ and _pub._ in 34 vols., relate to
natural theology, evidences of Christianity, political economy, and
general theology and science. Those which perhaps attracted most
attention were his _Astronomical Discourses_ and his _Lectures on Church
Establishments_, the latter delivered in London to audiences containing
all that was most distinguished in rank and intellect in the country. The
style of C. is cumbrous, and often turgid, but the moral earnestness,
imagination, and force of intellect of the writer shine through it and
irradiate his subjects. And yet the written is described by
contemporaries to have been immeasurably surpassed by the spoken word,
which carried away the hearer as in a whirlwind. And the man was even
greater than his achievements. His character was one of singular
simplicity, nobility, and lovableness, and produced a profound impression
on all who came under his influence. The character of his intellect was
notably practical, as is evidenced by the success of his parochial
administration and the "Sustentation Fund," devised by him for the
support of the ministry of the Free Church. He was D.D., LL.D., D.C.L.
(Oxon.), and a Corresponding Member of the Institute of France.

_Memoirs_ (Hanna, 4 vols.). Smaller works by Prof. Blaikie (1897), Mrs.
Oliphant (1893), and many others.


CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM (1619-1689).--Poet, practised medicine at
Shaftesbury. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the Royalists and
fought at the second battle of Newbury. He wrote a play, _Loves Victory_
(1658), and an epic _Pharonnida_ (1659). With occasional beauties he is,
in the main, heavy and stiff, and is almost forgotten. He influenced
Keats.


CHAMBERS, ROBERT (1802-1871).--Historical and scientific writer, was _b._
at Peebles. Early dependent on his own exertions, he started business as
a bookseller in Edin. at the age of 16, devoting all his spare time to
study, to such purpose that in 1824 he _pub._ _Traditions of Edinburgh_,
a work in which he had the assistance of Sir W. Scott. Thereafter he
poured forth a continuous stream of books and essays on historical,
social, antiquarian, and scientific subjects. He joined his brother
William (_q.v._) in establishing the publishing firm of W. and R.
Chambers, and in starting _Chambers's Journal_, to which he was a
constant contributor. Later ventures were _The Cyclopedia of English
Literature_ (1842-44), of which several ed. have appeared (last 1903-6).
and _Chambers's Cyclopaedia_ (10 vols. 1859-68; new 1888-92). Among his
own works may be mentioned _Vestiges of Creation_, _pub._ anonymously
(1844), a precursor of Darwinism, _A Life of Burns_ (1851), _Popular
Rhymes of Scotland_ (1847), _History of the Rebellions in Scotland_,
_Domestic Annals of Scotland_ (1859-61), _Ancient Sea Margins_ (1848),
_Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_ and _The Book of Days_ (1863). He was
LL.D. of St. Andrews.


CHAMBERS, WILLIAM (1800-1883).--Publisher and miscellaneous author, _b._
at Peebles, started in 1832 with his brother Robert (_q.v._) _Chambers's
Journal_, and soon after joined him in the firm of W. and R. Chambers.
Besides contributions to the _Journal_ he wrote several books, including
a _History of Peeblesshire_ (1864), and an autobiography of himself and
his brother. C. was a man of great business capacity, and, though of less
literary distinction than his brother, did much for the dissemination of
cheap and useful literature. He was Lord Provost of Edin. 1865-69, and
was an LL.D. of the Univ. of that city. He restored the ancient church of
St. Giles there.


CHAMIER, FREDERICK (1796-1870).--Novelist, was in the navy, in which he
rose to the rank of Captain. Retiring in 1827, he wrote several sea
novels somewhat in the style of Marryat, including _Life of a Sailor_
(1832), _Ben Brace_, _Jack Adams_, and _Tom Bowling_ (1841). He also
continued James's _Naval History_, and wrote books of travel.


CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842).--American Divine, _b._ at Newport,
Rhode Island, was for a time a minister in the Congregationalist Church,
but became the leader of the Unitarians in New England. He had a powerful
influence on the thought and literature of his time in America, and was
the author of books on Milton and Fenelon, and on social subjects. The
elevation and amiability of his character caused him to be held in high
esteem. He did not class himself with Unitarians of the school of
Priestley, but claimed to "stand aloof from all but those who strive and
pray for clearer light."


CHAPMAN, GEORGE (1559-1634).--Dramatist and translator, was _b._ near
Hitchin, and probably _ed._ at Oxf. and Camb. He wrote many plays,
including _The Blind Beggar of Alexandria_ (1596), _All Fools_ (1599), _A
Humerous Daye's Myrthe_ (1599), _Eastward Hoe_ (with Jonson), _The
Gentleman Usher_, _Monsieur d'Olive_, etc. As a dramatist he has humour,
and vigour, and occasional poetic fire, but is very unequal. His great
work by which he lives in literature is his translation of Homer. The
_Iliad_ was _pub._ in 1611, the _Odyssey_ in 1616, and the _Hymns_, etc.,
in 1624. The work is full of energy and spirit, and well maintains its
place among the many later translations by men of such high poetic powers
as Pope and Cowper, and others: and it had the merit of suggesting
Keats's immortal Sonnet, in which its name and memory are embalmed for
many who know it in no other way. C. also translated from Petrarch, and
completed Marlowe's unfinished _Hero and Leander_.


CHAPONE, HESTER (MULSO) (1727-1801).--Miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of a
gentleman of Northamptonshire, was _m._ to a solicitor, who _d._ a few
months afterwards. She was one of the learned ladies who gathered round
Mrs. Montague (_q.v._), and was the author of _Letters on the Improvement
of the Mind_ and _Miscellanies_.


CHARLETON, WALTER (1619-1707).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Oxf., was
titular physician to Charles I. He was a copious writer on theology,
natural history, and antiquities, and _pub._ _Chorea Gigantum_ (1663) to
prove that Stonehenge was built by the Danes. He was also one of the
"character" writers, and in this kind of literature wrote _A Brief
Discourse concerning the Different Wits of Men_ (1675).


CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770).--Poet, _b._ at Bristol, posthumous _s._
of a schoolmaster, who had been a man of some reading and antiquarian
tastes, after whose death his mother maintained herself and her boy and
girl by teaching and needlework. A black-letter Bible and an illuminated
music-book belonging to her were the first things to give his mind the
impulse which led to such mingled glory and disaster. Living under the
shadow of the great church of St. Mary Redcliffe, his mind was impressed
from infancy with the beauty of antiquity, he obtained access to the
charters deposited there, and he read every scrap of ancient literature
that came in his way. At 14 he was apprenticed to a solicitor named
Lambert, with whom he lived in sordid circumstances, eating in the
kitchen and sleeping with the foot-boy, but continuing his favourite
studies in every spare moment. In 1768 a new bridge was opened, and C.
contributed to a local newspaper what purported to be a contemporary
account of the old one which it superseded. This attracted a good deal of
attention. Previously to this he had been writing verses and imitating
ancient poems under the name of Thomas Rowley, whom he feigned to be a
monk of the 15th century. Hearing of H. Walpole's collections for his
_Anecdotes of Painting in England_, he sent him an "ancient manuscript"
containing biographies of certain painters, not hitherto known, who had
flourished in England centuries before. W. fell into the trap, and wrote
asking for all the MS. he could furnish, and C. in response forwarded
accounts of more painters, adding some particulars as to himself on which
W., becoming suspicious, submitted the whole to T. Gray and Mason
(_q.v._), who pronounced the MS. to be forgeries. Some correspondence,
angry on C.'s part, ensued, and the whole budget of papers was returned.
C. thereafter, having been dismissed by Lambert, went to London, and for
a short time his prospects seemed to be bright. He worked with feverish
energy, threw off poems, satires, and political papers, and meditated a
history of England; but funds and spirits failed, he was starving, and
the failure to obtain an appointment as ship's surgeon, for which he had
applied, drove him to desperation, and on the morning of August 25, 1770,
he was found dead from a dose of arsenic, surrounded by his writings torn
into small pieces. From childhood C. had shown a morbid familiarity with
the idea of suicide, and had written a last will and testament, "executed
in the presence of Omniscience," and full of wild and profane wit. The
magnitude of his tragedy is only realised when it is considered not only
that the poetry he left was of a high order of originality and
imaginative power, but that it was produced at an age at which our
greatest poets, had they died, would have remained unknown. Precocious
not only in genius but in dissipation, proud and morose as he was, an
unsympathetic age confined itself mainly to awarding blame to his
literary and moral delinquencies. Posterity has weighed him in a juster
balance, and laments the early quenching of so brilliant a light. His
_coll._ works appeared in 1803, and another ed. by Prof. Street in 1875.
Among these are _Elinoure and Juga_, _Balade of Charitie_, _Bristowe
Tragedie_, _AElla_, and _Tragedy of Godwin_.

The best account of his life is the Essay by Prof. Masson.


CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1340?-1400).--Poet, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of
John C., a vintner of Thames Street, who had also a small estate at
Ipswich, and was occasionally employed on service for the King (Edward
III.), which doubtless was the means of his son's introduction to the
Court. The acquaintance which C. displays with all branches of the
learning of his time shows that he must have received an ample education;
but there is no evidence that he was at either of the Univ. In 1357 he
appears as a page to the Lady Elizabeth, wife of Lionel Duke of Clarence,
and in 1359 he first saw military service in France, when he was made a
prisoner. He was, however, ransomed in 1360. About 1366 he was married to
Philippa, _dau._ of Sir Payne Roet, one of the ladies of the Duchess of
Lancaster, whose sister Katharine, widow of Sir Hugh Swynford, became the
third wife of John of Gaunt. Previous to this he had apparently been
deeply in love with another lady, whose rank probably placed her beyond
his reach; his disappointment finding expression in his _Compleynt to
Pite_. In 1367 he was one of the valets of the King's Chamber, a post
always held by gentlemen, and received a pension of 20 marks, and he was
soon afterwards one of the King's esquires. In 1369 Blanche, the wife of
John of Gaunt, died, which gave occasion for a poem by C. in honour of
her memory, _The Dethe of Blaunche the Duchesse_. In the same year he
again bore arms in France, and during the next ten years he was
frequently employed on diplomatic missions. In 1370 he was sent to Genoa
to arrange a commercial treaty, on which occasion he may have met
Petrarch, and was rewarded by a grant in 1374 of a pitcher of wine daily.
In the same year he got from the corporation of London a lease for life
of a house at Aldgate, on condition of keeping it in repair; and soon
after he was appointed Comptroller of the Customs and Subsidy of Wool,
Skins, and Leather in the port of London; he also received from the Duke
of Lancaster a pension of L10. In 1375 he obtained the guardianship of a
rich ward, which he held for three years, and the next year he was
employed on a secret service. In 1377 he was sent on a mission to
Flanders to treat of peace with the French King. After the accession of
Richard II. in that year, he was sent to France to treat for the marriage
of the King with the French Princess Mary, and thereafter to Lombardy, on
which occasion he appointed John Gower (_q.v._) to act for him in his
absence in any legal proceedings which might arise. In 1382 he became
Comptroller of the Petty Customs of the port of London, and in 1385 was
allowed to appoint a deputy, which, enabled him to devote more time to
writing. He had in 1373 begun his _Canterbury Tales_, on which he was
occupied at intervals for the rest of his life. In 1386 C. was elected
Knight of the Shire for Kent, a county with which he appears to have had
some connection, and where he may have had property. His fortunes now
suffered some eclipse. His patron, John of Gaunt, was abroad, and the
government was presided over by his brother Gloucester, who was at feud
with him. Owing probably to this cause, C. was in December, 1386,
dismissed from his employments, leaving him with no income beyond his
pensions, on which he was obliged to raise money. His wife also died at
the same time. In 1389, however, Richard took the government into his own
hands, and prosperity returned to C., whose friends were now in power,
and he was appointed Clerk of the King's works. This office, however, he
held for two years only, and again fell into poverty, from which he was
rescued in 1394 by a pension from the King of L20. On the accession of
Henry IV. (1399) an additional pension of 40 marks was given him. In the
same year he took a lease of a house at Westminster, where he probably
_d._, October 25, 1400. He is buried in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey,
where a monument to him was erected by Nicholas Brigham, a minor poet of
the 16th century. According to some authorities he left two sons, Thomas,
who became a man of wealth and importance, and Lewis, who died young, the
little ten-year-old boy to whom he addressed the treatise on the
_Astrolabe_. Others see no evidence that Thomas was any relation of the
poet. An Elizabeth C., placed in the Abbey of Barking by John of Gaunt,
was probably his _dau._ In person C. was inclined to corpulence, "no
poppet to embrace," of fair complexion with "a beard the colour of ripe
wheat," an "elvish" expression, and an eye downcast and meditative.

Of the works ascribed to C. several are, for various reasons, of greater
or less strength, considered doubtful. These include _The Romaunt of the
Rose_, _Chaucer's Dream_, and _The Flower and the Leaf_. After his return
from Italy about 1380 he entered upon his period of greatest
productiveness: _Troilus and Criseyde_ (1382?), _The Parlement of Foules_
(1382?), _The House of Fame_ (1384?), and _The Legende of Goode Women_
(1385), belong to this time. The first of them still remains one of the
finest poems of its kind in the language. But the glory of C. is, of
course, the _Canterbury Tales_, a work which places him in the front rank
of the narrative poets of the world. It contains about 18,000 lines of
verse, besides some passages in prose, and was left incomplete. In it his
power of story-telling, his humour, sometimes broad, sometimes sly, his
vivid picture-drawing, his tenderness, and lightness of touch, reach
their highest development. He is our first artist in poetry, and with him
begins modern English literature. His character--genial, sympathetic, and
pleasure-loving, yet honest, diligent, and studious--is reflected in his
writings.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1340, fought in France 1359, by his marriage in 1366
became connected with John of Gaunt, employed on diplomatic missions
1369-79, Controller of Customs, etc., _c._ 1374, began _Canterbury Tales_
1373, elected to Parliament 1386, loses his appointments 1386, Clerk of
King's Works 1389-91, pensioned by Richard II. and Henry IV., _d._ _c._
1400.

The best ed. of C. is _The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer_ (6 vols.
1894), ed. by Prof. Skeat. Others are Thos. Wright's for the Percy
Society (1842), and Richard Morris's in Bell's Aldine Classics (1866).


CHERRY, ANDREW (1762-1812).--Dramatist, _s._ of a bookseller at Limerick,
was a successful actor, and managed theatres in the provinces. He also
wrote some plays, of which _The Soldier's Daughter_ is the best. His
chief claim to remembrance rests on his three songs, _The Bay of Biscay_,
_The Green Little Shamrock_, and _Tom Moody_.


CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, 4TH EARL OF (1694-1773).--Statesman
and letter-writer, was the eldest _s._ of the 3rd Earl. After being at
Trinity Coll., Camb., he sat in the House of Commons until his accession
to the peerage in 1726. He filled many high offices, including those of
Ambassador to Holland, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and Sec. of State. He
was distinguished for his wit, conversational powers, and grace of
manner. His place in literature is fixed by his well-known _Letters_
addressed to his natural son, Philip Dormer Stanhope. Though brilliant,
and full of shrewdness and knowledge of the world, they reflect the low
tone of morals prevalent in the age when they were written. He was the
recipient of Johnson's famous letter as to his "patronage."


CHETTLE, HENRY (1565-1607?).--Dramatist. Very little is known of him. He
ed. R. Greene's _Groat's-worth of Wit_ (1592), is believed to have
written 13 and collaborated in 35 plays. He also wrote two satires, _Kind
Harts Dreame_ (1593), and _Pierre Plainnes Prentship_ (1595). He was
imprisoned for debt 1599.

Among his own plays, which have considerable merit, is _Hoffmann_, which
has been reprinted, and he had a hand in _Patient Grissill_ (1603) (which
may have influenced Shakespeare in the _Merry Wives of Windsor_), _The
Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green_, and _Jane Shore_.


CHILD, FRANCIS J. (1825-1896).--English scholar, _b._ at Boston, Mass.,
was a prof. at Harvard, one of the foremost students of early English,
and especially of ancient ballads in America. He ed. the American ed. of
English Poets in 130 vols., and English and Scottish Ballads. He was also
a profound student of Chaucer, and _pub._ _Observations on the Language
of Chaucer_, and _Observations on the Language of Gower's Confessio
Amantis_.


CHILD, MRS. LYDIA MARIA (FRANCIS) (1802-1880).--Was the author of many
once popular tales, _Hobomok_, _The Rebels_, _Philothes_, etc.


CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644).--Theologian and controversialist,
_b._ and _ed._ at Oxf., was godson of Archbishop Laud. Falling into
theological doubts he subsequently became a convert to Roman Catholicism,
and studied at the Jesuit Coll. at Douay, 1630. In the following year he
returned to Oxf., and after further consideration of the points at issue,
he rejoined the Church of England, 1634. This exposed him to violent
attacks on the part of the Romanists, in reply to which he _pub._ in 1637
his famous polemic, _The Religion of the Protestants a Safe Way to
Salvation_, characterised by clear style and logical reasoning. For a
time he refused ecclesiastical preferment, but ultimately his scruples
were overcome, and he became Prebendary and Chancellor of Salisbury. C.
is regarded as one of the ablest controversialists of the Anglican
Church.


CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890).--Divine, historian, and biographer,
was _b._ at Lisbon, and _ed._ at Oxf., where he became a friend of J.H.
Newman (_q.v._). He took orders, and became Rector of Whatley, Somerset,
and in 1871 Dean of St. Paul's. He was a leading member of the High
Church party, but was held in reverence by many who did not sympathise
with his ecclesiastical views. Among his writings are _The Beginning of
the Middle Ages_ (1877), and a memoir on _The Oxford Movement_ (1891),
_pub._ posthumously. He also wrote Lives of Anselm, Dante, Spenser, and
Bacon.


CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764).--Satirist, _s._ of a clergyman, was _ed._
at Westminster School, and while still a schoolboy made a clandestine
marriage. He entered the Church, and on the death of his _f._ in 1758
succeeded him in the curacy and lectureship of St. John's, Westminster.
In 1761 he _pub._ the _Rosciad_, in which he severely satirised the
players and managers of the day. It at once brought him both fame and
money; but he fell into dissipated habits, separated from his wife, and
outraged the proprieties of his profession to such an extent that he was
compelled to resign his preferments. He also incurred the enmity of those
whom he had attacked, which led to the publication of two other satirical
pieces, _The Apology_ and _Night_. He also attacked Dr. Johnson and his
circle in _The Ghost_, and the Scotch in _The Prophecy of Famine_. He
attached himself to John Wilkes, on a visit to whom, at Boulogne, he _d._
of fever.


CHURCHYARD, THOMAS (1520?-1604).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, began
life as a page to the Earl of Surrey, and subsequently passed through
many vicissitudes as a soldier in Scotland, Ireland, France, and the Low
Countries. He was latterly a hanger-on at Court, and had a pension of
eighteenpence a day from Queen Elizabeth, which was not, however,
regularly paid. He wrote innumerable pamphlets and broadsides, and some
poems, of which the best are _Shore's Wife_ (1563), _The Worthiness of
Wales_ (1587) _repub._ by the Spenser Society (1871), and _Churchyard's
Chips_ (1575), an autobiographical piece.


CIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ in London, _s._ of
a Danish sculptor, and _ed._ at Grantham School. Soon after his return to
London he took to the stage. Beginning with tragedy, in which he failed,
he turned to comedy, and became popular in eccentric _roles_. In 1696 he
brought out his first play, _Love's Last Shift_, and produced in all
about 30 plays, some of which were very successful. In 1730 he was made
Poet Laureate, and wrote some forgotten odes of no merit, also an
entertaining autobiography. Pope made him the hero of the _Dunciad_.

Among other plays are _The Nonjuror_ (1717), _Woman's Wit_, _She Would
and She Would Not_, _The Provoked Husband_ (1728) (with Vanbrugh).


CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864).--Poet, _s._ of a cripple pauper, was _b._ at
Helpstone near Peterborough. His youth is the record of a noble struggle
against adverse circumstances. With great difficulty he managed to save
one pound, with which he was able to have a prospectus of his first book
of poems printed, which led to an acquaintance with Mr. Drury, a
bookseller in Stamford, by whose help the poems were _pub._, and brought
him L20. The book, _Poems descriptive of Rural Life_ (1820), immediately
attracted attention. Various noblemen befriended him and stocked a farm
for him. But unfortunately C. had no turn for practical affairs, and got
into difficulties. He, however, continued to produce poetry, and in
addition to _The Village Minstrel_, which had appeared in 1821, _pub._
_The Shepherd's Calendar_ (1827), and _Rural Muse_ (1835). Things,
however, went on from bad to worse; his mind gave way, and he _d._ in an
asylum. C. excels in description of rural scenes and the feelings and
ideas of humble country life.


CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, EARL of (1608-1674).--Lawyer, statesman, and
historian, _s._ of a country gentleman of good estate in Wiltshire, was
_b._ at Dinton in that county, and _ed._ at Oxf. Destined originally for
the Church, circumstances led to his being sent to London to study law,
which he did under his uncle, Sir Nicholas H., Chief Justice of the
King's Bench. In early life he was the friend of all the leading men of
the day. Entering Parliament in 1640 he at first supported popular
measures, but, on the outbreak of the Civil War, attached himself to the
King, and was the author of many of his state papers. From 1648 until the
Restoration C. was engaged in various embassies and as a counsellor of
Charles II., who made him in 1658 his Lord Chancellor, an office in which
he was confirmed at the Restoration, when he also became Chancellor of
the Univ. of Oxf., and was likewise raised to the peerage. His power and
influence came to an end, however, in 1667, when he was dismissed from
all his offices, was impeached, and had to fly to France. The causes of
his fall were partly the miscarriage of the war with Holland, and the
sale of Dunkirk, and partly the jealousy of rivals and the intrigues of
place hunters, whose claims he had withstood. In his enforced retirement
he engaged himself in completing his great historic work, _The History of
the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England_, which he had begun in 1641, and
which was not _pub._ until 1702-4. C.'s style is easy, flowing, diffuse,
and remarkably modern, with an occasional want of clearness owing to his
long and involved sentences. His great strength is in character-painting,
in which he is almost unrivalled. The _History_ was followed by a
supplementary _History of the Civil War in Ireland_ (1721). C. also wrote
an autobiography, _The Life of Edward Earl of Clarendon_ (1759), a reply
to the _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, and _An Essay on the Active and
Contemplative Life_, in which the superiority of the former is
maintained. C. _d._ at Rouen. He was a man of high personal character,
and great intellect and sagacity, but lacking in the firmness and energy
necessary for the troublous times in which he lived. His _dau._ Anne
married the Duke of York, afterwards James II., a connection which
involved him in much trouble and humiliation.

Agar Ellis's _Historical Enquiry respecting the Character of Clarendon_
(1827), _Life_ by T.H. Lister (1838), _History_ (Macray, 6 vols., 1888).


CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877).--Writer on Shakespeare, was a
publisher in London. He lectured on Shakespeare and on European
literature. Latterly he lived in France and Italy. His wife, MARY C.-C.
(1809-1898), _dau._ of V. Novello, musician, compiled a complete
_Concordance to Shakespeare_ (1844-45), and wrote _The Shakespeare Key_
(1879) and, with her husband, _Recollections of Writers_ (1878).


CLARKE, MARCUS (1846-1881).--Novelist, _b._ in London, the _s._ of a
barrister. After a somewhat wild youth he went to Australia where, after
more than one failure to achieve success in business, he took to
journalism on the staff of the _Melbourne Argus_, with brilliant results.
He wrote two novels, _Long Odds_ and _For the Term of his Natural Life_
(1874), the latter, which is generally considered his masterpiece,
dealing in a powerful and realistic manner with transportation and
convict labour. He also wrote many short tales and dramatic pieces. After
a turbulent and improvident life he _d._ at 35. In addition to the works
above mentioned, he wrote _Lower Bohemia in Melbourne_, _The Humbug
Papers_, _The Future Australian Race_. As a writer he was keen,
brilliant, and bitter.


CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729).--Divine and metaphysician, _b._ at Norwich,
was _ed._ at Camb., where he became the friend and disciple of Newton,
whose System of the Universe he afterwards defended against Leibnitz. In
1704-5 he delivered the Boyle lectures, taking for his subject, _The
Being and Attributes of God_, and assuming an intermediate position
between orthodoxy and Deism. In 1712 he _pub._ views on the doctrine of
the Trinity which involved him in trouble, from which he escaped by a
somewhat unsatisfactory explanation. He was, however, one of the most
powerful opponents of the freethinkers of the time. In addition to his
theological writings C. _pub._ an ed. of the _Iliad_, a Latin translation
of the _Optics_ of Newton, on whose death he was offered the Mastership
of the Mint, an office worth L1500 a year, which, however, he declined.
The talents, learning, and amiable disposition of C. gave him a high
place in the esteem of his contemporaries. In the Church he held various
preferments, the last being that of Rector of St. James's, Westminster.
He was also Chaplain to Queen Anne. His style is cold, dry, and precise.


CLEVELAND, JOHN (1613-1658).--Poet, _s._ of an usher in a charity school,
was _b._ at Loughborough, and _ed._ at Camb., where he became coll. tutor
and lecturer on rhetoric at St. John's, and was much sought after. A
staunch Royalist, he opposed the election of Oliver Cromwell as member
for Camb. in the Long Parliament, and was in consequence ejected from his
coll. in 1645. Joining the King, by whom he was welcomed, he was
appointed to the office of Judge Advocate at Newark. In 1646, however,
he was deprived of this, and wandered about the country dependent on the
bounty of the Royalists. In 1655 he was imprisoned at Yarmouth, but
released by Cromwell, to whom he appealed, and went to London, where he
lived in much consideration till his death. His best work is satirical,
giving a faint adumbration of _Hudibras_; his other poems, with
occasional passages of great beauty, being affected and artificial. The
_Poems_ were _pub._ in 1656.


CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852).--Chronologist, _b._ at Gamston, Notts,
_ed._ at Southwell, Westminster, and Oxf., where he devoted himself
chiefly to the study of Greek. Brought into Parliament by the Duke of
Newcastle in 1806, he took no active part in political life, and retired
in 1826. He bought in 1810 the estate of Welwyn, and there he entered
upon wide and profound studies bearing upon classical chronology, and
wrote various important treatises on the subject, viz., _Fasti Hellenici,
Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece_, part i. (1824), part ii.
(1827), part iii. (1830), part iv. (1841), _Fasti Romani, Civil and
Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople_, vol. i. (1850), vol. ii.
(1851), _An Epitome of the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece_
(1851), the same for Rome (1853). He also wrote a tragedy, _Solyman_,
which was a failure.


CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1819-1861).--Poet, _s._ of a cotton merchant in
Liverpool, he spent his childhood in America, but was sent back to
England for his education, which he received at Rugby and Oxf. While at
the Univ., where he was tutor and Fellow of Oriel, he fell under the
influence of Newman, but afterwards became a sceptic and resigned his
Fellowship in 1848. In the same year he _pub._ his poem, _The Bothie of
Tober-na-Vuolich_, written in hexameters. After travelling on the
Continent for a year, he was in 1849 appointed Warden of Univ. Hall,
London. In 1849 appeared _Amours de Voyage_, a rhymed novelette, and the
more serious work, _Dipsychus_. In 1854 he was appointed an examiner in
the Education Office, and married. His last appointment was as Sec. of a
Commission on Military Schools, in connection with which he visited
various countries, but was seized with illness, and _d._ at Florence. C.
was a man of singularly sincere character, with a passion for truth. His
poems, though full of fine and subtle thought, are, with the exception of
some short lyrics, deficient in form, and the hexameters which he
employed in _The Bothie_ are often rough, though perhaps used as
effectively as by any English verse-writer. M. Arnold's _Thyrsis_ was
written in memory of C.


COBBE, FRANCES POWER (1822-1904).--Theological and social writer, was
_b._ near Dublin. Coming under the influence of Theodore Parker, she
became a Unitarian. Her first work, _pub._ anonymously, was on _The
Intuitive Theory of Morals_ (1855). She travelled in the East, and _pub._
_Cities of the Past_ (1864). Later she became interested in social
questions and philanthropic work, and wrote many books on these and
kindred subjects, including _Criminals_, _Idiots_, _Women_ and _Minors_
(1869), _Darwinism in Morals_ (1872), and _Scientific Spirit of the Age_
(1888). She was a strong opponent of vivisection.


COBBETT, WILLIAM (1762-1835).--Essayist and political writer, _b._ at
Farnham, Surrey, _s._ of a small farmer, his youth was spent as a farm
labourer, a clerk, and in the army, in which his good conduct and
intelligence led to his promotion to the rank of sergeant-major. After
moving about between England and America, and alternating between
journalism and agriculture, in the former of which his daring opposition
to men in power got him into frequent trouble and subjected him to heavy
fines in both countries, he settled down in England in 1800, and
continued his career as a political writer, first as a Tory and then as a
Radical. His violent changes of opinion, and the force and severity with
which he expressed himself naturally raised up enemies in both camps. In
1817 he went back to America, where he remained for two years. Returning
he stood, in 1821, for a seat in Parliament, but was unsuccessful. In
1832, however, he was returned for Oldham, but made no mark as a speaker.
C. was one of the best known men of his day. His intellect was narrow,
but intensely clear, and he was master of a nervous and idiomatic English
style which enabled him to project his ideas into the minds of his
readers. His chief writings are _English Grammar_, _Rural Rides_, _Advice
to Young Men and Women_. His _Weekly Political Register_ was continued
from 1802 until his death.


COCKBURN, HENRY (1779-1854).--Scottish judge and biographer, _b._
(probably) and _ed._ in Edin., became a distinguished member of the
Scottish Bar, and ultimately a judge. He was also one of the leaders of
the Whig party in Scotland in its days of darkness prior to the Reform
Act of 1832. The life-long friend of Francis Jeffrey, he wrote his life,
_pub._ in 1852. His chief literary work, however, is his _Memorials of
his Time_ (1856), continued in his _Journal_ (1874). These constitute an
autobiography of the writer interspersed with notices of manners, public
events, and sketches of his contemporaries, of great interest and value.


COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1852).--Novelist, _b._ in London, is only remembered
as an author for his novel of _Valentine Vox_ (1840), the adventures of a
ventriloquist.


COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1883).--Mathematician and Biblical critic,
_b._ at St. Austell, Cornwall, and _ed._ at St. John's Coll., Camb.,
where he was a tutor, entered the Church, and _pub._ various mathematical
treatises and _Village Sermons_. In 1853 he was appointed first Bishop of
Natal. He mastered the Zulu language, introduced printing, wrote a Zulu
grammar and dictionary, and many useful reading-books for the natives.
His _Commentary on the Romans_ (1861) excited great opposition from the
High Church party, and his _Critical Examination of the Pentateuch_
(1862-1879), by its then extreme views, created great alarm and
excitement. He was in 1863 deposed and excommunicated by Bishop Gray of
Cape Town, but confirmed in his see by the Courts of Law. His theological
writings are now largely superseded; but his mathematical text-books, for
the writing of which he was much better equipped, hold their place.


COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849).--Poet, eldest _s._ of Samuel T.C.
(_q.v._), _b._ at Clevedon, spent his youth at Keswick among the "Lake
poets." His early education was desultory, but he was sent by Southey to
Oxf. in 1815. His talents enabled him to win a Fellowship, but the
weakness of his character led to his being deprived of it. He then went
to London and wrote for magazines. From 1823 to 1828 he tried keeping a
school at Ambleside, which failed, and he then led the life of a recluse
at Grasmere until his death. Here he wrote _Essays_, _Biographia
Borealis_ (lives of worthies of the northern counties) (1832), and a
_Life of Massinger_ (1839). He is remembered chiefly for his _Sonnets_.
He also left unfinished a drama, _Prometheus_.


COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834).--Poet, philosopher, and critic,
_s._ of the Rev. John C., vicar and schoolmaster of Ottery St. Mary,
Devonshire, was _b._ there in 1772, the youngest of 13 children. He was
at Christ's Hospital from 1782 to 1790, and had Charles Lamb for a
schoolfellow, and the famous scholar and disciplinarian, James Boyer, for
his master. Thence he proceeded to Jesus Coll., Camb., in 1791, where he
read much, but desultorily, and got into debt. The troubles arising
thence and also, apparently, a disappointment in love, led to his going
to London and enlisting in the 15th Dragoons under the name of Silas
Tomkyn Comberbacke. He could not, however, be taught to ride, and through
some Latin lines written by him on a stable door, his real condition was
discovered, his friends communicated with, and his release accomplished,
his brothers buying him off. After this escapade he returned (1794) to
Camb. He had by this time imbibed extreme democratic or, as he termed
them, pantisocratic principles, and on leaving Camb. in the same year he
visited Oxf., where he made the acquaintance of Southey, and discussed
with him a project of founding a "pantisocracy" on the banks of the
Susquehanna, a scheme which speedily fell through, owing firstly to want
of funds, and secondly to the circumstance of the two projectors falling
in love simultaneously with two sisters, Sarah and Edith Fricker, of whom
the former became, in 1795, the wife of C., and the latter of Southey. C.
had spent one more term at Camb., and there in Sept. 1794 his first work,
_The Fall of Robespierre_, a drama, to which Southey contributed two
acts, the second and third, was _pub._ After his marriage he settled
first at Clevedon, and thereafter at Nether Stowey, Somerset, where he
had Wordsworth for a neighbour, with whom he formed an intimate
association. About 1796 he fell into the fatal habit of taking laudanum,
which had such disastrous effects upon his character and powers of will.
In the same year _Poems on various Subjects_ appeared, and a little later
_Ode to the Departing Year_. While at Nether Stowey he was practically
supported by Thomas Poole, a tanner, with whom he had formed a
friendship. Here he wrote _The Ancient Mariner_, the first part of
_Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_, and here he joined with Wordsworth in
producing the _Lyrical Ballads_. Some time previously he had become a
Unitarian, and was much engaged as a preacher in that body, and for a
short time acted as a minister at Shrewsbury. Influenced by Josiah and
Thomas Wedgwood, who each in 1798 gave him an annuity of L75 on
condition of his devoting himself to literature, he resigned this
position, and soon afterwards went to Germany, where he remained for over
a year, an experience which profoundly influenced the future development
of his intellect. On his return he made excursions with Southey and
Wordsworth, and at the end of 1799 went to London, where he wrote and
reported for the _Morning Post_. His great translation of Schiller's
_Wallenstein_ appeared in 1800. In the same year he migrated to Greta
Hall, near Keswick, where he wrote the second part of _Christabel_. Soon
after this his health gave way, and he suffered much; and, whether as the
cause or the consequence of this, he had become a slave to opium. In 1804
he went to Malta in search of health, and there became the friend of the
governor, Sir Alexander Ball, who appointed him his sec., in which
position he showed remarkable capacity for affairs. Resigning this
occupation, of which he had become tired, he travelled in Italy, and in
the beginning of 1806 reached Rome, where he enjoyed the friendship of
Tieck, Humboldt, and Bunsen. He returned to England in the end of 1806,
and in 1808 delivered his first course of lectures on Shakespeare at the
Royal Institution, and thereafter (1809), leaving his family at Keswick,
he went to live with Wordsworth at Grasmere. Here he started _The
Friend_, a philosophical and theological periodical, which lasted for 9
months. That part of his annuity contributed by T. Wedgwood had been
confirmed to him by will in 1805, and this he allowed to his wife, but in
1811 the remaining half was stopped. He delivered a second course of
lectures in London, and in 1813 his drama, _Remorse_, was acted at Drury
Lane with success. Leaving his family dependent upon Southey, he lived
with various friends, first, from 1816 to 1819, with John Morgan at
Calne. While there he _pub._ _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_ in 1816, and
in 1817 _Biographia Literaria_, _Sybilline Leaves_, and an autobiography.
In 1818 he appeared for the last time as a lecturer. He found in 1819 a
final resting-place in the household of James Gillman, a surgeon, at
Highgate. His life thenceforth was a splendid wreck. His nervous system
was shattered, and he was a constant sufferer. Yet these last years were,
in some respects, his best. He maintained a struggle against opium which
lasted with his life, and though he ceased to write much, he became the
revered centre of a group of disciples, including such men as Sterling,
Maurice, and Hare, and thus indirectly continued and increased his
influence in the philosophic and theological thought of his time. He
returned to Trinitarianism, and a singular and childlike humility became
one of his most marked characteristics. In 1824 he was elected an
Associate of the Royal Society of Literature, which brought him a pension
of 100 guineas. His latest publications were _Aids to Reflection_ (1825)
and _The Constitution of Church and State_. After his death there were
_pub._, among other works, _Table Talk_ (1835), _Confessions of an
Enquiring Spirit_ (1840), _Letters_ and _Anima Poetae_ (1895).

Endowed with an intellect of the first order, and an imagination at once
delicate and splendid, C., from a weakness of moral constitution, and the
lamentable habit already referred to, fell far short of the performance
which he had planned, and which included various epic poems, and a
complete system of philosophy, in which all knowledge was to be
co-ordinated. He has, however, left enough poetry of such excellence as
to place him in the first rank of English poets, and enough philosophic,
critical, and theological matter to constitute him one of the principal
intellectually formative forces of his time. His knowledge of philosophy,
science, theology, and literature was alike wide and deep, and his powers
of conversation, or rather monologue, were almost unique. A description
of him in later life tells of "the clerical-looking dress, the thick,
waving, silver hair, the youthful coloured cheek, the indefinable mouth
and lips, the quick, yet steady and penetrating greenish-grey eye, the
slow and continuous enunciation, and the everlasting music of his tones."

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1772, _ed._ Christ's Hospital and Camb., enlists 1794 but
bought off, became intimate with Southey, and proposes to found
pantisocracy, settles at Clevedon and Nether Stowey 1795, and became
friend of Wordsworth, began to take opium 1796, writes _Ancient Mariner_,
and joins W. in _Lyrical Ballads_, became Unitarian preacher, visits
Germany 1798, _pub._ translation of _Wallenstein_ 1800, settles at Greta
Hall and finishes _Christabel_, goes to Malta 1804, lectures on
Shakespeare 1808, leaves his family and lives with W. 1809, and
thereafter with various friends, latterly with Gillman at Highgate,
returned to Trinitarianism, _pub._ various works 1808-1825, _d._ 1834.

_S.T. Coleridge, a Narrative_, J.D. Campbell (1893), also H.D. Traill
(Men of Letters Series, 1884), also Pater's _Appreciations_, De Quincey's
Works, Principal Shairp's _Studies in Poetry and Philosophy_ (1868).


COLERIDGE, SARA (1802-1852).--Miscellaneous writer, the only _dau._ of
the above, _m._ her cousin, Henry Nelson C. She translated Dobrizhoeffer's
_Account of the Abipones_, and _The Joyous and Pleasant History ... of
the Chevalier Bayard_. Her original works are _Pretty Lessons in Verse_,
etc. (1834), which was very popular, and a fairy tale, _Phantasmion_. She
also ed. her father's works, to which she added an essay on Rationalism.


COLET, JOHN (1467-1519).--Scholar and theologian, was _b._ in London, the
_s._ of a wealthy citizen, who was twice Lord Mayor. The only survivor of
a family of 22, he went to Oxf. and Paris, and thence to Italy, where he
learned Greek. He entered the Church, and held many preferments,
including the Deanery of St. Paul's. He continued to follow out his
studies, devoting himself chiefly to St. Paul's epistles. He was
outspoken against the corruptions of the Church, and would have been
called to account but for the protection of Archbishop Warham. He devoted
his great fortune to founding and endowing St. Paul's School. Among his
works are a treatise on the Sacraments and various devotional writings.
It is rather for his learning and his attitude to the advancement of
knowledge than for his own writings that he has a place in the history of
English literature.


COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726).--Church historian and controversialist, _b._
at Stow, Cambridgeshire, _ed._ at Ipswich and Camb., entered the Church,
and became Rector of Ampton, Suffolk, lecturer of Gray's Inn, London,
and ultimately a nonjuring bishop. He was a man of war from his youth,
and was engaged in controversies almost until his death. His first
important one was with Gilbert Burnet, and led to his being imprisoned in
Newgate. He was, however, a man of real learning. His chief writings are
his _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_ (1708-1714), and especially
his _Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage_
(1699), on account of which he was attacked by Congreve and Farquhar, for
whom, however, he showed himself more than a match. The work materially
helped towards the subsequent purification of the stage.


COLLINS, JOHN (_d._ 1808).--Actor and writer, was a staymaker, but took
to the stage, on which he was fairly successful. He also gave humorous
entertainments and _pub._ _Scripscrapologia_, a book of verses. He is
worthy of mention for the little piece, _To-morrow_, beginning "In the
downhill of life when I find I'm declining," characterised by Palgrave as
"a truly noble poem."


COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1908).--Writer on literature and critic, _b._
in Gloucestershire, and _ed._ at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and
Oxf., became in 1894 Prof. of English Literature at Birmingham. He wrote
books on _Sir J. Reynolds_ (1874), _Voltaire in England_ (1886),
_Illustrations of Tennyson_ (1891), and also on Swift and Shakespeare,
various collections of essays, _Essays and Studies_ (1895), and _Studies
in Poetry and Criticism_ (1905), etc., and he issued ed. of the works of
C. Tourneur, Greene, Dryden, Herbert of Cherbury, etc.


COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876).--Novelist, _s._ of a solicitor at
Plymouth, was for a time a teacher of mathematics in Guernsey. Settling
in Berkshire he adopted a literary life, and was a prolific author,
writing largely for periodicals. He also wrote a good deal of occasional
and humorous verse, and several novels, including _Sweet Anne Page_
(1868), _Two Plunges for a Pearl_ (1872), _Mr. Carrington_ (1873), under
the name of "R.T. Cotton," and _A Fight with Fortune_ (1876).


COLLINS, WILLIAM (1721-1759).--Poet, _s._ of a respectable hatter at
Chichester, where he was _b._ He was _ed._ at Chichester, Winchester, and
Oxf. His is a melancholy career. Disappointed with the reception of his
poems, especially his Odes, he sank into despondency, fell into habits of
intemperance, and after fits of melancholy, deepening into insanity, _d._
a physical and mental wreck. Posterity has signally reversed the judgment
of his contemporaries, and has placed him at the head of the lyrists of
his age. He did not write much, but all that he wrote is precious. His
first publication was a small vol. of poems, including the _Persian_
(afterwards called _Oriental_) _Eclogues_ (1742); but his principal work
was his _Odes_ (1747), including those to _Evening_ and _The Passions_,
which will live as long as the language. When Thomson died in 1748 C.,
who had been his friend, commemorated him in a beautiful ode.
Another--left unfinished--that on the _Superstitions of the Scottish
Highlands_, was for many years lost sight of, but was discovered by Dr.
Alex. Carlyle (_q.v._). C.'s poetry is distinguished by its high
imaginative quality, and by exquisitely felicitous descriptive phrases.

_Memoirs_ prefixed to Dyce's ed. of Poems (1827), Aldine ed., Moy Thomas,
1892.


COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824-1889).--Novelist, _s._ of William C., R.A.,
entered Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the Bar 1851, but soon
relinquished law for literature. His first novel was _Antonina_ (1850), a
historical romance. He found his true field, however, in the novel of
modern life, in which his power lies chiefly in the construction of a
skilful plot, which holds the attention of the reader and baffles his
curiosity to the last. In Count Fosco, however, he has contributed an
original character to English fiction. Among his numerous novels two,
_The Woman in White_ (1860), and _The Moonstone_ (1868), stand out
pre-eminent. Others are _The Dead Secret_ (1857), _Armadale_ (1866), _No
Name_ (1862), _After Dark, "I say No,"_ etc. He collaborated with Dickens
in _No Thoroughfare_.


COLMAN, GEORGE, THE ELDER (1732-1794).--Dramatist, _b._ at Florence,
where his _f._ was British Envoy, he was a friend of Garrick, and took to
writing for the stage with success. He wrote more than 30 dramatic
pieces, of which the best known are _The Jealous Wife_ (1761), and _The
Clandestine Marriage_ (1766). C. was also manager and part proprietor of
various theatres. He was a scholar and translated Terence and the _De
Arte Poetica_ of Horace, wrote essays, and ed. Beaumont and Fletcher and
B. Jonson.


COLMAN, GEORGE, THE YOUNGER (1762-1836).--Dramatist, _s._ of the
preceding, wrote or adapted numerous plays, including _The Heir at
Law_ and _John Bull_. He was Examiner of Plays (1824-1836). Many of his
plays are highly amusing, and keep their place on the stage. His wit made
him popular in society, and he was a favourite with George IV.


COLTON, CHARLES CALEB (1780-1832).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Eton
and Camb., took orders and held various livings. He was an eccentric man
of talent, with little or no principle, took to gaming, and had to leave
the country. He _d._ by his own hand. His books, mainly collections of
epigrammatic aphorisms and short essays on conduct, etc., though now
almost forgotten, had a phenomenal popularity in their day. Among them
are _Lacon, or Many Things in Few Words_, and a few poems.


COMBE, GEORGE (1788-1858).--Writer on phrenology and education, _b._ in
Edin., where for some time he practised as a lawyer. Latterly, however,
he devoted himself to the promotion of phrenology, and of his views on
education, for which he in 1848 founded a school. His chief work was _The
Constitution of Man_ (1828).


COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823).--Miscellaneous writer. His early life was
that of an adventurer, his later was passed chiefly within the "rules" of
the King's Bench prison. He is chiefly remembered as the author of _The
Three Tours of Dr. Syntax_, a comic poem (?). His cleverest piece of work
was a series of imaginary letters, supposed to have been written by the
second, or "wicked" Lord Lyttelton. Of a similar kind were his letters
between Swift and Stella. He also wrote the letterpress for various
illustrated books, and was a general hack.


CONGREVE, WILLIAM (1670-1729).--Dramatist, was _b._ in Yorkshire. In
boyhood he was taken to Ireland, and _ed._ at Kilkenny and at Trinity
Coll., Dublin. In 1688 he returned to England and entered the Middle
Temple, but does not appear to have practised, and took to writing for
the stage. His first comedy, _The Old Bachelor_, was produced with great
applause in 1693, and was followed by _The Double Dealer_ (1693), _Love
for Love_ (1695), and _The Way of the World_ (1700), and by a tragedy,
_The Mourning Bride_ (1697). His comedies are all remarkable for wit and
sparkling dialogue, but their profanity and licentiousness have driven
them from the stage. These latter qualities brought them under the lash
of Jeremy Collier (_q.v._) in his _Short View of the English Stage_.
Congreve rushed into controversy with his critic who, however, proved too
strong for him. C. was a favourite at Court, and had various lucrative
offices conferred upon him. In his latter years he was blind; otherwise
his life was prosperous, and he achieved his chief ambition of being
admired as a fine gentleman and gallant. _Life_, Gosse (1888). _Works_,
ed. by Henley (1895), also Mermaid Series (1888).


CONINGTON, JOHN (1825-1869).--Translator, _s._ of a clergyman at Boston,
Lincolnshire, where he was _b._, _ed._, at Rugby and Magdalen and Univ.
Coll., Oxf., and began the study of law, but soon relinquished it, and
devoting himself to scholarship, became Prof. of Latin at Oxf.
(1854-1869). His chief work is his translation of Virgil's _AEneid_ in the
octosyllabic metre of Scott (1861-68). He also translated the _Satires_
and _Epistles_ of Horace in Pope's couplets, and completed Worsley's
_Iliad_ in Spenserian stanza. He also brought out valuable ed. of Virgil
and Perseus. C. was one of the greatest translators whom England has
produced.


CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Robert C., _ed._ at
Camb., but becoming a Roman Catholic, went to Paris, and acted as an
agent for the Catholic powers. He _d._ at Liege. In 1592 he _pub._
_Diana_, a collection of sonnets, and contributed to _England's Helicon_
four poems, including _Diaphenia_ and _Venus and Adonis_. His style is
characterised by fervour and richness of colour.


COOKE, JOHN ESTEN (1830-1886).--Novelist, _b._ in Virginia, illustrated
the life and history of his native state in the novels, _The Virginia
Comedians_ (1854), and _The Wearing of the Gray_, a tale of the Civil
War, and more formally in an excellent History of the State. His style
was somewhat high-flown.


COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE (1789-1851).--Novelist, _b._ at Burlington, New
Jersey, and _ed._ at Yale Coll., he in 1808 entered the U.S. Navy, in
which he remained for 3 years, an experience which was of immense future
value to him as an author. It was not until 1821 that his first novel,
_Precaution_, appeared. Its want of success did not discourage him, and
in the next year (1822), he produced _The Spy_, which at once gained him
a high place as a story-teller. He wrote over 30 novels, of which may be
mentioned _The Pioneers_ (1823), _The Pilot_ (1823), _The Last of the
Mohicans_ (1826), _The Prairie_ (1826), _The Red Rover_ (1831), _The
Bravo_ (1840), _The Pathfinder_, _The Deerslayer_ (1841), _The Two
Admirals_ (1842), and _Satanstoe_ (1845). He also wrote a _Naval History
of the United States_ (1839). C. was possessed of remarkable narrative
and descriptive powers, and could occasionally delineate character. He
had the merit of opening up an entirely new field, and giving expression
to the spirit of the New World, but his true range was limited, and he
sometimes showed a lack of judgment in choosing subjects with which he
was not fitted to deal. He was a proud and combative but honest and
estimable man.


COOPER, THOMAS (1805-1892).--Chartist poet, was _b._ at Leicester, and
apprenticed to a shoemaker. In spite of hardships and difficulties, he
_ed._ himself, and at 23 was a schoolmaster. He became a leader and
lecturer among the Chartists, and in 1842 was imprisoned in Stafford gaol
for two years, where he wrote his _Purgatory of Suicides_, a political
epic. At the same time he adopted sceptical views, which he continued to
hold until 1855, when he became a Christian, joined the Baptists, and was
a preacher among them. In his latter years he settled down into an
old-fashioned Radical. His friends in 1867 raised an annuity for him, and
in the last year of his life he received a government pension. In
addition to his poems he wrote several novels. Somewhat impulsive, he was
an honest and sincere man.


CORBET, RICHARD (1582-1635).--Poet, _s._ of a gardener, was _ed._ at
Westminster School and Oxf., and entered the Church, in which he obtained
many preferments, and rose to be Bishop successively of Oxf. and Norwich.
He was celebrated for his wit, which not seldom passed into buffoonery.
His poems, which are often mere doggerel, were not _pub._ until after his
death. They include _Journey to France_, _Iter Boreale_, the account of a
tour from Oxf. to Newark, and the _Farewell to the Fairies_.


CORNWALL, BARRY, _see_ PROCTER, B.W.


CORY, WILLIAM JOHNSON (1823-1892).--Poet, _b._ at Torrington, and _ed._
at Eton, where he was afterwards a master. He was a brilliant writer of
Latin verse. His chief poetical work is _Ionica_, containing poems in
which he showed a true lyrical gift.


CORYATE, or CORYATT, THOMAS (1577-1617).--Poet, _b._ at Odcombe,
Somerset, and _ed._ at Westminster and Oxf., entered the household of
Prince Henry. In 1608 he made a walking tour in France, Italy, and
Germany, walking nearly 2000 miles in one pair of shoes, which were,
until 1702, hung up in Odcombe Church, and known as "the thousand mile
shoes." He gave an amusing account of this in his _Coryate's Crudities
hastily gobbled up_ (1611), prefixed to which were commendatory verses by
many contemporary poets. A sequel, _Coryate's Crambe_, or _Colewort twice
Sodden_ followed. Next year (1612) C. bade farewell to his
fellow-townsmen, and set out on another journey to Greece, Egypt, and
India, from which he never returned. He _d._ at Surat. Though odd and
conceited, C. was a close observer, and took real pains in collecting
information as to the places he visited.


COSTELLO, LOUISA STUART (1799-1877).--Poet and novelist, _b._ in Ireland,
lived chiefly in Paris, where she was a miniature-painter. In 1815 she
_pub._ _The Maid of the Cyprus Isle_, etc. (poems). She also wrote books
of travel, which were very popular, as were her novels, chiefly founded
on French history. Another work, _pub._ in 1835, is _Specimens of the
Early Poetry of France_.


COTTON, CHARLES (1630-1687).--Poet and translator, succeeded to an
embarrassed estate, which his happy-go-lucky methods did not improve,
wrote burlesques on _Virgil_ and _Lucian_, and made an excellent
translation of _Montaigne's Essays_, also a humorous _Journey to
Ireland_. C. was the friend of Izaak Walton, and wrote a second part of
_The Complete Angler_. He was apparently always in difficulties, always
happy, and always a favourite.


COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE (1571-1631).--Antiquary, _b._ at Denton, Hunts,
and _ed._ at Camb., was a great collector of charters and records
throwing light upon English history, and co-operated with Camden
(_q.v._). Among his works are a history of the _Raigne of Henry III._
(1627). He was the collector of the Cottonian library, now in the British
Museum, and was the author of various political tracts.


COUSIN, ANNE ROSS (CUNDELL) (1824-1906).--Poetess, only _dau._ of D.R.
Cundell, M.D., Leith, _m._ 1847 Rev. Wm. Cousin, minister of the Free
Church of Scotland, latterly at Melrose. Some of her hymns, especially
"The Sands of Time are sinking," are known and sung over the
English-speaking world. A collection of her poems, _Immanuel's Land and
Other Pieces_, was _pub._ in 1876 under her initials A.R.C., by which she
was most widely known.


COVERDALE, MILES (1488-1568).--Translator of the Bible, _b._ in
Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Camb. Originally an Augustinian monk, he became a
supporter of the Reformation. In 1535 his translation of the Bible was
_pub._, probably at Zurich. It bore the title, _Biblia, the Bible: that
is the Holy Scripture of the Olde and New Testament faithfully and newly
translated out of the Doutche and Latyn into English_. C. was made Bishop
of Exeter in 1551, but, on the accession of Mary, he was imprisoned for
two years, at the end of which he was released and went to Denmark and
afterwards to Geneva. On the death of Mary he returned to England, but
the views he had imbibed in Geneva were adverse to his preferment. He
ultimately, however, received a benefice in London, which he resigned
before his death. Besides the Bible he translated many treatises of the
Continental Reformers.


COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667).--Poet, _s._ of a grocer or stationer in
London, where he was _b._ In childhood he was greatly influenced by
reading Spenser, a copy of whose poems was in the possession of his
mother. This, he said, made him a poet. His first book, _Poetic
Blossoms_ (1633), was _pub._ when he was only 15. After being at
Westminster School he went to Camb., where he was distinguished for his
graceful translations. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the
Royalists, was turned out of his college, and in 1646 followed the Queen
to Paris, where he remained for 10 or 12 years, during which he rendered
unwearied service to the royal family. At the Restoration he wrote some
loyal odes, but was disappointed by being refused the Mastership of the
Savoy, and retired to the country. He received a lease of Crown lands,
but his life in the country did not yield him the happiness he expected.
He is said by Pope to have _d._ of a fever brought on by lying in the
fields after a drinking-bout. The drinking-bout, however, is perhaps an
ill-natured addition. C.'s fame among his contemporaries was much greater
than that which posterity has accorded to him. His poems are marred by
conceits and a forced and artificial brilliancy. In some of them,
however, he sings pleasantly of gardens and country scenes. They comprise
_Miscellanies_, _The Mistress, or Love Poems_ (1647), _Pindaric Odes_,
and _The Davideis_, an epic on David (unfinished). He is at his best in
such imitations of Anacreon as _The Grasshopper_. His prose, especially
in his Essays, though now almost unread, is better than his verse; simple
and manly, it sometimes rises to eloquence. C. is buried in Westminster
Abbey near Spenser.

Ed., Grosart (1881), Waller (1903).


COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800).--Poet, was the _s._ of the Rev. John C.,
Rector of Great Berkhampstead, Herts, and Chaplain to George II. His
grandfather was a judge, and he was the grand-nephew of the 1st Earl C.,
the eminent Lord Chancellor. A shy and timid child, the death of his
mother when he was 6 years old, and the sufferings inflicted upon him by
a bullying schoolfellow at his first school, wounded his tender and
shrinking spirit irrecoverably. He was sent to Westminster School, where
he had for schoolfellows Churchill, the poet (_q.v._), and Warren
Hastings. The powerful legal influence of his family naturally suggested
his being destined for the law, and at 18 he entered the chambers of a
solicitor, where he had for a companion Thurlow, the future Chancellor, a
truly incongruous conjunction; the pair, however, seem to have got on
well together, and employed their time chiefly in "giggling and making
giggle." He then entered the Middle Temple, and in 1754 was called to the
Bar. This was perhaps the happiest period of his life, being enlivened by
the society of two cousins, Theodora and Harriet C. With the former he
fell in love; but his proposal of marriage was opposed by her _f._, who
had observed symptoms of morbidity in him, and he never met her again.
The latter, as Lady Hesketh, was in later days one of his most intimate
friends. In 1759 he received a small sinecure appointment as Commissioner
of Bankrupts, which he held for 5 years, and in 1763, through the
influence of a relative, he received the offer of the desirable office of
Clerk of the Journals to the House of Lords. He accepted the appointment,
but the dread of having to make a formal appearance before the House so
preyed upon his mind as to induce a temporary loss of reason, and he was
sent to an asylum at St. Albans, where he remained for about a year. He
had now no income beyond a small sum inherited from his _f._, and no aims
in life; but friends supplemented his means sufficiently to enable him to
lead with a quiet mind the life of retirement which he had resolved to
follow. He went to Huntingdon, and there made the acquaintance of the
Unwins, with whom he went to live as a boarder. The acquaintance soon
ripened into a close friendship, and on the death, from an accident
(1767), of Mr. U., C. accompanied his widow (the "Mary" of his poems) to
Olney, where the Rev. John Newton (_q.v._) was curate. N. and C. became
intimate friends, and collaborated in producing the well-known _Olney
Hymns_, of which 67 were composed by C. He became engaged to Mary Unwin,
but a fresh attack of his mental malady in 1773 prevented their marriage.
On his recovery he took to gardening, and amused himself by keeping pets,
including the hares "Tiny" and "Puss," and the spaniel "Beau,"
immortalised in his works. The chief means, however, which he adopted for
keeping his mind occupied and free from distressing ideas was the
cultivation of his poetic gift. At the suggestion of Mrs. U., he wrote
_The Progress of Error_; _Truth, Table Talk, Expostulation, Hope, Charity,
Conversation_, and _Retirement_ were added, and the whole were _pub._ in
one vol. in 1782. Though not received with acclamation, its signal merits
of freshness, simplicity, graceful humour, and the pure idiomatic English
in which it was written gradually obtained recognition, and the fame of
the poet-recluse began to spread. His health had now become considerably
re-established, and he enjoyed an unwonted measure of cheerfulness, which
was fostered by the friendship of Lady Austin, who had become his
neighbour. From her he received the story of John Gilpin, which he
forthwith turned into his immortal ballad. Hers also was the suggestion
that he should write a poem in blank verse, which gave its origin to his
most famous poem, _The Task_. Before it was _pub._, however, the intimacy
had, apparently owing to some little feminine jealousies, been broken
off. _The Task_ was _pub._ in 1785, and met with immediate and
distinguished success. Although not formally or professedly, it was, in
fact, the beginning of an uprising against the classical school of
poetry, and the founding of a new school in which nature was the teacher.
As Dr. Stopford Brooke points out, "Cowper is the first of the poets who
loves Nature entirely for her own sake," and in him "the idea of Mankind
as a whole is fully formed." About this time he resumed his friendship
with his cousin, Lady Hesketh, and, encouraged by her, he began his
translation of _Homer_, which appeared in 1791. Before this he had
removed with Mrs. U. to the village of Weston Underwood. His health had
again given way; and in 1791 Mrs. U. became paralytic, and the object of
his assiduous and affectionate care. A settled gloom with occasional
brighter intervals was now falling upon him. He strove to fight it by
engaging in various translations, and in revising his _Homer_, and
undertaking a new ed. of Milton, which last was, however, left
unfinished. In 1794 a pension of L300 was conferred upon him, and in 1795
he removed with Mrs. U., now a helpless invalid, to East Dereham. Mrs. U.
_d._ in the following year, and three years later his own death released
him from his heavy burden of trouble and sorrow. His last poem was _The
Castaway_, which, with its darkness almost of despair, shows no loss of
intellectual or poetic power. In addition to his reputation as a poet C.
has that of being among the very best of English letter-writers, and in
this he shows, in an even easier and more unstudied manner, the same
command of pure idiomatic English, the same acute observation, and the
same mingling of gentle humour and melancholy. In literature C. is the
connecting link between the classical school of Pope and the natural
school of Burns, Crabbe, and Wordsworth, having, however, much more in
common with the latter.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1731, _ed._ Westminster School, entered Middle Temple and
called to the Bar, 1754, appointed Clerk of Journals of House of Lords,
but mind gave way 1763, lives with the Unwins, became intimate with J.
Newton and with him writes _Olney Hymns_, _pub._ _Poems_ (_Progress of
Error_, etc.), 1782, _Task_ 1785, _Homer_ 1791, _d._ 1731.

The standard ed. of C.'s works is Southey's, with memoir (15 vols.
1834-37). Others are the Aldine (1865), the Globe (1870). There are
_Lives_ by Hayley (2 vols., 1805), Goldwin Smith (Men of Letters Series),
and T. Wright.


COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828).--Historian, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at
Eton and Camb. As tutor to various young men of family he travelled much
on the Continent, and _pub._ accounts of his journeys. His chief
historical work is his _Memoirs of the House of Austria_ (1807), and he
also wrote lives of Walpole, Marlborough, and others. He had access to
valuable original sources, and his books, though somewhat heavy, are on
the whole trustworthy, notwithstanding a decided Whig bias. He was a
clergyman, and _d._ Archdeacon of Wilts.


CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832).--Poet, _b._ at Aldborough, Suffolk, where his
_f._ was collector of salt dues, he was apprenticed to a surgeon, but,
having no liking for the work, went to London to try his fortune in
literature. Unsuccessful at first, he as a last resource wrote a letter
to Burke enclosing some of his writings, and was immediately befriended
by him, and taken into his own house, where he met Fox, Reynolds, and
others. His first important work, _The Library_, was _pub._ in 1781, and
received with favour. He took orders, and was appointed by the Duke of
Rutland his domestic chaplain, residing with him at Belvoir Castle. Here
in 1783 he _pub._ _The Village_, which established his reputation, and
about the same time he was presented by Lord Thurlow to two small
livings. He was now secured from want, made a happy marriage, and devoted
himself to literary and scientific pursuits. The _Newspaper_ appeared in
1785, and was followed by a period of silence until 1807, when he came
forward again with _The Parish Register_, followed by _The Borough_
(1810), _Tales in Verse_ (1812), and his last work, _Tales of the Hall_
(1817-18). In 1819 Murray the publisher gave him L3000 for the last named
work and the unexpired copyright of his other poems. In 1822 he visited
Sir Walter Scott at Edinburgh. Soon afterwards his health began to give
way, and he _d._ in 1832. C. has been called "the poet of the poor." He
describes in simple, but strong and vivid, verse their struggles,
sorrows, weaknesses, crimes, and pleasures, sometimes with racy humour,
oftener in sombre hues. His pathos, sparingly introduced, goes to the
heart; his pictures of crime and despair not seldom rise to the terrific,
and he has a marvellous power of painting natural scenery, and of
bringing out in detail the beauty and picturesqueness of scenes at first
sight uninteresting, or even uninviting. He is absolutely free from
affectation or sentimentality, and may be regarded as one of the greatest
masters of the realistic in our literature. With these merits he has
certain faults, too great minuteness in his pictures, too frequent
dwelling upon the sordid and depraved aspects of character, and some
degree of harshness both in matter and manner, and not unfrequently a
want of taste.

_Life_ prefixed to ed. of works by his son (1834), Ainger (Men of
Letters, 1903). Works (Ward, 3 vols., 1906-7).


CRAIGIE, MRS. PEARL MARY TERESA (RICHARDS) (1867-1906).--_Dau._ of John
Morgan, R. _b._ in Boston, Massachusetts. Most of her education was
received in London and Paris, and from childhood she was a great reader
and observer. At 19 she _m._ Mr. R.W. Craigie, but the union did not
prove happy and was, on her petition, dissolved. In 1902 she became a
Roman Catholic. She wrote, under the pseudonym of "John Oliver Hobbes," a
number of novels and dramas, distinguished by originality of subject and
treatment, brightness of humour, and finish of style, among which may be
mentioned _Some Emotions and a Moral_, _The Gods, Some Mortals and Lord
Wickenham_ (1895), _The Herb Moon_ and _The School for Saints_ (1897),
and _Robert Orange_ (1900), _The Dream and The Business_ (1907). Her
dramas include _The Ambassador_ and _The Bishop's Move_.


CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866).--Writer on English literature, etc.,
_b._ at Kennoway, Fife, and _ed._ at St. Andrews, went to London in 1824,
where he wrote largely for the "Society for the Promotion of Useful
Knowledge." In 1849 he was appointed Prof. of English Literature and
History at Belfast. Among his books are _The Pursuit of Knowledge under
Difficulties_ (1831), _History of British Commerce_ (1844), and _History
of English Literature and the English Language_ (1861). He was also joint
author of _The Pictorial History of England_, and wrote books on Spenser
and Bacon.


CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556).--Theologian and Churchman, _b._ at Aslacton,
Notts, _ed._ at Camb., and became an eminent classical and biblical
scholar. He supported Henry VIII. in his divorce proceedings against
Queen Catherine, gained the King's favour, and obtained rapid preferment,
ending with the Primacy. He was one of the chief promoters of the
Reformation in England. On the accession of Mary, he was committed to the
Tower, and after a temporary failure of courage and constancy, suffered
martyrdom at the stake. It is largely to C. that we owe the stately forms
of the Book of Common Prayer. He also wrote over 40 works, and composed
several hymns; but the influence of the Prayer-book in fixing the
language is his great, though indirect, service to our literature.

Fox's _Book of Martyrs_, Strype's _Memorials of Cranmer_, Hook's _Lives
of Archbishops of Canterbury_, etc.


CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613?-1649).--Poet, _s._ of William C., a Puritan
divine, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Charterhouse and Camb., where he
became a Fellow of Peterhouse, from which, however, he was, in 1643,
ejected for refusing to take the Solemn League and Covenant. Thereafter
he went to France, and joined the Roman communion. He suffered great
straits, being almost reduced to starvation, but was, through the
influence of Queen Henrietta Maria, appointed Sec. to Cardinal Palotta.
About 1649 he went to Italy, and in the following year became a canon of
the Church of Loretto. He _d._ the same year. C. is said to have been an
eloquent preacher, and was a scholar as well as a poet of a high order in
the ecstatic and transcendental style. His chief work is _Steps to the
Temple_ (1646), consisting mainly of religious poems somewhat in the
style of Herbert; his _Weeping of the Magdalen_ is full of the most
extravagant conceits, a fondness for which is, indeed, his besetting sin
as a poet. His friend Cowley commemorated him in a beautiful ode.


CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909).--Novelist and historian, _s._ of
Thomas C., an American sculptor, _b._ at Bagni di Lucca, Italy, and _ed._
in America, at Camb., and in Germany, he went to India and ed. _The
Indian Herald_ (1879-80). Thereafter he settled in Italy, living chiefly
at Sorrento, and becoming a Roman Catholic. His principal historical
works are _Ave Roma Immortalis_ (1898), _The Rulers of the South_
(reprinted as _Sicily, Calabria, and Malta_, 1904), and _Venetian
Gleanings_ (1905), but his reputation rests mainly on his novels, of
which he wrote between 30 and 40, the best known of which are perhaps
_Mr. Isaacs_ (1882), _Dr. Claudius_ (1883), _A Roman Singer_ (1884),
_Marzio's Crucifix_ (1887), _Saracinesca_ (1887), _A Cigarette-maker's
Romance_ (1890), generally considered his masterpiece, _Don Orsino_
(1892), _Pietro Ghisleri_ (1893), and _The Heart of Rome_ (1903). His one
play is _Francesca, da Rimini_. His novels are all interesting, and
written in a style of decided distinction. His historical works, though
full of information, lack spirit.


CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878).--Historian, _ed._ at Eton and
Camb., and called to the Bar in 1837, he became in 1840 Prof. of History,
London Univ., and in 1860 Chief Justice of Ceylon, when he was knighted.
His best known contribution to literature is his _Fifteen Decisive
Battles of the World_ (1852). Other works are _Historical and Critical
Account of the Several Invasions of England_ (1852), _History of the
Ottoman Turks_, and _Imperial and Colonial Institutions of the British
Empire_ (1872).


CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700).--Translator, _b._ near Sherborne, _ed._ at
Oxf., became Head Master of Sherborne School. He translated _Lucretius_
in verse (1682), for which he received a Fellowship at Oxf., also Horace,
Theocritus, and other classics. Owing to a disappointment in love and
pecuniary difficulties he hanged himself.


CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843-1901).--Churchman and historian, _b._ at
Carlisle, and _ed._ at Durham Grammar School and Merton Coll., Oxf., he
took orders, and was presented to the living of Embleton, Northumberland,
in 1875, where, in addition to zealous discharge of pastoral duties, he
pursued the historical studies on the results of which his reputation
chiefly rests. In 1882 the first two vols. of his _History of the Papacy_
appeared, followed by two more in 1887, and a fifth in 1894. In 1884 he
was appointed first Dixie Prof. of Ecclesiastical History at Camb. He ed.
the _English Historical Review_ (1886-91). In 1891, after having held
canonries at Worcester and Windsor, he became Bishop of Peterborough,
from which he was in 1897 translated to London. His duties as Bishop of
London made the completion of his great historical work an impossibility.
He wrote in addition to it various text-books on history, a life of Queen
Elizabeth, a memoir of Sir George Grey, and many articles and reviews. He
was recognised as a leading authority on the department of history to
which he had specially devoted himself, and he made his mark as a
Churchman.


CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857).--Politician and miscellaneous writer.
_Ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, he entered Parliament as a Tory, and was
appointed to various offices, including the Secretaryship of the
Admiralty, which he held for 20 years. He was one of the founders of the
_Quarterly Review_, and wrote some of its most violent political articles
and reviews. He _pub._ in 1831 an ed. of _Boswell's Life of Johnson_. He
also wrote some historical essays and satirical pieces.


CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854).--Irish Antiquary, _b._ at Cork, for
some years held a position in the Admiralty. He devoted himself largely
to the collection of ancient Irish poetry and folk-lore. Among his
publications are _Researches in the South of Ireland_ (1824), _Fairy
Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland_ (1825-27), _Popular Songs
of Ireland_ (1837), _Daniel O'Rourke_ (1829), and _Barney Mahoney_
(1832). He assisted in founding the "Camden" and "Percy" Societies.


CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860).--Poet, novelist, historian, and divine, _b._
at Dublin, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, he took orders and became
Rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, and had a high reputation as a
preacher. He wrote poems, dramas, satires, novels, history, and
theological works, and attained some measure of success in all. Perhaps
his best known works are his novels, _Salathiel_ (1829), founded on the
legend of "the wandering Jew," and _Mareton_ (1846). His chief
contribution to theological literature is an exposition of the
Apocalypse.


CROWE, CATHERINE (STEVENS) (1800-1876).--Wrote dramas, children's books,
and one or two novels, including _Susan Hopley_ (1841), and _Lilly
Dawson_ (1847), but is chiefly remembered for her _Night-side of Nature_
(1848), a collection of stories of the supernatural. Though somewhat
morbid she had considerable talent.


CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868).--Historian and novelist, _s._ of an
officer in the army, _b._ near Southampton, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll.,
Dublin. He wrote several novels, including _Vittoria Colonna_, _To-day in
Ireland_ (1825), _The English in France_ (1828), and _Charles Dalmer_
(1853). Among his historical works are a _History of France_ in
_Lardner's Cabinet Encyclopaedia_, afterwards enlarged and separately
_pub._, and a _History of Louis XVIII. and Charles X._


CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1825-1896).--Writer on art, _s._ of the above,
was _b._ in London. Most of his childhood was spent in France, and on his
return to England in 1843 he became a journalist. He was then for some
years engaged in educational work in India, and was afterwards war
correspondent for the _Times_ on various occasions, and filled various
important consular posts, for which he was in 1890 made K.C.M.G. In
collaboration with G.B. Cavalcasselle, an Italian refugee, he was the
author of several authoritative works on art, including _The Early
Flemish Painters_ (1856), _A New History of Painting in Italy_ (1864-68),
_A History of Painting in North Italy_ (1871), _Titian, His Life and
Times_ (1877), and _Raphael, His Life and Works_ (1883-85). The actual
writing of all these was the work of C.


CROWE, WILLIAM (1745-1829).--Poet, _b._ at Midgham, Berks, the _s._ of a
carpenter, was _ed._ as a foundationer at Winchester, whence he proceeded
to Oxf., where he became Public Orator. He wrote a smooth, but somewhat
conventional poem, _Lewesdon Hill_ (1789), ed. Collins's Poems (1828),
and lectured on poetry at the Royal Institution. His poems were _coll._
in 1827. C. was a clergyman and Rector of Alton Barnes, Wilts.


CROWNE, JOHN (1640?-1703).--Dramatist, returned from Nova Scotia, to
which his _f._, a Nonconformist minister, had emigrated, and became
gentleman usher to a lady of quality. His first play, _Juliana_, appeared
in 1671. He wrote in all about 17 dramatic pieces, of which the best is
_Sir Courtly Nice_ (1685), adapted from the Spanish. It is amusing, and
enjoyed a long continued vogue. In general, however, C. is dull.


CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688).--Divine and philosopher, _b._ at Aller,
Somerset, and _ed._ at Camb., where, after being a tutor, he became
Master of Clare Hall 1645, Prof. of Hebrew (1645-88), and Master of
Christ's Coll., 1654. His great work is _The True Intellectual System of
the Universe_ (1678). A work of vast learning and acuteness, it is
directed against the infidelity of the age. C.'s candour in his statement
of the opposing position was so remarkable that Dryden remarked "that he
raised such strong objections against the being of a God and Providence
that many thought he had not answered them." He also left in MS. a
_Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality_, _pub._ in 1731.


CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811).--Novelist and dramatist, _ed._ at
Westminster and Camb., entered the diplomatic service, and filled several
government appointments. His best play is _The West Indian_. His novels
do not rise much above mediocrity. Along with Sir J.B. Burges he wrote an
epic entitled _The Exodiad_, and he also made some translations from the
Greek.


CUMMINS, MARIA SUSANNA (1827-1866).--_B._ at Salem, Mass., was well-known
as the authoress of _The Lamplighter_, a somewhat sentimental tale which
had very wide popularity. She wrote others, including _Mabel Vaughan_,
none of which had the same success.


CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, _b._ near
Dalswinton, Dumfriesshire, in his youth knew Burns, who was a friend of
his father's. He was apprenticed to a stonemason, but gave his leisure to
reading and writing imitations of old Scottish ballads, which he
contributed to Cromek's _Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway Song_, _pub._
in 1810, and which gained for him the friendship of Scott and Hogg.
Thereafter he went to London, and became a parliamentary reporter, and
subsequently assistant to Chantrey, the sculptor, but continued his
literary labours, writing three novels, a life of Sir D. Wilkie, and
_Lives of Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects_, besides
many songs, of which the best is _A wet sheet and a flowing Sea_. He also
brought out an ed. of Burns's Works. He had four sons, all of whom rose
to important positions, and inherited in some degree his literary gifts.


CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1824-1892).--American essayist, editor, and
journalist, contributed to _New York Tribune_, and to _Putnam's_ and
_Harper's_ monthlies, in which most of his books first appeared. Among
these are _Trumps_, a story of New York life, _Prue and I_,
_Lotus-eating_, and the _Potiphar Papers_. C. was also one of the
finest American orators of his day.


CYNEWULF (_fl._ 750).--Anglo-Saxon poet. He was probably a Northumbrian,
though sometimes thought to have been a Mercian. His poems, and some
others, more or less doubtfully attributed to him, are contained in the
Exeter Book and the Vercelli Book. The poems which are considered to be
certainly his are the _Riddles_, from hints and allusions in which is
derived nearly all that is known of him, or at least of the earlier part
of his life, which appears to have been that of a joyous and poetical
nature, rejoicing in the beauty of the world. His next poem, _Juliana_,
the legend of a virgin-martyr, indicates a transition in his spiritual
life; sorrow and repentance are its predominant notes, and in these
respects another poem, _St. Guthlac_, resembles it. In the _Crist_
(Christ), C. has passed through the clouds to an assured faith and peace.
_The Phoenix_, and the second part of _Guthlac_, though not certainly
his, are generally attributed to him. _The Fates of the Apostles_ and
_Elene_ (the legend of St. Helena) are his; the _Andreas_ and _The Dream
of the Roode_ are still in some respects the subject of controversy. In
several of the poems the separate letters of C.'s name are introduced in
a peculiar manner, and are regarded as an attesting signature. _Juliana_,
_Crist_, _The Apostles_, and _Elene_ are thus said to be signed. The
Exeter and Vercelli Books are collections of ancient English poems, and
they are named from the places where they were found.


DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON EARLE BULWER, 1ST LORD
(1801-1872).--Elder brother of Lord Lytton (_q.v._), and a distinguished
diplomatist. He represented England at Madrid, Washington (where he
concluded the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty), Florence, Bucharest, and
Constantinople, and was raised to the peerage in 1871. He was the author
of a number of books of travel and biography, including _An Autumn in
Greece_ (1826), a _Life of Byron_ (1835), _Historical Characters_
(1868-70), and an unfinished life of Lord Palmerston.


DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652-1715).--Discoverer and buccaneer, _b._ near
Yeovil. After various seafaring adventures, and leading a semi-piratical
life, he was in 1688 marooned on Nicobar Island, but escaped to Acheen,
returned to England in 1691. He _pub._ his _Voyage Round the World_
(1697), and _A Discourse of Winds_ (1699). He was then employed by
government on a voyage of survey and discovery (1699-1700), in the course
of which he explored the north-west coast of Australia and the coasts of
New Guinea and New Britain. In 1701 he was wrecked upon Ascension Island,
from which he was rescued by an East Indiaman. He was afterwards
court-martialled for cruelty, and wrote an angry but unconvincing
vindication. His _Voyage_ is written in a style plain and homely, but is
perspicuous and interesting.


DANA, RICHARD HENRY (1787-1879).--Novelist and critic, _b._ at Camb.,
Mass., was called to the Bar in 1817. Among his novels are _Tom Thornton_
and _Paul Felton_, both somewhat violent and improbable tales, and his
poems, which are better, include _The Buccaneer_ (1827), and _The Dying
Raven_. He is, however, stronger as a critic than as a writer. He wrote
largely in _The North American Review_, and for a time conducted a paper,
_The Idle Man_, which contains some of his best work.


DANA, RICHARD HENRY, JR. (1815-1882).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of the
above, _ed._ at Harvard, but on his eyesight giving way shipped as a
common sailor, and gave his experiences in _Two Years before the Mast_
(1840). Called to the Bar in 1840, he became an authority on maritime
law. Other books by him are _The Seaman's Friend_ (1841), and _Vacation
Voyage to Cuba_ (1859).


DANIEL, SAMUEL (1562-1619).--Poet, _s._ of a music master, was _b._ near
Taunton, and _ed._ at Oxf., but did not graduate. He attached himself to
the Court as a kind of voluntary laureate, and in the reign of James I.
was appointed "Inspector of the children of the Queen's revels," and a
groom of the Queen's chamber. He is said to have enjoyed the friendship
of Shakespeare and Marlowe, but was "at jealousies" with Ben Jonson. In
his later years he retired to a farm which he owned in Somerset, where he
_d._ D. bears the title of the "well-languaged," his style is clear and
flowing, with a remarkably modern note, but is lacking in energy and
fire, and is thus apt to become tedious. His works include sonnets,
epistles, masques, and dramas. The most important of them is _The History
of the Civil Wars between York and Lancaster_ in 8 books, _pub._ in 1604.
His _Epistles_ are generally considered his best work, and his sonnets
have had some modern admirers. Among his poems may be mentioned the
_Complaynt of Rosamund_, _Tethys Festival_ (1610), and _Hymen's Triumph_
(1615), a masque, and _Musophilus_, a defence of learning, _Defence of
Rhyme_ (1602).


DARLEY, GEORGE (1795-1846).--Poet, novelist, and critic, _b._ at Dublin,
and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, he early decided to follow a literary
career, and went to London, where he brought out his first poem, _Errors
of Ecstasie_ (1822). He also wrote for the _London Magazine_, under the
pseudonym of John Lacy. In it appeared his best story, _Lilian of the
Vale_. Various other books followed, including _Sylvia, or The May
Queen_, a poem (1827). Thereafter he joined the _Athenaeum_, in which he
showed himself a severe critic. He was also a dramatist and a profound
student of old English plays, editing those of Beaumont and Fletcher in
1840. So deeply was he imbued with the spirit of the 17th century that
his poem, "It is not beauty I desire," was included by F.T. Palgrave in
the first ed. of his _Golden Treasury_ as an anonymous lyric of that age.
He was also a mathematician of considerable talent, and _pub._ some
treatises on the subject. D. fell into nervous depression and _d._ in
1846.


DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882).--Naturalist, _s._ of a physician, and
grandson of Dr. Erasmus D. (_q.v._), and of Josiah Wedgwood, the famous
potter, was _b._ and was at school at Shrewsbury. In 1825 he went to
Edin. to study medicine, but was more taken up with marine zoology than
with the regular curriculum. After two years he proceeded to Camb., where
he _grad._ in 1831, continuing, however, his independent studies in
natural history. In the same year came the opportunity of his life, his
appointment to accompany the _Beagle_ as naturalist on a survey of South
America. To this voyage, which extended over nearly five years, he
attributed the first real training of his mind, and after his return
_pub._ an account of it, _Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle_ (1840).
After spending a few years in London arranging his collections and
writing his _Journal_, he removed to Down, a retired village near the
Weald of Kent, where, in a house surrounded by a large garden, his whole
remaining life was passed in the patient building up, from accurate
observations, of his theory of Evolution, which created a new epoch in
science and in thought generally. His industry was marvellous, especially
when it is remembered that he suffered from chronic bad health. After
devoting some time to geology, specially to coral reefs, and exhausting
the subject of barnacles, he took up the development of his favourite
question, the transformation of species. In these earlier years of
residence at Down he _pub._ _The Structure and Distribution of Coral
Reefs_ (1842), and two works on the geology of volcanic islands, and of
South America. After he had given much time and profound thought to the
question of evolution by natural selection, and had written out his notes
on the subject, he received in 1858 from Mr. A.R. Wallace (_q.v._) a
manuscript showing that he also had reached independently a theory of the
origin of species similar to his own. This circumstance created a
situation of considerable delicacy and difficulty, which was ultimately
got over by the two discoverers presenting a joint paper, _On the
Tendency of Species to form Varieties_, and _On the Perpetuation of
Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection_. The publication in
1859 of _The Origin of Species_ gave D. an acknowledged place among the
greatest men of science, and the controversies which, along with other of
his works, it raised, helped to carry his name all over the civilised
world. Among his numerous subsequent writings may be mentioned _The
Fertilisation of Orchids_ (1862), _Variation of Plants and Animals under
Domestication_ (1868), _The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to
Sex_ (1871), _The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals_ (1872),
_Insectivorous Plants_ (1875), _Climbing Plants_ (1875), _Different Forms
of Flowers_ (1877), _The Power of Movement in Plants_ (1880), and _The
Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms_ (1881). D.,
with a modesty which was one of his chief characteristics, disclaimed for
himself the possession of any remarkable talents except "an unusual power
of noticing things which easily escape attention, and of observing them
carefully." In addition, however, to this peculiar insight, he had a
singular reverence for truth and fact, enormous industry, and great
self-abnegation: and his kindliness, modesty, and magnanimity attracted
the affection of all who knew him.

_Life and Letters_, by his son, F. Darwin, 3 vols., 1887; _C. Darwin and
the Theory of Natural Selection_. E.B. Poulton, 1896; various short Lives
by Grant Allen and others.


DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802).--Poet, physician, and scientist, was _b._ at
Elston, Notts, and _ed._ at Camb. and at Edin., where he took his degree
of M.D. He ultimately settled in Lichfield as a physician, and attained a
high professional reputation, so much so that he was offered, but
declined, the appointment of physician to George III. In 1778 he formed a
botanical garden, and in 1789 _pub._ his first poem, _The Loves of the
Plants_, followed in 1792 by _The Economy of Vegetation_, which combined
form _The Botanic Garden_. Another poem, _The Temple of Nature_, was
_pub._ posthumously. He also wrote various scientific works in prose. The
poems of D., though popular in their day, are now little read. Written in
polished and sonorous verse, they glitter with startling similes and
ingenious, though often forced, analogies, but have little true poetry or
human interest.


DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE (1817-1896).--Scandinavian scholar, _b._ in the
island of St. Vincent, of which his _f._ was Attorney-general, _ed._ at
Westminster School, King's Coll., London, and Oxf., he entered the
diplomatic service, and was for several years Sec. to the British Embassy
at Stockholm, where he became interested in Scandinavian literature and
mythology. Returning to England he was appointed Assistant Ed. of _The
Times_ (1845-1870). In 1852 he was called to the Bar, and in the
following year was appointed Prof. of English Literature and Modern
History at King's Coll., London, an office which he held for 13 years. He
was knighted in 1876. His principal writings have to do with Scandinavian
language, mythology, and folk-lore, and include an _Icelandic Grammar_,
_The Prose or Younger Edda_ (1842), _Popular Tales from the Norse_
(1859), _The Saga of Burnt Njal_ (1861), and _The Story of Gisli the
Outlaw_ (1866), mostly translated from the Norwegian of Asbjoernsen. He
also translated the Orkney and Hacon Sagas for the Rolls Series, and
wrote four novels, _Annals of an Eventful Life_, _Three to One_, _Half a
Life_, and _The Vikings of the Baltic_. His style is pointed and clear.


DAVENANT, or D'AVENANT, SIR WILLIAM (1606-1668).--Poet and dramatist, was
_b._ at Oxf., where his _f._ kept an inn, which Shakespeare was in the
habit of visiting. This had some influence on the future poet, who
claimed to be Shakespeare's natural son. D., _ed._ at Lincoln Coll., was
afterwards in the service of Lord Brooke, became involved in the troubles
of the Civil War, in which he took the Royalist side, and was imprisoned
in the Tower, escaped to France, and after returning was, in 1643,
knighted. Later D. was employed on various missions by the King and
Queen, was again in the Tower from 1650 to 1652, when he _pub._ his poem
_Gondibert_. He is said to have owed his release to the interposition of
Milton. In 1656 he practically founded the English Opera by his _Siege of
Rhodes_ (1656). In 1659 he was again imprisoned, but after the
Restoration he seems to have enjoyed prosperity and Royal favour, and
established a theatre, where he was the first habitually to introduce
female players and movable scenery. D. wrote 25 dramatic pieces, among
which are _Albovine, King of the Lombards_ (1629), _Platonick Lovers_
(1636), _The Wits_ (1633), _Unfortunate Lovers_ (1643), _Love and Honour_
(1649). None of them are now read; and the same may be said of
_Gondibert_, considered a masterpiece by contemporaries. D. succeeded Ben
Jonson as Poet Laureate, and collaborated with Dryden in altering (and
debasing) _The Tempest_. He _coll._ his miscellaneous verse under the
title of _Madagascar_. He is said to have had the satisfaction of
repaying in kind the good offices of Milton when the latter was in danger
in 1660. He joined with Waller and others in founding the classical
school of English poetry.


DAVIDSON, JOHN (1837-1909).--Poet and playwright, _b._ at Barrhead,
Renfrewshire, _s._ of a Dissenting minister, entered the chemical
department of a sugar refinery in Greenock in his 13th year, returning
after one year to school as a pupil teacher. He was afterwards engaged in
teaching at various places, and having taken to literature went in 1890
to London. He achieved a reputation as a writer of poems and plays of
marked individuality and vivid realism. His poems include _In a Music
Hall_ (1891), _Fleet Street Eclogues_ (1893), _Baptist Lake_ (1894), _New
Ballads_ (1896), _The Last Ballad_ (1898), _The Triumph of Mammon_
(1907), and among his plays are _Bruce_ (1886), _Smith: a Tragic Farce_
(1888), _Godfrida_ (1898). D. disappeared on March 27, 1909, under
circumstances which left little doubt that under the influence of mental
depression he had committed suicide. Among his papers was found the MS.
of a new work, _Fleet Street Poems_, with a letter containing the words,
"This will be my last book." His body was discovered a few months later.


DAVIES, JOHN (1565?-1618).--Called "the Welsh Poet," was a
writing-master, wrote very copiously and rather tediously on theological
and philosophical themes. His works include _Mirum in Modum_,
_Microcosmus_ (1602), and _The Picture of a Happy Man_ (1612). _Wit's
Bedlam_ (1617), and many epigrams on his contemporaries which have some
historical interest.


DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626).--Lawyer and poet, _s._ of a lawyer at
Westbury, Wiltshire, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., and became a
barrister of the Middle Temple, 1595. He was a member successively of the
English and Irish Houses of Commons, and held various legal offices. In
literature he is known as the writer of two poems, _Orchestra: a Poem of
Dancing_ (1594), and _Nosce Teipsum_ (Know Thyself), in two elegies (1)
Of Humane Knowledge (2) Of the Immortality of the Soul. The poem consists
of quatrains, each containing a complete and compactly expressed thought.
It was _pub._ in 1599. D. was also the author of treatises on law and
politics.


DAVIS, or DAVYS, JOHN (1550?-1605).--Navigator, known as D. of Sandridge
to distinguish him from another of the same name. He was one of the most
enterprising of the Elizabethan sailors, who devoted themselves to the
discovery of the North-west Passage. Davis Strait was discovered by, and
named after, him. He made many voyages, in the last of which he met his
death at the hands of a Japanese pirate. He was the author of a book, now
very scarce, _The World's Hydrographical Description_, and he also wrote
a work on practical navigation, _The Seaman's Secrets_, which had great
repute.


DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814-1845).--Poet, _b._ at Mallow, _ed._ at
Trinity Coll., Dublin, and called to the Irish Bar 1838. He was one of
the founders of _The Nation_ newspaper, and of the Young Ireland party.
He wrote some stirring patriotic ballads, originally contributed to _The
Nation_, and afterwards republished as _Spirit of the Nation_, also a
memoir of Curran the great Irish lawyer and orator, prefixed to an ed. of
his speeches; and he had formed many literary plans which were brought to
naught by his untimely death.


DAVY, SIR HUMPHREY (1778-1829).--Chemist and man of letters, _s._ of a
wood-carver, was _b._ at Penzance. He early showed an enthusiasm for
natural science, and continued to pursue his studies when apprenticed in
1795 to a surgeon. He became specially interested in chemistry, to which
in 1797 he began more exclusively to devote himself. Thereafter he
assisted Dr. Beddoes in his laboratory at Bristol, and entered upon his
brilliant course of chemical discovery. His _Researches, Chemical, and
Philosophical_ (1799), led to his appointment as Director of the Chemical
Laboratory at the Royal Institution, where he also delivered courses of
scientific lectures with extraordinary popularity. Thereafter his life
was a succession of scientific triumphs and honours. His great discovery
was that of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalis. He also
discovered various metals, including sodium, calcium, and magnesium. In
1812 he was knighted, and _m._ a wealthy widow. Thereafter he
investigated volcanic action and fire-damp, and invented the safety lamp.
In 1818 he was _cr._ a baronet, and in 1820 became Pres. of the Royal
Society, to which he communicated his discoveries in electro-magnetism.
In addition to his scientific writings, which include _Elements of
Agricultural Chemistry_ (1813), and _Chemical Agencies of Electricity_,
he wrote _Salmonia, or Days of Fly Fishing_ (1828), somewhat modelled
upon Walton, and _Consolations in Travel_ (1830), dialogues on ethical
and religious questions. D. sustained an apoplectic seizure in 1826,
after which his health was much impaired, and after twice wintering in
Italy, he _d._ at Geneva, where he received a public funeral. Though not
attached to any Church, D. was a sincerely religious man, strongly
opposed to materialism and scepticism. He holds a foremost place among
scientific discoverers.


DAY, JOHN (_b._ 1574).--Dramatist, _s._ of a Norfolk yeoman, was at
Camb., 1592-3. It is only since 1881 that his works have been identified.
He collaborated with Dekker and others in plays, and was the author of
_The Isle of Gulls_ (1606), _Law Trickes_ (1608), and _Humour out of
Breath_ (1608), also of an allegorical masque, _The Parliament of Bees_.


DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789).--Miscellaneous writer, was _b._ in London, _ed._
at the Charterhouse and at Oxf., and called to the Bar 1775, but having
inherited in infancy an independence, he did not practise. He became a
disciple of Rousseau in his social views, and endeavoured to put them in
practice in combination with better morality. He was a benevolent
eccentric, and used his income, which was increased by his marriage with
an heiress, in schemes of social reform as he understood it. He is
chiefly remembered as the author of the once universally-read _History of
Sandford and Merton_.


DEFOE, DANIEL (1661?-1731).--Journalist and novelist, _s._ of a butcher
in St. Giles, where he was _b._ His _f._ being a Dissenter, he was _ed._
at a Dissenting coll. at Newington with the view of becoming a
Presbyterian minister. He joined the army of Monmouth, and on its defeat
was fortunate enough to escape punishment. In 1688 he joined William III.
Before settling down to his career as a political writer, D. had been
engaged in various enterprises as a hosier, a merchant-adventurer to
Spain and Portugal, and a brickmaker, all of which proved so unsuccessful
that he had to fly from his creditors. Having become known to the
government as an effective writer, and employed by them, he was appointed
Accountant in the Glass-Duty Office, 1659-1699. Among his more important
political writings are an _Essay on Projects_ (1698), and _The True-born
Englishman_ (1701), which had a remarkable success. In 1702 appeared _The
Shortest Way with the Dissenters_, written in a strain of grave irony
which was, unfortunately for the author, misunderstood, and led to his
being fined, imprisoned, and put in the pillory, which suggested his
_Hymns to the Pillory_ (1704). Notwithstanding the disfavour with the
government which these disasters implied, D.'s knowledge of commercial
affairs and practical ability were recognised by his being sent in 1706
to Scotland to aid in the Union negotiations. In the same year _Jure
Divino_, a satire, followed by a _History of the Union_ (1709), and _The
Wars of Charles XII._ (1715). Further misunderstandings and
disappointments in connection with political matters led to his giving up
this line of activity, and, fortunately for posterity, taking to fiction.
The first and greatest of his novels, _Robinson Crusoe_, appeared in
1719, and its sequel (of greatly inferior interest) in 1720. These were
followed by _Captain Singleton_ (1720), _Moll Flanders_, _Colonel
Jacque_, and _Journal of the Plague Year_ (1722), _Memoirs of a Cavalier_
(1724), _A New Voyage Round the World_ (1725), and _Captain Carlton_
(1728). Among his miscellaneous works are _Political History of the
Devil_ (1726), _System of Magic_ (1727), _The Complete English Tradesman_
(1727), and _The Review_, a paper which he ed. In all he _pub._,
including pamphlets, etc., about 250 works. All D.'s writings are
distinguished by a clear, nervous style, and his works of fiction by a
minute verisimilitude and naturalness of incident which has never been
equalled except perhaps by Swift, whose genius his, in some other
respects, resembled. The only description of his personal appearance is
given in an advertisement intended to lead to his apprehension, and runs,
"A middle-sized, spare man about forty years old, of a brown complexion,
and dark brown-coloured hair, but wears a wig; a hooked nose, a sharp
chin, grey eyes, and a large mole near his mouth." His mind was a
peculiar amalgam of imagination and matter-of-fact, seeing strongly and
clearly what he did see, but little conscious, apparently, of what lay
outside his purview.

_Lives_ by Chalmers (1786), H. Morley (1889), T. Wright (1894), and
others; shorter works by Lamb, Hazlitt, L. Stephens, and Prof. Minto,
Bohn's _British Classics_, etc.


DEKKER, THOMAS (1570?-1641?).--Dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was
_b._ in London. Few details of D.'s life have come down to us, though he
was a well-known writer in his day, and is believed to have written or
contributed to over 20 dramas. He collaborated at various times with
several of his fellow-dramatists, including Ben Jonson. Ultimately Jonson
quarrelled with Marston and D., satirising them in _The Poetaster_
(1601), to which D. replied in _Satiromastix_ (1602). D.'s best play is
_Old Fortunatus_ (1606), others are _The Shoemaker's Holiday_ (1600),
_Honest Whore_ (1604), _Roaring Girl_ (1611), _The Virgin Martyr_ (1622)
(with Massinger), and _The Witch of Edmonton_ (1658) (with Ford and
Rowley), _History of Sir Thomas Wyat_, _Westward Ho_, and _Northward Ho_,
all with Webster. His prose writings include _The Gull's Hornbook_
(1609), _The Seven Deadly Sins of London_, and _The Belman of London_
(1608), satirical works which give interesting glimpses of the life of
his time. His life appears to have been a somewhat chequered one,
alternating between revelry and want. He is one of the most poetical of
the older dramatists. Lamb said he "had poetry enough for anything."


DE LOLME, JOHN LOUIS (1740?-1807).--Political writer, _b._ at Geneva, has
a place in English literature for his well-known work, _The Constitution
of England_, written in French, and translated into English in 1775. He
also wrote a comparison of the English Government with that of Sweden, a
_History of the Flagellants_ (1777), and _The British Empire in Europe_
(1787). He came to England in 1769, lived in great poverty, and having
inherited a small fortune, returned to his native place in 1775.


DELONEY, THOMAS (1543-1600).--Novelist and balladist, appears to have
worked as a silk-weaver in Norwich, but was in London by 1586, and in the
course of the next 10 years is known to have written about 50 ballads,
some of which involved him in trouble, and caused him to lie _perdue_ for
a time. It is only recently that his more important work as a novelist,
in which he ranks with Greene and Nash, has received attention. He
appears to have turned to this new field of effort when his original one
was closed to him for the time. Less under the influence of Lyly and
other preceding writers than Greene, he is more natural, simple, and
direct, and writes of middle-class citizens and tradesmen with a light
and pleasant humour. Of his novels, _Thomas of Reading_ is in honour of
clothiers, _Jack of Newbury_ celebrates weaving, and _The Gentle Craft_
is dedicated to the praise of shoemakers. He "dy'd poorely," but was
"honestly buried."


DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871).--Mathematician, _b._ in India, and _ed._
at Camb., was one of the most brilliant of English mathematicians. He is
mentioned here in virtue of his _Budget of Paradoxes_, a series of papers
originally _pub._ in _The Athenaeum_, in which mathematical fallacies are
discussed with sparkling wit, and the keenest logic.


DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669).--Poet, _s._ of the Chief Baron of Exchequer
in Ireland, was _b._ in Dublin, and _ed._ at Oxf. He began his literary
career with a tragedy, _The Sophy_ (1641), which seldom rises above
mediocrity. His poem, _Cooper's Hill_ (1642), is the work by which he is
remembered. It is the first example in English of a poem devoted to local
description. D. received extravagant praise from Johnson; but the place
now assigned him is a much more humble one. His verse is smooth, clear,
and agreeable, and occasionally a thought is expressed with remarkable
terseness and force. In his earlier years D. suffered for his Royalism;
but after the Restoration enjoyed prosperity. He, however, made an
unhappy marriage, and his last years were clouded by insanity. He was an
architect by profession, coming between Inigo Jones and Wren as King's
Surveyor.


DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734).--Critic, etc., _s._ of a saddler, was _b._ in
London, and _ed._ at Harrow and Caius Coll., Camb., from the latter of
which he was expelled for stabbing a fellow-student, and transferred
himself to Trinity Hall. He attached himself to the Whigs, in whose
interest he wrote several bitter and vituperative pamphlets. His attempts
at play-writing were failures; and he then devoted himself chiefly to
criticising the works of his contemporaries. In this line, while showing
some acuteness, he aroused much enmity by his ill-temper and jealousy.
Unfortunately for him, some of those whom he attacked, such as Pope and
Swift, had the power of conferring upon him an unenviable immortality.
Embalmed in _The Dunciad_, his name has attained a fame which no work of
his own could have given it. Of Milton, however, he showed a true
appreciation. Among his works are _Rinaldo and Armida_ (1699), _Appius
and Virginia_ (1709), _Reflections Critical and Satirical_ (1711), and
_Three Letters on Shakespeare_. He _d._ in straitened circumstances.


DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859).--Essayist and miscellaneous writer, _s._
of a merchant in Manchester, was _b._ there. The aristocratic "De" was
assumed by himself, his _f._, whom he lost while he was still a child,
having been known by the name of Quincey, and he claimed descent from a
Norman family. His _Autobiographic Sketches_ give a vivid picture of his
early years at the family residence of Greenheys, and show him as a
highly imaginative and over-sensitive child, suffering hard things at the
hands of a tyrannical elder brother. He was _ed._ first at home, then at
Bath Grammar School, next at a private school at Winkfield, Wilts, and
in 1801 he was sent to the Manchester Grammar School, from which he ran
away, and for some time rambled in Wales on a small allowance made to him
by his mother. Tiring of this, he went to London in the end of 1802,
where he led the strange Bohemian life related in _The Confessions_. His
friends, thinking it high time to interfere, sent him in 1803 to Oxf.,
which did not, however, preclude occasional brief interludes in London,
on one of which he made his first acquaintance with opium, which was to
play so prominent and disastrous a part in his future life. In 1807 he
became acquainted with Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, and soon
afterwards with C. Lamb. During the years 1807-9 he paid various visits
to the Lakes, and in the latter year he settled at Townend, Grasmere,
where Wordsworth had previously lived. Here he pursued his studies,
becoming gradually more and more enslaved by opium, until in 1813 he was
taking from 8000 to 12,000 drops daily. John Wilson (Christopher North),
who was then living at Elleray, had become his friend, and brought him to
Edinburgh occasionally, which ended in his passing the latter part of his
life in that city. His marriage to Margaret Simpson, _dau._ of a farmer,
took place in 1816. Up to this time he had written nothing, but had been
steeping his mind in German metaphysics, and out-of-the-way learning of
various kinds; but in 1819 he sketched out _Prolegomena of all future
Systems of Political Economy_, which, however, was never finished. In the
same year he acted as ed. of the _Westmoreland Gazette_. His true
literary career began in 1821 with the publication in the _London
Magazine_ of _The Confessions of an English Opium-Eater_. Thereafter he
produced a long series of articles, some of them almost on the scale of
books, in _Blackwood's_ and _Tait's_ magazines, the _Edinburgh Literary
Gazette_, and _Hogg's Instructor_. These included _Murder considered as
one of the Fine Arts_ (1827), and in his later and more important period,
_Suspiria De Profundis_ (1845), _The Spanish Military Nun_ (1847), _The
English Mail-Coach_, and _Vision of Sudden Death_ (1849). In 1853 he
began a _coll._ ed. of his works, which was the main occupation of his
later years. He had in 1830 brought his family to Edinburgh, which,
except for two years, 1841-43, when he lived in Glasgow, was his home
till his death in 1859, and in 1837, on his wife's death, he placed them
in the neighbouring village of Lasswade, while he lived in solitude,
moving about from one dingy lodging to another.

De Q. stands among the great masters of style in the language. In his
greatest passages, as in the _Vision of Sudden Death_ and the _Dream
Fugue_, the cadence of his elaborately piled-up sentences falls like
cathedral music, or gives an abiding expression to the fleeting pictures
of his most gorgeous dreams. His character unfortunately bore no
correspondence to his intellectual endowments. His moral system had in
fact been shattered by indulgence in opium. His appearance and manners
have been thus described: "A short and fragile, but well-proportioned
frame; a shapely and compact head; a face beaming with intellectual
light, with rare, almost feminine beauty of feature and complexion; a
fascinating courtesy of manner, and a fulness, swiftness, and elegance of
silvery speech." His own works give very detailed information regarding
himself. _See_ also Page's _Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings_
(1879), Prof. Masson's _De Quincey_ (English Men of Letters). _Collected
Writings_ (14 vols. 1889-90).


DERMODY, THOMAS (1775-1802).--Poet, _b._ at Ennis, showed great capacity
for learning, but fell into idle and dissipated habits, and threw away
his opportunities. He _pub._ two books of poems, which after his death
were _coll._ as _The Harp of Erin_.


DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Aubrey de V.,
himself a poet, was _b._ in Co. Limerick, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll.,
Dublin. In early life he became acquainted with Wordsworth, by whom he
was greatly influenced. On the religious and ecclesiastical side he
passed under the influence of Newman and Manning, and in 1851 was
received into the Church of Rome. He was the author of many vols. of
poetry, including _The Waldenses_ (1842), _The Search for Proserpine_
(1843), etc. In 1861 he began a series of poems on Irish subjects,
_Inisfail_, _The Infant Bridal_, _Irish Odes_, etc. His interest in
Ireland and its people led him to write prose works, including _English
Misrule and Irish Misdeeds_ (1848); and to criticism he contributed
_Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887). His last work was his _Recollections_
(1897). His poetry is characterised by lofty ethical tone, imaginative
power, and grave stateliness of expression.


DIBDIN, CHARLES (1745-1814).--Dramatist and song writer, _b._ at
Southampton, began his literary career at 16 with a drama, _The
Shepherd's Artifice_. His fame, however, rests on his sea songs, which
are unrivalled, and include _Tom Bowling_, _Poor Jack_, and _Blow High
Blow Low_. He is said to have written over 1200 of these, besides many
dramatic pieces and two novels, _Hannah Hewitt_ (1792), and _The Younger
Brother_ (1793), and a _History of the Stage_ (1795).


DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870).--Novelist, _b._ at Landport, near
Portsmouth, where his _f._ was a clerk in the Navy Pay-Office. The
hardships and mortifications of his early life, his want of regular
schooling, and his miserable time in the blacking factory, which form the
basis of the early chapters of _David Copperfield_, are largely accounted
for by the fact that his _f._ was to a considerable extent the prototype
of the immortal Mr. Micawber; but partly by his being a delicate and
sensitive child, unusually susceptible to suffering both in body and
mind. He had, however, much time for reading, and had access to the older
novelists, Fielding, Smollett, and others. A kindly relation also took
him frequently to the theatre, where he acquired his life-long interest
in, and love of, the stage. After a few years' residence in Chatham, the
family removed to London, and soon thereafter his _f._ became an inmate
of the Marshalsea, in which by-and-by the whole family joined him, a
passage in his life which furnishes the material for parts of _Little
Dorrit_. This period of family obscuration happily lasted but a short
time: the elder D. managed to satisfy his creditors, and soon after
retired from his official duties on a pension. About the same time D. had
two years of continuous schooling, and shortly afterwards he entered a
law office. His leisure he devoted to reading and learning shorthand, in
which he became very expert. He then acted as parliamentary reporter,
first for _The True Sun_, and from 1835 for the _Morning Chronicle_.
Meanwhile he had been contributing to the _Monthly Magazine_ and the
_Evening Chronicle_ the papers which, in 1836, appeared in a _coll._ form
as _Sketches by Boz_; and he had also produced one or two comic
burlettas. In the same year he _m._ Miss Ann Hogarth; and in the
following year occurred the opportunity of his life. He was asked by
Chapman and Hall to write the letterpress for a series of sporting plates
to be done by Robert Seymour who, however, _d._ shortly after, and was
succeeded by Hablot Browne (Phiz), who became the illustrator of most of
D.'s novels. In the hands of D. the original plan was entirely altered,
and became the _Pickwick Papers_ which, appearing in monthly parts during
1837-39, took the country by storm. Simultaneously _Oliver Twist_ was
coming out in _Bentley's Miscellany_. Thenceforward D.'s literary career
was a continued success, and the almost yearly publication of his works
constituted the main events of his life. _Nicholas Nickleby_ appeared in
serial form 1838-39. Next year he projected _Master Humphrey's Clock_,
intended to be a series of miscellaneous stories and sketches. It was,
however, soon abandoned, _The Old Curiosity Shop_ and _Barnaby Rudge_
taking its place. The latter, dealing with the Gordon Riots, is, with the
partial exception of the _Tale of Two Cities_, the author's only
excursion into the historical novel. In 1841 D. went to America, and was
received with great enthusiasm, which, however, the publication of
_American Notes_ considerably damped, and the appearance of _Martin
Chuzzlewit_ in 1843, with its caustic criticisms of certain features of
American life, converted into extreme, though temporary, unpopularity.
The first of the Christmas books--the _Christmas Carol_--appeared in
1843, and in the following year D. went to Italy, where at Genoa he wrote
_The Chimes_, followed by _The Cricket on the Hearth_, _The Battle of
Life_, and _The Haunted Man_. In January, 1846, he was appointed first
ed. of _The Daily News_, but resigned in a few weeks. The same year he
went to Switzerland, and while there wrote _Dombey and Son_, which was
_pub._ in 1848, and was immediately followed by his masterpiece, _David
Copperfield_ (1849-50). Shortly before this he had become manager of a
theatrical company, which performed in the provinces, and he had in 1849
started his magazine, _Household Words_. _Bleak House_ appeared in
1852-53, _Hard Times_ in 1854, and _Little Dorrit_ 1856-57. In 1856 he
bought Gadshill Place, which, in 1860, became his permanent home. In 1858
he began his public readings from his works, which, while eminently
successful from a financial point of view, from the nervous strain which
they entailed, gradually broke down his constitution, and hastened his
death. In the same year he separated from his wife, and consequent upon
the controversy which arose thereupon he brought _Household Words_ to an
end, and started _All the Year Round_, in which appeared _A Tale of Two
Cities_ (1859), and _Great Expectations_ (1860-61). _Our Mutual Friend_
came out in numbers (1864-65). D. was now in the full tide of his
readings, and decided to give a course of them in America. Thither
accordingly he went in the end of 1867, returning in the following May.
He had a magnificent reception, and his profits amounted to L20,000; but
the effect on his health was such that he was obliged, on medical advice,
finally to abandon all appearances of the kind. In 1869 he began his last
work, _The Mystery of Edwin Drood_, which was interrupted by his death
from an apoplectic seizure on June 8, 1870.

One of D.'s most marked characteristics is the extraordinary wealth of
his invention as exhibited in the number and variety of the characters
introduced into his novels. Another, especially, of course, in his entire
works, is his boundless flow of animal spirits. Others are his marvellous
keenness of observation and his descriptive power. And the English race
may well, with Thackeray, be "grateful for the innocent laughter, and the
sweet and unsullied pages which the author of _David Copperfield_ gives
to [its] children." On the other hand, his faults are obvious, a tendency
to caricature, a mannerism that often tires, and almost disgusts, fun
often forced, and pathos not seldom degenerating into mawkishness. But at
his best how rich and genial is the humour, how tender often the pathos.
And when all deductions are made, he had the laughter and tears of the
English-speaking world at command for a full generation while he lived,
and that his spell still works is proved by a continuous succession of
new editions.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1812, parliamentary reporter _c._ 1835, _pub._ _Sketches
by Boz_ 1836, _Pickwick_ 1837-39, and his other novels almost
continuously until his death, visited America 1841, started _Household
Words_ 1849, and _All the Year Round_ 1858, when also he began his public
readings, visiting America again in 1867, _d._ 1870.

_Life_ by John Foster (1872), _Letters_ ed. by Miss Hogarth (1880-82).
Numerous Lives and Monographs by Sala, F.T. Marzials (Great Writers
Series), A.W. Ward (Men of Letters Series), F.G. Kitton, G.K. Chesterton,
etc.


DIGBY, SIR KENELM (1603-1665).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ near Newport
Pagnell, _s._ of Sir Everard D., one of the Gunpowder Plot conspirators,
was _ed._ at Oxf., travelled much, and was engaged in sea-fighting.
Brought up first as a Romanist, then as a Protestant, he in 1636 joined
the Church of Rome. During the Civil War he was active on the side of the
King, and on the fall of his cause was for a time banished. He was the
author of several books on religious and quasi-scientific subjects,
including one on the _Choice of a Religion_, on the _Immortality of the
Soul_, _Observations on Spenser's Faery Queen_, and a criticism on Sir T.
Browne's _Religio Medici_. He also wrote a _Discourse on Vegetation_, and
one _On the Cure of Wounds_ by means of a sympathetic powder which he
imagined he had discovered.


DILKE, CHARLES WENTWORTH (1789-1864).--Critic and writer on literature,
served for many years in the Navy Pay-Office, on retiring from which he
devoted himself to literary pursuits. He had in 1814-16 made a
continuation of Dodsley's _Collection of English Plays_, and in 1829 he
became part proprietor and ed. of _The Athenaeum_, the influence of which
he greatly extended. In 1846 he resigned the editorship, and assumed that
of _The Daily News_, but contributed to _The Athenaeum_ his famous papers
on _Pope_, _Burke_, _Junius_, etc., and shed much new light on his
subjects. His grandson, the present Sir C.W. Dilke, _pub._ these
writings in 1875 under the title, _Papers of a Critic_.


DISRAELI, B., (_see_ BEACONSFIELD).


D'ISRAELI, ISAAC (1766-1848).--Miscellaneous writer, was descended from a
Jewish family which had been settled first in Spain, and afterwards at
Venice. _Ed._ at Amsterdam and Leyden, he devoted himself to literature,
producing a number of interesting works of considerable value, including
_Curiosities of Literature_, in 3 series (1791-1823), _Dissertation on
Anecdotes_ (1793), _Calamities of Authors_ (1812), _Amenities of
Literature_ (1841); also works dealing with the lives of James I. and
Charles I.D. was latterly blind. He was the _f._ of Benjamin D., Earl of
Beaconsfield (_q.v._).


DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900).--Historian and poet, _s._ of Dr. James
D., a well-known Wesleyan minister and historian of Methodism, _ed._ at
King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Oxf., took Anglican orders, was
Second Master at Carlisle School, Vicar of Hayton and Warkworth, and
Canon of Carlisle. He _pub._ 7 vols. of poetry, but is best known for his
_History of the Church of England from the Abolition of Roman
Jurisdiction_ (1877-1900).


DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879).--Historian and traveller, _b._ near
Manchester, went to London in 1846, and became connected with _The Daily
News_, for which he wrote articles on social and prison reform. In 1850
he _pub._ _John Howard and the Prison World of Europe_, which had a wide
circulation, and about the same time he wrote a _Life of Peace_ (1851),
in answer to Macaulay's onslaught. Lives of _Admiral Blake_ and _Lord
Bacon_ followed, which received somewhat severe criticisms at the hands
of competent authorities. D. was ed. of _The Athenaeum_, 1853-69, and
wrote many books of travel, including _The Holy Land_ (1865), _New
America_ (1867), and _Free Russia_ (1870). His later historical works
include _Her Majesty's Tower_, and _The History of Two Queens_ (Catherine
of Arragon and Anne Boleyn). Though a diligent student of original
authorities, and sometimes successful in throwing fresh light on his
subjects, D. was not always accurate, and thus laid himself open to
criticism; and his book, _Spiritual Wives_, treating of Mormonism, was so
adversely criticised as to lead to an action. He wrote, however, in a
fresh and interesting style. He was one of the founders of the Palestine
Exploration Fund, and was a member of the first School Board for London
(1870). He was called to the Bar in 1854, but never practised.


DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON (1824-1874).--Poet, _b._ at Cranbrook, Kent, _s._
of a wine-merchant, who removed to Cheltenham, where most of the poet's
life was passed. His youth was precocious (he was engaged at 15 and _m._
at 20). In 1850 his first work, _The Roman_, appeared, and had great
popularity. _Balder, Part I._ (1854), _Sonnets on the War_, jointly with
Alexander Smith (_q.v._) (1855), and _England in Time of War_ (1856)
followed. His later years were passed in Scotland and abroad in search of
health, which, however, was damaged by a fall while exploring some ruins
at Pozzuoli. D.'s poems exhibit fancy and brilliancy of diction, but
want simplicity, and sometimes run into grandiloquence and other faults
of the so-called spasmodic school to which he belonged.


DODD, WILLIAM (1729-1777).--Divine and forger, _ed._ at Camb., became a
popular preacher in London, and a Royal Chaplain, but, acquiring
expensive habits, got involved in hopeless difficulties, from which he
endeavoured to escape first by an attempted simoniacal transaction, for
which he was disgraced, and then by forging a bond for L4200, for which,
according to the then existing law, he was hanged. Great efforts were
made to obtain a commutation of the sentence, and Dr. Johnson wrote one
of the petitions, but on D.'s book, _Thoughts in Prison_, appearing
posthumously, he remarked that "a man who has been canting all his days
may cant to the last." D. was the author of a collection of _Beauties of
Shakespeare_, _Reflections on Death_, and a translation of the _Hymns of
Callimachus_.


DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751).--Nonconformist divine and writer of
religious books and hymns, _b._ in London, and _ed._ for the ministry at
a theological institution at Kibworth, became minister first at Market
Harborough, and afterwards at Northampton, where he also acted as head of
a theological academy. D., who was a man of amiable and joyous character,
as well as an accomplished scholar, composed many standard books of
religion, of which the best known is _The Rise and Progress of Religion
in the Soul_ (1745). In 1736 he received the degree of D.D. from
Aberdeen. He _d._ at Lisbon, whither he had gone in search of health.
Several of his hymns, _e.g._, _Ye Servants of the Lord_, _O Happy Day_,
and _O God of Bethel_, are universally used by English-speaking
Christians, and have been translated into various languages.


DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ("LEWIS CARROLL") (1832-1898).--Mathematician
and writer of books for children, _s._ of a clergyman at Daresbury,
Cheshire, was _ed._ at Rugby and Oxf. After taking orders he was
appointed lecturer on mathematics, on which subject he _pub._ several
valuable treatises. His fame rests, however, on his books for children,
full of ingenuity and delightful humour, of which _Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland_, and its sequel, _Through the Looking-glass_, are the best.


DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764).--Poet, dramatist, and bookseller, _b._ near
Mansfield, and apprenticed to a stocking-weaver, but not liking this
employment, he ran away and became a footman. While thus engaged he
produced _The Muse in Livery_ (1732). This was followed by _The Toy
Shop_, a drama, which brought him under the notice of Pope, who
befriended him, and assisted him in starting business as a bookseller. In
this he became eminently successful, and acted as publisher for Pope,
Johnson, and Akenside. He projected and _pub._ _The Annual Register_, and
made a collection of _Old English Plays_, also of _Poems by Several
Hands_ in 6 vols. In addition to the original works above mentioned he
wrote various plays and poems, including _The Blind Beggar of Bethnal
Green_ (1741), and _Cleone_ (1758).


DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631).--Poet and divine, _s._ of a wealthy ironmonger
in London, where he was _b._ Brought up as a Roman Catholic, he was sent
to Oxf. and Camb., and afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn with a view to
the law. Here he studied the points of controversy between Romanists and
Protestants, with the result that he joined the Church of England. The
next two years were somewhat changeful, including travels on the
Continent, service as a private sec., and a clandestine marriage with the
niece of his patron, which led to dismissal and imprisonment, followed by
reconciliation. On the suggestion of James I., who approved of
_Pseudo-Martyr_ (1610), a book against Rome which he had written, he took
orders, and after executing a mission to Bohemia, he was, in 1621, made
Dean of St. Paul's. D. had great popularity as a preacher. His works
consist of elegies, satires, epigrams, and religious pieces, in which,
amid many conceits and much that is artificial, frigid, and worse, there
is likewise much poetry and imagination of a high order. Perhaps the best
of his works is _An Anatomy of the World_ (1611), an elegy. Others are
_Epithalamium_ (1613), _Progress of the Soul_ (1601), and _Divine Poems_.
Collections of his poems appeared in 1633 and 1649. He exercised a strong
influence on literature for over half a century after his death; to him
we owe the unnatural style of conceits and overstrained efforts after
originality of the succeeding age.


DORAN, JOHN (1807-1878).--Miscellaneous writer, of Irish parentage, wrote
a number of works dealing with the lighter phases of manners,
antiquities, and social history, often bearing punning titles, _e.g._,
_Table Traits with Something on Them_ (1854), and _Knights and their
Days_. He also wrote _Lives of the Queens of England of the House of
Hanover_ (1855), and _A History of Court Fools_ (1858), and ed. Horace
Walpole's _Journal of the Reign of George III._ His books contain much
curious and out-of-the-way information. D. was for a short time ed. of
_The Athenaeum_.


DORSET, CHARLES SACKVILLE, 6TH EARL of (1638-1706).--Poet, was one of the
dissolute and witty courtiers of Charles II., and a friend of Sir C.
Sedley (_q.v._), in whose orgies he participated. He was, however, a
patron of literature, and a benefactor of Dryden in his later and less
prosperous years. He wrote a few satires and songs, among the latter
being the well-known, _To all you Ladies now on Land_. As might be
expected, his writings are characterised by the prevailing indelicacy of
the time.


DORSET, THOMAS SACKVILLE, 1ST EARL of, AND LORD BUCKHURST
(1536-1608).--Poet and statesman, was _b._ at Buckhurst, Sussex, the only
_s._ of Sir Richard S., and _ed._ at Oxf. and Camb. He studied law at the
Inner Temple, and while there wrote, in conjunction with Thomas Norton,
_Ferren and Porrex_ or _Gerboduc_ (1561-2), the first regular English
tragedy. A little later he planned _The Mirror for Magistrates_, which
was to have been a series of narratives of distinguished Englishmen,
somewhat on the model of Boccaccio's _Falls of Princes_. Finding the plan
too large, he handed it over to others--seven poets in all being engaged
upon it--and himself contributed two poems only, one on _Buckingham_, the
confederate, and afterwards the victim, of Richard III., and an
_Induction_ or introduction, which constitute nearly the whole value of
the work. In these poems S. becomes the connecting link between Chaucer
and Spenser. They are distinguished by strong invention and imaginative
power, and a stately and sombre grandeur of style. S. played a prominent
part in the history of his time, and held many high offices, including
those of Lord Steward and Lord Treasurer, the latter of which he held
from 1599 till his death. It fell to him to announce to Mary Queen of
Scots the sentence of death.


DOUCE, FRANCIS (1757-1834).--Antiquary, _b._ in London, was for some time
in the British Museum. He _pub._ _Illustrations of Shakespeare_ (1807),
and a dissertation on _The Dance of Death_ (1833).


DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522).--Poet, 3rd _s._ of the 5th Earl of Angus,
was _b._ about 1474, and _ed._ at St. Andrews for the Church. Promotion
came early, and he was in 1501 made Provost of St. Giles, Edin., and in
1514 Abbot of Aberbrothock, and Archbishop of St. Andrews. But the times
were troublous, and he had hardly received these latter preferments when
he was deprived of them. He was, however, named Bishop of Dunkeld in 1514
and, after some difficulty, and undergoing imprisonment, was confirmed in
the see. In 1520 he was again driven forth, and two years later _d._ of
the plague in London. His principal poems are _The Palace of Honour_
(1501), and _King Hart_, both allegorical; but his great achievement was
his translation of the _AEneid_ in ten-syllabled metre, the first
translation into English of a classical work. D.'s language is more
archaic than that of some of his predecessors, his rhythm is rough and
unequal, but he had fire, and a power of vivid description, and his
allegories are ingenious and felicitous.

_Coll._ ed. of works by John Small, LL.D., 4 vols., 1874.


DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS (1810-1888).--Poet, belonged to a military
family which produced several distinguished officers, including his _f._,
who bore the same name. He was _b._ near Tadcaster, Yorkshire, and _ed._
at Eton and Oxf. Studying law he was called to the Bar in 1837, and
afterwards held various high fiscal appointments, becoming in 1869
Commissioner of Customs. In 1834 he _pub._ _Miscellaneous Verses_,
followed by _Two Destinies_ (1844), _Oedipus, King of Thebes_ (1849), and
_Return of the Guards_ (1866). He was elected in 1867 Prof. of Poetry at
Oxf. D.'s best work is his ballads, which include _The Red Thread of
Honour_, _The Private of the Buffs_, and _The Loss of the Birkenhead_. In
his longer poems his genuine poetical feeling was not equalled by his
power of expression, and much of his poetry is commonplace.


DRAKE, JOSEPH RODMAN (1795-1820).--Poet, _b._ at New York, studied
medicine, _d._ of consumption. He collaborated with F. Halleck in the
_Croaker Papers_, and wrote "The Culprit Fay" and "The American Flag."


DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882).--Historian, _b._ at St. Helen's,
Lancashire, emigrated to Virginia, and was a prof. in the Univ. of New
York. He wrote _History of the American Civil War_ (1867-70), _History of
the Intellectual Development of Europe_ (1863), and _History of the
Conflict between Science and Religion_ (1874), besides treatises on
various branches of science.


DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631).--Poet, _b._ in Warwickshire, was in early
life page to a gentleman, and was possibly at Camb. or Oxf. His earliest
poem, _The Harmonie of the Church_, was destroyed. His next was _The
Shepherd's Garland_ (1593), afterwards reprinted as _Eclogues_. Three
historical poems, _Gaveston_ (1593), _Matilda_ (1594), and _Robert, Duke
of Normandie_ (1596) followed, and he then appears to have collaborated
with Dekker, Webster, and others in dramatic work. His _magnum opus_,
however, was _Polyolbion_ (1613?), a topographical description of England
in twelve-syllabled verse, full of antiquarian and historical details, so
accurate as to make the work an authority on such matters. The rushing
verse is full of vigour and gusto. Other poems of D. are _The Wars of the
Barons_ (1603), _England's Heroical Epistles_ (1598) (being imaginary
letters between Royal lovers such as Henry II. and Rosamund), _Poems,
Lyric and Heroic_ (1606) (including the fine ballad of "Agincourt"),
_Nymphidia_, his most graceful work, _Muses Elizium_, and _Idea's
Mirrour_, a collection of sonnets, Idea being the name of the lady to
whom they were addressed. Though often heavy, D. had the true poetic
gift, had passages of grandeur, and sang the praises of England with the
heart of a patriot.


DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897).--Theological and scientific writer, _b._ at
Stirling, and _ed._ at Edin., he studied for the ministry of the Free
Church. Having a decided scientific bent he gave himself specially to the
study of geology, and made a scientific tour in the Rocky Mountains with
Sir A. Geikie. Some years later he undertook a geological exploration of
Lake Nyassa and the neighbouring country for the African Lakes
Corporation, and brought home a valuable Report. He also _pub._ _Tropical
Africa_, a vivid account of his travels. He became much associated with
the American evangelist, D.L. Moody, and became an extremely effective
speaker on religious subjects, devoting himself specially to young men.
His chief contribution to literature was his _Natural Law in the
Spiritual World_, which had extraordinary popularity. _The Ascent of Man_
was less successful. D. was a man of great personal fascination, and
wrote in an interesting and suggestive manner, but his reasoning in his
scientific works was by no means unassailable.


DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649).--Poet, was descended from a very ancient
family, and through Annabella D., Queen of Robert III., related to the
Royal House. _Ed._ at Edin. Univ., he studied law on the Continent, but
succeeding in 1610 to his paternal estate of Hawthornden, he devoted
himself to poetry. _Tears on the Death of Meliades_ (Prince Henry)
appeared in 1613, and in 1616 _Poems, Amorous, Funerall, Divine, etc._
His finest poem, _Forth Feasting_ (1617), is addressed to James VI. on
his revisiting Scotland. D. was also a prose-writer, and composed a
_History of the Five Jameses, Kings of Scotland from 1423-1524_, and _The
Cypress Grove_, a meditation on death. He was also a mechanical genius,
and patented 16 inventions. D., though a Scotsman, wrote in the classical
English of the day, and was the friend of his principal literary
contemporaries, notably of Ben Jonson, who visited him at Hawthornden, on
which occasion D. preserved notes of his conversations, not always
flattering. For this he has received much blame, but it must be
remembered that he did not _pub._ them. As a poet he belonged to the
school of Spenser. His verse is sweet, flowing, and harmonious. He
excelled as a writer of sonnets, one of which, on _John the Baptist_, has
a suggestion of Milton.

_Life_ by Prof. Masson (1873), _Three Centuries of Scottish Literature_,
Walker, 1893. _Maitland Club_ ed. of _Poems_ (1832).


DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700).--Poet, dramatist, and satirist, was _b._ at
Aldwincle Rectory, Northamptonshire. His _f._, from whom he inherited a
small estate, was Erasmus, 3rd _s._ of Sir Erasmus Driden; his mother was
Mary Pickering, also of good family; both families belonged to the
Puritan side in politics and religion. He was _ed._ at Westminster School
and Trinity Coll., Camb., and thereafter, in 1657, came to London. While
at coll. he had written some not very successful verse. His _Heroic
Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromwell_ (1658) was his first
considerable poem. It was followed, in 1660, by _Astraea Redux_, in honour
of the Restoration. The interval of 18 months had been crowded with
events, and though much has been written against his apparent change of
opinion, it is fair to remember that the whole cast of his mind led him
to be a supporter of _de facto_ authority. In 1663 he _m._ Lady Elizabeth
Howard, _dau._ of the Earl of Berkshire. The Restoration introduced a
revival of the drama in its most debased form, and for many years D. was
a prolific playwright, but though his vigorous powers enabled him to work
effectively in this department, as in every other in which he engaged, it
was not his natural line, and happily his fame does not rest upon his
plays, which are deeply stained with the immorality of the age. His first
effort, _The Wild Gallant_ (1663), was a failure; his next, _The Rival
Ladies_, a tragi-comedy, established his reputation, and among his other
dramas may be mentioned _The Indian Queene_, _Amboyna_ (1673), _Tyrannic
Love_ (1669), _Almanzar and Almahide_ (ridiculed in Buckingham's
_Rehearsal_) (1670), _Arungzebe_ (1675), _All for Love_ (an adaptation of
Shakespeare's _Antony and Cleopatra_) (1678). During the great plague,
1665, D. left London, and lived with his father-in-law at Charleton. On
his return he _pub._ his first poem of real power, _Annus Mirabilis_, of
which the subjects were the great fire, and the Dutch War. In 1668
appeared his _Essay on Dramatic Poetry_ in the form of a dialogue, fine
alike as criticism and as prose. Two years later (1670) he became Poet
Laureate and Historiographer Royal with a pension of L300 a year. D. was
now in prosperous circumstances, having received a portion with his wife,
and besides the salaries of his appointments, and his profits from
literature, holding a valuable share in the King's play-house. In 1671 G.
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, produced his _Rehearsal_, in ridicule of
the overdone heroics of the prevailing drama, and satirising D. as Mr.
Bayes. To this D. made no immediate reply, but bided his time. The next
years were devoted to the drama. But by this time public affairs were
assuming a critical aspect. A large section of the nation was becoming
alarmed at the prospect of the succession of the Duke of York, and a
restoration of popery, and Shaftesbury was supposed to be promoting the
claims of the Duke of Monmouth. And now D. showed; his full powers. The
first part of _Absalom and Achitophel_ appeared in 1681, in which Charles
figures as "David," Shaftesbury as "Achitophel," Monmouth as "Absalom,"
Buckingham as "Zimri," in the short but crushing delineation of whom the
attack of the _Rehearsal_ was requited in the most ample measure. The
effect; of the poem was tremendous. Nevertheless the indictment against
Shaftesbury for high treason was ignored by the Grand Jury at the Old
Bailey, and in honour of the event a medal was struck, which gave a title
to D.'s next stroke. His _Medal_ was issued in 1682. The success of these
wonderful poems raised a storm round D. Replies were forthcoming in
Elkanah Settle's _Absalom and Achitophel Transposed_, and Pordage's
_Azaria and Hushai_. These compositions, especially Pordage's, were
comparatively moderate. Far otherwise was Shadwell's _Medal of John
Bayes_, one of the most brutal and indecent pieces in the language. D.'s
revenge--and an ample one--was the publication of _MacFlecknoe_, a satire
in which all his opponents, but especially Shadwell, were held up to the
loathing and ridicule of succeeding ages, and others had conferred, upon
them an immortality which, however unenviable, no efforts of their own
could have secured for them. Its immediate effect was to crush and
silence all his assailants. The following year, 1683, saw the publication
of _Religio Laici_ (the religion of a layman). In 1686 D. joined the
Church of Rome, for which he has by some been blamed for time-serving of
the basest kind. On the other hand his consistency and conscientiousness
have by others been as strongly maintained. The change, which was
announced by the publication, in 1687 of _The Hind and the Panther, a
Defence of the Roman Church_, at all events did not bring with it any
worldly advantages. It was parodied by C. Montague and Prior in the _Town
and Country Mouse_. At the Revolution D. was deprived of all his pensions
and appointments, including the Laureateship, in which he was succeeded
by his old enemy Shadwell. His latter years were passed in comparative
poverty, although the Earl of Dorset and other old friends contributed by
their liberality to lighten his cares. In these circumstances he turned
again to the drama, which, however, was no longer what it had been as a
source of income. To this period belong _Don Sebastian_, and his last
play, _Love Triumphant_. A new mine, however, was beginning to be opened
up in the demand for translations which had arisen. This gave D. a new
opportunity, and he produced, in addition to translations from Juvenal
and Perseus, his famous "Virgil" (1697). About the same time appeared
_The Ode for St. Cecilia's Day_, and _Alexander's Feast_, and in 1700,
the year of his death, the _Fables_, largely adaptations from Chaucer and
Boccaccio. In his own line, that of argument, satire, and declamation, D.
is without a rival in our literature: he had little creative imagination
and no pathos. His dramas, which in bulk are the greatest part of his
work, add almost nothing to his fame; in them he was meeting a public
demand, not following the native bent of his genius. In his satires, and
in such poems as _Alexander's Feast_, he rises to the highest point of
his powers in a verse swift and heart-stirring. In prose his style is
clear, strong, and nervous. He seems to have been almost insensible to
the beauty of Nature.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1631, _ed._ Westminster and Camb., became prolific
playwright, _pub._ _Annus Mirabilis_ _c._ 1666, Poet Laureate 1667,
_pub._ _Absalom and Achitophel_ (part 1) 1681, _Medal_ 1682,
_MacFlecknoe_ 1682, _Religio Laici_ 1683, joined Church of Rome 1686,
_pub._ _Hind and Panther_ 1687, deprived of offices and pensions at
Revolution 1688, _pub._ translations including "Virgil" 1697, _St.
Cecilia's Day_ and _Alexander's Feast_ _c._ 1697, and _Fables_ 1700, when
he _d._

Sir W. Scott's ed. with _Life_ 1808, re-edited in 18 vols. by Prof.
Saintsbury (1883-93); Aldine ed. (5 vols., 1892), Johnson's _Lives of the
Poets_, etc.


DUFF, SIR MOUNTSTUART E. GRANT (1829-1906).--Miscellaneous writer, was
M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, and Lieut.-Governor of Madras. He _pub._
_Studies of European Politics_, books on Sir H. Maine, Lord de Tabley,
and Renan, and a series of _Notes from a Diary_, perhaps his most
interesting work.


DUFFERIN, HELEN SELENA (SHERIDAN), COUNTESS OF (1807-1867).--Eldest
_dau._ of Tom S., grand-daughter of Richard Brinsley S. (_q.v._), and
sister of Mrs. Norton (_q.v._). She and her two sisters were known as
"the three Graces," the third being the Duchess of Somerset. She shared
in the family talent, and wrote a good deal of verse, her best known
piece being perhaps _The Lament of the Irish Emigrant_, beginning "I'm
sittin' on the stile, Mary." She also wrote _Lispings from Low Latitudes,
or Extracts from the Journal of the Hon. Impulsia Gushington_, _Finesse,
or a Busy Day at Messina_, etc.


DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN (1816-1903).--Poet, _b._ in Monaghan, early took
to journalism, and became one of the founders of the _Nature_ newspaper,
and one of the leaders of the Young Ireland movement. Thereafter he went
to Australia, where he became a leading politician, and rose to be
Premier of Victoria. His later years were spent chiefly on the Continent.
He did much to stimulate in Ireland a taste for the national history and
literature, started _The Library of Ireland_, and made a collection, _The
Ballad Poetry of Ireland_, which was a great success. He also _pub._ an
autobiography, _My Life in Two Hemispheres_.


DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1686).--Herald and antiquary, was _b._ at
Coleshill, Warwickshire, and _ed._ at Coventry School. From early youth
he showed a strong bent towards heraldic and antiquarian studies, which
led to his appointment, in 1638, as a Pursuivant-extraordinary, from
which he rose to be Garter-King-at-Arms. In 1655, jointly with Roger
Dodsworth, he brought out the first vol. of _Monasticon Anglicanum_ (the
second following in 1661, and the third in 1673), containing the charters
of the ancient monasteries. In 1656 he _pub._ the _Antiquities of
Warwickshire_, which maintains a high place among county histories, and
in 1666 _Origines Judiciales_. His great work, _The Baronage of England_,
appeared in 1675-6. Other works were a _History of Imbanking and
Drayning_, and a _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_. All D.'s writings are
monuments of learning and patient investigation.


DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON (1834-1896).--Artist and
novelist, _b._ and _ed._ in Paris, in 1864 succeeded John Leech on the
staff of _Punch_. His three novels, _Peter Ibbetson_ (1891), _Trilby_
(1894), and _The Martian_ (1896), originally appeared in _Harper's
Magazine_.


DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1465?-1530?).--Poet, is believed to have been _b._ in
Lothian, and _ed._ at St. Andrews, and in his earlier days he was a
Franciscan friar. Thereafter he appears to have been employed by James
IV. in some Court and political matters. His chief poems are _The
Thrissil and the Rois (The Thistle and the Rose_) (1503), _The Dance of
the Seven Deadly Sins_, a powerful satire, _The Golden Targe_, an
allegory, and _The Lament for the Makaris_ (poets) (_c._ 1507). In all
these there is a vein of true poetry. In his allegorical poems he follows
Chaucer in his setting, and is thus more or less imitative and
conventional: in his satirical pieces, and in the _Lament_, he takes a
bolder flight and shows his native power. His comic poems are somewhat
gross. The date and circumstances of his death are uncertain, some
holding that he fell at Flodden, others that he was alive so late as
1530. Other works are _The Merle_ and _The Nightingale_, and the
_Flyting_ (scolding) of Dunbar and Kennedy. Mr. Gosse calls D. "the
largest figure in English literature between Chaucer and Spenser." He has
bright strength, swiftness, humour, and pathos, and his descriptive touch
is vivid and full of colour.


DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN (_c._ 1785-1842).--Historian, _s._ of a Lord Provost
of Glasgow, where and at Edin. he was _ed._, was called to the Bar in
1807, and became Sheriff of Renfrewshire. He wrote a _History of Fiction_
(1814), a _History of Roman Literature to the Augustan Age_ (1823-28),
and _Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II._
(1834). He also made translations from the Latin Anthology.


DUNS, SCOTUS JOHANNES (1265?-1308?).--Schoolman. The dates of his birth
and death and the place of his birth are alike doubtful. He may have been
at Oxf., is said to have been a regent or prof. at Paris, and was a
Franciscan. He was a man of extraordinary learning, and received the
sobriquet of Doctor Subtilis. Among his many works on logic and theology
are a philosophic grammar, and a work on metaphysics, _De Rerum
Principio_ (of the beginning of things). His great opponent was Thomas
Aquinas, and schoolmen of the day were divided into Scotists and
Thomists, or realists and nominalists.


D'URFEY, THOMAS (1653-1723).--Dramatist and song-writer, was a well-known
man-about-town, a companion of Charles II., and lived on to the reign of
George I. His plays are now forgotten, and he is best known in connection
with a collection of songs entitled, _Pills to Purge Melancholy_. Addison
describes him as a "diverting companion," and "a cheerful, honest,
good-natured man." His writings are nevertheless extremely gross. His
plays include _Siege of Memphis_ (1676), _Madame Fickle_ (1677),
_Virtuous Wife_ (1680), and _The Campaigners_ (1698).


DWIGHT, TIMOTHY (1752-1817).--Theologian and poet, _b._ at Northampton,
Mass., was a grandson of Jonathan Edwards, became a Congregationalist
minister, Prof. of Divinity, and latterly Pres. of Yale. His works
include, besides theological treatises and sermons, the following poems,
_America_ (1772), _The Conquest of Canaan_ (1785), and _The Triumph of
Infidelity_, a satire, admired in their day, but now unreadable.


DYCE, ALEXANDER (1798-1869).--Scholar and critic, _s._ of Lieut.-General
Alexander D., was _b._ in Edin., and _ed._ there and at Oxf. He took
orders, and for a short time served in two country curacies. Then,
leaving the Church and settling in London, he betook himself to his
life-work of ed. the English dramatists. His first work, _Specimens of
British Poetesses_, appeared in 1825; and thereafter at various intervals
ed. of Collins's _Poems_, and the dramatic works of _Peele, Middleton,
Beaumont and Fletcher, Marlowe, Greene, Webster_, and others. His great
ed. of _Shakespeare_ in 9 vols. appeared in 1857. He also ed. various
works for the Camden Society, and _pub._ _Table Talk of Samuel Rogers_.
All D.'s work is marked by varied and accurate learning, minute research,
and solid judgment.


DYER, SIR EDWARD (1545?-1607).--Poet, _b._ at Sharpham Park, Somerset,
and _ed._ at Oxf., was introduced to the Court by the Earl of Leicester,
and sent on a mission to Denmark, 1589. He was in 1596 made Chancellor of
the Order of the Garter, and knighted. In his own day he had a reputation
for his elegies among such judges as Sidney and Puttenham. For a long
time there was doubt as to what poems were to be attributed to him, but
about a dozen pieces have now been apparently identified as his. The best
known is that on contentment beginning, "My mind to me a kingdom is."


DYER, JOHN (1700-1758).--Poet, was _b._ in Caermarthenshire. In his early
years he studied painting, but finding that he was not likely to attain a
satisfactory measure of success, entered the Church. He has a definite,
if a modest, place in literature as the author of three poems, _Grongar
Hill_ (1727), _The Ruins of Rome_ (1740), and _The Fleece_ (1757). The
first of these is the best, and the best known, and contains much true
natural description; but all have passages of considerable poetical
merit, delicacy and precision of phrase being their most noticeable
characteristic. Wordsworth had a high opinion of D. as a poet, and
addressed a sonnet to him.


EARLE, JOHN (1601-1665).--Divine and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at York,
and _ed._ at Oxf., where he was a Fellow of Merton. He took orders, was
tutor to Charles II., a member of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster,
1643, Chaplain and Clerk of the Closet to Charles when in exile. On the
Restoration he was made Dean of Westminster, in 1662 Bishop of Worcester,
and the next year Bishop of Salisbury. He was learned and eloquent, witty
and agreeable in society, and was opposed to the "Conventicle" and "Five
Mile" Acts, and to all forms of persecution. He wrote _Hortus
Mertonensis_ (the Garden of Merton) in Latin, but his chief work was
_Microcosmographie, or a Piece of the World discovered in Essays and
Characters_ (1628), the best and most interesting of all the "character"
books.


EASTLAKE, ELIZABETH, LADY (RIGBY) (1809-1893).--_dau._ of Dr. Edward
Rigby of Norwich, a writer on medical and agricultural subjects, spent
her earlier life on the Continent and in Edin. In 1849 she _m._ Sir
Charles L. Eastlake, the famous painter, and Pres. of the Royal Academy.
Her first work was _Letters from the Shores of the Baltic_ (1841). From
1842 she was a frequent contributor to the _Quarterly Review_, in which
she wrote a very bitter criticism of _Jane Eyre_. She also wrote various
books on art, and Lives of her husband, of Mrs. Grote, and of Gibson the
sculptor, and was a leader in society.


ECHARD, LAURENCE (_c._ 1670-1730).--Historian, _b._ at Barsham, Suffolk,
and _ed._ at Camb., took orders and became Archdeacon of Stow. He
translated Terence, part of Plautus, D'Orleans' _History of the
Revolutions in England_, and made numerous compilations on history,
geography, and the classics. His chief work, however, is his _History of
England_ (1707-1720). It covers the period from the Roman occupation to
his own times, and continued to be the standard work on the subject until
it was superseded by translations of Rapin's French _History of England_.


EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849).--Novelist, only child of Richard E., of
Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, was _b._ near Reading. Her _f._, who was
himself a writer on education and mechanics, bestowed much attention on
her education. She showed early promise of distinction, and assisted her
_f._ in his literary labours, especially in _Practical Education_ and
_Essay on Irish Bulls_ (1802). She soon discovered that her strength lay
in fiction, and from 1800, when her first novel, _Castle Rackrent_,
appeared, until 1834, when her last, _Helen_, was _pub._, she continued
to produce a series of novels and tales characterised by ingenuity of
invention, humour, and acute delineation of character. Notwithstanding a
tendency to be didactic, and the presence of a "purpose" in most of her
writings, their genuine talent and interest secured for them a wide
popularity. It was the success of Miss E. in delineating Irish character
that suggested to Sir W. Scott the idea of rendering a similar service to
Scotland. Miss E., who had great practical ability, was able to render
much aid during the Irish famine. In addition to the works above
mentioned, she wrote _Moral Tales_ and _Belinda_ (1801), _Leonora_
(1806), _Tales of Fashionable Life_ (1809 and 1812), and a Memoir of her
_f._


EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1702?-1758).--Theologian, _s._ of a minister, was _b._
at East Windsor, Connecticut, _ed._ at Yale Coll., and licensed as a
preacher in 1722. The following year he was appointed as tutor at Yale, a
position in which he showed exceptional capacity. In 1726 he went to
Northampton, Conn., as minister of a church there, and remained for 24
years, exercising his ministry with unusual earnestness and diligence. At
the end of that time, however, he was in 1750 dismissed by his
congregation, a disagreement having arisen on certain questions of
discipline. Thereafter he acted as a missionary to the Indians of
Massachusetts. While thus engaged he composed his famous treatises, _On
the Freedom of the Will_ (1754), and _On Original Sin_ (1758).
Previously, in 1746, he had produced his treatise, _On the Religious
Affections_. In 1757 he was appointed Pres. of Princeton Coll., New
Jersey, but was almost immediately thereafter stricken with small-pox, of
which he _d._ on March 22, 1757. E. possessed an intellect of
extraordinary strength and clearness, and was capable of sustaining very
lengthened chains of profound argument. He is one of the ablest defenders
of the Calvinistic system of theology, which he developed to its most
extreme positions. He was a man of fervent piety, and of the loftiest and
most disinterested character.


EDWARDS, RICHARD (1523?-1566).--Poet, was at Oxf., and went to Court,
where he was made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and master of the
singing boys. He had a high reputation for his comedies and interludes.
His _Palaman and Arcite_ was acted before Elizabeth at Oxf. in 1566, when
the stage fell and three persons were killed and five hurt, the play
nevertheless proceeding. _Damon and Pythias_ (1577), a comedy, is his
only extant play.


EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849).--Humorist, _b._ in London, he satirised the
Prince Regent in _The Lives of Florizel and Perdita_ (1814), but is best
remembered by _Life in London: or the Day and Night Scenes of Jerry
Hawthorn and his elegant friend, Corinthian Tom_, a collection of
sketches which had great success at the time, and which gives a picture
of the sports and amusements of London in the days of the Regency. It was
illustrated by George Cruikshank.


EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902).--Novelist, _b._ at Vevay, Indiana, was a
Methodist minister. He wrote a number of tales, some of which, specially
the "Hoosier" series, attracted much attention, among which are _The
Hoosier Schoolmaster_, _The Hoosier Schoolboy_, _The End of the World_,
_The Faith Doctor_, _Queer Stories for Boys and Girls_, etc.


"ELIOT, GEORGE," _see_ EVANS.


ELIZABETH, QUEEN (1533-1603).--Was one of the scholar-women of her time,
being versed in Latin, Greek, French, and Italian. Her translation of
Boethius shows her exceptional art and skill. In the classics Roger
Ascham was her tutor. She wrote various short poems, some of which were
called by her contemporaries "sonnets," though not in the true sonnet
form. Her original letters and despatches show an idiomatic force of
expression beyond that of any other English monarch.


ELLIOT, MISS JEAN (1727-1805).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Gilbert Elliot of
Minto, has a small niche in literature as the authoress of the beautiful
ballad, _The Flowers of the Forest_, beginning, "I've heard the lilting
at our yowe-milking." Another ballad with the same title beginning, "I've
seen the smiling of fortune beguiling" was written by Alicia Rutherford,
afterwards Mrs. Cockburn.


ELLIOT, EBENEZER (1781-1849).--Poet, _b._ at Masborough, Yorkshire, in
his youth worked in an iron-foundry, and in 1821 took up the same
business on his own account with success. He is best known by his poems
on behalf of the poor and oppressed, and especially for his denunciations
of the Corn Laws, which gained for him the title of the Corn Law Rhymer.
Though now little read, he had considerable poetic gift. His principal
poems are _Corn Law Rhymes_ (1831), _The Ranter_, and _The Village
Patriarch_ (1829).


ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a West Indian
planter, gained some fame by _Poetical Tales by Sir Gregory Gander_
(1778). He also had a hand in the _Rolliad_, a series of Whig satires
which appeared about 1785. Changing sides he afterwards contributed to
the _Anti-Jacobin_. He accompanied Sir J. Harris on his mission to the
Netherlands, and there _coll._ materials for his _History of the Dutch
Revolution_ (1789). He ed. _Specimens of the Early English Poets_ (1790),
and _Specimens of the Early English Romances_, both works of scholarship.
He was a friend of Scott, who dedicated the fifth canto of _Marmion_ to
him.


ELLWOOD, THOMAS (1639-1713).--A young Quaker who was introduced to Milton
in 1662, and devoted much of his time to reading to him. It is to a
question asked by him that we owe the writing of _Paradise Regained_. He
was a simple, good man, ready to suffer for his religious opinions, and
has left an autobiography of singular interest alike for the details of
Milton's later life, which it gives, and for the light it casts on the
times of the writer. He also wrote _Davideis_ (1712), a sacred poem, and
some controversial works.


ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART (1779-1859).--Fourth _s._ of the 11th Lord E.,
was _ed._ at Edin., and entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1795. He had
a very distinguished career as an Indian statesman, and did much to
establish the present system of government and to extend education. He
was Governor of Bombay (1819-1827), and prepared a code of laws for that
Presidency. In 1829 he was offered, but declined, the position of
Governor-General of India. He wrote a _History of India_ (1841), and _The
Rise of the British Power in the East_, _pub._ in 1887.


ELWIN, WHITWELL (1816-1900).--Critic and editor, _s._ of a country
gentleman of Norfolk, studied at Camb., and took orders. He was an
important contributor to the _Quarterly Review_, of which he became
editor in 1853. He undertook to complete Croker's ed. of Pope, and
brought out 5 vols., when he dropped it, leaving it to be finished by Mr.
Courthope. As an ed. he was extremely autocratic, and on all subjects had
pronounced opinions, and often singular likes and dislikes.


ELYOT, SIR THOMAS (1490-1546).--Diplomatist, physician, and writer, held
many diplomatic appointments. He wrote _The Governor_ (1531), a treatise
on education, in which he advocated gentler treatment of schoolboys, _The
Castle of Health_ (1534), a medical work, and _A Defence of Good Women_
(1545). He also in 1538 _pub._ the first _Latin and English Dictionary_,
and made various translations.


EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882).--Philosopher, was _b._ at Boston,
Massachusetts. His _f._ was a minister there, who had become a Unitarian,
and who _d._ in 1811, leaving a widow with six children, of whom Ralph,
then aged 8, was the second. Mrs. E. was, however, a woman of energy, and
by means of taking boarders managed to give all her sons a good
education. E. entered Harvard in 1817 and, after passing through the
usual course there, studied for the ministry, to which he was ordained in
1827, and settled over a congregation in his native city. There he
remained until 1832, when he resigned, ostensibly on a difference of
opinion with his brethren on the permanent nature of the Lord's Supper as
a rite, but really on a radical change of view in regard to religion in
general, expressed in the maxim that "the day of formal religion is
past." About the same time he lost his young wife, and his health, which
had never been robust, showed signs of failing. In search of recovery he
visited Europe, where he met many eminent men and formed a life-long
friendship with Carlyle. On his return in 1834 he settled at Concord, and
took up lecturing. In 1836 he _pub._ _Nature_, a somewhat transcendental
little book which, though containing much fine thought, did not appeal to
a wide circle. _The American Scholar_ followed in 1837. Two years
previously he had entered into a second marriage. His influence as a
thinker rapidly extended, he was regarded as the leader of the
transcendentalists, and was one of the chief contributors to their organ,
_The Dial_. The remainder of his life, though happy, busy, and
influential, was singularly uneventful. In 1847 he paid a second visit to
England, when he spent a week with Carlyle, and delivered a course of
lectures in England and Scotland on "Representative Men," which he
subsequently _pub._ _English Traits_ appeared in 1856. In 1857 _The
Atlantic Monthly_ was started, and to it he became a frequent
contributor. In 1874 he was nominated for the Lord Rectorship of the
Univ. of Glasgow, but was defeated by Disraeli. He, however, regarded his
nomination as the greatest honour of his life. After 1867 he wrote
little. He _d._ on April 27, 1882. His works were _coll._ in 11 vols.,
and in addition to those above mentioned include _Essays_ (two series),
_Conduct of Life_, _Society and Solitude_, _Natural History of
Intellect_, and _Poems_. The intellect of E. was subtle rather than
robust, and suggestive rather than systematic. He wrote down the
intuitions and suggestions of the moment, and was entirely careless as to
whether these harmonised with previous statements. He was an original and
stimulating thinker and writer, and wielded a style of much beauty and
fascination. His religious views approached more nearly to Pantheism than
to any other known system of belief. He was a man of singular elevation
and purity of character.


ERCILDOUN, THOMAS of, or "THOMAS THE RHYMER" (_fl._ 1220-1297).--A
minstrel to whom is ascribed _Sir Tristrem_, a rhyme or story for
recitation. He had a reputation for prophecy, and is reported to have
foretold the death of Alexander III., and various other events.


ERIGENA, or SCOTUS, JOHN (_fl._ 850).--Philosopher, _b._ in Scotland or
Ireland, was employed at the Court of Charles the Bald, King of France.
He was a pantheistic mystic, and made translations from the Alexandrian
philosophers. He was bold in the exposition of his principles, and had
both strength and subtlety of intellect. His chief work is _De Divisione
Naturae_, a dialogue in which he places reason above authority.


ERSKINE, RALPH (1685-1752).--Scottish Divine and poet, was _b._ near
Cornhill, Northumberland, where his _f._, a man of ancient Scottish
family, was, for the time, a nonconforming minister. He became minister
of Dunfermline, and, with his brother Ebenezer, was involved in the
controversies in the Church of Scotland, which led to the founding of the
Secession Church in 1736. He has a place in literature as the writer of
devotional works, especially for his _Gospel Sonnets_ (of which 25 ed.
had appeared by 1797), and _Scripture Songs_ (1754).


ERSKINE, THOMAS (1788-1870).--Theologian, _s._ of David E., of Linlathen,
to which property he succeeded, his elder brother having _d._ He was
called to the Bar in 1810, but never practised. Having come under
unusually deep religious impressions he devoted himself largely to the
study of theology, and _pub._ various works, including _The Internal
Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion_ (1820), _Unconditional
Freeness of the Gospel_, and _The Spiritual Order_. He was a man of
singular charm of character, and wielded a great influence on the
religious thought of his day. He enjoyed the friendship of men of such
different types as Carlyle, Chalmers, Dean Stanley, and Prevost Paradol.
His _Letters_ were ed. by Dr. W. Hanna (1877-78).


ETHEREGE, SIR GEORGE (1635?-1691).--Dramatist, was at Camb., travelled,
read a little law, became a man-about-town, the companion of Sedley,
Rochester, and their set. He achieved some note as the writer of three
lively comedies, _Love in a Tub_ (1664), _She would if she Could_ (1668),
and _The Man of Mode_ (1676), all characterised by the grossness of the
period. He was sent on a mission to Ratisbon, where he broke his neck
when lighting his guests downstairs after a drinking bout.


EVANS, MARY ANN or MARIAN ("GEORGE ELIOT") (1819-1880).--Novelist, was
_b._ near Nuneaton, Warwickshire, _dau._ of Robert E., land agent, a man
of strong individuality. Her education was completed at a school in
Coventry, and after the death of her mother in 1836, and the marriage of
her elder sister, she kept house for her _f._ until his death in 1849. In
1841 they gave up their house in the country, and went to live in
Coventry. Here she made the acquaintance of Charles Bray, a writer on
phrenology, and his brother-in-law Charles Hennell, a rationalistic
writer on the origin of Christianity, whose influence led her to renounce
the evangelical views in which she had been brought up. In 1846 she
engaged in her first literary work, the completion of a translation begun
by Mrs. Hennell of Strauss's _Life of Jesus_. On her _f.'s_ death she
went abroad with the Brays, and, on her return in 1850, began to write
for the _Westminster Review_, of which from 1851-53 she was
assistant-editor. In this capacity she was much thrown into the society
of Herbert Spencer and George Henry Lewes (_q.v._), with the latter of
whom she in 1854 entered into an irregular connection which lasted until
his death. In the same year she translated Feuerbach's _Essence of
Christianity_, the only one of her writings to which she attached her
real name. It was not until she was nearly 40 that she appears to have
discovered the true nature of her genius; for it was not until 1857 that
_The Sad Fortunes of the Rev. Amos Barton_ appeared in _Blackwood's
Magazine_, and announced that a new writer of singular power had arisen.
It was followed by _Mr. Gilfil's Love Story_ and _Janet's Repentance_,
all three being reprinted as _Scenes from Clerical Life_ (1857); _Adam
Bede_ was _pub._ in 1859, _The Mill on the Floss_, in its earlier
chapters largely autobiographical, in 1860, _Silas Marner_, perhaps the
most artistically constructed of her books, in 1861. In 1860 and 1861 she
visited Florence with the view of preparing herself for her next work,
_Romola_, a tale of the times of Savonarola, which appeared in 1863 in
the _Cornhill Magazine_. _Felix Holt the Radical_ followed in 1866. Miss
E. now for a time abandoned novel-writing and took to poetry, and between
1868 and 1871 produced _The Spanish Gipsy_, _Agatha_, _The Legend of
Jubal_, and _Armgart_. These poems, though containing much fine work, did
not add to her reputation, and in fact in writing them she had departed
from her true vocation. Accordingly, she returned to fiction, and in
_Middlemarch_, which appeared in parts in 1871-72, she was by many
considered to have produced her greatest work. _Daniel Deronda_, which
came out in 1874-76, was greatly inferior, and it was her last novel. In
1878 she _pub._ _The Impressions of Theophrastus Such_, a collection of
miscellaneous essays. In the same year Mr. Lewes _d._, an event which
plunged her into melancholy, which was, however, alleviated by the
kindness of Mr. John Cross, who had been the intimate friend of both L.
and herself, and whom she _m._ in March, 1880. The union was a short one,
being terminated by her death on December 22 in the same year.

George Eliot will probably always retain a high place among writers of
fiction. Her great power lies in the minute painting of character,
chiefly among the lower middle classes, shopkeepers, tradesmen, and
country folk of the Midlands, into whose thoughts and feelings she had an
insight almost like divination, and of whose modes of expression she was
complete mistress. Her general view of life is pessimistic, relieved by a
power of seizing the humorous elements in human stupidity and ill-doing.
There is also, however, much seriousness in her treatment of the phases
of life upon which she touches, and few writers have brought out with
greater power the hardening and degrading effects of continuance in evil
courses, or the inevitable and irretrievable consequences of a wrong act.
Her descriptions of rural scenes have a singular charm.

_Life_, ed. by J.W. Cross (1885-6). Books on her by Oscar Browning, 1890,
and Sir Leslie Stephen (Men of Letters), 1902.


EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706).--Diarist, and miscellaneous writer, was of an
old Surrey family, and was _ed._ at a school at Lewes and at Oxf. He
travelled much on the Continent, seeing all that was best worth seeing in
the way of galleries and collections, both public and private, of which
he has given an interesting account in his _Diary_. He was all his life
a staunch Royalist, and joined the King as a volunteer in 1642, but soon
after repaired again to the Continent. After 1652 he was at home, settled
at Sayes Court, near Deptford, where his gardens were famous. After the
Restoration he was employed in various matters by the Government, but his
lofty and pure character was constantly offended by the manners of the
Court. In addition to his _Diary_, kept up from 1624-1706, and which is
full of interesting details of public and private events, he wrote upon
such subjects as plantations, _Sylva_ (1664), gardening, _Elysium
Britannicum_ (_unpub._), architecture, prevention of smoke in London,
engraving, _Sculptura_ (1662), and he was one of the founders of the
Royal Society, of which he was for a time sec. The dignity and purity of
E'.s character stand forth in strong relief against the laxity of his
times.


EWING, MRS. JULIANA HORATIA (GATTY) (1842-1885).--Writer of children's
stories, _dau._ of Mrs. Alfred Gatty (_q.v._), also a writer for
children. Among her tales, which have hardly been excelled in sympathetic
insight into child-life, and still enjoy undiminished popularity, are: _A
Flat Iron for a Farthing_, _Jackanapes_, _Jan of the Windmill_, _Mrs.
Overtheway's Remembrances_, and _The Story of a Short Life_.


FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863).--Theologian and hymn-writer, was
_b._ at Calverley, Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf., where he came
under the influence of Newman, whom he followed into the Church of Rome.
He wrote various theological treatises, but has a place in literature for
his hymns, which include _The Pilgrims of the Night_, _My God how
wonderful thou art_, and _Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go_.


FABYAN, ROBERT (_d._ 1513).--Chronicler, was _b._ in London, of which he
became an Alderman and Sheriff. He kept a diary of notable events, which
he expanded into a chronicle, which he entitled, _The Concordance of
Histories_. It covers the period from the arrival of Brutus in England to
the death of Henry VII., and deals mainly with the affairs of London. It
was not printed until 1515, when it appeared under the title of _The New
Chronicles of England and France_.


FAIRFAX, EDWARD (1580?-1635).--Translator, natural _s._ of Sir Thomas F.,
lived at Fuystone, near Knaresborough, in peace and prosperity. His
translation of Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_, on which his fame is
founded, is a masterpiece, one of the comparatively few translations
which in themselves are literature. It was highly praised by Dryden and
Waller. The first ed. appeared in 1600, and was dedicated to Queen
Elizabeth. F. also wrote a treatise on _Demonology_, in which he was a
devout believer.


FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-1769).--Poet, _s._ of a barber in Edin., where he
was _b._, became a sailor, and was thus thoroughly competent to describe
the management of the storm-tossed vessel, the career and fate of which
are described in his poem, _The Shipwreck_ (1762), a work of genuine,
though unequal, talent. The efforts which F. made to improve the poem in
the successive ed. which followed the first were not entirely
successful. The work gained for him the patronage of the Duke of York,
through whose influence he obtained the position of purser on various
warships. Strangely enough, his own death occurred by shipwreck. F. wrote
other poems, now forgotten, besides a useful _Nautical Dictionary_.


FANSHAWE, CATHERINE MARIA (1765-1834).--Poetess, _dau._ of a Surrey
squire, wrote clever occasional verse. Her best known production is the
famous _Riddle on the Letter H_, beginning "'Twas whispered in heaven,
'twas muttered in hell" often attributed to Lord Byron.


FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD (1608-1666).--Diplomatist, translator, and poet,
_b._ at Ware Park, Herts, and _ed._ at Camb., travelled on the Continent,
and when the Civil War broke out sided with the King and was sent to
Spain to obtain money for the cause. He acted as Latin Sec. to Charles
II. when in Holland. After the Restoration he held various appointments,
and was Ambassador to Portugal and Spain successively. He translated
Guarini's _Pastor Fido_, _Selected Parts of Horace_, and _The Lusiad_ of
Camoens. His wife, _nee_ Anne Harrison, wrote memoirs of her own life.


FARADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867).--Natural philosopher, _s._ of a blacksmith,
was _b._ in London, and apprenticed to a book-binder. He early showed a
taste for chemistry, and attended the lectures of Sir H. Davy (_q.v._),
by whom he was, in 1813, appointed his chemical assistant in the Royal
Institution. He became one of the greatest of British discoverers and
popularisers of science, his discoveries being chiefly in the department
of electro-magnetism. He had an unusual power of making difficult
subjects clearly understood. Among his writings are _History of the
Progress of Electro-Magnetism_ (1821), _The Non-metallic Elements_, _The
Chemical History of a Candle_, and _The Various Forces in Nature_. F. was
a man of remarkable simplicity and benevolence of character, and deeply
religious.


FARMER, RICHARD (1735-1797).--Shakespearian scholar, _b._ at Leicester,
and _ed._ at Camb., where he ultimately became Master of Emanuel Coll. He
wrote an _Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare_ (1767), in which he
maintained that Shakespeare's knowledge of the classics was through
translations, the errors of which he reproduced. It is a production of
great ability. F. was a clergyman, and held a prebend in St. Paul's.


FARQUHAR, GEORGE (1678-1707).--Dramatist, _b._ at Londonderry, _s._ of a
clergyman, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, on leaving which he took
to the stage, but had no great success as an actor. This, together with
an accident in which he wounded a fellow-actor with a sword, led to his
relinquishing it, and giving himself to writing plays instead of acting
them. Thereafter he joined the army. _Love and a Bottle_ (1698) was his
first venture, and others were _The Constant Couple_ (1700), _Sir Harry
Wildair_ (1701), _The Inconstant_ (1703), _The Recruiting Officer_
(1706), and _The Beau's Stratagem_ (1707). F.'s plays are full of wit and
sparkle and, though often coarse, have not the malignant pruriency of
some of his predecessors. He made an unfortunate marriage, and _d._ in
poverty.


FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1903).--Theological writer, _b._ in
Bombay, and _ed._ at London Univ. and Camb., was for some years a master
at Harrow, and from 1871-76 Head Master of Marlborough School. He became
successively Canon of Westminster and Rector of St. Margaret's,
Archdeacon of Westminster and Dean of Canterbury. He was an eloquent
preacher and a voluminous author, his writings including stories of
school life, such as _Eric_ and _St. Winifred's_, a _Life of Christ_,
which had great popularity, a _Life of St. Paul_, and two historical
romances.


FAWCETT, HENRY (1833-1884).--Statesman and economist, _b._ at Salisbury,
and _ed._ at Camb., where he became Fellow of Trinity Hall. In 1858 he
was blinded by a shooting accident, in spite of which he continued to
prosecute his studies, especially in economics, and in 1863 _pub._ his
_Manual of Political Economy_, becoming in the same year Prof. of
Political Economy in Camb. Having strong political views he desired to
enter upon a political career, and after repeated defeats was elected
M.P. for Brighton. He soon attained a recognised position, devoting
himself specially to parliamentary reform and Indian questions, and was
in 1880 appointed Postmaster-General, in which office he approved himself
a capable administrator. His career was, however, cut short by his
premature death, but not before he had made himself a recognised
authority on economics, his works on which include _The Economic Position
of the British Labourer_ (1871), _Labour and Wages_, etc. In 1867 he _m._
Miss Millicent Garrett, a lady highly qualified to share in all his
intellectual interests, and who collaborated with him in some of his
publications. There is a life of him by Sir L. Stephen.


FAWKES, FRANCIS (1721-1777).--Poet and translator, _b._ near Doncaster,
and _ed._ at Camb., after which he took orders. He translated Anacreon,
Sappho, and other classics, modernised parts of the poems of Gavin
Douglas, and was the author of the well-known song, _The Brown Jug_, and
of two poems, _Bramham Park_ and _Partridge Shooting_.


FELTHAM, OWEN (1602?-1668).--Religious writer, author of a book entitled
_Resolves, Divine, Moral, and Political_ (_c._ 1620), containing 146
short essays. It had great popularity in its day. Though sometimes stiff
and affected in style, it contains many sound, if not original or
brilliant, reflections, and occasional felicities of expression. F. was
for a time in the household of the Earl of Thomond as chaplain or sec.,
and _pub._ (1652), _Brief Character of the Low Countries_.


FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730).--Poet and translator, _ed._ at Camb., for a
time acted as sec. to the Earl of Orrery in Flanders, and was then Master
of Sevenoaks Grammar School. In 1707 he _pub._ a book of poems. He is
best known, however, as the assistant of Pope in his translation of the
_Odyssey_, of which he Englished the first, fourth, nineteenth, and
twentieth books, catching the manner of his master so completely that it
is hardly possible to distinguish between their work; while thus engaged
he _pub._ (1723) a successful tragedy, _Marianne_. His latest
contributions to literature were a _Life of Milton_, and an ed. of
_Waller's Poems_ (1729).


FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816).--Philosopher and historian, _s._ of the
parish minister of Logierait, Perthshire, studied at St. Andrews and
Edin. Univ., in the latter of which he was successively Professor of
Mathematics, and Moral Philosophy (1764-1785). As a young man he was
chaplain to the 42nd Regiment, and was present at the Battle of Fontenoy.
In 1757 he was made Keeper of the Advocates' Library. As a Prof. of
Philosophy he was highly successful, his class being attended by many
distinguished men no longer students at the Univ. In 1778-9 he acted as
sec. to a commission sent out by Lord North to endeavour to reach an
accommodation with the American colonists. F.'s principal works are
_Essay on the History of Civil Society_ (1765), _Institutes of Moral
Philosophy_ (1769), _History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman
Republic_ (1782), and _Principles of Moral and Political Science_ (1792),
all of which have been translated into French and German. F. spent his
later years at St. Andrews, where he _d._ in 1816 at the age of 92. He
was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott. The French philosopher Cousin
gave F. a place above all his predecessors in the Scottish school of
philosophy.


FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886).--Poet and antiquary, _b._ at Belfast,
the _s._ of parents of Scottish extraction, he was _ed._ at Trinity
Coll., Dublin, from which he received in 1865 the honorary degree of
LL.D. He practised with success as a barrister, became Q.C. in 1859, and
Deputy Keeper of the Irish Records 1867, an appointment in which he
rendered valuable service, and was knighted in 1878. He was a contributor
to _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which appeared his best known poem, _The
Forging of the Anchor_, and was one of the chief promoters of the Gaelic
revival in Irish literature. His _coll._ poems appeared under the title
of _Lays of the Western Gael_ (1865), _Congal, an epic poem_ (1872), and
his prose tales posthumously (1887), as _Hibernian Nights'
Entertainments_. His principal antiquarian work was _Ogham Inscriptions
in Ireland, Wales, and Scotland_.


FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886).--Writer on architecture, _b._ at Ayr, was
engaged in commercial pursuits in India, where he became interested in
the architecture of the country, and _pub._ his first work, _Picturesque
Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in Hindustan_ (1840), which was
followed by _An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in
Art_ (1849), and _A History of Architecture in all Countries from the
Earliest Times to the Present Day_ (1865-67). He also wrote _Fire and
Serpent Worship_, etc., and a book on the use of earthworks in
fortification.


FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774).--Scottish poet, _s._ of a bank clerk, was
_ed._ at the Univ. of St. Andrews. His _f._ dying, he became a copying
clerk in an Edin. lawyer's office. Early displaying a talent for humorous
descriptive verse, he contributed to _Ruddiman's Weekly Magazine_, then
the principal Scottish receptacle for fugitive poetry. His verses,
however, attracted attention by their merit, and he _pub._ some of them
in a _coll._ form. Unfortunately he fell into dissipated habits, under
which his delicate constitution gave way, and he _d._ insane in his 24th
year. His poems influenced Burns, who greatly admired them.


FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864).--Metaphysician, _b._ in Edin., and
_ed._ there and at Oxf., he was called to the Scottish Bar in 1832, but
devoted himself to literature and philosophy. In 1842 he was appointed
Prof. of History in Edin., and in 1845 translated to the Chair of Moral
Philosophy and Political Economy at St. Andrews. He _pub._ in 1854
_Institutes of Metaphysics_, and ed. the _coll._ works of his
father-in-law, Prof. Wilson ("Christopher North.")


FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTOUNE (1782-1854).--Novelist, _dau._ of James F.,
one of the principal clerks of the Court of Session, in which office he
was the colleague of Sir Walter Scott. Miss F. wrote three excellent
novels, _Marriage_ (1818), _The Inheritance_ (1824), and _Destiny_
(1831), all characterised by racy humour and acute character-painting.
Her cheerful and tactful friendship helped to soothe the last days of Sir
W. Scott.


FIELD, NATHANIEL (1587-1633).--Dramatist and actor, was one of "the
children of the Queen's Revels," who performed in Ben Jonson's _Cynthia's
Revels_ in 1600. He wrote _A Woman's a Weathercock_ (1612), _Amends for
Ladies_ (1618), and (with Massinger) _The Fatal Dowry_ (1632).


FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754).--Novelist, was _b._ at Sharpham Park, near
Glastonbury. His father was General Edmund F., descended from the Earls
of Denbigh and Desmond, and his mother was the _dau._ of Sir Henry Gould
of Sharpham Park. His childhood was spent at East Stour, Dorset, and his
education was received at first from a tutor, after which he was sent to
Eton. Following a love affair with a young heiress at Lyme Regis he was
sent to Leyden to study law, where he remained until his _f._, who had
entered into a second marriage, and who was an extravagant man, ceased to
send his allowance. Thrown upon his own resources, he came to London and
began to write light comedies and farces, of which during the next few
years he threw off nearly a score. The drama, however, was not his true
vein, and none of his pieces in this kind have survived, unless _Tom
Thumb_, a burlesque upon his contemporary playwrights, be excepted. About
1735 he _m._ Miss Charlotte Cradock, a beautiful and amiable girl to
whom, though he gave her sufficient cause for forbearance, he was
devotedly attached. She is the prototype of his "Amelia" and "Sophia."
She brought him L1500, and the young couple retired to East Stour, where
he had a small house inherited from his mother. The little fortune was,
however, soon dissipated; and in a year he was back in London, where he
formed a company of comedians, and managed a small theatre in the
Haymarket. Here he produced successfully _Pasquin, a Dramatic Satire on
the Times_, and _The Historical Register for 1736_, in which Walpole was
satirised. This enterprise was brought to an end by the passing of the
Licensing Act, 1737, making the _imprimatur_ of the Lord Chamberlain
necessary to the production of any play. F. thereupon read law at the
Middle Temple, was called to the Bar in 1740, and went the Western
Circuit. The same year saw the publication of Richardson's _Pamela_,
which inspired F. with the idea of a parody, thus giving rise to his
first novel, _Joseph Andrews_. As, however, the characters, especially
Parson Adams, developed in his hands, the original idea was laid aside,
and the work assumed the form of a regular novel. It was _pub._ in 1742,
and though sharing largely in the same qualities as its great successor,
_Tom Jones_, its reception, though encouraging, was not phenomenally
cordial. Immediately after this a heavy blow fell on F. in the death of
his wife. The next few years were occupied with writing his
_Miscellanies_, which contained, along with some essays and poems, two
important works, _A Journey from this World to the Next_, and _The
History of Jonathan Wild the Great_, a grave satire; and he also
conducted two papers in support of the Government, _The True Patriot_ and
_The Jacobite Journal_, in consideration of which he was appointed
Justice of the Peace for Middlesex and Westminster, and had a pension
conferred upon him. In 1746 he set convention at defiance by marrying
Mary MacDaniel, who had been his first wife's maid, and the nurse of his
children, and who proved a faithful and affectionate companion. F. showed
himself an upright, diligent, and efficient magistrate, and his _Inquiry
into the Increase of Robbers_ (1751), with suggested remedies, led to
beneficial results. By this time, however, the publication of his great
masterpiece, _The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling_ (1749), had given
him a place among the immortals. All critics are agreed that this book
contains passages offensive to delicacy, and some say to morality. This
is often excused on the plea of the coarser manners of the age; but a
much stronger defence is advanced on the ground that, while other
novelists of the time made immorality an incentive to merriment, F.'s
treatment of such subjects, as Lowell has said, "shocks rather than
corrupts," and that in his pages evil is evil. On the other hand, there
is universal agreement as to the permanent interest of the types of
character presented, the profound knowledge of life and insight into
human nature, the genial humour, the wide humanity, the wisdom, and the
noble and masculine English of the book. His only other novel, _Amelia_,
which some, but these a small minority, have regarded as his best, was
_pub._ in 1751. His health was now thoroughly broken, and in 1753, as a
forlorn hope, he went in search of restoration to Lisbon, where he _d._
on October 8, and was buried in the English cemetery. His last work was a
_Journal_ of his voyage. Though with many weaknesses and serious faults,
F. was fundamentally a man of honest and masculine character, and though
improvident and reckless in his habits, especially in earlier life, he
was affectionate in his domestic relations, and faithful and efficient in
the performance of such public duties as he was called to discharge.
Thackeray thus describes his appearance, "His figure was tall and
stalwart, his face handsome, manly, and noble-looking; to the last days
of his life he retained a grandeur of air and, though worn down by
disease, his aspect and presence imposed respect upon people round about
him."

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1707, _ed._ Eton, studied law at Leyden, came to London
and wrote dramas, called to Bar 1740, _pub._ _Joseph Andrews_ 1742,
became journalist, appointed a magistrate for Middlesex, etc., and _pub._
_Inquiry into Increase of Robbers_ 1751, _pub._ _Tom Jones_ 1749,
_Amelia_ 1751, _d._ at Lisbon 1754.

His works are included in Ballantyne's Novelists' Library with a
biography by Scott (1821). An ed. in 10 vols. with a study by L. Stephen
was _pub._ by Smith, Elder and Co. (1882); another in 12 vols. by Prof.
Saintsbury, Dent and Co. (1893), and various others. There are various
Lives by Watson (1807). Lawrence (1855), and A. Dobson (Men of Letters,
1883).


FIELDING, SARAH (1710-1768).--Novelist, was the sister of the above, who
had a high opinion of her talents. She wrote several novels, including
_David Simple_ (1744), _The Governess_, and _The Countess_ of _Dellwyn_.
She also translated Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ and _Apologia_ (1762).


FILMER, SIR ROBERT (_d._ 1653?).--Political writer, _s._ of Sir Edward
F., of East Sutton, Kent, was _ed._ at Camb. He was an enthusiastic
Royalist, was knighted by Charles I. and, in 1671, was imprisoned in
Leeds Castle, Kent. He is notable as the defender, in its most extreme
form, of the doctrine of the divine right of kings, which he expounded in
a succession of works, of which the latest and best known, _Patriarcha_,
appeared in 1679. His theory is founded on the idea that the government
of a family by the father is the original and method of all government.
His doctrines were afterwards attacked by Locke in his _Treatise on
Government_. He was opposed to the persecution of old women for supposed
witchcraft.


FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875).--Historian, of Scottish descent, was _b._ at
Faversham, Kent, where his _f._, an officer in the army, was inspector of
government powder mills. Intended for the law, he was _ed._ at Glasgow,
Goettingen, and Edin., but becoming an enthusiast in the cause of Greece,
he joined Byron in the war of independence, and thereafter bought a
property near Athens, where he settled and busied himself with schemes
for the improvement of the country, which had little success. His
_History of Greece_, produced in sections between 1843 and 1861, did not
at first receive the recognition which its merits deserved, but it has
since been given by students in all countries, and specially in Germany,
a place among works of permanent value, alike for its literary style and
the depth and insight of its historical views. It was re-issued in 1877
as _A History of Greece from the Roman Conquest to the Present Time_ (146
B.C. _to_ 1864).


FISHER, JOHN (_c._ 1469-1535).--Controversialist and scholar, _b._ at
Beverley, and _ed._ at Camb., entered the Church, and became in 1504
Bishop of Rochester. He wrote in Latin against the doctrines of the
Reformation, but was a supporter of the New Learning, and endeavoured to
get Erasmus to teach Greek at Camb. Through his influence the Lady
Margaret Professorship of Divinity were founded at both the Univ. by
Margaret Countess of Richmond, and in 1502 he became first prof. at
Camb., where he was also (1505-8) Head of Queen's Coll. He was also
instrumental in founding Christ's and St. John's Coll. For opposing the
divorce proceedings of Henry VIII. he was burned. Made a cardinal in
1535, he was beatified in 1886.


FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901).--Miscellaneous writer, was _b._ at Hartford,
Connecticut. The family name was Green; but this he dropped, and adopted
that of his mother's family. After being at Harvard he studied for, and
was admitted to, the Bar, but did not practise. He wrote on a variety of
subjects, including mythology, history, and evolution. Among his books on
these subjects are, _Myths and Mythmakers_ (1872), _Cosmic Philosophy_,
_Darwinism_, _The Idea of God_, _Origin of Evil_. He was also the author
of many works on America. These include _Old Virginia_, _New France and
New England_, _The American Revolution_, and _Discovery of America_
(1892).


FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883).--Translator and letter-writer, was _b._
near Woodbridge, Suffolk, _s._ of John Purcell, who took his wife's
surname on the death of her _f._. in 1818. He was _ed._ at Bury St.
Edmunds and Camb. Thereafter he lived in retirement and study with his
parents until 1838, when he took a neighbouring cottage. In 1856 he _m._
a _dau._ of Bernard Barton, the poet, from whom, however, he soon
separated. Afterwards he lived at various places in the East of England,
continuing his studies, with yachting for his chief recreation. By this
time, however, he had become an author, having written a life of his
father-in-law prefixed to his _coll._ poems (1849), _Euphranor_, a
dialogue on youth (1851), and _Polonius, a Collection of Wise Saws and
Modern Instances_ (1852). Becoming interested in Spanish literature, he
_pub._ translations of _Six Dramas of Calderon_. Thereafter turning his
attention to Persian, he produced (1859), anonymously, his famous
translation of the _Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_. He also _pub._
translations of the _Agamemnon_ of AEschylus, and the _Oedipus Tyrannus_
and _Oedipus Coloneus_ of Sophocles. In his translations F. aimed not so
much at a mere literal reproduction of the sense of the original, as at
reproducing its effect on the reader, and in this he was extraordinarily
successful. In the department of letter-writing also he attained an
excellence perhaps unequalled in his day.


FITZSTEPHEN, WILLIAM (_d._ 1190).--Was a servant of Thomas a Becket,
witnessed his murder, and wrote his biography, which contains an
interesting account of London in the 12th century.


FLAVEL, JOHN (1627-1691).--Divine, _b._ at Bromsgrove, studied at Oxf.,
was a Presbyterian, and was settled at Dartmouth, but ejected from his
living in 1662, continuing, however, to preach there secretly. He was a
voluminous and popular author. Among his works are _Husbandry
Spiritualised_ and _Navigation Spiritualised_, titles which suggest some
of his characteristics as an expositor.


FLECKNOE, RICHARD (_d._ 1678).--Poet, said to have been an Irish priest.
He wrote several plays, now forgotten, also miscellaneous poems, some of
them sacred, and a book of travels. His name has been preserved in
Dryden's satire, _MacFlecknoe_, as "throughout the realms of nonsense
absolute;" but according to some authorities his slighter pieces were not
wanting in grace and fancy.


FLETCHER, ANDREW (1655-1716).--Scottish statesman and political writer,
_s._ of Sir Robert F. of Saltoun, East Lothian, to which estate he
succeeded at an early age. He was _ed._ under the care of Bishop Burnet,
who was then minister of Saltoun. Being firmly opposed to the arbitrary
measures of the Duke of York, afterwards James II., he went to Holland,
where he joined Monmouth, whom he accompanied on his ill-starred
expedition. Happening to kill, in a quarrel, one Dare, another of the
Duke's followers, he fled to the Continent, travelled in Spain and
Hungary, and fought against the Turks. After the Revolution he returned
to Scotland, and took an active part in political affairs. He opposed the
Union, fearing the loss of Scottish independence, and advocated
federation rather than incorporation. He introduced various improvements
in agriculture. His principal writings are _Discourse of Government_
(1698), _Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ (1698),
_Conversation concerning a right Regulation of Government for the Common
Good of Mankind_ (1703), in which occurs his well-known saying, "Give me
the making of the songs of a nation, and I care not who makes its laws."


FLETCHER, GILES, AND PHINEAS (1588?-1623) (1582-1650).--Poets, were the
sons of Giles F., himself a minor poet, and Envoy to Russia. Phineas, the
elder, was _ed._ at Eton and Camb., and entered the Church, becoming
Rector of Hilgay, Norfolk. He wrote _The Purple Island_ (1633), a poem in
10 books, giving an elaborate allegorical description of the body and
mind of man, which, though tedious and fanciful, contains some fine
passages, recalling the harmonious sweetness of Spenser, whose disciple
the poet was. He was also the author of _Piscatory Dialogues_. GILES, the
younger, was also _ed._ at Camb., and, like his brother, became a country
parson, being Rector of Alderton. His poem, _Christ's Victory and
Triumph_ (1610), which, though it contains passages rising to sublimity,
is now almost unknown except to students of English literature, is said
to have influenced Milton.

Both brothers, but especially Giles, had a genuine poetic gift, but alike
in the allegorical treatment of their subjects and the metre they
adopted, they followed a style which was passing away, and thus missed
popularity. They were cousins of John F., the dramatist.


FLORENCE of WORCESTER (_d._ 1118).--Chronicler, was a monk of Worcester.
His work is founded upon that of Marianus, an Irish chronicler,
supplemented by additions taken from the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, Bede's
_Lives of the Saints_, and Asser's _Life of Alfred_. After his death it
was brought down to 1295.


FLORIO, JOHN (1553?-1625).--Translator, _s._ of an Italian preacher,
exiled for his Protestantism, but who appears to have lost credit owing
to misconduct, _b._ in London, was, about 1576, a private tutor of
languages at Oxf. In 1581 he was admitted a member of Magdalen Coll.,
and teacher of French and Italian. Patronised by various noblemen, he
became in 1603 reader in Italian to Anne of Denmark, Queen of James I. He
_pub._ _First Fruites_ (1578). _Second Fruites_ (1591), consisting of
Italian and English Dialogues, and his great Italian dictionary entitled
_A World of Wonder_, in 1598. His chief contribution to pure literature
is his famous translation of _The Essays of Montaigne_, in stately if
somewhat stiff Elizabethan English.


FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872).--Journalist and political writer,
was of Huguenot descent, the _s._ of a Commissioner in Bankruptcy. He was
bred to the law, but deserted it for journalism, in which he took a high
place. He wrote much for _The Times_, and _Westminster Review_, and
subsequently became ed. and proprietor of the _Examiner_. His best
articles were republished as _England under Seven Administrations_
(1837). He also wrote _How we are Governed_. In 1847 he was appointed
Statistical Sec. to the Board of Trade.


FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ at Truro of a good
family, and _ed._ at Oxf., succeeded by his extravagance and folly in
running through two fortunes. To repair his finances he turned to the
stage, and began with tragedy, in which he failed. He then took to
comedy, and the mimetic representation of living characters, for which
his extraordinary comic powers highly qualified him. He also became a
prolific author of dramatic pieces. He wrote 20 plays, and claimed to
have added 16 original characters to the stage. Several of his pieces,
owing to the offence they gave to persons of importance, were suppressed,
but were usually revived in a slightly modified form. His conversation
was agreeable and entertaining in the highest degree. Among his best
works are _An Auction of Pictures_, _The Liar_, and _The Mayor of
Garratt_ (1763), _The Lame Lover_ (1770), _The Knights_ (1749), _Author_
(suppressed) 1757, _Devil upon Two Sticks_ (1768), _The Nabob_ (1779),
_The Capuchin_ (1776).


FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-1868).--Natural Philosopher, _s._ of Sir
William F., of Pitsligo, was _b._ and _ed._ at Edin. He studied law, and
was called to the Bar, but devoted himself to science, in which he gained
a great reputation both as a discoverer and teacher. He was Prof. of
Natural Philosophy at Edin., 1833-1859, when he succeeded Sir D.
Brewster, as Principal of the United Coll. at St. Andrews. He was one of
the founders of the British Association in 1831. His scientific
investigations and discoveries embraced the subjects of heat, light,
polarisation, and specially glaciers. In connection with the last of
these he wrote _Travels through the Alps_ (1843), _Norway and its
Glaciers_ (1853), _Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa_ (1855), and _Papers
on the Theory of Glaciers_.


FORD, JOHN (_c._ 1586?).--Dramatist, _b._ probably at Ilsington,
Devonshire, was admitted to the Middle Temple in 1602, and appears to
have practised as a lawyer. His chief plays are _The Lover's Melancholy_
(1629), _'Tis Pity_, _The Broken Heart_, and _Love's Sacrifice_ (1633),
_Perkin Warbeck_ (1634), _The Lady's Trial_ (1639), and _Fancies Chaste
and Noble_ (1638). He also collaborated with Dekker and Rowley in _The
Witch of Edmonton_ (1624). F. has a high position as a dramatist, though
rather for general intellectual power and austere beauty of thought than
for strictly dramatic qualities. C. Lamb says, "F. was of the first order
of poets." He had little humour; his plays, though the subjects are
painful, and sometimes horrible, are full of pensive tenderness expressed
in gently flowing verse. The date of his death is uncertain.


FORD, PAUL LEICESTER (1865-1902).--Novelist and biographer, was _b._ in
Brooklyn. He wrote Lives of Washington, Franklin, and others, ed. the
works of Jefferson, and wrote a number of novels, which had considerable
success, including _Peter Sterling_ (1894), _Story of an Untold Love_,
_Janice Meredith_, _Wanted a Matchmaker_, and _Wanted a Chaperone_. He
_d._ by his own hand.


FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858).--Writer on art and travel, _ed._ at Winchester
and Camb., and travelled for several years in Spain, becoming intimately
acquainted with the country and people. He wrote a _Handbook for
Travellers in Spain_ (1845), which is much more than a mere guide-book,
and _Gatherings from Spain_ (1846). An accomplished artist and art
critic, he was the first to make the great Spanish painter, Velasquez,
generally known in England.


FORDUN, JOHN (_d._ 1384?).--Chronicler, said to have been a chantry
priest and Canon of Aberdeen. He began the _Scotichronicon_, for which he
prepared himself, it is said, by travelling on foot through Britain and
Ireland in search of materials. He also compiled _Gesta Annalia_, a
continuation. He brought the history down to 1153, leaving, however,
material to the time of his own death, which was subsequently worked up
by Walter Bower (_q.v._).


FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876).--Historian and biographer, _b._ at Newcastle,
_ed._ at the Grammar School there, and at Univ. Coll., London, became a
barrister of the Inner Temple, but soon relinquished law for literature.
In 1834 he accepted the post of assistant ed. of the _Examiner_, and was
ed. 1847-55. In this position F. exercised a marked influence on public
opinion. He also ed. the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ 1842-3, the _Daily
News_ in 1846, and was Sec. to the Lunacy Commission and a Commissioner
1861-72. His historical writings were chiefly biographies, among which
are _Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England_ (1836-9), _Life of
Goldsmith_ (1854), _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1859), _Sir John
Eliot_ (1864), _Lives of Walter S. Landor_ (1868), and _Charles Dickens_
(1871-4). He also left the first vol. of a Life of Swift. F., who was a
man of great decision and force of character, concealed an unusually
tender heart under a somewhat overbearing manner.


FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (1394?-1476?).--Political writer, was descended from
a Devonshire family. He was an eminent lawyer, and held the office of
Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench (1442). During the Wars of the
Roses he was a staunch Lancastrian. On the triumph of Edward IV. at
Towton he was attainted, and followed the fortunes of the fallen
Lancastrians, accompanying Queen Margaret to Scotland and Flanders. He
fought at Tewkesbury, was captured, but pardoned on condition of writing
in support of the Yorkish claims, which he did, considering that his own
party appeared to be hopelessly ruined. He is said to have been at one
time Lord Chancellor; but it is probable that this was only a titular
appointment given him by the exiled family. His works are various
defences of the Lancastrian title to the crown, and two treatises, _De
Laudibus Legum Angliae_ (1537) (in praise of the laws of England), and _On
the Governance of the Kingdom of England_, not printed till 1714, the
former for the instruction of Edward, Prince of Wales.


FORSTER, JOHN (1770-1843).--Essayist, was _b._ at Halifax, and _ed._ at
Bristol for the Baptist ministry. Though a man of powerful and original
mind he did not prove popular as a preacher, and devoted himself mainly
to literature, his chief contribution to which is his four Essays (1) _On
a Man's Writing Memoirs of Himself_, (2) _On Decision of Character_, (3)
_On the Epithet "Romantic_," (4) _On Evangelical Religion, etc._, all of
which attracted much attention among the more thoughtful part of the
community, and still hold their place. These Essays were _pub._ in 1805,
and in 1819. F. added another on the _Evils of Popular Ignorance_, in
which he advocated a national system of education.


FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864).--Song-writer, was _b._ in
Pittsburgh. He wrote over 100 songs, many of which had extraordinary
popularity, among which may be mentioned _The Old Folks at Home_, _Nelly
Bly_, _Old Dog Tray_, _Camp Town Races_, _Massa's in de cold, cold
Ground_, and _Come where my Love lies Dreaming_. He composed the music to
his songs.


FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806).--Statesman and historian, _s._ of Henry
F., 1st Lord Holland, was one of the greatest orators who have ever sat
in the House of Commons. His only serious literary work was a fragment of
a proposed _History of the Reign of James the Second_. An introductory
chapter sketching the development of the constitution from the time of
Henry VII., and a few chapters conducting the history up to the execution
of Monmouth are all which he completed.


FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691).--Religious enthusiast, and founder of the
Society of Friends, _b._ at Drayton, Leicestershire, was in youth the
subject of peculiar religious impressions and trances, and adopted a
wandering life. The protests which he conceived himself bound to make
against the prevailing beliefs and manners, and which sometimes took the
form of interrupting Divine service, and the use of uncomplimentary forms
of address to the clergy, involved him in frequent trouble. The clergy,
the magistrates, and the mob alike treated him with harshness amounting
to persecution. None of these things, however, moved him, and friends,
many of them influential, among them Oliver Cromwell, extended favour
towards him. From 1659 onwards he made various missionary journeys in
Scotland, Ireland, America, and Holland. Later he was repeatedly
imprisoned, again visited the Continent, and _d._ in 1691. F.'s literary
works are his _Journal_, _Epistles_, and _Doctrinal Pieces_. He was not a
man of strong intellect, and the defence of his doctrines was undertaken
by the far more competent hand of his follower, Barclay (_q.v._). The
_Journal_, however, is full of interest as a sincere transcript of the
singular experiences, religious and others, of a spiritual enthusiast and
mystic.

The best Life is that by Hodgkin, 1896. _Journal_ (reprint, 1885).


FOXE, JOHN (1516-1587).--Martyrologist, was _b._ at Boston, Lincolnshire,
and _ed._ at Oxf., where he became a Fellow of Magdalen Coll. While there
he gave himself to the study of the theological questions then in debate,
and ended by becoming a Protestant, in consequence of which he in 1545
left his coll. He then became tutor in the family of Sir T. Lucy of
Charlecote, and afterwards to the children of the recently executed Earl
of Surrey. During the reign of Mary he retired to the Continent, and
_pub._, at Strasburg, his _Commentarii_ (the first draft of the _Acts and
Monuments_). Removing to Basel he was employed as a reader for the press
by the famous printer Oporinus, who _pub._ some of his writings. On the
accession of Elizabeth, F. returned to England, was received with
kindness by the Duke of Norfolk, one of his former pupils, and soon
afterwards (1563) _pub._ the work on which his fame rests, the English
version of the _Acts and Monuments_, better known as _The Book Martyrs_.
Received with great favour by the Protestants, it was, and has always
been, charged by the Roman Catholics with gross and wilful perversion of
facts. The truth of the matter appears to be that while Foxe was not, as
in the circumstances he could hardly have been, free from party spirit or
from some degree of error as to facts, he did not intentionally try to
mislead; and comparison of his citations from authorities with the
originals has shown him to have been careful and accurate in that matter.
F., who had been ordained a priest in 1560, became Canon of Salisbury in
1563. He wrote sundry other theological works, and _d._ in 1587. There is
a memoir of him attributed to his _s._, but of doubtful authenticity.
Some of his papers, used by Strype (_q.v._), are now in the British
Museum.


FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (1740-1818).--Reputed author of _The Letters of
Junius_, _s._ of the Rev. Philip F., a scholar of some note, was _b._ in
Dublin. On the recommendation of Lord Holland he received an appointment
in the office of the Sec. of State, and was thereafter private sec. to
Lord Kinnoull in Portugal, and to Pitt in 1761-2. He was then transferred
to the War Office, where he remained from 1762-72, during which period he
contributed to the press under various pseudonyms. His next appointment
was that of a member of Council of Bengal, which he held from 1773-80.
While in India he was in continual conflict with the Governor-General,
Warren Hastings, by whom he was wounded in a duel in 1779. He returned to
England in 1780 with a large fortune, and entered Parliament as a Whig.
In 1787 he was associated with Burke in the impeachment of Hastings,
against whom he showed extraordinary vindictiveness. Later he was a
sympathiser with the French Revolution, and a member of the association
of the Friends of the People. He retired from public life in 1807, and
_d._ in 1818. He was the author of about 20 political pamphlets, but the
great interest attaching to him is his reputed authorship of the _Letters
of Junius_. These letters which, partly on account of the boldness and
implacability of their attacks and the brilliance of their literary
style, and partly because of the mystery in which their author wrapped
himself, created an extraordinary impression, and have ever since
retained their place as masterpieces of condensed sarcasm. They appeared
in _The Public Advertiser_, a paper _pub._ by Woodfall, the first on
January 21, 1769, and the last on the corresponding day of 1772, and were
chiefly directed against the Dukes of Grafton and Bedford, and Lord
Mansfield; but even the king himself did not escape. Not only were the
public actions of those attacked held up to execration, but every
circumstance in their private lives which could excite odium was dragged
into the light. Their authorship was attributed to many distinguished
men, _e.g._ Burke, Lord Shelburne, J. Wilkes, Horne Tooke, and Barre, and
recently to Gibbon; but the evidence appears to point strongly to F.,
and, in the opinion of Macaulay, would "support a verdict in a civil,
nay, in a criminal trial." It rests upon such circumstances as the
similarity of the MS. to what is known to be the disguised writing of F.,
the acquaintance of the writer with the working of the Sec. of State's
Office and the War Office, his denunciation of the promotion of a Mr.
Chamier in the War Office, which was a well-known grievance of F., his
acquaintance with Pitt, and the existence of a strong tie to Lord
Holland, the silence of Junius when F. was absent, and resemblances in
the style and the moral character of the writer to those of F.


FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790).--American statesman, philosopher, and
writer, was one of a numerous family. His _f._ was a soap-boiler at
Boston, where F. was _b._ He was apprenticed at the age of 13 to his
brother, a printer, who treated him harshly. After various changes,
during which he lived in New York, London, and Philadelphia, he at last
succeeded in founding a successful business as a printer. He also started
a newspaper, _The Gazette_, which was highly popular, _Poor Richard's
Almanac_, and the _Busybody Papers_, in imitation of the _Spectator_.
After holding various minor appointments, he was made deputy
Postmaster-General for the American Colonies. In 1757 he went to London
on some public business in which he was so successful that various
colonies appointed him their English agent. In the midst of his varied
avocations he found time for scientific investigation, especially with
regard to electricity. For these he became known over the civilised
world, and was loaded with honours. In 1762 he returned to America, and
took a prominent part in the controversies which led to the Revolutionary
War and the independence of the Colonies. In 1776 he was U.S. Minister to
France, and in 1782 was a signatory of the treaty which confirmed the
independence of the States. He returned home in 1785, and, after holding
various political offices, retired in 1788, and _d._ in 1790. His
autobiography is his chief contribution to literature, and is of the
highest interest.

Works (10 vols., Bigelow, 1887-9), Autobiography (1868), Lives by
M'Master (1887), and Morse (1889).


FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892).--Historian, _s._ of John F., was
_b._ at Harborne, Staffordshire. He lost both his parents in childhood,
and was brought up by his paternal grandmother. He was _ed._ at private
schools, and as a private pupil of the Rev. R. Gutch, whose _dau._ he
afterwards _m._ In 1841 he was elected to a scholarship at Oxf. He had
inherited an income sufficient to make him independent of a profession,
and a prepossession in favour of the celibacy of the clergy disinclined
him to enter the Church, of which he had at one time thought. He settled
ultimately at Somerleaze, near Wells, where he occupied himself in study,
writing for periodicals, and with the duties of a magistrate. He was a
strong Liberal, and on one occasion stood unsuccessfully as a candidate
for Parliament. He was also twice unsuccessful as an applicant for
professional chairs, but ultimately, in 1884, succeeded Stubbs as Prof.
of Modern History at Oxf. He had always been an enthusiastic traveller,
and it was when on a tour in Spain that he took ill and _d._ on May 16,
1892. F. was a voluminous author, and a keen controversialist. His first
book was a _History of Architecture_ (1849), and among the very numerous
publications which he issued the most important were _History of Federal
Government_ (1863), _The History of the Norman Conquest_ (6 vols.,
1867-79), _The Historical Geography of Europe_ (1881-2), _The Reign of
William Rufus_ (1882), and an unfinished _History of Sicily_. Besides
these he wrote innumerable articles in periodicals, many of which were
separately _pub._ and contain much of his best work. He was laborious and
honest, but the controversial cast of his mind sometimes coloured his
work. His short books, such as his _William I._, and his _General Sketch
of European History_, are marvels of condensation, and show him at his
best. His knowledge of history was singularly wide, and he sometimes
showed a great power of vivid presentation.


FRENEAU, PHILIP (1752-1832).--Poet, _b._ in New York, produced two vols.
of verse (1786-8), the most considerable contribution to poetry made up
to that date in America. He fought in the Revolutionary War, was taken
prisoner, and confined in a British prison-ship, the arrangements of
which he bitterly satirised in _The British Prison Ship_ (1781). He also
wrote vigorous prose, of which _Advice to Authors_ is an example. Amid
much commonplace and doggerel, F. produced a small amount of genuine
poetry in his short pieces, such as _The Indian Burying Ground_, and _The
Wild Honeysuckle_.


FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769-1846).--Diplomatist, translator, and author,
eldest _s._ of John F., a distinguished antiquary, was _b._ in London,
and _ed._ at Eton and Camb. He became a clerk in the Foreign Office, and
subsequently entering Parliament was appointed Under Foreign Sec. In 1800
he was Envoy to Portugal, and was Ambassador to Spain 1802-4, and again
1808-9. In 1818 he retired to Malta, where he _d._ He was a contributor
to the _Anti-Jacobin_, to Ellis's _Specimens of the Early English Poets_
(1801), and to Southey's _Chronicle of the Cid_. He also made some
masterly translations from _Aristophanes_; but his chief original
contribution to literature was a burlesque poem on _Arthur and the Round
Table_, purporting to be by William and Robert Whistlecraft. All F.'s
writings are characterised no less by scholarship than by wit.


FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894).--Historian and essayist, 3rd _s._ of
the Archdeacon of Totnes, Devonshire, near which he was _b._, and
brother of Richard Hurrell. F., one of the leaders of the Tractarian
party, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., where for a short time
he came under the influence of Newman, and contributed to his _Lives of
the English Saints_, and in 1844 he took Deacon's orders. The connection
with Newman was, however, short-lived; and the publication in 1848 of
_The Nemesis of Faith_ showed that in the severe mental and spiritual
conflict through which he had passed, the writer had not only escaped
from all Tractarian influences, but was in revolt against many of the
fundamental doctrines of Christianity. One result of the book was his
resignation of his Fellowship at Oxf.: another was his loss of an
appointment as Head Master of the Grammar School of Hobart Town,
Tasmania. In the same year began his friendship with Carlyle, and about
the same time he became a contributor to the _Westminster Review_ and to
_Fraser's Magazine_, of which he was ed. from 1860-74. These papers were
afterwards _coll._ and _pub._ in the 4 vols. of _Short Studies on Great
Subjects_. In 1856 he _pub._ the first 2 vols. of the great work of his
life, _The History of England from the Fall of Cardinal Wolsey to the
Spanish Armada_, which extended to 12 vols., the last of which appeared
in 1870. As literature this work has a place among the greatest
productions of the century; but in its treatment it is much more
dramatic, ethical, and polemical than historical in the strict sense; and
indeed the inaccuracy in matters of fact to which F. was liable, combined
with his tendency to idealise and to colour with his own prejudices the
characters who figure in his narrative, are serious deductions from the
value of his work considered as history. _The English in Ireland in the
Eighteenth Century_ appeared in 1872-4. On the death of Carlyle in 1881,
F. found himself in the position of his sole literary executor, and in
that capacity _pub._ successively the _Reminiscences_ (1881), _History of
the First Forty Years of Carlyle's Life_ (1882), _Letters and Memorials
of Jane Welsh Carlyle_ (1883), _History of Carlyle's Life in London_
(1884). The opinion is held by many that in the discharge of the duties
entrusted to him by his old friend and master he showed neither
discretion nor loyalty; and his indiscreet revelations and gross
inaccuracies evoked a storm of controversy and protest. F. did not
confine his labours to purely literary effort. In 1874-5 he travelled as
a Government Commissioner in South Africa with the view of fostering a
movement in favour of federating the various colonies there; in 1876 he
served on the Scottish Univ. Commission; in 1884-5 he visited Australia,
and gave the fruit of his observations to the world in _Oceana_ (1886),
and in 1886-7 he was in the West Indies, and _pub._ _The English in the
West Indies_ (1888). The year 1892 saw his appointment as Prof. of Modern
History at Oxf., and his lectures there were _pub._ in his last books,
_Life and Letters of Erasmus_ (1894), _English Seamen in the Sixteenth
Century_ (1895), and _The Council of Trent_ (1896). F. was elected in
1869 Lord Rector of the Univ. of St. Andrews, and received the degree of
LL.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. By his instructions no Biography was to be
written.


FULLER, SARAH MARGARET (1810-1850).--Was _b._ in Massachusetts, _dau._ of
a lawyer, who encouraged her in over-working herself in the acquisition
of knowledge with life-long evil results to her health. On his death she
supported a large family of brothers and sisters by teaching. Her early
studies had made her familiar with the literature not only of England but
of France, Spain, and Italy; she had become imbued with German philosophy
and mysticism, and she co-operated with Theodore Parker in his revolt
against the Puritan theology till then prevalent in New England, and
became the conductor of the Transcendentalist organ, _The Dial_, from
1840-2. She made various translations from the German, and _pub._ _Summer
on the Lakes_ (1844), and _Papers on Literature and Art_ (1846). In the
same year she went to Europe, and at Rome met the Marquis Ossoli, an
Italian patriot, whom she _m._ in 1847. She and her husband were in the
thick of the Revolution of 1848-9, and in the latter year she was in
charge of a hospital at Rome. After the suppression of the Revolution she
escaped with her husband from Italy, and took ship for America. The
voyage proved most disastrous: small-pox broke out on the vessel, and
their infant child _d._, the ship was wrecked on Fire Island, near New
York, and she and her husband were lost. Destitute of personal
attractions, she was possessed of a singular power of conciliating
sympathy. She was the intimate friend of Emerson, Hawthorn, Channing, and
other eminent men.


FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661).--Divine and antiquary, _s._ of a clergyman of
the same name, was _b._ at Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire. Possessed of
exceptional intelligence and a wonderful memory, he became a good
scholar, and distinguished himself at Camb., where he was sent. Entering
the Church, he obtained rapid preferment, including the lectureship at
the Savoy, and a chaplaincy to Charles II. He was a voluminous author,
his works dealing with theology, morals, history, and antiquities. Among
the chief are _History of the Holy War_, _i.e._ the Crusades (1643), _The
Holy State and the Profane State_ (1642), _A Pisgah Sight of Palestine_
(1650), _Church History of Britain_, _History of Cambridge University_
(1655), _Worthies of England_ (1662), and _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_.
The outstanding characteristic of F.'s writings is shrewd observation
conveyed in a style of quaint humour. Lamb says, "His conceits are
oftentimes deeply steeped in human feeling and passion." But in addition
there is much wisdom and a remarkable power of casting his observations
into a compact, aphoristic form. The _Worthies_, though far from being a
systematic work, is full of interesting biographical and antiquarian
matter which, but for the pains of the author, would have been lost.
Coleridge says of him, "He was incomparably the most sensible, the least
prejudiced great man in an age that boasted a galaxy of great men." F.,
who was of a singularly amiable character, was a strong Royalist, and
suffered the loss of his preferments during the Commonwealth. They were,
however, given back to him at the Restoration.

Lives by Russell (1844), J.E. Bailey (1874), and M. Fuller (1886).


FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA (LEVESON-GOWER) (1812-1885).--Novelist, _dau._
of the 1st Earl Granville, and sister of the eminent statesman. She wrote
a number of novels, some of which had considerable success. They include
_Ellen Middleton_ (1844), _Grantley Manor_ (1847), and _Too Strange not
to be True_ (1864). She also _pub._ two vols. of verse. She joined the
Church of Rome in 1846.


GAIMAR, GEOFFREY (_fl._ 1140?).--Chronicler, translated the chronicle of
Geoffrey of Monmouth into French verse for the wife of his patron, Ralph
Fitz-Gilbert, and added a continuation dealing with the Saxon Kings. His
work is entitled _L'Estoire des Engles_.


GALT, JOHN (1779-1839).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of the
captain of a West Indiaman, was _b._ at Irvine, Ayrshire, but while still
a young man he went to London and formed a commercial partnership, which
proved unfortunate, and he then entered Lincoln's Inn to study law. A
little before this he had produced his first book, a poem on the Battle
of Largs, which, however, he soon suppressed. He then went to various
parts of the Continent in connection with certain commercial schemes, and
met Lord Byron, with whom he travelled for some time. Returning home he
_pub._ _Letters from the Levant_, which had a favourable reception, and
some dramas, which were less successful. He soon, however, found his true
vocation in the novel of Scottish country life, and his fame rests upon
the _Ayrshire Legatees_ (1820), _The Annals of the Parish_ (1821), _Sir
Andrew Wylie_ (1822), _The Entail_ (1824), and _The Provost_. He was not
so successful in the domain of historical romance, which he tried in
_Ringan Gilbaize_, _The Spae-wife_, _The Omen_, etc., although these
contain many striking passages. In addition to his novels G. produced
many historical and biographical works, including a _Life of Wolsey_
(1812), _Life and Studies of Benjamin West_ (1816), _Tour of Asia_, _Life
of Byron_ (1830), _Lives of the Players_, and an Autobiography (1834). In
addition to this copious literary output, G. was constantly forming and
carrying out commercial schemes, the most important of which was the
Canada Company, which, like most of his other enterprises, though
conducted with great energy and ability on his part, ended in
disappointment and trouble for himself. In 1834 he returned from Canada
to Greenock, broken in health and spirits, and _d._ there in 1839 of
paralysis. G. was a man of immense talent and energy, but would have held
a higher place in literature had he concentrated these qualities upon
fewer objects. Most of his 60 books are forgotten, but some of his
novels, especially perhaps _The Annals of the Parish_, have deservedly a
secure place. The town of Galt in Canada is named after him.


GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902).--Historian, _b._ at Alresford,
Hants, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf. In 1855 he _m._ Isabella, _dau._
of Edward Irving (_q.v._), the founder of the Catholic Apostolic Church,
which he joined, and in which he ultimately held high office. About the
time of his leaving Oxf. he had planned his great work, _The History of
England from the Accession of James I. to the Restoration_, and the
accomplishment of this task he made the great object of his life for more
than 40 years. The first two vols. appeared in 1863 as _The History of
England from the Accession of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice
Cooke_, and subsequent instalments appeared under the following titles:
_Prince Charles and The Spanish Marriage_ (1867), _England under
Buckingham and Charles I._ (1875), _Personal Government of Charles I._
(1877), _The Fall of the Government of Charles I._ (1881); these were in
1883-4 re-issued in a consolidated form entitled _History of England from
the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_. The second
section of the work, _History of the Great Civil War_, followed in three
vols. _pub._ in 1886, 1889, and 1891 respectively, and three more vols.,
_History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_ in 1894, 1897, and 1901,
brought the story down to 1656, when the health of the indefatigable
writer gave way, and he _d._ in 1902. In addition to this monumental work
G. wrote many school and college historical text-books, and contributed
to the Epochs of Modern History Series, _The Thirty Years' War_ (1874),
and _The First Two Stuarts_ (1876); he also wrote _Outlines of English
History_, three parts (1881-3), and _Students' History of England_, three
parts (1891). From 1871-85 he was Prof. of History at King's Coll.,
London, and lecturer on history for the London Society for the Extension
of Univ. Teaching. He also ed. many of the historical documents which he
unearthed in his investigations, and many of those issued by the
"Camden," "Clarendon," and other societies. He was ed. of _The English
Historical Review_, and contributed largely to the _Dictionary of
National Biography_. The sober and unadorned style of G.'s works did
little to commend them to the general reader, but their eminent learning,
accuracy, impartiality, and the laborious pursuit of truth which they
exhibited earned for him, from the first, the respect and admiration of
scholars and serious students of history; and as his great work advanced
it was recognised as a permanent contribution to historical literature.
In 1882 he received a civil list pension, and was elected to Research
Fellowships, first by All Souls' Coll., and subsequently by Merton. He
held honorary degrees from the Univ. of Oxford, Gottingen, and Edinburgh.


GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906).--Biographer and writer on literature, _s._
of Richard G., an assistant keeper of Printed Books in the British
Museum. _B._ at Lichfield, and _ed._ at a school in, Bloomsbury, he
entered the British Museum in 1851 as an assistant librarian. There he
remained for nearly 50 years, and rose to be Keeper of Printed Books. He
acquired a marvellous knowledge of books, and of everything connected
with pure literature. He made numerous translations from the Greek,
German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, and wrote books of graceful
verse, _The Twilight of the Gods and other Tales_ (1888), various
biographical works on Carlyle, Milton, Blake, and others, _The Age of
Dryden_, a _History of Italian Literature_, and contributed many articles
to encyclopaedias, and to the _Dictionary of National Biography_.


GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ at Hereford, but
got most of his education at Lichfield, to which his _f._ belonged. He
was also one of the three pupils who attended Johnson's School at Edial.
With his great preceptor, whom he accompanied to London, he always
remained on friendly terms. He took to the stage, and became the greatest
of English actors. He also wrote various plays, and adaptations, and did
not scruple to undertake "improved" versions of some of Shakespeare's
greatest plays including _Cymbeline_, _The Taming of the Shrew_, and
_The Winter s Tale_, performing the same service for Jonson and
Wycherley, in the last case with much more excuse. Of his original plays
_The Lying Valet_ and _Miss in her Teens_ are perhaps the best.


GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879).--Orator, was _b._ at Newburyport,
Mass. Though chiefly known for his eloquent advocacy of negro
emancipation, he is also remembered for his _Sonnets and other Poems_
(1847).


GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719).--Physician and poet, _b._ at Bolam in the
county of Durham, and _ed._ at Camb., he settled as a physician in
London, where he soon acquired a large practice. He was a zealous Whig,
the friend of Addison and, though of different political views, of Pope,
and he ended his career as physician to George I., by whom he was
knighted in 1714. He is remembered as the author of _The Dispensary_, a
satire, which had great popularity in its day, and of _Claremont_, a
descriptive poem. He also ed. a translation of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, to
which Addison, Pope, and others contributed. Perhaps, however, the
circumstance most honourable to him is his intervention to procure an
honourable burial for Dryden, over whose remains he pronounced a eulogy.


GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (1525 or 1535-1577).--Poet and dramatist, _s._ of Sir
John G., and descended from Sir William G., the famous Chief Justice to
Henry IV., he was _ed._ at Camb., and entered Gray's Inn 1555. While
there he produced two plays, both translations, _The Supposes_ (1566)
from Ariosto, and _Jocasta_ (1566) from Euripides. Disinherited on
account of his prodigality, he _m._ in order to rehabilitate his
finances, a widow, the mother of Nicholas Breton (_q.v._). He had,
nevertheless, to go to Holland to escape from the importunities of his
creditors. While there he saw service under the Prince of Orange, and was
taken prisoner by the Spaniards. Released after a few months, he returned
to England, and found that some of his poems had been surreptitiously
_pub._ He thereupon issued an authoritative ed. under the title of _An
Hundred Sundrie Floures bound up in one Poesie_ (1572). Other works are
_Notes of Instruction_, for making English verse, _The Glasse of
Government_ (1575), and _The Steele Glasse_ (1576), a satire. He also
contributed to the entertainments in honour of Queen Elizabeth at
Kenilworth and appears to have had a share of Court favour. G. was a man
of originality, and did much to popularise the use of blank verse in
England.


GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (STEVENSON) (1810-1865).--Novelist, _dau._ of
William Stevenson, a Unitarian minister, and for some time Keeper of the
Treasury Records. She _m._ William G., a Unitarian minister, at
Manchester, and in 1848 _pub._ anonymously her first book, _Mary Barton_,
in which the life and feelings of the manufacturing working classes are
depicted with much power and sympathy. Other novels followed, _Lizzie
Leigh_ (1855), _Mr. Harrison's Confessions_ (1865), _Ruth_ (1853),
_Cranford_ (1851-3), _North and South_ (1855), _Sylvia's Lovers_ (1863),
etc. Her last work was _Wives and Daughters_ (1865), which appeared in
the _Cornhill Magazine_, and was left unfinished. Mrs. G. had some of
the characteristics of Miss Austen, and if her style and delineation of
character are less minutely perfect, they are, on the other hand, imbued
with a deeper vein of feeling. She was the friend of Charlotte Bronte
(_q.v._), to whom her sympathy brought much comfort, and whose _Life_ she
wrote. Of _Cranford_ Lord Houghton wrote, "It is the finest piece of
humoristic description that has been added to British literature since
Charles Lamb."


GATTY, MRS. ALFRED (MARGARET SCOTT) (1809-1873).--_Dau._ of Rev. A.J.
Scott, D.D., a navy chaplain, who served under, and was the trusted
friend of, Nelson. She _m._ the Rev. Alfred Gatty, D.D., Ecclesfield,
Yorkshire, and became a highly useful and popular writer of tales for
young people. Among her books may be mentioned _Parables from Nature_,
_Worlds not Realised_, _Proverbs Illustrated_, and _Aunt Judy's Tales_.
She also conducted _Aunt Judy's Magazine_, and wrote a book on British
sea-weeds. Juliana Ewing (_q.v._) was her daughter.


GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662).--Theologian, _b._ at Mayfield in Essex, and
_ed._ at Camb. His claim to remembrance rests on his being the reputed
author of _Eikon Basilike_ (the Royal Image), a book purporting to be
written by Charles I. during his imprisonment, and containing religious
meditations and defences of his political acts. _Pub._ immediately after
the King's execution, it produced an extraordinary effect, so much so
that Charles II. is reported to have said that, had it been _pub._ a week
earlier, it would have saved his father's life. There seems now to be
little doubt that Gauden was the author. At all events he claimed to be
recompensed for his services, and was made Bishop successively of Exeter
and Worcester, apparently on the strength of these claims. The work
passed through 50 ed. within a year, and was answered by Milton in his
_Iconoclastes_ (the Image-breaker).


GAY, JOHN (1685-1732).--Poet and dramatist, _b._ near Barnstaple of a
good but decayed family. His parents dying while he was a child he was
apprenticed to a silk-mercer in London, but not liking the trade, was
released by his master. In 1708 he _pub._ a poem, _Wine_, and in 1713
_Rural Sports_, which he dedicated to Pope, whose friendship he obtained.
A little before this he had received an appointment as sec. in the
household of the Duchess of Monmouth. His next attempts were in the
drama, in which he was not at first successful; but about 1714 he made
his first decided hit in _The Shepherd's Week_, a set of six pastorals
designed to satirise Ambrose Philips, which, however, secured public
approval on their own merits. These were followed by _Trivia_ (1716), in
which he was aided by Swift, an account in mock heroic verse of the
dangers of the London streets, and by _The Fan_. G. had always been
ambitious of public employment, and his aspirations were gratified by his
receiving the appointment of sec. to an embassy to Hanover, which,
however, he appears to have resigned in a few months. He then returned to
the drama in _What d'ye call It_, and _Three Hours after Marriage_,
neither of which, however, took the public fancy. In 1720 he _pub._ a
collection of his poems, which brought him L1000, but soon after lost
all his means in the collapse of the South Sea Company. After producing
another drama, _The Captive_, he _pub._ his _Fables_ (1727), which added
to his reputation, and soon after, in 1728, achieved the great success of
his life in _The Beggar's Opera_, a Newgate pastoral, suggested by Swift,
in which the graces and fantasticalities of the Italian Opera were
satirised. A sequel, _Polly_, was suppressed by the Lord Chamberlain as
reflecting upon the Court, but was _pub._ and had an enormous sale. The
last few years of his life were passed in the household of the Duke of
Queensberry, who had always been his friend and patron. He _d._ after
three days' illness, aged 47. G. was an amiable, easy-going man, who
appears to have had the power of attracting the strong attachments of his
friends, among whom were Pope and Swift. He seems to have been one of the
very few for whom the latter had a sincere affection. He is buried in
Westminster Abbey. Of all he has written he is best remembered by one or
two songs, of which the finest is _Black-eyed Susan_.


GEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802).--Theologian and scholar, of Roman Catholic
parentage, was _b._ at Ruthven, Banffshire, and _ed._ for the priesthood
at the local seminary of Scalan, and at Paris, and became a priest in his
native county. His translation of the _Satires_ of Horace made him known
as a scholar, but his liberality of view led to his suspension. He then
went to London, where he became known to Lord Petre, who enabled him to
proceed with a new translation of the Bible for English Roman Catholics,
which he carried on as far as Ruth, with some of the Psalms, and which
was _pub._ in 3 vols. (1792-6). This was followed by _Critical Remarks on
the Hebrew Scriptures_, in which he largely anticipated the German school
of criticism. The result of this publication was his suspension from all
ecclesiastical functions. G. was also a poet, and wrote _Linton: a
Tweedside Pastoral_, _Carmen Seculare pro Gallica Gente_ (1790), in
praise of the French Revolution. He _d._ without recanting, but received
absolution at the hands of a French priest, though public mass for his
soul was forbidden by the ecclesiastical powers.


GEOFFREY of MONMOUTH (1100?-1154).--Chronicler, was probably a
Benedictine monk, and became Bishop of St. Asaph. He wrote a Latin
_History of British Kings_. _Merlin's Prophecies_, long attributed to
him, is now held to be not genuine. The history is rather a historical
romance than a sober history, and gave scandal to some of the more
prosaic chroniclers who followed him. It was subsequently translated into
Anglo-Norman by Gaimar and Wace, and into English by Layamon.


GERARD, ALEXANDER (1728-1795).--Philosophical writer, _s._ of Rev.
Gilbert G., was _ed._ at Aberdeen, where he became Prof., first of
Natural Philosophy, and afterwards of Divinity, and one of the ministers
of the city. As a prof. he introduced various reforms. In 1756 he gained
the prize for an _Essay on Taste_ which, together with an _Essay on
Genius_, he subsequently _pub._ These treatises, though now superseded,
gained for him considerable reputation.


GIBBON, EDWARD (1737-1794).--Historian, was _b._ at Putney of an ancient
Kentish family. His _f._ was Edward G., and his mother Judith Porten. He
was the only one of a family of seven who survived infancy, and was
himself a delicate child with a precocious love of study. After receiving
his early education at home he was sent to Westminster School, and when
15 was entered at Magdalen Coll., Oxf., where, according to his own
account, he spent 14 months idly and unprofitably. Oxf. was then at its
lowest ebb, and earnest study or effort of any kind had little
encouragement. G., however, appears to have maintained his wide reading
in some degree, and his study of Bossuet and other controversialists led
to his becoming in 1753 a Romanist. To counteract this his _f._ placed
him under the charge of David Mallet (_q.v._), the poet, deist, and ed.
of Bolingbroke's works, whose influence, not unnaturally, failed of the
desired effect, and G. was next sent to Lausanne, and placed under the
care of a Protestant pastor, M. Pavilliard. Various circumstances appear
to have made G. not unwilling to be re-converted to Protestantism; at all
events he soon returned to the reformed doctrines. At Lausanne he
remained for over four years, and devoted himself assiduously to study,
especially of French literature and the Latin classics. At this time also
he became engaged to Mademoiselle Suzanne Curchod; but on the match being
peremptorily opposed by his _f._ it was broken off. With the lady, who
eventually became the wife of Necker, and the mother of Madame de Stael,
he remained on terms of friendship. In 1758 G. returned to England, and
in 1761 _pub._ _Essai sur l'Etude de la Litterature_, translated into
English in 1764. About this time he made a tour on the Continent,
visiting Paris, where he stayed for three months, and thence proceeding
to Switzerland and Italy. There it was that, musing amid the ruins of the
Capitol at Rome on October 15, 1764, he formed the plan of writing the
history of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. He returned to
England in 1765, and in 1770 his _f._ _d._, leaving him the embarrassed
estate of Buriton, which had been his usual home when in England. With a
view to recovering his affairs, he left his estate and lived in London
where, in 1772, he seriously set himself to realise the great plan which,
since its conception, had never been out of his thoughts. The first
chapter was written three times, and the second twice before he could
satisfy himself that he had found the style suited to his subject. The
progress of the work was delayed by the fact that G. had meanwhile (1774)
entered the House of Commons, where, as member for Liskeard, he was a
steady, though silent, supporter of Lord North in his American policy. He
subsequently sat for Lymington, and held office as a Commissioner of
Trade and Plantations 1779-82. The first vol. of the _Decline and Fall_
appeared in 1776, and was received with acclamation, and it was not until
some time had elapsed that the author's treatment of the rise of
Christianity excited the attention and alarm of the religious and
ecclesiastical world. When, however, the far-reaching nature of his views
was at length realised, a fierce and prolonged controversy arose, into
which G. himself did not enter except in one case where his fidelity as
an historian was impugned. The second and third vols. appeared in 1781,
and thereafter (1783) G. returned to Lausanne, where he lived tranquilly
with an early friend, M. Deyverdun, devoting his mornings to the
completion of his history, and his evenings to society. At length, on
the night of June 27, 1787, in the summer-house of his garden, the last
words were penned, and the great work of his life completed. Of the
circumstances, and of his feelings at the moment, he has himself given an
impressive account. The last three vols. were issued in 1788, G. having
gone to London to see them through the press. This being done he returned
to Lausanne where, within a year, his beloved friend Deyverdun _d._ His
last years were clouded by ill-health, and by anxieties with regard to
the French Revolution. In 1793, though travelling was a serious matter
for him, he came to England to comfort his friend Lord Sheffield on the
death of his wife, took ill, and _d._ suddenly in London on January 16,
1794.

The place of G. among historians is in the first rank, and if the vast
scale of his work and the enormous mass of detail involved in it are
considered along with the learning and research employed in accumulating
the material, and the breadth of view, lucidity of arrangement, and sense
of proportion which have fused them into a distinct and splendid picture,
his claims to the first place cannot be lightly dismissed. His style,
though not pure, being tinged with Gallicisms, is one of the most noble
in our literature, rich, harmonious, and stately; and though sources of
information not accessible to him have added to our knowledge, and have
shown some of his conclusions to be mistaken, his historical accuracy has
been comparatively little shaken, and his work is sure of permanence. As
a man G. seems to have been somewhat calm and cool in his feelings,
though capable of steady and affectionate friendships, such as those with
Deyverdun and the Sheffields, which were warmly reciprocated, and he
appears to have been liked in society, where his brilliant conversational
powers made him shine. He was vain, and affected the manners of the fine
gentleman, which his unattractive countenance and awkward figure, and
latterly his extreme corpulence, rendered somewhat ridiculous. He left an
interesting _Autobiography_.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1737, _ed._ Westminster and Oxf., became Romanist and sent
to Lausanne 1753, where he returned to Protestantism, _pub._ _Essay on
Study of Literature_ 1761, visited Rome 1764 and resolved to write his
_Decline and Fall of Roman Empire_, began to write it 1772, _pub._
1776-87, _d._ 1794.

_Decline and Fall_ (Sir W. Smith, 8 vols., 1854-55), another (J.B. Bury,
7 vols., 1896-1900). _Autobiography_ (Lord Sheffield, 1796), often
reprinted.


GIFFORD, RICHARD (1725-1807).--Poet, was _ed._ at Oxford and took orders.
He was the author of a poem, _Contemplation_. He also wrote theological
and controversial works.


GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826).--Critic and poet, was _b._ of humble
parentage at Ashburton, Devonshire, and after being for a short time at
sea, was apprenticed to a cobbler. Having, however, shown signs of
superior ability, and a desire for learning, he was befriended and _ed._,
ultimately at Oxf., where he _grad._ Becoming known to Lord Grosvenor, he
was patronised by him, and in course of time produced his first poem,
_The Baviad_ (1794), a satire directed against the Delia Cruscans, a
clique of very small and sentimental poets, which at once quenched their
little tapers. This was followed by another satire, _The Maeviad_,
against some minor dramatists. His last effort in this line was his
_Epistle to Peter Pindar_ (Dr. Walcot), inspired by personal enmity,
which evoked a reply, _A Cut at a Cobbler_. These writings had
established the reputation of G. as a keen, and even ferocious critic,
and he was appointed in 1797 ed. of the _Anti-Jacobin_, which Canning and
his friends had just started, and of the _Quarterly Review_ (1809-24). He
also brought out ed. of Massinger, Ben Jonson, and Ford. As a critic he
had acuteness; but he was one-sided, prejudiced, and savagely bitter, and
much more influenced in his judgments by the political opinions than by
the literary merits of his victims. In his whole career, however, he
displayed independence and spirit in overcoming the disadvantages of his
early life, as well as gratitude to those who had served him. He held
various appointments which placed him above financial anxiety.


GILDAS (516?-570?).--British historian, was a monk who is believed to
have gone to Brittany about 550, and founded a monastery. He wrote a
history, _De Excidio Britanniae_ (concerning the overthrow of Britain). It
consists of two parts, the first from the Roman invasion until the end of
the 4th century, and the second a continuation to the writer's own time.
It is obscure and wordy, and not of much value.


GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1909).--Poet, _b._ at Borderstown, New
Jersey, was successively a lawyer, a soldier, and a journalist, in which
last capacity he ed. _Scribner's_ (afterwards the _Century_) _Magazine_.
He holds a high place among American poets as the author of _The New Day_
(1875), _The Celestial Passion_, _The Great Remembrance_, _Five Books of
Song_ (1894), _In Palestine_ (1898), _In the Heights_ (1905), _A Book of
Music_ (collection) (1906), etc.


GILDON, CHARLES (1665-1724).--Critic and dramatist, belonged to a Roman
Catholic family, and was an unsuccessful playwright, a literary hack, and
a critic of little acumen or discrimination. He attacked Pope as "Sawny
Dapper," and was in return embalmed in _The Dunciad_. He also wrote a
Life of Defoe.


GILFILLAN, GEORGE (1813-1878).--Poet and critic, _s._ of a dissenting
minister at Comrie, Perthshire, studied at Glasgow Univ., and was
ordained minister of a church in Dundee. He was a voluminous author.
Among his writings are _Gallery of Literary Portraits_, and a Series of
British Poets with introductions and notes in 48 vols. He also wrote
Lives of Burns, Scott, and others, and _Night_ (1867), a poem in nine
books. His style was somewhat turgid, and his criticism rather
sympathetic than profound.


GILFILLAN, ROBERT (1798-1850).--Poet, _b._ at Dunfermline, was latterly
Collector of Police Rates in Leith. He wrote a number of Scottish songs,
and was favourably mentioned in _Noctes Ambrosianae_ (see Wilson, J.). He
was the author of the beautiful song, _Oh, why left I my Hame?_


GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648).--Scottish Theologian, was _b._ at
Kirkcaldy, and studied at St. Andrews. He became one of the ministers of
Edin., and was a member of the Westminster Assembly, in which he took a
prominent part. A man of notable intellectual power, he exercised an
influence remarkable in view of the fact that he _d._ in his 36th year.
He was one of the most formidable controversialists of a highly
controversial age. His best known work is _Aaron's Rod Blossoming_, a
defence of the ecclesiastical claims of the high Presbyterian party.


GILLIES, JOHN (1747-1836).--Historian, _b._ at Brechin and _ed._ there
and at Glasgow, wrote a _History of Greece_ (1786) from a strongly
anti-democratic standpoint, a _History of the World from Alexander to
Augustus_ (1807), and a _View of the Reign of Frederick II. of Prussia_.
He also made various translations from the Greek. He succeeded Principal
Robertson as Historiographer Royal for Scotland.


GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (literary name of GERALD DE BARRI)
(1146?-1220?).--Geographer and historian, was _b._ of a Norman family
settled in Wales, which intermarried with the Royal family of that
country. He was an eminent scholar and Churchman, whose object of
ambition was the Bishopric of St. David's, to which he was twice elected
by the chapter, but from which he was kept out by the opposition of the
King. When travelling in Ireland with Prince John (1185) he wrote
_Topographia Hibernica_, a valuable descriptive account of the country,
and in 1188 he wrote _Itinerarium Cambriae_, a similar work on Wales. He
left several other works, including an autobiography, _De Rebus a se
Gestis_ (concerning his own doings).


GISSING, GEORGE (1857-1903).--Novelist, _b._ at Wakefield. In his novels
he depicted the environment and struggles of the lower and lower middle
classes with a somewhat pessimistic and depressing realism, although his
last work, _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, seemed to usher in the
dawn of a somewhat brighter outlook. His other novels include _Demos_
(1886), _Thyrza_ (1887), _The Nether World_ (1889), _New Grub Street_
(1891), _Born in Exile_ (1892), _In the Year of Jubilee_ (1894), and _The
Town Traveller_ (1898). He _d._ at St. Jean de Luz in the Pyrenees.


GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-1898).--Statesman, scholar, and man of
letters, fourth _s._ of Sir John G., a merchant in Liverpool, was of
Scottish ancestry. He was _ed._ at Eton and Christ Church, Oxf. From his
youth he was deeply interested in religious and ecclesiastical questions,
and at one time thought of entering the Church. In 1832 he entered
Parliament as a Tory, and from the first gave evidence of the splendid
talents for debate and statesmanship, especially in the department of
finance, which raised him to the position of power and influence which he
afterwards attained. After holding the offices of Pres. of the Board of
Trade, Colonial Sec., and Chancellor of the Exchequer, he attained the
position of Prime Minister, which he held four times 1868-74, 1880-85,
1885-86, and 1892-93. His political career was one of intense energy and
activity in every department of government, especially after he became
Prime Minister, and while it gained him the enthusiastic applause and
devotion of a large portion of the nation, it exposed him to a
correspondingly intens